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vs 


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XV^v 


(1/f^^ne 


Sfiis  is  ta  (In^iliitliiit 

The  Association  r/^M'mii/m)  //M///,/</i//Arr/7/J^A  - 


^^>flon_t-r 


t>Aie 


mi 


w\ 


*'  //  n  t-ra  is  /^ast  approaching  tuhen  no  writers  if  ill  he  read  by  the  tnajor  tty  ^  save  and  except  those  tvho  can  effect  X^^r  Bales  o/  manu- 
script u'hat  the  hydrostatii  screiv per/orms /or  bales  o/ cotton  — condense  into  a  period  ivhat  be/ore  occupied  a  pa^v." — COTTKR. 


DUGATOR 

- — ^- — ^^ 


OPEDm  OF  REFE^^ 


J^i5torieal,  BiO(§rapt7ieal,  Sei(?i)tifi(;  ^  Stati5ti(;al. 


E . VI  BRACING 


THE  MOST  APPROVED  AND  SIMPLE  METHODS  OF 


Self-Ii 


NSTRUCTION  IN  MLL  10EPARTMENTS  OF   lilSEFUL  RNOWLEDGE 


R.  S.  PEALE, 

ABSisted  bj-  Eminent  Specialists  in  each  Department. 


Illustrated  with  Original  Drawings,  (colored  QQaps  v.^^  Diagrams. 


--*- 


CHICAGO: 
^Txc  llotuc  gilivavij  Association. 


m 


MDCCCLXXXVI. 


— tetjV 


e^ 


Copyright,  1883, 


-P 


^^  *    R,  S,  PEALE,    *  H 


Ttz3^ 


uS> 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


"Z2)i^szr 


x3 


Copyright,   1884,  by  R.  S.  PeALE. 
Copyriglit,   1885,  by  R.  S.  Peale. 


Press  of 

Cfjc  ^ome  S^ibrary  ^Association, 

Ctjicago. 


kl 


/ 


7^1 


---^.r.-, 


:keb^^^k^i-^ 


JIIBBON  has  well  said:  "Every  man  has  two  educations:  one  which  he  receives 
from  others,  and  one,  more  important,  which  he  gives  to  himself."  Sir  Walter 
Scott  emphasizes  the  sentiment  when  he  says,  using  almost  the  same  words:  "The 
best  part  of  every  man's  education  is  that  which  he  gives  to  himself." 

The  mind  has  been  endowed  with  no  more  laudable  or  profitable  ambition  than  that 
of  self-improvem.ent.  The  educated  man,  in  every  walk  of  life,  carries  with  him  his  own 
capital — a  capital  unaffected  by  monetary  crises;  an  investment  whose  interest  is  not  regu- 
lated by  the  success  of  speculation ;  a  treasure  which  none  can  dispute  and  of  which  none 
can  deprive  him.  It  is  his  greatest  source  of  pleasure  and  profit,  and  it  is  the  best  legacy 
he  can  leave  to  his  children. 

In  preparing  the  present  volume,  it  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  publishers  to  omit 
no  branch  of  study  that  may  be  useful  in  the  busy  life  of  these  busy  times,  and  a  perusal 
of  the  book  will  convince  the  reader  that  every  subject  has  been  treated  concisely  and 
thoroughly,  presenting  in  an  attractive  shape  all  those  points  that  go  to  make  a  finished 
education.  Practical  application  to  the  affairs  of  life  has  been  constantly  kept  in  view, 
and  throughout  has  been  maintained  a  systematic  arrangement  making  reference  easy,  and 
a  degree  of  artistic  typography  pleasing  to  the  eye,  making  the  search  for  knowledge 
doubly  pleasurable. 

To  the  youth  who  has  not  had  the  advantages  of  an  early  education  is  here  offered  a 
means  of  thorough  self-instraction  —  a  complete  commercial  college  bound  in  a  book.  The 
business  man  who  consults  these  pages  will  find  every  variety  of  forms  used  in  business 
life,  and  will  not  seek  in  vain  for  such  legal  information  as  may  be  needed.  The  profes- 
sional man  will  have  in  this  work  a  vaife  mecum  of  useful  and  practical  information,  saving 
both  the  expense  of  purchasing  and  the  time  of  consulting  a  vast  number  of  volumes. 

It  is  customary  to  burden  the  initial  pages  of  a  new  publication  with  apologies.  The 
publishers  of  this  book  have  none  to  make.  They  have  invested  a  large  amount  of  diligent, 
painstaking  labor  and  research,  and  no  small  amount  of  capital,  and  recognize  the  fact  that 
they  must  depend  upon  merit  and  excellence  for  success. 


kL 


91S502 


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^          ■>) 

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a 

t 

TABLE 

OF 

CONTENTS                                                              ^                                      V.        | 

f 

i^ 

f'<-^^'i3<nj  c"    nr 

as 

T^DT^  7J  k  i«  ^  J  kif  «SMl 

J^^ 

<^ 

s^vf^^miakL^;  Ll^ 

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'1  ■■■- 

A   wm\tkM    wr     1  \l     1     ^^  '  - 

A    PRACTl 

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-ti 

Ul-^))|  L.IM  1  iJ. 

yC0 

>OKS    INTO 

CAL    CONDENSATION    OF    FIFTY-TWO    BC 

ONE    ELEGANT 

VOLUME. 

[  For  an  Alphabetical  Iiule.v 

of  Princ 

ipal  Subjects,  see  page  819.] 

" 

I ,                                                Page. 

9-                                                 Pach 

Educational  Department 

9 

Practical  and  Ornamental  Penmanship   .     .            .116       1 

The    Points    which    go    to    Make   a    Finished  Education  —  The 

* 

Origin   of    Language  —  Classification   of   the   Tongues   of   the 

The  Work  of  the  Pen  Described  and  Illustrat'-.d,  from  the  Plain- 

Eanh. 

est  Letter  to  the  Most  Elaborate  Design  —  How  to  Learn  and 

Huw    to    Teach    Writing — Faults   to    be    Guarded    Against—                      i 

2. 

Study  and  Practice  —  Copies  for  a  Course  of  Twenty  Lessons  — 

The  English  Language 

»J 

Alphabets   and   Specimens    for    All    Purposes  — Examples   of 
Blackboard    Writing   and    Drawing,    Engrossing,    Flourished 

Its    Origin,  Growth,  Development  and  Present  Form — English 

Cards,  Designs  for  Albums  and  Ornamental  Lettering. 

Grammar — Formation  and  Derivation   of  Words  —  Spelling: 

Simple  but  Comprehensive  Rules — Reformed  Spelling  —  The 

lO. 

Use  of  Capital   Letters — Punctuation — The  Parts  of  Speech 

and  their  Proper  U^e —  Errors  in  Speech,  etc. 

Short-Hand  and  Typewriting 14S       | 

3- 

How  to  Acquire  and  How  to  Practice  these  Arts  —  A  History  of 

Stenography,  and  a  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Various  Sys- 

Composition and  Rhetoric 

32 

tems. 

How  to  Write  the  English  Language  Correctly  — Accuracy  in  the* 

II. 

Arrangement  of  Words  and   Correct    Expression   in   Written 

Language-^  The  Qualities  Constituting  a  Good  Style  —  Figures 

A 

Self-Instructor  in  Short-Hand  Writing    ...     156 

of  Rhetoric  —  Prosody  and  Versification —  Poetic  License. 

A  Complete  Course,  in  Twelve  Practical   Lessons,  based  on  the 

+  • 

Elocution 

Benn  Pitman  System  of  Phonography, 

40 

12. 

Vocal  Culture  and  Gesture  —  How  to  Read  and  Speak  Correctly 

and  Elegantly  —  The  Three  Forms  of  Speech  —  Conversation, 
Reading,  Public  Speaking — Dramatic  Action. 

The   Art  of  Book-Keeoinc            ......     168        1 

The  Systems  of  Single  and  Double  Entry  Compared  Side  by  Side 

5- 

—  The    Principles  Set  Forth  Clearly  and  Concisely — How  to 

Prevent   Errors   .and    How  to  Detect  Them  —  Comprehensive 

Business  and  Social  Correspondence        .... 

48 

Rules,  of  Value  to  the  Practical  Accountant  as  well  as  to  the 
Student  — Complete  Forms  lUustr.iting  the  Two  Systems,  Pre- 

Letter-Writing in  nil  its  Forms — Style,  Arrangement  and  Com- 

senting,  besides   the  Ordinar>'  Forms   of  Single  and   Double 

position  of  Letters  —  The  Proper  Use  of  Titles  —  Models  for  all 

Entry,  a  Complete  Set   Illusir-iting  the  Combination  of  Day- 

Kinds  of  Epistolary  Correspondence. 

Book  and  Juurn.nl,  as  well  as  the  Six-Column  Journal   (combin- 

6. 

ing  in  One  Book  the  Day-Book,  Journal,  Cash-Book  and  Sales- 

Book),  and  the  Combined  Statement  (showing,  on  one  Sheet, 

A  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  and  Antonyms  . 

64 

Trial  Balance,  Losses  and  Gains,  Assets  and  Liabilities) —  How 

Containing  over  Twenty  Thousand  Words  of  both  Similar  and 

to  Change  Single  Entry  Books  into  Double  Entry. 

Contrar>'  Significance  —  A  Ready  Vocabulary  from  which    to 

Select  Words  that  will  Clearly  and  Forcibly  Convey  the  In- 

13- 

tended  Meaning. 

7- 

A 

Compendium  of  Biography 209 

Embracing  the  Names  and  Records  of  Eminent  Personages  of  All 

A  Self-Instructor  in  the  German  Language 

S2 

Ages,  Arranged  in  Alphabetical  Ordcrand  Selected  with  Special 

The    New   System   of  Object-Teaching,    the    Simplest  Method 

Reference  to  the  Literature  of  America,  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 

Known — Exercises  for  Self-Instruction,  and  a  Comprehensive 

many. 

Collection  of  Words  and  Phrases  Designed  to  Facilitate  Con- 

14. 

versation  in  German. 

8. 

A 

Panorama  of  History 252 

A   Graphic  Account  of  Every  Nation  on  the  Globe — Profusely 

i 

French  Without  a  Master 

A  Simple  System  of  Self-Instruction  in  the  French  Language. 

00 

Illustrated,  and  with  Maps  of  the  World  and  of  all  Countries  of 
Historic  Interest. 

1 

^  a 

/ 

\ 

Is 

*7 

•^ »~ 

-•          6 

V*" 

' 

Historical  Charts ,2i 

A  Simple  Contemporaneous  Exposition  of  Universal  History 
from  the  Flood  to  the  Present  Year,  with  Special  Charts  Illus- 
trating the  Civil,  Political  and  Military  History  of  the  United 
States  — A  Chronological  Record  of  the  Important  Historical 
Events  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Times,  Presented  in  a  Novel 
and  Original  Manner—  Sixteen  FuU-page  Plates,  printed  in 
Four  Colors. 

i6. 

A  Dictionary  of  Dates -•■>y 

The  World's  Progress  as  Shown  in  an  Alphabetical  Record  of 
Notable  Events  and  Discoveries. 

Scientific  Department ,40 

A  Brief  and  Simple  Introduction  to  AU  the  Sciences. 

18. 

Natural  Philosophy 342 

The  Forces  of  Nature  and  the  Laws  which  Govern  Them  —  The 
Elements  of  Natural  Science  —  Physics  and  Chemistry  —  Hy- 
drostatics and  Hydraulics  — Optics  and  Acoustics— Magnetism 
and  Electricity. 

19. 

Astronomy ,rc 

The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens  as  Revealed  by  the  Telescope  — A 
History  of  the  Progress  ofAstronomic.il  Science— Our  Solar 
System  and  the  Universe  of  Stars  —  A  Dictionary  of  Astronom- 
ical Definitions. 

20. 

How  to  Read  the  Sky 3y6 

Half-Hours  with  the  Stars  — A  Plain  and  Easy  Guide  to  the 
Knowledge  of  the  Constellations  — With  Twelve  Maps  of  the 
Heavens,  True  for  Every  Year. 

21. 

Physical  Geography 3^0 

Our  Globe,  as  it  Was,  and  as  it  Is —Weather  and  Climate  — .Ani- 
mal and  Vegetable  Life  — Geology,  Meteorology,  Climatology, 
Mineralogy,  Botany,  Zoology,  Ethnology. 

22. 

Commercial  Law  and  Forms 403 

Notes,  Bills,  Orders,  Receipts,  etc..  Properly  Drawn  for  Every 
State  —  Negotiable  Paper,  and  the  Various  Forms  of  Endorse- 
ment —  The  Endorser's  Responsibility  —  Necessary  Legal 
Points  — Swindling  Notes  —  Points  of  Business  Law— Laws 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada  Relating  to  Interest — Laws 
Relating  to  Limitation  of  Actions. 


23« 


Boards  of  Trade  and  Stock  Exchanges  .... 

A  Realistic  View  of  Commercial  Gambling — Futures  —  Option 
Trading— Margins  — Corners  and  Their  Pernicious  Effects- 
The  Bucket-shops— A  Brief  Dictionary  of  Terms  Used  on 
'Change. 


411 


24-'  Page. 

Peale's  Telegraphic  Code 416 

A  Complete  Business  Cipher  for  the  Use  of  the  Merchant,  the 
Banker,  and  the  Broker — A  Simple  Method  of  Detecting 
Errors  in  Telegraphic  Dispatches. 

25. 

Insurance 424 

A  Brief,  but  Complete,  Explanation  of  all  Kinds  of  Insurance  — 
Life,  Fire,  Marine,  and  Transit. 


26. 


Banks  and  Banking 426 

How  the  Business  is  Carried  on- — Discount — Officers  and  Em- 
ployes—  How  to  Do  Business  with  a  Bank  —  Deposits  —  How 
to  Draw  and  Endorse  a  Check  —  Banking  Frauds  —  Drafts  and 
Bills  of  Exchange  —  Letters  of  Credit —  Bills  of  Lading  as  Se- 
curity—  The  Clearing-House  —  Our  National  Banking  System 
—  Stocks  and  Bonds  —  Common  and  Preferred  Storic  —  How 
Stock  is  '*  Watered  "  —  Government  Securities. 


27. 


Taxes  and  Duties 434 

Direct  and  Indirect  Taxation — An  Explanation  of  Our  Tariff  and 
Internal  Revenue  System  —  A  Complete  Schedule  of  the  Rates 
of  Import  Duty,  as  fixed  by  Law. 


28. 


A  Lightning  Calculator 439 

Valuable  Computations  and  Calculations  for  the  Use  of  the  Farmer, 
Mechanic  and  Business  Man  —  Complete  Tables  of  Simple  and 
Compound  Interest  —  Short  Insurance  Rates — Practical  Cal- 
culations—  A  Calendar  for  the  Century  —  The  Legal  Bushel  — 
Standard  and  Foreign  Weights  and  Measures  —  The  Metric 
System. 


29. 


Legal  Business  Department 451 

How  to  Avoid  Litigation  —  All  Kinds  of  Legal  Forms,  and  How 
They  are  Drawn  and  Executed  —  Agreements  and  Contracts  — 
Agency  and  Attorney — Affidavits  —  Apprentices  — Arbitration 
—  Assignments —  Bills  of  Sale  —  Bonds  —  Corporations — Deeds 
• — Abstract  of  Title — Guaranty — Landlord  and  Tenant  — 
RighLs  of  Married  Women — Real  Estate  and  Chattel  Mort- 
gages—  Mechanics'  Liens  —  Wills  —  Executors  and  Adminis- 
trators—  Partnership,  etc.,  etc. 


30- 


Patents,  Pensions,  Etc 483 

A  Complete  Synopsis  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  Governing  the 
United  States  Patent  Office— The  Pension  Laws  —  The  Legal 
Fence. 


31- 


German  Legal  Business  Department 490 

The  Chapters  Pertaining  to  Law,  and  Legal  and  Business  Forms, 
Translated  into  the  German  Language— The  Only  Synopsis  of 
the  Kind  ever  Published. 


32. 


Special  Laws  of  the  States  and  Territories 

Assignments,  Attachmtjnts,  Chattel  Mortgages,  Divorce,  Exemp- 
tions, Rights  of  Married  Women,  Deeds  and  Their  Acknowl- 
edgment, Wills,  and  Mechanics'  Liens  —  A  Complete  Synopsis  of 
State  and  Territorial  Laws,  Compiled  from  the  Latest  Sources. 


502 


-«.. ?' 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


3  3  •  P*<==- 

Causes  of  Success  and  Failure 524 

How  lo  Avoid   Failure  —  Choosing  an   Occupation  —  Health  — 


Self-Reliance - 
of  Character. 


■Attention  to  Detail — Perseverance —  Decision 


34. 


Study  of  Character  in  its  Relation  to  Business  Suc- 
cess       

Physiognomy  and  Phrenology  —  The  Two  Paths  of  Life  ;  Effects 
of  Training  and  Modes  of  Life  on  the  Human  Countenance  — 
Face-Reading  —  The  Temperaments  Illustrated  —  How  to  Read 
Character  —  A  Synopsis  of  the  Organs  of  the  Brain, 


53' 


35' 


A  Dictionary  of  Facts  and  Figures 544 

Statistical  Department — Population,  Religion,  Education,  Re- 
sources, Productions  and  Industries  of  the  World —  Morethan 
a  Hundred  Thousand  Facts  Presented  in  an  Alphabetical  Ar- 
rangement of  Topics,  with  Twenty-three  Illustrative  and  Com- 
parative Diagrams,  Twenty  of  Which  are  Printed  in  Colors  — 
The  Only  Dictionar)*of  the  Kind  in  any  Language. 


36. 


Department  of  Public  Business 

A  Complete  Digest  of  Parliamentary  Law  and  Rules  —  How  to 
Call,  Organize  and  Conduct  Meetings  and  Conventions  —  Com- 
mittees and  Their  Work  —  A  Comprehensive  Table  of  Points  of 


587 


Order. 


37. 


Memorials  and  Petitions 592 

The  Right  of  Petition  —  Forms  for  Remonstrances,  Petitions  and 
Memorials. 


38. 


Lyceums  and  Debating  Clubs 

Forms  of  Constitution  and  By-Laws  —  Questions  for  Debate. 


594 


39' 


The  Steps  in  the  Growth  of  American  Liberty    .      .    596 

The  Magna  CharU  —  The  Mecklenburg  Declaration  —  The  Dec- 
laration of  Independence. 


4.0. 


The  Constitution  of  the  United  States        ....    599 

Full  Text   of  the   Charter   of   American    Liberty,    with  all   the 
Amendments. 


The  Departments  at  Washington 604 

A  Complete  Analysis  of  our  Government  —  The  Executive  De- 
partment—  Department  of  State  —  The  Diplomatic  Service  — 
The  Treasury  Department —  The  War  Department  and  the 
American  Army — The  Militia  —  The  Navy  Department  —  Our 
Naval  History  —  The  Post-ofhcc  Department  and  its  Workings 

—  The  Department  of  the  Interior —  The  General  Land  Office 

—  Homestead  and  Preemption  —  Indian  Affairs  —  The  Bureaus 
of  Education  and  Agriculture  —  The  Attorney-General  —  The 
Supreme  Court  —  The  Duties  and  Powers  of  Congress. 


K- 


4"  2*  Pace. 

Physiology  and  Medicine 624 

The  Mechanism  of  the  Human  Body  —  The  Digestive,  Circula- 
tory, Respiratory  and  Excrctorj'  Organs  —  The  Muscular  Sys- 
tem and  the  Bones  —  The  Nervoas  System — The  Eye  and  the 
Ear — Various  Ailments,  and  How  lo  Treat  Them  —  How  to 
Proceed  in  Emergencies—  Hygienic  Suggestions. 


43' 


Architecture  for  Modern  Times 679 

The  Latest  Designs,  with  Plans,  Specifications,  and  Estimates  — 

Beautiful  Homes,  and  How  to  Build  Them — Choosinga  Site  — 
How  the  Money  is  Applied — Water  Supply  —  Cellar  and  Ice- 
House  —  Outhouses  and  Bams  —  Valuable  Suggestions. 

44. 

The  Laws  of  Etiquette 712 

A  Compendium  of  the  Rules  and  Habits  of  Polite  Society  —  The 
True  Spirit  of  Good  Manners  —  Refinement  and  Good  Breeding 
—  Etiquette  for  All  Occasions,  at  Home  and  Abroad. 


+5- 


Familiar  Poems,  and  Those  Who  Wrote  Them     .    741 

A  Collection  of  the  Brightest  Gems  of  English  Poetry,  Those 
Which  we  All  Wish  to  Preserve  in  some  Enduring  Form,  Illus- 
trated with  Portraits  of  the  Poets. 


46. 


A  Dictionary  of  Prose  and  Poetical  Quotations  768 

Arranged  both  Topically  and  Alphabetically. 

+7- 

Heroes  and  Heroines  of  Prose  and  Poetry  786 

A  Compendium  of  the  Celebrated  Characters  in  the  Literature  of 


the  World. 


48. 


A  Dictionary  of  Noms  de  Plume 791 

A  Comprehensive  List  of  Assumed  Names  in  English  and  Ameri- 
can Literature. 

49. 

A  Dictionary  of  Mythology 796 

The  Heathen  Deities,  and  Other  Fabulous  Persons  of  Greek  and 
Roman  History. 

50- 

A  Dictionary  of  Familiar  Allusions 800 

Words  and  Phrases,  Persons,  Places,  Pictures,  Buildings,  Streets 
and  Monuments  Frequently  Alluded  to  In  Literature  and  in 
Conversation. 

51- 

A  Lexicon  of  Foreign  Phrases 808 

Sentences  and  Quotations  from  both  living  and  Dead  Languages. 


52. 


A  Dictionary  of  Abbreviations      . Sij 

A  Comprehensive  Glossary  of  Logogripbs  in  Good  English  Us.-igc. 


-^il 


T 


r^" 


EDUCATIONAL    DrPARTMENT. 


1 


V  li I  ,ii«i  I  n,  Kit. 

^'"«.ii,«i"""' 


Educational  Department. 


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mmM^mmmmmsmmmmM^M^MB^mSr^iM^ 


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The  Points  Which  Co  to  Make  a  Finished  Education. 


LANGUAGE  is  a  collection 
of  certain  articulate 
sounds  used  as  the  signs 
of  our  ideas,  or  of  certain 
written  characters  which 
represent  those  sounds. 
^  Language  owes  its  ori- 
gin to  the  imitation  and  modifica- 
tion, aided  by  signs  and  gestures,  of 
various  natural  sounds,  the  voices 
of  other  animals  and  man's  own 
instinctive  cries.  Language  con- 
sists in  the  oral  utterances  of 
sounds  which  usage  has  made  the 
representatives  of  ideas.  When 
two  or  more  persons  customarily 
annex  the  same  sounds  to  the  same  ideas  the 
expression  of  these  sounds  by  one  person  com- 
municates his  ideas  to  another.  This  is  the 
primary  sense  of  language,  the  use  of  which  is 
to  communicate  the  thoughts  of  one  person  to 
another  through  the  organ  of  hearing.  Articu- 
late sounds  are  represented  by  letters,  marks  or 
characters,  which  form  words. 

Language  is  sometimes  denoted  by  other 
terms ;    as  speech,  tongue,  idiom,  dialect. 

Language  is  generic,  denoting  any  mode  of 


conveying  ideas ;  as  the  language  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb. 

Speech  is  the  language  of  articulate  sounds 
and  contemplates  language  as  broken  or  cut 
into  words  of  different  kinds ;  as  the  parts  of 
speech,  the  gift  of  speech. 

Tongue  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  term  for  the  lan- 
guage of  a  particular  people ;  as  the  English 
tongue. 

Idiom  denotes  the  form  of  the  construction 
peculiar  to  a  language. 

Dialects  are  varieties  of  expression  which 
spring  up  in  different  parts  of  a  country,  or  in 
different  professions,  etc. 

Origin  of  Language. 

There  are  various  ways  by  which  men  can 
communicate  with  one  another.  They  can  make 
gestures,  utter  cries,  speak  zvonis,  draw  pictures, 
write  characters  or  letters.  Articulate  language 
is  peculiar  to  man  ;  but  he  uses,  in  common  with 
the  lower  animals,  inarticulate  cries  to  express 
his  meaning,  aided  by  gestures  and  the  move- 
ments of  the  muscles  of  his  face.  This  especially 
holds  good  with  the  more  simple  and  vivid  feel- 
ings which  are  but  little  connected  with  our 
higher  intelligence.  Our  cries  of  pain,  fear,  sur- 
prise,   anger,    together   with    their   appropriate 


^ 


\ 


EDUCATIONAL    DEPARTMENT. 


actions,  and  the  murmur  of  a  mother  to  her  be- 
loved child,  are  more  expressive  than  any  words. 
It  is  not  the  mere  power  of  articulation  that 
distinguishes  man  from  other  animals,  for,  as 
every  one  knows,  parrots  can  talk ;  but  it  is  his 
large  power  of  connecting  definite  sounds  with 
definite  ideas;  and  this  obviously  depends  on 
the  development  of  his  mental  faculties. 

Gesture  Language. 

When  for  any  reason  people  cannot  talk  to- 
gether by  word  of  mouth,  they  take  to  convers- 
ing by  gestures,  in  what  is  called  dumb  show  or 
pantomime.  Imagine  a  simple  case.  A  boy  opens 
a  parlor  door;  his  brother  sitting  there  beckons 
to  him  to  be  quiet,  for  his  father  is  asleep;  the 
boy  now  intimates  by  signs  that  he  has  come 
for  the  key  of  the  box,  to  which  his  brother  an- 
swers by  signs  that  it  is  in  the  pocket  of  his  coat 
hanging  in  the  hall,  concluding  with  a  signifi- 
cant gesture  to  be  off  and  shut  the  door  quietly 
after  him.  This  is  the  gesture  language.  Ges- 
ture language  has  little  power  of  expressing 
abstract  ideas. 

The  next  step  in  the  origin  of  language  is  to 
show  the  workings  of  another  sort  of  signs, 
namely,  the  sounds  of  the  human  voice.  Sounds 
of  voice  may  be  spoken  to  express  our  feelings 
and  thoughts  on  much  the  same  principle  that 
gestures  are  made,  except  that  tliey  are  heard 
instead  of  seen.  One  kind  of  sounds  used  by 
men  as  signs  consists  of  emotional  cries  or  tones. 
Men  show  pain  by  uttering  groans  as  well  as  by 
distortion  of  the  face  ;  joy  is  expressed  by  shouts 
as  well  as  by  jumping;  when  we  laugh  aloud, 
the  voice  and  features  go  perfectly  together. 
Such  sounds  are  gestures  made  with  the  voice 
— sound-gestures. 

The  next  class  of  sounds  used  as  expressive 
signs  are  imitative.  As  a  deaf  and  dumb  child 
expresses  the  idea  of  a  cat  by  imitating  the 
creature's  act  of  washing  its  face,  so  a  speaking 
child  will  indicate  it  by  imitating  its  miaou. 


Natural  Language. 

Now,  joining  gesture-actions  and  gesture- 
sounds,  they  will  form  together  what  may  be 
called  a  Natural  Language.  This  natural  lan- 
guage really  exists,  and  in  wild  regions  really 
has  some  practical  value,  as  when  a  European 
traveller  makes  shift  to  converse  in  it  with  a 
party  of  Australians  around  their  camp-fire  or 
with  a  Mongol  family  in  their  felt  tent.  What 
he  has  to  do  is  to  act  his  most  expressive  mimic 
gestures,  with  a  running  accompaniment  of  ex- 
clamations and  imitative  noises.  Here  there  is 
found  a  natural  means  of  intercourse,  much  fuller 
than  mere  pantomime  of  gestures  only.  It  is  a 
common  language  of  all  mankind,  springing  so 
directly  from  the  human  mind  that  it  must  have 
belonged  to  our  race  from  the  most  remote  ages 
and  most  primitive  conditions  in  which  man 
existed.  Language  is  one  branch  of  the  great 
art  of  sign-making  or  sign-choosing,  and  its  busi- 
ness is  to  hit  upon  some  sound  as  a  suitable  sign 
or  symbol  for  each  thought.  It  is  maintained  by 
the  best  philologists  that  emotional  and  imita- 
tive sounds  are  the  very  source  of  all  language, 
and  that,  although  most  words  now  show  no 
trace  of  such  origin,  this  is  because  they  have 
quite  lost  it  in  the  long  change  of  pronunciation 
and  meaning  they  have  gone  through,  so  that 
they  have  now  become  mere  symbols.  Besides 
the  emotional  and  imitative  ways,  there  were 
several  other  devices  by  which  man  chooses 
sounds  to  express  thoughts.  That  there  was 
always  some  kind  of  fitness  or  connection  which 
led  to  each  particular  sound  being  taken  to  ex- 
press a  particular  thought  is  more  than  likely, 
and  in  this  seems  to  lie  the  most  reasonable 
opinion  to  be  held  as  to  the  famous  problem  of 
the  origin  of  language.  So  far  as  language  can 
be  traced  to  its  actual  source,  that  source  does 
not  lie  in  some  lost  gifts  or  powers  of  man,  but 
in  a  state  of  mind  still  acting,  and  not  above  the 
level  of  children  and  savages.  The  origin  of 
language  was  not  an  event  which  took  place 
long  ago,  once  for  all,  and  then  ceased  entirely. 


/ 


\ 


\ 


=7f 


EDUCATIONAL    DEPARTMENT. 


On  the  contrary,  man  still  possesses,  and  uses 
when  he  wants  it,  the  faculty  of  making  new, 
original  words  by  choosing  fit  and  proper  terms. 
But  he  now  seldom  puts  this  faculty  to  serious 
use,  for  this  good  reason,  that  whatever  language 
he  speaks  has  its  stock  of  words  ready  to  furnish 
an  expression  for  almost  every  fresh  thought 
that  crosses  his  mind. 

Articulate  Language. 

A  sentence  being  made  up  of  its  connected 
sounds  as  a  limb  is  made  up  of  its  joints,  we 
call  language  artiailate,  or  jointed,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  inarticulate,  or  "unjointed,"  sounds 
uttered  by  the  lower  animals.  Conversation  by 
gestures  and  exclamations,  as  was  shown  above 
to  be  a  natural  language  common  to  mankind,  is 
half-way  between  the  communications  of  animals 
and  full  human  speech.  Every  people,  even  the 
smallest  and  most  savage  tribe,  has  an  articulate 
language  carried  on  by  a  whole  system  of 
sounds  and  meanings  which  serves  the  speaker 
as  a  sort  of  catalogue  of  the  contents  of  the  world 
he  lives  in,  taking  in  every  subject  he  thinks 
about,  and  enabling  him  to  say  what  he  thinks 
about  it.  As  in  the  course  of  ages  man's 
knowledge  became  wider  and  his  civilization 
more  complex,  his  language  had  to  keep  up 
with  them.  Comparatively  few  and  plain  ex- 
pressions had  sufficed  for  his  early  rude  con- 
dition, but  now  more  and  more  terms  had  to  be 
added  for  the  new  notions,  implements,  arts, 
offices  and  relations  of  more  highly  organized 
society.  New  words  were  made  by  adding  and 
combining  old  ones,  carrying  on  old  words  from 
the  old  state  of  things  to  do  duty  to  the  new, 
shifting  their  meanings  and  finding  in  any  new 
thought  some  resemblance  to  an  old  one  that 
would  serve  to  give  it  a  name.  As  terms  in- 
crease in  every  nation  and  the  vast  field  of 
language  is  filled  up,  words,  by  a  thousand  fan- 
ciful and  Irregular  methods  of  derivation  and 
composition,  deviate  widely  from  the  primitive 
character  of  their  roots  and  lose  old  resem- 
blance in  sound  of  the  things  signified.     Words 


as  we  now  use  them,  taken  ijf  general,  may  be 
considered  as  symbols,  not  imitations ;  as  arbi- 
trary or  instituted,  not  natural,  signs  of  ideas. 

Classification  of  Languages. 

The  classification  of  the  different  languages 
of  the  earth  into  a  few  great  families  is  due  to 
the  science  of  comparative  philology  and  is  of 
recent  origin.  Till  the  latter  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury the  preference  as  to  the  antiquity  of  lan- 
guage was  usually  given  to  the  Hebrew,  but 
a  striking  improvement  of  linguistic  study  is 
dated  from  the  discovery  of  the  Sanskrit,  the 
ancient  language  of  the  northern  parts  of  Hin- 
dustan, in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century.  A 
belief  in  an  affinity  between  languages  and  a 
separation  of  them  into  certain  great  groups  or 
families  then  arose. 

The  languages  of  the  world  are  divided  into 
four  great  branches,  viz.,  the  Aryan,  or  Indo- 
European,  the  most  important ;  ne.xt  the  Sem- 
itic, the  Turanian  and  the  Dravidian. 

The  Turanian  family,  called  also  the  Tataric, 
or  Altaic,  includes  the  numerous  and  widely  dif- 
ferent languages  of  the  Manchoos,  the  Mongols, 
the  Turks  (in  Asia  and  Europe),  the  Magyars 
(in  Hungary),  the  Finns  (in  Russia),  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  tribes. 

The  Dravidian  includes  the  Tamil  and  the 
dialects  in  Ceylon  and  the  islands  off  Asia, 
etc. 

The  Semitic  includes  the  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arctic  and  Ethiopia,  Basque  (in  the  Pyrenees), 
etc. 

The  Indo-European,  to  which  extensive 
family  the  English  language  belongs,  is  divided 
into  six  principal  branches. 

I.  The  Indian  branch,  represented  by  the 
Sanskrit,  which  has  now  ceased  to  be  spoken, 
but  is  the  mother  of  the  Hindustani,  Bengali, 
Mahratti  and  the  other  numerous  dialects  of 
modern  India. 

II.  The  Medo-Persic  branch,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  Zend,  in  which  the  Zend-Avesta 
is  composed  and  the  cuneiform  inscriptions    of 


v_ 


^ 


V 


EDUCATIONAL    DEPARTiMENT. 


Cyrus,  Darius  and  Xerxes.  Next  folic w  the 
Fehlevi,  of  the  Sarsanian  dynasty  ;  the  Parsee,  in 
which  the  national  poem  of  Ferdusi  is  written 
(A.  D.  looo),  and  lastly  the  modern  Persian. 

III.  The  Celtic  branch,  divided  into  two  dia- 
lects, the  Gaelic  and  the  Cymric ;  the  former 
comprising  the  Irish  or  Erse,  the  Scottish  Gaelic 
or  Highland-Scotch,  and  the  Manx  of  the  Isle 
of  Wan ;  and  the  latter  Welsh,  the  Cornish  (now 
extinct)  and  the  Armorican  of  Britanny. 

IV.  The  Graco-Latin  branch,  comprising  the 
two  ancient  classical  languages,  and  the  so- 
called  Romanic  languages,  derived  from  the 
Latin,  which  are  six  in  number,  namely;  the 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Walla- 
chian,  and  the  Roumanish  or  Romanese  spoken 
in  the  Grisons  in  Switzerland. 

V.  The  Teutonic  branch,  which  comprises  all 
the  different  German  and  Scandinavian  dialects. 

VI.  The  Slavonic  branch,  divided  into  three 
principal  classes:  i.  The  Lettic,  comprising 
the  Lithuanian,  the  Old  Prussian  (now  extinct) 
and  the  Lettish,  the  language  of  Kurland  and 
Livonia.  2.  The  Western  Slavonic,  comprising 
the  Polish  ;  the  Bohemian  or  Tchechian,  spoken 
in  Bohemia;  the  Slovakian,  spoken  by  the  Slov- 
aks in  Hungary,  and  the  Wendian,  spoken  m 
Lusatia.  3.  The  Eastern  Slavonic,  comprising 
the  Old  Slavonic,  preserved  in  the  translations 
of  the  Bible  made  by  Cyrillus  in  the  ninth  cent- 
ur}',  and  its  derivate  dialect,  the  Bulgarian;  the 
Russian,  Servian,  Croatian  and  Slovinian. 

The  Teutonic  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
family  of  languages  is  divided  into  two  great 
branches,  the  German  and  Scandinavian. 

The  German  is  divisible  into  three  principal 
dialects,  the  Mceso-Gothic,  the  Low  German 
and  the  High  German,  the  two  latter  being  so 
called  because  the  Low  German  is  spoken  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  low  or  flat  country  near 
the  shores  of  the  Gorman  Ocean,  while  the  High 
German  belongs  to  the  higher  country  in  the 
interior. 

I.  Tlie  Moeso-Gothic,  the  most  easterly  of 
all  the  German  dialects,  has  long  ceased  to  be 


spoken,  but  is  preserved   in  the  translation  of 
the  gospels  by  Ulfilas. 

2.  The  Liow  German  comprised  the  follow- 
ing dialects:  (i)  Anglo-Saxon,  which  was  culti- 
vated with  great  success  in  England,  and  in 
which  the  second  most  ancient  specimens  of  the 
Germanic  language  are  preserved.  (2)  The  Old 
Saxon,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  An- 
glo-Sa.xon  in  England,  formerly  spoken  in 
Westphalia.  (3)  The  Frisian,  now  confined  to 
a  small  district  in  Holland.  (4)  The  Dutch, 
the  present  language  of  Holland.  (5)  The 
Flemish,  spoken  in  many  parts  of  Belgium. 

3.  The  High  German  comprises  the  Old 
High  German,  from  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh 
centurj';  the  Middle  High  German,  from  the 
twelfth  century  to  the  Reformation,  and  the  New 
High  German,  which  since  Luther's  time  has 
been  the  literary  language  of  Germany. 

The  Scandinavian  branch,  of  which  the 
most  ancient  language  is  the  Old  Norse,  the  lan- 
guage of  Norway,  is  represented  by  the  Icelandic, 
which  was  carried  into  Iceland  by  the  Norse 
colonists  in  the  ninth  century  and  which  con- 
tinues to  be  spoken  on  that  island  with  little 
alteration.  On  the  Continent  the  Old  Norse  is 
represented  by  the  Swedish,  Danish  and  Nor- 
wegian, of  which  the  last  has  now  become  a 
mere  patois. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  relationship 
of  the  different  Teutonic  languages : 

'  I.  Maso-Goth'u. 

2.  Low  German. 
(i.)  Anglo-Sa.xon. 

English, 
(ii.)  Old  Saxon. 
(iii.J  Parisian, 
(iv.)  Dutdi. 
(v.)  Flemish. 

3.  Hi^li  German. 
Teutonic  \  ('•)  OUl  High  German. 

(ii.)  Middle  High  Ciernian. 
(iii.)  New  High  German. 
Old  Scandinavian. 
(i.)  Icelandic, 
(ii.)  Ferroic. 
II.  Scandinavian  \  2.  Modern  Scandinavian. 
(i.)  Danish. 

iii.)  Swedish, 
iii.)  Norwegian. 


I.  German 


/ 


\ 


r 


THE    ENGI.ISH    LANGUAGE. 


-■rai:- 


English  Language. 


'^'W^^'^ 


'W'W'W 


Its  Origin,  Growth,  Development  and  Present  Form. 


HE  English  Language  is 
the  descendant  and  repre- 
sentative of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  It  has  lost  very- 
much  of  the  inflection  and 
very  many  of  the  words 
which  belong  to  the  parent  lan- 
guage; and  on  the  other  hand, 
it  has  borrowed  words  largely, 
to  the  extent  even  of  half  its 
vocabulary,  from  other  lan- 
guages, especially  the  French 
and  the  Latin.  Yet  all  the  in- 
flections that  remain  in  it,  and 
most  of  its  formative  endings, 
the  pronouns  and  particles,  and  in  general  the 
words  which  are  in  most  frequent  and  familiar 
use,  have  come  to  it  from  the  Anglo-Saxon.  All 
the  constituents  of  the  English  Language  as  it 
now  exists  are  presented  in  a  condensed  form  as 
follows : 

1st.    SaxonandDanishwords,  of  Teutonic  and  Gothicorigin. 

2nd.  British  or  Welsh,  Cornish  and  Armoric,  of  Celtic  origin. 

3rd.  Nurman,  a  mixture  of  French  and  Gothic. 

4th.  Latin. 

5th.  The  French,  chiefly  Latin  corrupted. 

6th.  Greek. 

7th.  A  few  words  directly  from  the  Italian,  Spanish,  German, 
.-.nd  other  Continental  languages  of  F.uropc. 

8th.  A  few  foreign  words  introduced  by  commerce  or  liy 
]K»Iitical  and  literary  intercourse. 


"Suppose,"  says  Dr.  Trench  {English  Past 
and  Present),  "the  English  language  to  be  di- 
vided into  a  hundred  parts;  of  these,  to  make  a 
rough  distribution,  sixty  would  be  Saxon,  thirty 
would  be  Latin  (including  of  course  the  Latin 
which  has  come  to  us  through  the  French),  five 
would  be  Greek ;  we  should  then  have  assigned 
ninety-five  parts,  leaving  the  other  five,  perhaps 
too  large  a  residue,  to  be  divided  among  all  the 
other  languages  from  which  we  have  adopted 
isolated  words." 

The  English  Language  from  the  time  of  its 
first  formation  has  been  subject  to  continual 
changes.  Old  words  have  been  from  time  to 
time  falling  away,  and  new  ones  have  been 
formed  and  brought  into  use. 

The  oldest  Sa.xon  manuscript  dates  about 
A.D.  700,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  then  ran  thus: 

"Uren  fader  thic  arth  in  heofnas,  sic  gehalgud  thin  noma,  to 
cymeth  thin  ric,  sic  thin  willa  sue  is  in  heofnas,  and  in  eorlho," 
etc 

The  Modern  Period  of  English  commenced 
with  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centurj',  and 
its  present  form  was  then  assumed. 

Though  it  is  impossible  to  assign  any  exact 
date  to  the  change  of  Anglo-Saxon  into  English, 
the  chief  alterations  in  the  language  may  be 
arranged  approximately  under  the  following 
epochs : 


\ 


14 


/ 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


I.  Anglo-Saxon,  from  A.D.4Soto  iijo. 

n.  Semi-Saxon,  from  A.D.  1 150  to  1250,  so  called  because  it  par- 
takes strongly  of  the  characteristics  of  both  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old 
English, 

m.  Old  English,  from  A.D.  125010  1350. 

r\\  Middle  English,  from  A.D.  1350  to  about  1550. 

\.  Modern   English,  from  A.D.  1550  to  the  present  day. 

ANGLO-SAXON. 

A.D.  700. 

From  the  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  Matthew,  Eighth  Chapter. 
S6dlice  tha  se  Hselend  of  tham  irninte  nydher  astah,  tha  fylig- 
donhim  mycle  manio.  Thagenealzehteanhredflatohimandhine 
to  him  ge-eadhmedde,  and  thus  cwadh:  Drihten,  gyf  thu  \v7It' 
thu  miht  me  gecliensian.  Tha  astrehte  se  Haelend  hys  hand 
and  hrepode  hyme  and  thus  cwadh:  Ic  wylle,  b^o  geclcensod 
And  hys  hr^ofla  was  hradhce  gectensod.  Tha  cwadh  se  Hajlend 
to  him  :  Warna  the  thai  thu  hyt  na;negum  men  ne  secge ;  ac 
gang,  ate6w  the  tham  sacerde,  and  bring  hym  tha  lac  the  Moy- 
ses  bebead,  on  hyra  gecydhnesse. 

Translation.— \\\ oxin,  wanting  in  the  original  are  introduced  in 
italics;  explanations  or  kindred  words  are  inserted  in  brackets.) 
Shortly  when  the  Savior  from  the  mountain  came  -  do  ivn,  there  fol- 
lowed him  a  great  multitude  [mickle,  many].  Then  came-near  a  leper 
to  him,  and  him[self]  to  him  humblqd  and  thus  said  [quoth]  :  Lord, 
if  thou  wilt,  thou  maycst  me  cleanse.  Then  strctched-outthe  Savior 
his  hand  and  touched  him  and  thus  said :  I  will,  be  cleansed.  And  his 
leprosy  was  quickly  cleansed.  Then  said  the  Savior  to  him  :  Beware 
[warn  thee]  th.at  thou  it  to  no  man  say;  but  go,  show  thee  to-the 
priest  [Latin,  s.acerdos]  and  bring  them  the  gift  that  Moses  bade,  for 
their  information. 

A.D.  700. 

From  Beowulf. 

Tha  com  of  mqre  under  mist-hleodum 

Grendel  gongan,  godes  yrre  bar. 

Mynte  se  manscadha  manna  cynnes 

sumne  besyrwan  in  sele  tham  hean, 

wad  under  wolcnum  to  thas  the  he  winreced 

goldsele  gumend  gearwost  wisse 

f^ttum  fahne :   ne  was  that  forma  sidh 

tliat  he  Hrodhgares  ham  gesOhte. 
Translation. — Then  came  from  the  moor  under  mist-hills  Grendel 
to -go,  God's  ire /i«  bare.  He  meant,  the  wicked  destroyer  [scather], 
of  men's  kin  some  o«,?t()-ensnare  in  the  high  hall,  raging  under  wel- 
kin, seeing  that /Ac  friend-mansion,  Mf  gold-hall  of  men,  he  most- 
rcadily  knew,  with  jewels  bedecked ;  nor  w:is  that  the  first  [foremost] 
time  that  Hrothgar's  home  he  visited  [sought]. 

A.D.  800. 

Frotn  King  Alfred's  Translation  of  Boethius. 
On  thare  tide  the  Gotan  of  Scidhdhiu-ma;gdhewidh  Romana- 
rice  gcwin  upahofon,  and  mid  heora  cyningum,  Ra:dgota  and 
Eallerica  wxron  hatne,  Rflmana-bwih  abra;con  and  call  Italia- 
rice,  that  is  betwu.x  tham  muntuin  and  Sicilia  tham  ealondc,  in 
anwald  gerehton ;  and  thi  after  tham  foresprecenan  cyningum 
ThcOdric  feng  t6  tham  ilcan  rice.      1 

Translation.— In  the  time  that  the  Goths  from  Scythia-couiitry 
against  //;.■  Uoman-cmpire  commenced  war  [war  upheaved],  and  with 
their  kings,  k'/(o  Rhadagast  and  Alaric  were  called  [hight],  Mf  Roman- 
city  sacked  [broke]  and  all  Italy-realm,  that  is  hetwi.vt  the  mountains 
and  Sicily  the  island,  into  their  dominion  reduced;  and  when  after  the 
aforesaid  [fore-spoken]  kings  Theodoric  obtained  [took  to]  the 
same  kingdom. 


A.D.    1100. 

From  the  Latter  Part  of  the  Sa.xon  Chroniele. 
Thissum  thus  gedone,  se  cyngWillem  cearde  ongean  tS  Nor- 
mandige.  Re6wlic  thing  he  dyde  and  refiwlicor  him  gelanip. 
Hii  refiwlicor?  Him  geyfelade,  odh  that  him  stranglice  eglade. 
Hwat  mag  ic  teollan  ?  Se  scearpa  deadh,  the  ne  forU-et  ne  rice 
menn  ne  heane,  se  hine  genam.  He  swealt  on  Normandige  on 
thone  nehstan  dag  after  nativitas  See  Marie ;  and  man  be- 
byrgede  hine  on  Cathum  at  See  Stephanes  mynstre ;  asrer 
he  hit  arserde,  and  sidhdhan  manifaldlice  gegodade. 

Translation. — This  being  thus  done,  the  king  "William  returned 
again  to  Normandy.  A  rueful  thing  he  did  and  a  ruefuUer  befel  him. 
How  ruefullcr?  He  [literally,  to  him]  grew-ill,  till  that  it  strongly 
ailed  him.  What  may  I  tell?  The  sharp  deatli,  that  does  not  let-pass 
neither  rich  men  nor  poor,  thus  took  him.  He  died  in  Normandy  on 
the  next  day  after  the  nativity  of  St.  Mary;  and  men  [man]  buried 
him  in  Caen  at  St.  Stephen's  minster ;  earlier  he  up-reared  it  and  af- 
terward [sithenoe]  manifoldly  enriclied  [conferred-goods-on]  //. 

SEMI-SAXON. 

A.  D.  M50. 

From   Layamon' s  Brut. — Earlier   Text. 

An  preost  wes  on  leoden, 

Layamon  wes  ihoten; 

he  wes  Leouenadhes  sone ; 

lidhe  hein  beo  drihten ; 

he  wonede  at  Emleye, 

at  oedhelen  are  chirechen, 

uppen  Scuarne  stathe. 
Translation. — There  was    a  priest  on  earth  [or  in  the  land]  who  was 
named    Layamon;  he  w.as  son  of    Leovenath — may    the    Lord  be 
gracious  to  him ! — he  dwelt  at  Ernley  at  a  noble  church  upon  Severn's 
bank. 

A.D.   I250. 

From  Layamon' s  Brut. — Later  Text, 
A  priest  was  in  londe 
Laweman  was  [i]  hote : 
he  was  Leucais  sone; 
lef  him  beo  drihte: 
he  wonede  at  Ernleie 
wid  than  gode  cnithe, 
uppen  Scuarne. 

Translation.' — There  was  a  priest  in  the  land  who  was  named  Laya- 
mon ;  he  was  .a  son  of  Lcuca — may  the  Lord  be  gracious  to  him  I — he 
dwelt  at  Ernley  with  the  good  knight  upon  the  Severn. 

A.D.  I250. 

From  the  Ormtilum. 
Nu,  brotherr  Wallterr,  brotherrmin 

affterr  the  plxshess  kinde ; 
annd  brotherr  min  i  Crisstenndom 

thurrh  fulluhht  annd  thurrh  trowwthe ; 
annd  brotherr  min  i  Godess  hus, 

yet  o  the  thride  wise, 
thurrh  thatt  witt  hafenn  takenn  ba 

an  reyhellboc  to  follyhenn, 
unnderr  kanunnkess  had  annd  lif, 
swa  summ  Sannt  Awwstin  sette. 
Translation. — Now,  brother  Walter,  brother  mine  after  the  flesh's 
kindred;    and   brother   mine   in    Christendom  through   baptism    and 


-Nj 


/ 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


15 


through  truth ;  and  brother  mine  in  God's  house,  j'ct  on  the  third 
wise,  seeing  [tlirough]  that  we-t\vo  have  taken  botli  one  rule-book  to 
follow,  under  a  canonic's  hood  and  life,  so  as  St.  Austin  set, 

OLD  ENGLISH. 

A.D.  I300. 

From  the  CAroniclc  of  Robert  of  Gloucester, 
Thus  com  lo !  Engelond  into  Normannes  honde, 
and  the  Normans  ne  couthe  speke  tho  bote  her  owe  speche, 
and  s[)eke  French  as  dude  atom,  and  here  chyldren  dude  al  so 
so  that  heymen  of  thys  lond,  that  of  her  blod  come,         [teche : 
holdeth  all  theilke  speche  that  hii  of  hem  nome. 
vor  bote  a  man  couthe  French,  me  tolth  of  hym  wel  lute. 

Translation. — Thus  came,  lo  !  England  into  t!ir  Normans'  hand, 
and  the  Normans  knew  not  how  to  speak  then  but  their  own  speech, 
and  spoke  French  as  ///*')■  did  at  home,  and  their  children  did  all  so 
teach,  so  that  the  high-men  of  this  land,  that  of  their  blood  came, 
hold  all  the -same  [the  ilk]  speech  that  they  of  them  took:  for  unless 
[but]  a  man  should-know  F'rench,  men  reckon  [tell]  of  him  very 
[well]  little. 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH. 

A.D.  I350. 

From  the  Travels  of  Sir  John  Mandeville. 
After  for  to  speke  of  Jerusalem  the  holy  cytee,  yee  schuU  un- 
derstonde  thatitstont*  full  faire  betwene  hilles,  and  there  be 
no  ryveres  ne  welles,  but  water  cometh  by  condyte  from  Ebron. 
And  yee  schulle  understonde  that  Jerusalem  of  old  tyme,  unto 
the  tyme  of  Melchisedech,  was  cleped  f  Jebus  ;  and  after  it  was 
clept  Salem,  unto  the  tyme  of  Kyng  David,  that  put  these  two 
names  to  gider,  and  cleped  it  Jerosolomye.  And  after  that 
men  cleped  it  Jerusalem,  and  so  it  is  clept  yit. 

A.D.  I350. 

From  the  Vision  of  Pier's  Ploughman. 
In  a  somer  seson  when  softe  was  the  sonne, 
I  shoop  me  into  shroudes  J  as  I  a  sheep  \  weere. 
in  habit  as  a  heremite  unholy  of  werkes, 
wente  wide  in  this  world  wondres  to  here. 

A.D.  1375. 

From  the  Prologue  to  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
■When  that  Aprille  with  his  schowres  swoote  || 
the  drought  of  Marche  hath  perced  to  the  roote, 
and  bathud  evrry  veyne  in  swich  licour, 
of  which  vertue  engendred  in  the  flour. 

A.D.  I380. 

From  Wycliffe's  Translation  of  the  Bible. 
Forsothe  when  Jhesus  hadde  comen  doun  fro  the  hill,  many 
cumpanyes  folewiden  hym.  And  loo!  a  leprouse  man  cum- 
mynge  worshipide  hym,  sayinge :  Lord  yif  thou  wolt,  thou 
maist  make  me  clene.  And  Jhesus  holdynge  forthe  the  bond, 
touchide  hym,  saying:      I  wole,  be  thou  maad  clene.      And 

*  Slant,  standeth.  %  Stioop  me  into  s/iraiiih-s,  put  me 

t  Cleped,  cleft,  called.  into   clothes. 

§.$■//(•<•/,  shepherd.  ||  .Swoo/f,  sweet.    . 


anoon  the  lepre  of  hym  was  clcnsid.  And  Jtiesus  saith  to  hym  : 
See,  say  thou  to  no  man :  but  go  shcwe  thee  to  prestis,  and  oftre 
that  yifte  that  Moyses  comaundide,  into  witnessing  to  hem. 

A.D.  I400. 

Frojn  Puneys  Recension  of  Wycliffe's  Translation. 
But  whanne  Jhesus  was  come  doun  fro  the  hil,  mych  puple 
suede  hym.  And  loo !  a  leprouse  man  cam  and  worschipide 
hym  and  seide:  Lord  if  thou  wolt  thou  maist  make  me  clene. 
And  Jhesus  helde  forth  the  hoond  and  touchide  hym  and  seide  : 
Y  wole:  be  thou  maad  cleene.  .\nd  anoon  the  lepre  of  hym 
was  clensid. 

A.D.  I450. 

From  Caxton's  Prologue  to  Malory's  Morte  iT Arthur. 
For  it  is  notoyrly  knowen  thorugh  the  unyversal  rt-orld  that 
there  been  IX  worthy  and  the  best  that  ever  were,  that  is  to 
wete,  thre  paynyms,  thre  jewes,  and  thre  crysten  men.  As  for 
the  paynyms,  they  were  tofore  the  incarnacyon  of  Cryst,  whithe 
were  named,  the  fyrst  Hector  of  Troye,  of  whome  thystorye  is 
comen  bothe  in  balade  and  prose ;  the  second  Alysaunder  the 
grete;  and  the  thyrd  Julyus  Cezar,  emperour  of  Rome,  of 
whome  thystoryes  ben  wel  kno  and  had. 

A.D.  I500. 

From  Tyndale's  New  Testament. 
When  he  was  come  dawne  from  the  mountayne,  moch  pecple 
folowed  him.  And  lo  !  ther  came  a  lepre  and  wcrsheped  him, 
sayinge :  Master  if  thou  wylt  thou  canst  make  me  clene.  And 
Jesus  put  forthe  hys  bond  and  touched  hym;  saying:  I  wyll,  be 
thou  clene,  and  immediately  his  leprosie  was  clensed.  .\nd 
Jesus  sayde  vnto  him :  Se  thou  tell  no  man,  but  go  and  shewe 
hy  selfe  to  the  preste  and  offer  the  gyfte  that  Moses  com- 
maunded,  in  witness  to  them. 

MODERN  ENGLISH. 

A.D.  I550. 

From  a  Letter  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland. 
Ilon^e  Lord,  and  in  this  distress  my  especiall  refuge,  most 
wofuU  was  the  newes  I  receyved  this  cvenynge  by  M''  Lieutenant 
that  I  must  prepare  myselfe  against  tomorrowe  to  receyve  my 
deadly  stroke.  Alas,  my  good  lord,  is  my  cryme  so  heynous  as 
noe  redemcion  but  my  blood  can  washe  awaye  the  spottes 
thereof?  An  old  proverb  ther  is,  and  tliat  most  true,  that  a 
lyving  dogge  is  better  than  a  dead  lyon. 

A.D.  I650. 

From  a  Letter  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria. 
This  day  I  received  yours  of  the  21,  to  which,  being  streight- 
ened  in  tyme,  I  shall  answer  in  English  that  it  may  be  soonest 
put  into  cypher.  In  the  first  place  you  conclude  right,  that  noth- 
ing but  the  abundance  of  my  love  could  make  me  take  upon 
me  the  harsher  part  of  pressing  things  which  are  inacceptible 
to  you. 


-N 


V 


i6 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


"71 


A.D.  I750. 

From  a  Letter  of  John  Wesley. 

Always  take  advice  or  reproof  as  a  favour :  it  is  the  surest 
mark  of  love.  I  advised  you  once  and  you  took  it  as  an  affront : 
nevertheless  I  will  do  it  once  more.  Scream  no  more  at  the 
p;ril  of  your  soul.  God  now  warns  you  by  me,  whom  He  has 
set  over  you. 


A.D.  I850. 

From  a  Letter  of  IVm.  M.  Thackeray. 
My  dear  Reed — Though  I  am  rather  slow  in  paying  the 
tailor,  I  always  pay  him:  andas  with  tailors  so  with  men;  I 
pay  my  debts  to  my  friends,  only  at  rather  a  long  day.  Thank 
you  for  writing  to  me  so  kindly,  you  have  so  much  to  do.  I 
have  only  begun  work  ten  days  since,  and  now,  in  consequence, 
have  little  leisure. 


ENGLISH 


;™fcS'~*V""<» 


English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking, 
reading  and  writing  the  Enghsh  language  cor- 
rectly. 

It  is  dividea  into  four  parts  :  OrthograiJhy, 
Etymologry,   Syntax  and  Prosody. 

OrtllOgl'iipll  Y.  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words 
and  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  p.arts  of  speech  with 
their  classes  and  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government  and 
arrangement  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures  and  versi- 
fication. 

LETTERS. 

A  Lietter  is  an  alphabetic  mark  or  character  commonly  rep- 
resenting some  elementary  sound  of  a  word. 

An  elementary  sound  of  a  word  is  a  simple  or  pri- 
mary sound  of  the  human  voice  used  in  speaking. 

The  sound  of  a  letter  is  commonly  called  its  power : 
when  any  letter  of  a  word  is  not  sounded  it  is  said  to  be  silent 

or  mute. 

The  letters  in  the  English  language  are  twenty-six ;  the  sim- 
ple or  primaiy  sounds  in  the  language  are  forty-one. 

The  letters  are :  A  a ;  B  b ;  C  c  ;  D  d  ;  E  e ;  F  f ;  G  g ; 
11  h  ;  I  i ;  J  j ;  K  k  ;  L  1 ;  M  m  ;  N  n  ;  O  o  ;  P  p  ;  Q  q  ;  R  r; 
S  s  ;  T  t ;   U  u ;  V  v  i  W  w ;  X  X ;  Y  y ;  Z  2. 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  vowels 

and  consonants. 


%\w^\\\w\<j^w^\v 


GRAMMAR. 


,^„m^m„)lmSfm„,S/g„.. 


A  vowel  is  a  letter  which  forms  a  perfect  sound  when  ut- 
tered alone  ;  as,  a,  e,  o. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  perfectly  uttered 
till  joined  to  a  vowel;  as,  b,  e,  d. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  j. 

IF  or  y  is  called  a  consonant  when  it  precedes  a  vowel  heard 
in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  ■mine,  twine,  ye,  yet.  In  all  other 
cases  these  letters  are  vowels ;  as,  newly,  dezty,  cyc-broiu. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  semi-vowels  and  mutes. 

A  semi-vowel  is  a  consonant  which  can  be  imperfectly 
sounded  without  a  vowel,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  its 
sound  may  be  protracted ;  as,  /,  n,  s,  in  al,  an,  az. 

A  mute  is  a  consonant  which  cannot  be  sounded  at  all 
without  a  vowel,  and  which  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  suddenly 
stops  the  breath ;  as,  k,  p,  t,  in  ak,  a/>,  at. 

The  semi-VOAVelS  are/,  //, /,  /,  in,  n,  r,  s,  v,  in,  x,  y, 
s,  and  e  and  ^^  soft ;  but  w  or  y  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  is  a 
vowel. 

The  mutes  are  eight :  i,  d,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  c  and  g  hard ; 
three  of  these — k,  q,  and  c  hard — sound  exactly  alike. 

The  four  semi-vowels,  /,  m,  n  and  r,  are  also  called 
liquids,  because  they  readily  unite  with  other  consonants, 
flowing,  as  it  were,  into  their  sounds. 

The  following  consonants  are  styled  dentals,  viz.:  d,j,  s, 
t,  z,  and  g  soft,  being  pronounced  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  the 
teeth. 

D,  g,j,  k,  I,  n  and  q  are  called  palatals,  from  the  use 
made  of  the  palate  in  pronouncing  them. 

-^>  />  f  ^  ^nd  m  are  called  labials,  being  pronounced 
chiefly  by  the  lips. 


\ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


17 


M,  n  and  the  digrapli  ng  are  called  nasals,  being  sounded 
through  llie  nose. 

A',  q  and  c  and  ff  hard  are  called  gutturals,  being  sound- 
ed by  the  throat. 

Peculiarities  in  Sounds  of  Consonants. 

B  preceded  by  m  in  the  same  syllable  is  generally  silent ;  as, 
lamb,  limb,  comb;  but  succumb  is  an  exception.  It  is  silent 
before  /  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  cicl'l,  doubt,  etc. 

The  letter  c  is  hard  and  sounds  like  k  before  a,  0  and  u;  it  is 
soft  and  sounds  like  ^  before  (■,  ;'  and  j';  except  in  sceptic,  scir- 
r/ius,  and  their  derivatives,  in  which  it  is  hard,  like  /■.  In  the 
words  indut,  iiidutalle,  indictment,  czar  and  victuals,  c  is 
silent.  Wliere  c  comes  after  the  accent  and  is  followed  by  ea, 
ia,  io  or  eons,  it  lakes,  like  s  ax  t  under  the  same  circumstances, 
the  sound  of  sh;  as,  ocean,  social,  tenacious,  cetaceous.  In  the 
words  discern,  sacrifice  and  suffice,  c  has  the  sound  of  2. 

The  regular  sound  of  the  digraph  Clt  is  the  same  as  that  of 
/(//  or  tsli;  as  in  chair,  child,  rich.  In  words  from  the  French 
it  has  the  sound  ol  sh;  as  in  chagrin,  chaise.  In  words  derived 
from  the  ancient  languages  eh  is  generally  hard,  like  k;  as, 
chemistry,  choler,  echo,  chorus,  stomach.  Exceptions,  cherub, 
charity,  chart,  charter.  Ch  is  hard  in  all  words  where  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  /  or  r;  as.  Christian,  chlorosis.  When  arch,  signify- 
ing chief,  begins  a  word  from  the  Greek  language,  followed  by 
a  vowel,  it  is  pronounced  arh;  as,  archangel,  architect;  but 
when  arch  is  prefixed  to  an  English  word  it  is  pronounced  so  as 
to  rhyme  with  march;  as,  archbishop,  archduke.  In  drachm, 
schism  an&yacht,  ch  is  silent. 

D  is  silent  in  Wednesday  and  handkerchief. 

iif  like  c,  has  two  sounds,  one  hard  and  the  other  soft.  It  is 
hard  before  a,  0  and  u.  The  only  exception  is  gaol,  which  is 
commonly  written  as  well  as  pronounced /a  (7.  G  followed  by  n 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  silent ;  as,  gnarl,  gnash,  gnat.  It 
is  also  silent  when  followed  by  n  at  the  end  of  a  word ;  as,  ar- 
raign, design,  impugn.  G  before  e,  i  and  j'  is  sometimes  hard 
and  sometimes  soft.  It  is  generally  soft  before  words  derived 
from  the  Greek,  Latin  and  French,  and  hard  before  words  from 
the  Saxon. 

till.  At  the  beginning  of  a  word  the  //  is  silent;  as  ghost, 
ghastly.  At  the  end  of  words  both  letters  are  commonly  silent ; 
as,  sigh,  nigh,  weigh.  In  some  words  it  has  the  sound  of  f; 
as,  rough,  laugh;  and  in  some  the  sound  of  k;  as,  hough, 
lough. 

The  combination  of  letters  oilgll  at  the  end  of  words  has  no 
less  than  seven  different  sounds,  which  are  exhibited  in  the 
following  lines : 

'Tts  not  an  easy  task  to  show 
How  O'U-g-li  sounds  ;  since,  though 
An  Irish  loHgti  and  Englisli  stoitgli 
And  cotiglt  and  liiccottgh,  all  allow, 
Differ  as  much  as  tough  and  tltrou^h. 
There  seems  no  reason  why  they  do. 

Gilt.  In  this  termination  the  letters  gh  are  always  silent ; 
■a.%, fight,  right;  except  in  draught,  which  is  pronounced,  and 
in  some  of  its  senses  usually  written,  draft. 

The  letter  li  is  a  note  of  aspiration,  and  it  is  silent  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  number  of  words  ;  as,  heir,  heiress,  honor,  htncsty. 


honorable,  honor,  hour,  hostler,  etc.  In  hospital,  humble, 
humor,  herb,  e{c.,  according  to  some  authorities,  it  is  silent; 
according  to  others  it  is  sounded.  It  is  always  silent  after  r; 
as,  rheum,  rhetoric,  rhapsody. 

J  has  the  same  sound  as  soft^'. 

Ml  has  the  same  sound  as  e  hard.  It  is  always  silent  before 
«;  as,  hnee,  kno'u.     It  is  also  silent  after  c;  as,  barrack,  back. 

\a  is  silent  in  many  words ;  as,  calf,  half,  talk,  balm,  calm, 
would,  should,  etc. 

M  always  preserves  its  sound  except  in  aicompt,  accomptant, 
comptroller,  jjionounced  and  more  commonly  written  account, 
accountant,  controller.  M  is  silent  when  it  precedes  n  ;  as, 
mnemonics. 

m  is  mute  when  it  ends  a  syllable  and  is  preceded  by  /  or  m  ; 
as  in  kiln,  hymn,  limn,  solemn,  column. 

P  is  silent  before  n,  s  and/  at  the  beginning  of  words  ;  as, 
psalm,  psalter,  ptisan,  pneumonia. 

Pll  has  generally  the  sound  of/,-  :i%,  physic,  philosophy.  In 
nephew  and  in  Stephen  it  has  the  sound  of  v ;  and  in  diph- 
thong, triphthong,  naphtha,  the  /;  is  silent. 

Q  IS  always  followed  by  ii,  and  qu  has  commonly  the  sound 
o[  kw;  na,  i/ucen,  quart;  but  in  many  words,  mostly  from  the 
French,  it  has  the  sound  of  k;  as  coquette,  etiquette,  liquor, 
mosque. 

S  final  has  the  sound  of  s  when  it  immediately  follows  any 
consonant  except  the  mutes  /■,/,  /,  the  semi-vowel/  and  ///  aspi- 
rated, as  in  ribs,  heads,  hens;  also  when  it  forms  an  additional 
syllable  with  3  before  it,  in  the  plural  of  nouns  and  the  third 
person  singular  of  verbs,  as  churches,  boxes,  teaches;  likewise  in 
some  verbs  ending  in  se  to  distinguish  them  from  nouns  anil 
adjectives  of  the  same  form,  as  abuse,  use  close,  diffuse,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  nouns  abuse,  use,  and  ,the  adjectives  close 
and  diffuse. 

S  takes  the  sound  of  sh  in  words  ei*ding  in  sion  preceded 
by  a  consonant;  as  diversion, passion,  mi-^iitn;  also  in  censure, 
sure,  sugar,  fissure,  etc. 

S  has  the  sound  of  zh  in  the  termination  sion  ])receded  by  a 
vowel;  as  evasion,  decision,  explosion;  also  in  a  number  of  words 
in  wliicli  s  is  preceded  by  an  accenteii  vowel  and  followed  by 
the  termination  tire,  as  in  measure,  pleasure,  treasure,  leisure; 
also  in  several  words  ending  in  sier,  as  crosier,  osier,  hosier;  also 
in  ambrosia,  ambrosial,  elysium,  elysian ;  also  m  the  words 
abscission,  scission,  and  rescission.  S  is  silent  in  the  words 
aisle,  isle,  island,  demesne,  puisne,  viscount,  and  generally  at 
the  end  of  French  words  adopted  into  English,  as  chamois, 
corps,  vis-a-vis,  etc. 

T,  when  it  comes  immediately  after  the  accent  and  is  followed 
by  the  vowels  ia,  ie  or  io,  takes  the  sound  In  these  cases  of  sh; 
as,  partial,  patient,  nation,  militia. 

Til.  The  /(  is  silent  in  the  words  Thomas,  thyme, 
phthisic,  Thames.     The  //;  is  silent  in  asthma  and  isthmus. 

W  IS  always  silent  before  ;■;  as,  write,  wren,  wrist.  It  is 
also  silent  in  answer,  sword,  toward  and  tivo. 

X  at  the  beginning  of  words  has  the  sound  of  c;  Ti.s,,.\'enophon. 
.xylography. 

Z  is  silent  in  rendezvous. 


\ 


fsT 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Combinations  of  Vowels. 

The  poiver  of  a  letter  is  its  sound  in  a  given  word.  Some 
letters  stand  for  more  tlian  one  sound  ;  as  a  in  ale,  are,  awl. 
Some  sounds  have  more  than  one  letter  to  stand  for  them  ;  thus 
in  her,  si'-,  fur,  the  same  sound  is  represented  by  e,  i  and  u. 
Our  twenty-six  letters  represent  forty-one  sounds. 

A  Diplltliong  is  two  vowels  formed  in  one  syllable;  as 
ea  in  beat,  on  in  sound. 

A  proper  dipllthong  is  one  in  which  both  the  vowels 
are  sounded  ;  as,  ci  in  voiic. 

An  improper  diphtllOUg  is  one  in  which  only  one 
of  the  vowels  is  sounded  ;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 

A  Triptathong  is  three  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable;  as, 
eau  in  beau,  ieiu  in  Z'iew. 

A  proper  triphthong:  is  one  in  which  all  the  vowels 
are  sounded  ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one 
or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded ;  as,  eau  in  beauty,  iou  in 
anxious. 

SYLLABLES. 

A  Syllable  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced  in  one 
sound  and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of  a  word  ;  as,  a,  an,  ant. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  dis- 
tinct sounds ;  as,  gram-nia-ri-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable;  as, 
home.  A  word  of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  ;  as,  he-ro. 
A  word  ofthree  syllables,  a  trisyllable  ;  as,  hc-ro-ie.  And 
a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  polysyllable;  as, 
im-per-a-tive,  dis-con-nect-ed-ly,  se.x-a-ge-na-ri-an. 

In  dividing  words  into  syllables  we  are  to  be  directed  chiefly 
by  the  ear ;  it  may,  however,  be  proper  to  observe,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  following  rules : 

Consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels  or  diph- 
thongs which  they  modify  in  utterance;  as,  ap-os-tol-ic-al. 

Two  vowels  coming  together,  if  they  do  not  make  a  diphthong, 
must  be  parted  in  dividing  the  syllables ;  as,  a-e-ri-al. 

Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  generally  be 
separated  from  the  radical  words  to  which  they  are  added  ;  as, 
hann-lcss,  great-ly,  con-iiect-cd. 

Prefixes  in  general  form  separate  syllables ;  as,  mis-place,  out- 
ride, up-lift;  but  if  their  own  primitive  meaning  be  disregard- 
ed, the  case  may  be  otherwise ;  thus,  re-create  and  rec-reate  are 
words  of  different  import. 

Compounds,  when  divided,  should  be  divided  into  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them  ;  as,  no-where. 

At  the  end  of  a  line  a  word  may  be  divided  if  necessary ;  but 
a  syllable  must  never  be  broken. 

ACCENT. 

Accent  is  stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  certain  syllable  when  a 
word  is  uttered.  The  syllable  that  receives  the  stress  is  said  to 
be  accented.  It  may  be  denoted  by  a  mark  called  the  acute  ac- 
cent ('),  placed  above  it  to  the  right ;  as,  lem'on,  engrave'. 

Accent  is  of  two  kinds:  primary,  as  in  in-tend,  where 
the  full  force  of  the  voice  is  on  the  last  syllable;  and  second- 


ary, as  in  su'per-in-tend ,  where  the  first  syllable  is  distin- 
guished by  a  stress  greater  than  that  laid  on  the  second  and 
third  syllables,  though  less  than  that  laid  on  the  last.  In  some 
words  there  are  two  secondaiy  or  subordinate  accents ;  as,  in- 
com'pre-hen'si-bil'i-ty. 

There  are  about  eighty  dissyllables  in  which  the  same  word 
Js  used  for  a  verb  on  the  one  hand  and  a  noun  or  adjective  on 
the  other.  To  distinguish  them  we  accent  the  nouns  and  the 
adjectives  on  \X\ft  first  syllable,  and  the  verbs  on  the  last;  as,  a 
con'vert,  to  convert' ;  a  contract,  to  contract';  an  ob'ject,  to 
object';  an  o'verflow,  to  overfJo'iu;  ^perfume,  to  perfume', 
etc. 

There  are  a  few  dissyllables  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  ad- 
jectives. These  are  distinguished  by  accenting  the  nouns  on 
\i.\& first  syllable  and  the  adjectives  on  the  hut. 


NOUNS. 

Au'gust,  the  month. 
Compact,  an  engagement. 
Ex'ile,  banishment. 
Instinct,  an  impulse. 
Min  lite,  of  time. 
Su'pine,  in  grammar. 


ADJECTIVES. 

August',  jiobie. 
Compact',  close. 
Exile',  small,  slender. 
Instinct',  animated. 
Minute',  very  small. 
Supine',  indolent. 

The  won\  gallant  departs  from  the  above  rule.  When  it  de- 
notes a  suitor  or  "attentive  to  ladies,"' it  is  accented ^a/Aiw/'. 
and  is  changed  into  gal'lant  when  it  means  high-spirited  or 
daring. 

Simple  words  of  two  syllables  have-only  one  syllable  accent- 
ed, except  the  word  amen,  which  Walker  says  "is  the  only  word 
in  the  language  which  has  necessarily  two  consecutive  accents." 

WORDS. 

A  ^Vord  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or  written  as  the 
sign  of  some  idea,  or  of  some  manner  of  thought. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  derivative, 
and  as  simple  or  componud.  The  former  division  is 
called  their  specieS  ;  the  latter,  their  fignre. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  from  any 
simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harm,  great. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  some  sim- 
pler word  in  the  language ;  as,  harmless,  greatly,  disconnect, 
unconnected. 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded,  not  com- 
posed of  other  words;  as,  watch,  man,  never,  the,  less. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  simple  words ;  as,  watchman,  nevertheless. 

Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated ;  as,  bookseller, 
schoolmaster.  Others,  «hich  may  be  called  temporary  com- 
])Ounds,  are  formed  by  the  hyphen  ;  as,  glass-house,  negro-mer- 
chant. 

Words  regularly  or  analogically  united,  and  commonly  known 
as  forming  a  compound,  should  never  be  needlessly  broken 
apart 

When  the  simple  words  would  only  form  a  regular  phrase  of 
the  same  meaning,  the  compounding  of  any  of  them  ought  to 
be  avoided. 

Words  otherwise  liable  to  be  misunderstood  must  be  joined 
together  or  written  separately  as  tlie  sense  and  construction 
may  happen  to  require. 


1^ 


\ 


k. 


/ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


19 


When  two  or  more  compounfls  are  connected  in  one  sentence 
none  of  them  should  be  split  to  make  an  ellipsis  of  half  a  word. 

When  the  parts  of  a  compound  do  not  cor.Icsce,  as,  to-mor- 
row, to-ni^Jit,  to-day,  or  when  each  retains  its  original  accent, 
so  that  the  compound  has  more  than  one,  or  one  that  is  mova- 
ble, as,  first-born,  haiiger-oii,  laiighlcr-loving,  the  hyphen 
should  be  inserted  between  them. 

When  a  compound  has  but  one  accented  syllable  in  pronun- 
ciation, as,  watchword,  statesman,  gentleman,  and  the  pans 
are  such  as  admit  of  a  complete  coalescence,  no  hyphen  should 
be  inserted  between  them. 

WORD-BUILDING. 

The  primitive  words  of  the  English  language  are  few  com- 
pared with  the  derivatives.  This  is  because  many  derivatives 
sometimes  come  from  a  single  primitive.  Thus  from  the  prim- 
itive/a;-/  are  formed  counter/d/y,  Acpart,  imparl,  party,  farl- 
isan, /<7/7icle,  im/ii;/ed,  copartner,  etc. 

A  Prefi-t  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  before  a  primitive  or 
compound  to  modify  its  meaning;  as,  de  in  depart,  itn  in  un- 
gentlemanly. 

A  Suffix  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  after  a  primitive  or 
compound  to  modify  its  meaning;  as,  isan  in  partisan,  ly  in 
K  ngcntlema  n  ly. 

Some  derivatives  come  from  roots  not  separately  used  as 
words.  Thus  avert,  revert,  convertible,  etc.,  come  from  the 
root  vert,  meaning  to  turn. 

These  roots  are  mostly  from  Latin  words,  and  some  of  them 
enter  into  a  great  number  of  derivatives.  The  most  important 
of  these  inseparable  roois  are: 


cede,  ceed,  cess,  to  go. 
ceive,  eept,  to  take. 
elude,  clus,  to  shut. 
cur,  CHrs,  to  run. 
diet,  to  say  or  speak. 
duoe,  duct,  to  lead. 
feet,  fici,  to  do,  make. 
fer,  to  bear,  to  carry, 
fuse,  to  pour. 
jeet,  to  cast. 
late,  bear,  carr^'. 
lect,  to  choose,  gather. 


lude,  lus,  to  play. 
iiiit,  miss,  to  send. 
pel,  puis,  to  drive. 
pend,  pens,  to  hang. 
pone,  pose,  to  place, 
port,  to  carry. 
scribe,  script,  to  write 
sist,  to  stand. 
tain,  tent,  to  hold. 
tend,  tens,  to  shield. 
tract,  to  draw. 
vene,  vent,  to  come. 


A  derivative  may  be  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  prefi.\es 
or  suffixes  with  a  primitive  or  inseparable  root ;  as,  «-i'.r-port, 
to  cany-out-again ;  just-ify-ing,  continning-to-maie-jusl;  re- 
col-lcct-ions,  more-t/ian-one-act-o/-g3.lhenng-toget/ier-again. 

A  derivative  may  be  formed  by  uniting  a  prefix  or  suffix  with 
a  compound ;  as,  good-humor-«/. 

Compounds  may  be  fomied  by  uniting  two  primitives  ;  as, 
moon-l'cam ;  a  primitive  and  derivative,  as,  />riglit-cyed ;  two  de- 
rivatives, as,  brighlest-eycd ;  an  inseparable  root  and  a  primi- 
tive, as,  multiform ;  two  inseparable  roots,  as,  geography. 

The  Prefixes. 

In  the  formation  of  words,  the  particles  which  are  employed 
as  prefixes  generally  have  some  peculiar  import,  which  may  be 
separately  explained.  A  few  of  them  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  ori- 
gin, and  the  greater  part  of  these  are  still  employed  as  separ- 
ate words  in  our  language.     The  rest  are  Latin,  Greek  and 


French  prepositions.  The  roots  to  whicli  they  are  alTixed  are 
not  always  proper  English  words.  Those  which  are  such  are 
called  separable  radicals,  and  those  which  are  not  such, 
inseparable  radicals. 

English  or  Anglo-Saxon  Prefixes. 

A,  as  an  English  prefix,  signifies  on,  in,  at  or  to;  as  in 
a-broad,  a-shore.  a-slccp,  a-far,  a-ficld.  The  French  d  (to)  is 
probaljly  the  same  particle ;  as  in  a-dicu.  This  prclix  is  some- 
times redundant;  as  in  a-xuake,  a-rise. 

Be  signifies  upon,  to,  by  ov  for;  as  in  bespatter,  be-limes, 
bc-tide,  be-speak.  It  is  sometimes  redumlaiit ;  as  in  be-gird, 
be-dech,  be-loved. 

Counter  means  against  or  opposite;  as  in  counter-poise. 
counter-r^idence,  counter-natural. 

For,  in  composition,  seems  to  signify  from.  It  is  found  in 
the  irregular  \e\hs for-bcar,  for-bid,  for-get,  for-give,  forsake, 
forswear ;  and  mfor-do,  for-pass,  for-pine,  forsay,  for-think, 
for-wasle,  which  last  are  now  seldom  used. 

Fore,  prefi.xed  to  verbs,  signifies  before;  as,  fore-know, 
fore-tell ;  prefixed  to  nouns  it  is  an  adjective  and  signifies  an- 
terior; ai,  fore-side,  fore-part. 

Half,  signifying  one  of  two  cijual  parts,  is  much  used  in 
composition,  and  often  merely  to  denote  imperfection ;  as,  half- 
sighted,  seeing  imperfectly. 

Itlis  signifies  wrong ;  as,  mis-do,  mis-place. 

Out,  prefixed  to  verbs,  generally  denotes  excess ;  as.  out-do, 
out-leap;  prefixed  to  nouns  it  is  an  adjective  and  signifies  ex- 
terior; as,  outside,  out-parish. 

Over  usually  denotes  superiority  or  excess  ;  as,  over-power. 
over-strain,  over-large,  over-dose. 

Self  signifies  one's  own  person  or  belonging  to  one's  own 
person.  It  is  much  used  in  composition ;  as,  self-love,  self- 
-<uilled,  self-accusing.  Sometimes  self  means  very;  as,  self- 
same. 

I'n  denotes  negation  or  contrariety ;  as,  un-kind,  un- 
load. 

I'nder  denotes  inferiority  ;  as,   under-value,  under-clerk. 

I'p  denotes  motion  upwards;  as,  up-llft ;  sometimes  sub- 
version ;  as,  upset. 

With,  as  a  prefix  (unlike  the  common  preposition  with), 
signifies  against,  from  or  back;  as,  -Milhstand,  wilh-hold, 
with-draw. 

Latin  Prefixes. 

Not  many  of  the  primitives  to  which  these  are  prefixed  are 
employed  separately  in  English.  The  final  letter  of  the  prefix 
ad,  con,  ex,  in,  ob  or  sub  is  often  changed  before  certain  con- 
sonants. 

A,  ab,  abs,  means  from  or  away  ;  as,  a-vcrt,  to  turn 
from ;  ab-duce,  to  lead  from ;  abs-tract,  to  draw  away. 

Ad,  ac,  af,  al,  an,  ap,  as,  at,  mean /o  or  a/ ,•  as, 

ad-vert,  to  turn  to ;  ac-cede,  to  yield  to  ;  af-flux,  a  flowing-to ; 
al-ly,  to  bind  to ;  an-nex,  to  link  to ;  ap-ply,  to  put  to ;  assume, 
to  take  to ;  at-test,  to  witness  to. 

Ante,  before;  as,  ante-ccdent.  going  before;  ante-mun- 
dane, before  the  world ;  ante-dale,  to  date  before. 


A 


\ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


^. 


A 


Circuni,  around  or  about ;  as,  circum-volve,  to  roll 
around. 

Con,  com,  CO,  col,  cor,  together;  as,  con-tract,  to 
draw  together;  com-pcl,  to  drive  together;  co-erce,  to  force  to- 
gether ;  col-lect,  to  gather  together ;  cor-rade,  to  scrape  togetlier ; 
con-junction,  a  joining-together. 

Contra,  against ;  as,  contra-diet,  to  speak  against. 

De,  of,  from  or  do-wn ;  as,  de-note,  to  be  a  sign  of;  de-tract, 

to  draw  from  ;  de-pend,  to  hang  down ;  de-press,  to  press  down. 

Dis,  di,  a-i'ay  ox  apart ;  as,  dis-pel,  to  drive  away;  (//j- 

«f/,  to  cut  apart ;  di-vert,  to  turn  away.     Zl/V,  before  English 

words,  generally  reverses  their  meaning ;  as,  please,  dis-please. 

E  or  ex,  ec,  ef,  out ;  as,  e-ject,  to  cast  out;  ex-tract,  to 
draw  out ;  cc-stacy,  a  raising-out ;  ef-facc,  to  blot  out. 

Extra,  beyond ;  as,  exlra-i'agant,  wandering  beyond. 

In,  il,  ini,  ir,  ik,  into,  against  or  upon;  as,  inspire, 
to  breathe  in  ;  il-Iude,  to  draw  in  by  deceit ;  itn-mure,  to  wall 
in  ;  ir-riiption,  a  breaking-in ;  in-cur,  to  run  into ;  in-diet,  to 
declare  against ;  im-piite,  to  charge  upon.  These  syllables  pre- 
fixed to  nouns  or  adjectives  generally  reverse  their  meaning; 
as,  ir-religion,  ir-rational,  insecure,  insane. 

Inter,  between  ;  as,  intersperse,  to  scatter  betiveen ;  inter- 
jection, something  thrown  in  between. 

Intro,  within;  as,  intro-vert,  to  turn  within 

Ob,  OC,  of,  op,  against;  as,  ob-trtide,  to  thrust  against; 
oc-cur,  to  run  against ;  o/-/er,  to  bring  against ;  op-pose,  to  place 
against;  ob-ject,  to  cast  against. 

Per,  through  or  by;  as,  per-vade,  to  go  through;  per- 
chance, by  chance;  per-cent,  by  the  hundred. 

Post,  after;  as,  post-pone,  to  place  after. 

Prae  or  pre,  before;  as,  presume,  to  take  before ;/;r- 
position,  a  placing-before  or  something  placed  before. 

Pro,  for,  forth  ax  forwards  ;  as,  pro-vide,  to  take  care  for ; 
pro-duce,  to  bring  forth;  pro-trude,  to  thrust  forward. 

Preter,  past  or  beyond;  as,  preter-it,  gone  by;  preter- 
natural, beyond  what  is  natural. 

Re,  again  or  iack ;  as,  re-view,  to  view  again;  re-pel,  to 
drive  back. 

Retro,  back-wards;  as,  retro-cession,  a  going  backwards. 

Se,  aside  or  apart;  as,  se-duce,  to  lead  aside  ;  se-eede,  to  go 
apart. 

Semi,  half;  as,  semi-colon,  half  a  colon;  semi-circle,  half 
a  circle ;  semi-vo-wcl,  half  a  vowel. 

Sub,  sup,  sur,  under,  beneath  ;  as,  sub-terranean,  be- 
neath the  earth;  sub-scribe,  to  write  under;  sup-ply,  to  put 
under;  sur-rcption,  a  creeping-under ;  sub-ject,  cast  under. 

Subter,  beneath  ;  as,  subter-Jluous,  flowing  beneath. 

Super,  over  or  above;  as,  super-Jluous,  flowing  over; 
super-lati~je,  carried  over. 

Trans,  beyond,  over,  to  another  state  or  place;  as,  trans- 
gress, to  pass  beyond  or  over;  trans-mit,  to  send  to  another 
place ;  trans-form,  to  change  to  another  shape. 

Greek  Prefixes. 

A,  an,  denote  privation;  as,  a-nomalous,  wanting  rule; 
an-onymous,  wanting  name;  an-archy,  want  of  government. 

Amphi,  both  oi  t-uto;  as,  amphi-bious,  living  in  two  ele- 
ments. 


Anti,  against;  as,  anti-acid,  against  acidity ;  anti-febrile, 
against  fever;  anti-thesis,  a  placing-against. 

Apo,  apll,  front;  as,  apostrophe,  a  turning-from  ;  aph- 
leresis,  a  taking-from. 

Dia,  through :  as,  dia-gonal,  through  the  corners ;  dia- 
meter, the  measure  through. 

£pi,  epll,  upon ;  as,  epi-demic,  upon  the  people  ;  eph- 
emera, upon  a  day. 

Henii,  half;  as,  hemisphere,  half  a  sphere. 

Hyper,  over;  as,  hyper-critical,  over-critical. 

Hypo,  under;  as,  hypostasis,  substance  or  that  which 
stands  under;  hypo-thesis,  supposition  or  a  placing-under. 

Meta,  beyond,  over,  to  another  state  or  place;  as,  meta- 
morphose, to  change  to  another  shape ;  meta-physics,  beyond 
physics. 

Para,  against ;  para-dox,  something  contrary  to  common 
opinion. 

Peri,  around;  as,  peri-phery,  the  circumference  or  meas- 
ure around. 

Syn,  sym,  S^X,  together  ;  as, syn-tax,  a  placing-together  ; 
sym-pathy,  a  suffering-together;  syl-lable,  what  is  taken  to- 
gether. 

French  Prefixes. 

A  is  a  preposition  of  very  frequent  use  in  French  and  gener- 
ally means  to.  We  have  suggested  that  it  is  probably  the  same 
as  the  Anglo-Saxon  prefix  a.  It  is  found  in  a  few  English  com- 
pounds that  are  of  French  and  not  of  Saxon  origin ;  as,  a-dieu, 
to  God ;  a-bout,  to  the  end  or  turn. 

De,  of  ox  from;  as  in  de-mtire,  of  manners;  de-liver,  to 
ease  from  or  of. 

Demi,  half;  as,  dcmi-man,  half-man ;  demi-god,  half-god. 

En,  em,  in,  into  ox  upon ;  as,  en-chain,  to  hold  in 
chains ;  em-brace,  to  clasp  in  the  arms ;  en-tomb,  to  put  into  a 
tomb ;  em-boss,  to  stud  upon,  ilany  words  have  wavered  be- 
tween the  French  and  the  Latin  orthography  of  this  prefix  ;  as, 
embody  or  imbody,  ensurance  or  insurance,  ensnare  or  insnare, 
enquire  or  inquire. 

Sur,  upon,  over  or  after;  as,  sur-name,  a  name  upon  a 
name;  sur-vey,  to  look  over;  sur-vivc,  to  live  after,  to  over- 
live. 

Suffixes. 

Able,  ibie,  'bit*,  o  enoto  that  may  or  can  be,  worthy  to  be, 
worthy  of;  as,  attainii/'/ir,  ;hat  may  be  attained ;  blama/'/^,  that 
may  be  blamed,  worthy  of  blame  ;  laud<;/</<',  worthy  of  praise. 

Ac  denotes  o/,  pertaining  to  ;  as,  cardial',  pertaining  to  the 
heart ;  elegiac,  pertaining  to  elegy. 

AceoUS  denotes  resembling  or  having  the  nature  of, 
consisting  of;  as,  axeT\aceous,  consisting  of  sand  ;  (oliaccous, 
resembling  leaves,  consisting  of  leaves,  leafy. 

AcioUS  denotes  very  ox  greatly,  accustomed  to  ox  greatly 
addicted  to,  strongly;  as,  audacious,  daring  much,  very  daring; 
capacious,  taking  or  containing  much ;  texiacious,  holding 
strongly  or  firmly. 

Acy  denotes  — ness,  state  of  being,  quality  or  attribute  of 
of/ice  ;  as,  accaxacy,  the  quality  of  being  accurate,  accuralencss; 
zv.xacy,  the  office  of  a  curate  ;  celibarj,  the  state  of  being  un- 
married. 


/■ 


\ 


fv 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Age  denotes  act  of,  — iiii',  staU  or  condition  of  being,  allow- 
ancifor ;  as,  marria^v,  the  act  of  marrying,  the  state  of  being 
married  ;  bondaj't-,  the  state  of  being  in  bonds ;  lo\\age,  a  col- 
lection of  leaves ;  peera^^,  the  condition  or  rank  of  a  peer,  the 
peers  taken  collectively ;  wharfa^<;,allowance  for  use  of  the  wharf. 
Al  denotes  of,  pertaining  to,  befitting,  done  or  made  by;  as, 
celestia/,  of  or  pertaining  to  heaven ;  manua/,  of  the  hand, 
done  by  hand ;  materna/,  of  a  mother,  befitting  a  mother. 

An,  ean,  ian,  in  nouns,  denote  one  w/io,  one  who  belongs 
to.  nalire,  inliabilant  of;  as,  artisa;;,  one  wlio  practices  some 
art;  Christ/a«,  one  who  belongs  to  Christ ;  Europe-aw,  a  native 
or  inhabitant  of  Europe. 

Alice,  ancy,  eilCy,  denote  the  act  of,  — ing,  state  of  I'c- 
ing,  qua/it}'  or  attribute  of;  as,  accepta«cf,  the  act  of  taking  to 
or  of  receiving ;  assistawci',  a  standing  by,  aid ;  constfl»0''  ^ 
standing  together,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  constant ;  inno- 
cence,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  hamiless. 

Ant,  ent,  in  adjectives,  denote  -ing;  as,  militaH/,  fight- 
ing ;  pendent,  hanging. 

Ar  denotes  in  the  form  of,  like,  of,  pertaining  to,  having ; 
as,  angular-,,  having  angles,  in  the  form  of  an  angle;  annular,  in 
the  form  of  a  ring. 

Ar  denotes  also  one  who ;  as,  liar,  one  who  lies. 
Ard  denotes  one  who  has  an  habitual  fault ;  as,  drunkari/, 
one  who  gets  drunk  habitually  ;  sluggan/,  one  who  is  habitually 
sluggish. 

AriOUS  Aenoies pertaining  to ;  as,  gregar/u^/j,  pertaining  to 
flocks. 

Ary  in  nouns  denotes  one  who,  the  thing  that  or  that  which  ; 
as,  adversary  one  who  is  against  or  opposed  to ;  houndary, 
that  which  bounds ;  vagary,  a  thing  or  thought  that  wanders,  a 
whim. 

Ary  in  adjectives  denotes  of  or  pertaining  to,  by;  as, 
epistolary',  pertaining  to  letters,  by  letters. 

Ate  denotes  office;  as,  consulaA-,  the  office  of  consul;  also, 
one  who ;  as,  lega/t-,  one  who  is  sent  as  ambassador. 

Ate  in  adjectives  denotes  having,  — ed  or  — d;  as,  for- 
\xfnate,  having  fortune ;  \VC\\exate,  unlettered. 

Ate  in  verbs  denotes  to  make,  to  give,  to  put,  to  take;  as, 
antiqua/^,  to  make  ancient ;  depopula/f,  to  take  the  people 
from  ;  incarcera/f,  to  put  into  prison. 

Atic  denotes  one  who ;  as,  \\xaatic,  one  who  is  atTlicted  with 
lunacy. 

Cle,  CUle,  llle,  denoXe  little,  minute;  as,  animalc»/i.', a 
minute  animal;  gIob«/f,  a  little  globe. 

Doni  denotes  the  place  in  which  dominion  or  jurisdiction 
is  exercised,  rank,  quality  or  state;  as  AwVedom,  the  place  or 
territory  in  which  a  duke  exercises  jurisdiction,  the  rank  or 
quality  of  a  duke ;  wisdom,  the  quality  or  attitude  of  being  wise. 
Ee  denotes  one  to  whom  something  is  done  or  given,  one 
who;  as,  absentft-,  one  who  is  absent;  truster,  one  to  whom  a 
trust  is  given. 

Eer,  ier,  denotes  one  who  manages  or  has  charge  of,  one 
who  engages  in  or  passes  his  time  in  ;  as,  chariotrer,  one  who 
manages  or  drives  a  chariot ;  mountain^/-,  one  who  passes  his 
time  or  lives  in  the  mountains ;  mutintvr,  one  who  engages  in 
mutiny. 


En,  n,  in  adjectives  derived  from  nouns,  denote  made  of, 
like;  as,  brazcK,  made  of  brass,  like  brass. 

En  in  verbs  mostly  derived  from  adjectives  denotes /«  make; 

as,  dark«;,  to  make  dark. 

Eous  denotes  <-('«j;V/(Hi'- a/,  like,  pertaining  to,   — y;  as, 
ignca«f,  pertaining  to  fire,  consisting  of  fire,  like  fire,  fiery. 
Er  denotes  one  who;  as,  buikkr,  one  who  builds. 
Escence     denotes    state  of  growing  or  becoming,  period 
of  growing  or  becoming;  as,  convaI««»«,  the  state  or  period 
of  growing  entirely  strong. 

Escent  denotes  i'ra-i'/Hf  or  becoming,  somewhat;  as,  rub- 
escent,  growing  red,  somewhat  red. 

Etic  denotes  having ;  as,  paxhetic,  having  feeling. 
Ey  denotes  consisting  of;  as,  clayy,  consisting  of  clay. 
FiC  denotes  making  or  causing;  as,  horriyfc-,  causing  hor- 
ror. 

Ful  denotes  full  of ;  as,  hope/«/,  full  of  hope. 
Fy  denotes /a  make;  as,  forti^',  to  make  strong. 
Hood,  head,  denote  state  of  being,  the  nature  or  distin- 
guishing attitudes  of  being ;    as,  child/;aaa',  state  of  being  a 
child ;  God/;<^aa',  the  attitude  or  nature  of  God,  divinity. 
lac  denotes  one  who  ;  as,  maniac,  one  who  is  mad. 
Ic  denotes  thing,  art,  science;  as,  fabr/c,  the  thing  made; 
log/<-,  the  science  of  words. 

Ic  denotes  also  one  who;  as,  crit/c,  one  who  judges. 
Ic,  ical,  denote  of  pertaining  to,  like ;  as,  angebV,  oran- 
geXical,  of  or  pertaining  to  an  angel,  like  an  angel;  herojV,  or 
herofVa/,  like  a  hero. 

Ice  denotes  quality  or  attitude  of  being ;  as,  avar/Vc,  the 
quality  of  being  avaricious  ;  justly,  the  quality  of  being  just. 

Ician  denotes  one  versed  or  skilled  in  ;  as,  arithmetjV/an, 
one  versed  in  arithmetic ;  musiV:a«,  one  versed  or  skilled  in 
music. 

ICle  denotes  little;  as,  partiV/tr,  a  little  part. 
IC8  denotes  the  science  or  art  of;  as,  tact<Vi,  the  science  or 
art  of  military  arrangement ;  economiVj,  the  science  of  house- 
hold affairs. 

Id  denotes  — ing;  as,  ferviV,  burning,  glowing. 
lie  denotes  of,  pertaining  to,  like,  that  may  or  can  be  easily ; 
as,  docile,  that  may  be  easily  taught ;  juveni7<r,  of  or  pertaining 
to  youth. 

Ine  denotes  one  who ;  as,  mar/wc,  one  who  serves  at  sea  ; 
also,  of  OT pertaining  to,  like;  as,  can!«<-,  pertaining  to  dogs, 
like  dogs ;  crystall/«i',  of  crystal,  like  crystal ;  diviHf,  pertaining 
to  God,  like  a  god. 

Ion  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being;  as,  probat/ow,  a  try- 
ing or  proving;  salvatia«,  the  act  of  saving,  the  state  of  being 
safe  or  saved. 

Is  denotes  act  of,  state  of;  as,  synthes;V,  act  of  putting  to- 
gether; cris;V,  state  or  point  of  judging. 

Isll  in  adjectives  denotes  somewhat,  of  or  belonging  to, 
like;  as  black«/(,  somewhat  black;  SpanfV;,  of  or  belonging  to 
Spain;  child;'/;,  like  a  child. 

Isll  in  verbs  denotes  to  make;  as,  fin(V/;,  to  make  an  end  of. 

Ism  denotes  state  or  quality  of  being,  an  idiom,  doctrine 

or  doctrines  of;  as,  barbar/iw,  the  state  of  being  barbarous ; 

Gallic«/«,  a  French  idiom  ;  Calvin«OT,  the  doctrines  of  Calvin. 

1st  denotes  one  who,  generally  one  who  is  engaged  in  some 

pursuit  or  study ;  as,  vcXist,  one  who  practices  an  art. 


VL 


^ 


\ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


^ 


~A 


Ite  denotes  a  descendant  of,  a  folloiver  of,  a  sectarian  or 
party  leader;  as,  AmalekzVc-,  a  descendant  of  Amaiek;  IIuss;Vt-, 
a  follower  of  John  IIuss. 

Ite  also  denotes //ai'/«^ ;  as,  defin;Vti',  having  bounds;  op- 
posite,  having  opposition. 

Ityj  f  J'j  denote  state  or  quality  of  being ;  as,  2emity, 
the  state  of  being  friends,  friendliness,  friendship  ;  antiquiVj, 
ancientness,  ancient  times. 

Ive  in  nouns  denotes  one  who,  that  nvhich  ;  as,  capt/rv,  one 
who  is  taken  ;  motzVt!',  that  which  moves  or  actuates. 

Ive  in  adjectives  denotes  having  the  power,  disposed  or 
having  the  disposition  ;  as,  adhes/i)!',  having  the  power  of  stick- 
ing to,  having  a  tendency  to  adhere. 

Ize,  or  ise,  denotes  to  make,  to  give,  to  act  or  do  like;  as, 
iexiiMzc,  to  make  fertile ;  author/21',  to  give  authority ;  criticwf, 
to  act  the  judge  or  critic. 

Kiu  denotes  little;  as,  lamb/t;«,  a  little  lamb. 

Less  denotes  free  front,  without ;  as,  carefej,  free  from 
care,  without  care. 

l<et,  et,  denole  little,  young ;  as,  cygnet,  a  young  swan; 
eyelet  (literally,  a  little  eye),  the  hole  or  eye  of  a  needle;  m-aWet, 
a  little  mall. 

Like  denotes  resembling  ;  as,  child/i/v,  resembling  a  child ; 
QoAlike,  like  or  resembling  God. 

Ling  denotes  little,  young ;  as,  found//«^,  a  little  child 
found  without  parent  or  owner;  gosling,  a  little  or  very  young 
goose. 

Ly  in  adjectives  denotes  like  ;  as,  beast/j',  like  a  beast. 

Ly  in  adverbs  denotes  in  a  manner  or  way ;  as,  joyful/y,  in 
a  joyful  manner. 

Ment  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being,  that  which  ;  as, 
accomplishw^w/,  the  act  of  accomplishing,  the  state  of  being 
accomplished;  payment,  the  act  of  paying,  that  which  is  paid. 

Mony  denotes  state  of  being,  quality  of  being,  that 
which;  as,  z.a\mony,  the  quality  of  being  sharp  or  acrid;  mat- 
x'lmony,  the  state  of  being  a  mother  or  wife,  marriage ;  patri- 
mony,  that  which  is  inherited  from  a  father. 

Old,  or  Oidal,  denotes  having  the  form  or  appearance  of , 
resembling ;  as,  ovoid,  or  ovoidal,  having  the  form  of  an  egg; 
varioloid',  a  disease  resembling  small-pox. 

Ness  denotes  state  of  being,  quality  or  attribute  of  being; 
as,  bald«m,  the  state  of  being  bald;  bold«m,  the  quality  or 
attribute  of  being  bold. 

Or  denotes  one  who;  also,  the  act  of,  sensation  or  emotion, 
that  ■which  causes  or  brings  sensation;  as,  auditor,  one  who 
he.irs,  a  hearer;  color,  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  eye,  that 
which  causes  the  sensation  of  color ;  favar,  the  act  of  favoring, 
that  which  causes  or  brings  favor ;  splendor,  brightness. 

Dry  in  nouns  denotes  the  place  or  thing  where;  as,  axmory, 
the  place  where  arms  are  kept. 

Ory  in  adjectives  &ex\.o\.e?,  giving,  making  or  causing, per- 
taining to;  as,  adulati7;-_v,  giving  flattery,  flattering;  ■MwAory, 
pertaining  to  love  or  lovers,  causing  love. 

Osc  dcnoieifillof;  as,  iocose,  full  of  jokes. 

Ous  denotes  full  of,  consisting  of;  as,  cartilaginoaj-,  con- 
sisting of  cartilage,  like  cartilage  ;  ^-imoious,  fearful,  fearing. 

Ry  denotes  state  or  quality  of/ieing,  the  art  or  practice  of, 
the  place  where,  things  of  a  certain  kind  or  class  taken  collect- 


ively; as,  gallantrj',  the  quality  or  attribute  of  being  gallant, 
gallantness,  nobleness,  bravery;  slavery',  the  state  of  a  slave; 
brewer,)',  the  place  where  beer  is  brewed ;  cutlerj',  knives 
and  other  cutting  instruments  taken  collectively  ;  also,  the  art  or 
business  of  a  cutler. 

Sllip  denotes  office  of,  state  or  relation  of;  as,  eKexVship, 
the  office  of  clerk ;  ine-a&ship,  the  state  or  relation  of  a  friend. 

Some  Aenoies  full  of,  making  or  causing;  as,  blithe^ow:^, 
full  of  gayety,  causing  gayety  or  blitheness  ;  wearijowt',  making 
weary. 

Ster  denotes  one  that ;  as,  songster,  one  that  sings  songs. 

T  denotes  a  thing  done;  as,  gif/,  a  thing  given;  draf/,  a 
drawing;  join/,  a  joining. 

Til  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being,  that  -bhich;  as, 
bread///,  broadness  ;  gvovith,  growing  or  the  act  of  growing, 
that  which  is  growing,  increase  ;  weal///,  the  state  of  being  well 
off  or  rich,  that  which  makes  rich. 

Tude,  or  lide,  denotes  • — ness ;  as,  alti/m/t',  highness, 
height;  solicit«i/e\  anxiousness,  anxiety. 

llleilt,  olent  or  lent  denotes /«// o/,- as,  fraud;</tf«/, 
full  of  fraud,  deceitful,  dishonest;  pesti/«//,  full  of  plague  or 
pestilence,  corrupt,  troublesome ;  \\olent,  full  of  force  or  vio- 
lence. 

ITf  e  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being,  that  which-;  as,  creat- 
ure,  that  which  is  created ;  curvsXitre,  a  bending;  rapture,  the 
state  of  being  carried  away  (with  joy) ;  seizure,  the  act  of  seiz- 
ing. 

^Vai'd  denotes  towards ;  as,  \iomeward,  towards  home. 

V  in  nouns  denotes  the  state  or  quality  of  being  ;  as,  anarchj, 
the  state  of  being  without  government;  lithograph^',  engraving 
on  stone. 

Y  in  adjectives  formed  by  adding  this  suffix  to  nouns  denotes 
full  of,  consisting  of,  lite;  as,  rockj',  full  of  rocks,  like  a  rock; 
sand_y,  full  of  sand,  consisting  of  sand,  like  sand. 


SPELLING. 


Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by 
tlicir  proper  letters. 

Before  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  lit- 
tle attention  /was  paid  to  the  mode  of  spelling 
words  either  in  Anglo-Saxon  or  the  English 
language,  and,  the  orthography  of  most  of  the 
words  being  wholly  unsettled,  every  writer,  hav- 
ing no  guide  but  his  own  ear,  was  at  liberty  to 
follow  his  own  fancy  or  judgment.  In  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  the  early  English 
authors  almost  all  the  words  are  spelled  in  more 
than  one  way,  and  for  a  long  time  subsequent  to 
the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  the  spelling 
of  the  English  language  remained  in  a  very  un- 


^ 


\ 


\ 


-A 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


23 


settled  state.  As  an  illustration  of  this  unset- 
tled state,  nearly  a  century  after  this  invention, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  by  Tindale,  who  was  dis- 
tinguished for  talents  and  learning,  the  pronoun 
it  is  spelled  in  no  less  than  eight  different  ways, 
as  follows:  it,  itt,yt,ytt,  liitjiitt,  hytjiytt ;  and  in 
some  cases  four  or  five  different  modes  are  to 
be  found  in  the  same  chapter. 

The  spelling  of  the  language  has  been  under- 
going continual  changes  from  the  time  of  its 
first  formation  to  the  present  day,  although  for 
a  century  or  upwards  it  may  be  regarded  as 
having  assumed  a  comparatively  settled  form. 

The  dictionary  of  Samuel  Jehnson,  first  pub- 
lished in  1755,  has  contributed  more  than  any 
work  written  before  or  since  to  introduce  some- 
thing like  consistency  into  English  orthography, 
and  succeeding  lexicographers  have  followed  in 
his  footsteps. 

Rules  for  Spelling. 

Monosyllables  ending  \nf,  I  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  the  final  consonant;  as,  staff,  mill,  pass;  except  three 
in  /,  viz.  :  clef,  if,  of;  four  in  /;  Intl,  nul,  sal,  sol ;  and  eleven 
in  j;   as, gas,  has,  'was, yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus, pus. 

Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  f,  I  or  s  do  not 
double  the  final  letter ;  except  alrl>,  ebb,  add,  odd,  egg,  inn,  err, 
burr,  purr,  yarr,  butt,  bttzz,fuzz,  and  some  proper  names. 

Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when 
they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or 
by  a  vowel  after  qn,  double  their  final  consonant  before  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  that  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  rob,  robber;  per- 
mit, permitting ;  acquit,  acquittal,  acquitting.  X,  being  equiv- 
alent to  ks,  is  never  doubled. 

.\  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
or  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should  remain 
single  before  an  additional  syllable;  as,  toil,  toiling ;  visit, 
visited ;  general,  generalize. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  preserve  it  double  be- 
fore any  additional  termination  not  beginning  with  the  same 
letter;  as  in  the  following  derivatives :  seeing,  blissful,  oddly, 
hilly,  stiffness,  agreeable.  The  irregular  words /led,  sold,  told, 
diuelt,  spelt,  spilt,  shall,  wilt,  blest,  past,  and  the  derivatives  from 
the  viord  pontiff,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

The  final  d  mute  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as, rate, 
ratable ;  force,  forcible ;  rave,  raving;  eye,  eying.  Words  end- 
ing in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  able  or  ous,  to  preserve  the 
soft  sound  off  and^;  a.%, peace, peaceable ;  change,  changeable ; 
outrage,  outrageous. 


The  final  tr  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  retained  before 
an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  pale, 
paleness.  When  the  e  is  jjreceded  by  a  vowel  it  is  sometimes 
omitted ;  as,  true,  truly ;  awe,  awful;  and  sometimes  retained ; 
as,  rue,  rueful ;  shoe,  shoeless. 

The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, is  changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination ;  as, 
merry,  merrier,  merriest,  merrily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitied, 
pities,  pitiful.  Before  ing,  y  is  retained  to  prevent  the  doub- 
ling of  i;  as,  pity,  pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and 
change  the  i  into  y  for  the  same  reason ;  as,  die,  dying.  When 
a  vowel  precedes,  y  should  not  be  changed;  as,  day,  days, 
money,  moneys. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthography  of  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them;  as,  hereof,  horseman,  uphill.  In 
permanent  compounds  the  words  full  and  a// drop  one  /;  as, 
handful,  careful,  always,  witlial ;  in  others  they  retain  both; 
S.S,  full-eyed,  all-wise. 

I  before  e,  except  after  c,  is  a  rule  worth  rememljering  in  such 
words  as  bcliez'e,  conceive,  deceive. 

In  derivatives  formeil  from  words  ending  in  c  by  adding  a 
termination  beginning  with  e,  i  or  y,  the  letter  k  is  inserted  after 
the  e  ;  as,  zinc,  zincky ;  colic,  colicky:  traffic,  traffic  ky. 

Verbs  of  one  syllable  ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel  (as,  flan),  and  verbs  of  two  or  more  syllables 
ending  in  the  same  manner  and  having  the  accent  on  the  last 
syllable  (as,  regret),  double  the  final  consonant  of  the  verb  on 
assuming  an  additional  syllable;  m, plan, planned ;  regret,  re- 
gretted. But  if  a  dipthong  precedes  the  last  consonant,  or 
the  last  syllable  is  not  accented,  then  the  consonant  is  not 
doubled  ;  as  f'in,  joined ;  suffer,  suffered. 

REFORMED  SPELLING. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  a  re- 
form in  the  mode  of  spelling,  and  many  philo- 
logical associations  have  earnestly  advocated  a 
system  of  phonetic  orthography,  or  spelling  by 
sound.  The  English  language  contains  over 
100,000  words,  although  in  ordinary  conversation 
only  from  3,000  to  5,000  are  used.  Few  writers 
or  speakers  use  more  than  15,000.  Shakspere 
is  said  to  have  only  used  24,000,  Milton  17,000, 
and  in  the  Bible,  exclusive  of  the  proper  names, 
there  are  said  to  be  only  7,000  words.  The 
mixed  origin  of  the  English  language,  with  its 
constant  modifications,  will  in  some  degree  ac- 
count for  the  striking  anomalies  which  appear 
in  our  spelling.  Signs  representing  sounds 
were  multiplied  especially  by  the  introduction 
of  the  printer's  art,  and  thus  letters  or  combina- 
tions of  letters  for  a  single  sound  occur  fre- 
quently.    Many  plans  have  been  devised  at  dif- 


/. 


-o  'V 


>>_. 


24 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


/ 


fcrent  times,  especially  in  late  years,  for  reduc- 
ing the  spelling  of  words  to  absolute  uniformity 
and  the  greatest  simplicity  by  a  complete  re- 
form in  the  method  of  representing  the  sounds 
of  words  by  written  characters,  that  is,  by  em- 
ploying a  new  alphabet  in  which  each  sign 
stands  for  one,  and  only  one,  definite  sound,  and 
each  sound  is  represented  by  one  and  only  one 
character.  The  American  Philological  Associa- 
tion took  up  the  matter  in  1875,  and  in  the  suc- 
ceeding year  an  international  convention  was 
held  and  a  Spelling  Reform  Association  organiz- 
ed. Meetings  were  held  by  several  educational 
societies  both  in  England  and  this  country,  urg- 
ing on  the  work  of  reform,  but  after  all  there 
has  really  been  very  little  practical  result.  The 
Spelling  Reform  Association  adopted  a  phonetic 
alphabet  on  the  principles  enumerated  above. 
The  association  advocated  the  dropping  of  silent 
letters  on  the  score  of  economy,  etc.,  and  form- 
ulated the  following  five  rules  : 

1.  Use  e  for  ea  when  ecjuiv.ilent  to  short  c. 

2.  Omit  silent  ^  after  a  diphthong  or  a  short  vowel,  unless 
preceded  by  o  or  g. 

3.  Usey  for///. 

4.  Omit  one  letter  of  .a  double  consonant,  unless  both  are 
pronounced. 

5.  Use  /  instead  of  (v/when  it  represents  the  sound. 

Some  of  the  newspapers  then  began  advocat- 
ing reform  in  spelling,  and  in  1879  the  Chicago 
TribiDie  appeared  in  improved  orthography,  and 
was  followed  by  the  Home  Journal  of  New  York 
and  other  papers.  The  rules  adopted  by  these 
journals  for  their  amended  spelhng  were  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Drop  lie  at  the  end  of  words  XxVadialogne,  (atalogtu,  etc., 
where  the  preceding  vowel  is  short.  Thus  spell  demagog,  pcd- 
"SOS'  'pilog,  etc.  Change  longiic  for  tung.  When  the  preced- 
ing vowel  is  long,  as  \\\  prorogue,  vogii,;  rogue,  retain  final  let- 
ters as  at  present. 

2.  Drop  final  e  in  such  words  as  definite,  indefinite,  favorite, 
where  the  preceding  vowel  is  short.  Thus  spell  opposil,  liypo- 
eril,  preterit.     When  the  jireceding  vowel  is  long,  as  in /<?///«■, 

finite,  unite,  write,  etc.,  retain  present  form  unchanged. 

3.  Drop  final  te  in  words  like  ijuartetle,  coquette,  cigarette. 
Tims  spell  rosct,  epaulet,  gazet,  vedet. 

4.  Droj)  the  final  me  in  words  like  programme.  Thus  spell 
program,  oriflam,  gram,  etc. 

5.  Change///  for/  in  works  like  phantom,  telegraph, phase, 
Thus  spell  alfal'ct,  paragraf,filosofy,fonelic,fotograf,  etc. 

r.S.  No  change  in  proper  names. 


The  newspapers,  however,  have  not  continued 
to  follow  these  rules,  and  in  most  cases  have 
lapsed  into  the  accustomed  form  of  spelling,  and 
the  present  outlook  is  not  very  flattering  for  the 
universal  introduction  of  phonetic  or  reformed 
spelling. 

^       FORMS  OF  LETTERS.      |r 

Different  sorts  of  types  or  styles  of  letters  are  employed  in  the 
English  language.  Generally  the  Roman  characters  are  used ; 
sometimes  the  Italic,  and  occasionally  the  Old  English.  In 
writing  we  use  the  Script. 

Roman.         Italic. 


m   CEnglisI).        (^ 


The  letters  have  severally  two  forms,  by  which  they  are  dis- 
tinguished, as  capitals  and  small  letters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work ;  capitals 
are  used  for  the  sake  of  eminence  and  distinction. 

The  improper  use  of  capitals  or  their  omission  is  a  common 
fault  in  composition,  and  should  be  guarded  against.  Sometimes 
more  capitals  are  used  than  are  necessary.  The  great  number 
of  words  begin  nearly  all  with  small  letters.  When  capitals  are 
to  be  used  is  explained  in  the  following  rules. 


■is 


-^r-^^P 


^  <I-T1b  U^e  of  Capital  Letter^^  g 

Begin  with  a  capital : 

1.  Every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry. 

E.xnmp/t-s. — Forgt-t  others'  faults.  How  bright  the  d;iy  !  \\'hat  is 
fiimc'    Custom  forms  us  all. 

"Timi:  is  the  warp  of  life ;  oh  !  tell 
The  young-,  the  fair,  to  weave  it  well." 

2.  All  proper  nouns,  and  titles  of  office,  honor  and  respect. 
ICxnm/'/t-s. — Henry  the  I'owler,  Emperor  of  Germany;  Kohcrt  Roe, 

Esquire;  ills  Honor  the  Mayor;  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning;  the 
Red  River;  Union  Square;  the  Superior  Court  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

3.  All  adjectives  formed  from  proper  names. 
Examples. — African,    Italian,  Welsh,    Ciceronian. 
Also  adjectives  denoting  a  sect  or  religion. 
.^A'<;w/'/e*^.— Methodist,  Puritan,  Catholic. 

4.  Common  nouns,  where  personified  in  a  direct  and  lively 
manner;  not  where  sex  is  merely  attributed  to  an  inanimate 
object. 

Examples. — Then  War  waves  his  ensanguined  sword,  and  fair 
/•(■Oft*  flees  sighing  to  soiTie  happier  land.  But,  the  sun  pursues  his 
fiery  course  ;  the  tiiooit  sheds  her  silvery  beams. 

5.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity.  The  personal  pronouns 
T/tou  and  //e  standing  for  His  name  are  sometimes  cap- 
italized. 

Exainpirs. — The  Almighty;  the  King  of  kings;  the  Eternal  Es- 
sence; Jehovah;  the  Supreme  Being;  our  Father. 


\ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Ill  the  standard  editions  of  the  Bible,  the  pronouns,  when 
referring  to  God,  are  never  capitalized,  not  even  in  forms 
of  direct  address  to  the  Deity. 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  complete  quoted  sentence  not  intro- 
duced by  thai,  if  or  any  other  conjunction. 

Examf>Us.— Thomson  says,  "Success  makes  villains  honest.**  But, 
Thomson  says  that  success  makes  villains  honest. 

7.  Every  noun,  adjective  and  verb  in  the  title  of  books  and 
headings  of  chapters. 

Examf/t-s. —  Ilutler's  "Treatise  on  the  History  of  Ancient  Philoso- 
phy ; "  Cousins*  "Lectures  on  the  True,  the  Beautiful  and  the  Good.*' 

8.  Words  that  denote  the  leading  subjects  of  chapters,  arti- 
cles or  paragraphs. 

A  word  defined,  for  instance,  may  commence  with  a  capital. 
Do  not  introduce  capitals  too  freely  under  this  rule.  When  in 
doubt  use  a  small  letter. 

9.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  t*. 

10.  Words  denoting  great  events,  eras  of  history,  noted 
written  instruments,  extraordinary  jihysical  phenomena  and  the 
like. 

Examplfs. — The  Creation;  the  Confusion  of  I-anjjuages  ;  the  Kes- 
toration ;  the  Dark  Ages;  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  the 
Aurora  Borealis. 

11.  Letters  standing  for  words  are  generally  written  as 
capitals. 

Example. — A.D.  for  Anno  Domini,  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

12.  The  months  of  the  year,  and  the  days  of  the  week.  The 
names  of  the  seasons,  however,  should  not  generally  be  cap- 
italized, although  it  is  customary  with  some  authors. 

13.  The  words  North,  South,  East  and  West,  and  their  com- 
pounds, as  Northwest,  when  they  signify  a  section  of  country. 
Also  adjectives  derived  therefrom.  This  class  of  words  should 
not  be  capitalized,  however,  when  merely  denoting  direction. 


PUNCTUATION. 


■'d- 


Punctuatiou  is  the  art  of  dividing  compo- 
sition by  points  or  stops  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  more  clearly  the  sense  and  relation  of 
the  words,  and  of  noting  the  different  pauses 
and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

Although  a  knowledge  of  Punctuation  is  necessary  to  the 
clear  expression  of  thought  in  writing,  there  are  comparatively 
few  who  have  mastered  it,  even  among  educated  people.  That 
it  is  important  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence: 

The  company  consisted  of  Mr.  Jones  a  lawyer  his  brother  a  soldier 
Mr.  Black  a  New  Yorker  his  sister  and  a  boy. 

Without  punctuation  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  were 
in  the  company,  or  what  their  relationship  was.  If  commas  are 
inserted  it  will  appear  that  the  company  comprised  eight 
people  : 

The  company  consisted  of  Mr.  Jones,  a  lawyer,  his  brother,  a  sol- 
dier, Mr.  Black,  a  New  Yorker,  his  sister  and  a  boy. 

By  inserting  semicolons  in  the  place  of  some  of  the  commas 
the  number  of  the  company  is  reduced  to  five,  as  follows : 


The  company  consisted  of  Mr.  J  ones,  a  lawyer ;  his  brother,  asoldier ; 
Mr.  Black,  a  New  Yorker ;  his  sister  and  a  l>oy. 

By  otherwise  punctuating  it  various  changes  would  be  made. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  ludicrous  errors  which  might  occur 
from  incorrect  punctuation  the  following  will  serve: 

Woman,  without  her  man,  would  be  a  savage. 

The  proper  sense  and  punctuation  is: 

Woman — without  her,  man  would  be  a  savage. 

Such  instances  could  be  multiplied  indelliiitcly. 

Usage,  which  is  really  the  foundation  for  all  rules  of  punc- 
tuation as  well  as  of  grammar,  authorizes  the  three  following 
methods  of  punctuating  the  same  sentence.  In  the  present 
work  the  method  indicated  in  the  first  sentence  has  been 
followed  : 

Rank,  fame  and  honor  are  often  undeserved. 

Rank,  fame,  and  honor  arc  often  undeserved. 

Rank,  fame,  and  honor,  are  often  undeserved. 

Punctuation  Points. 

The  Punctuation  Points  are  as  follows : 


Period 

Paragraph 

IT 

Colon 

Semicolon 

Comniii 

: 

Hrace 

Acute  Accent 

! 

Intcrrojjation  Point 
Exclamation  Point 
Dash 

? 

! 

Grave  Accent 

Circumflex  Accent 
Tilde,  nr  C'ircumllex 

.. 

Parentheses 

Brackets 

0 
[] 

The  Loiijf,  or  Macron 
The  Short,  or  IJrcve 

- 

Hyphen 

Quotation  Marks 
Apostrophe 

Diwrcsis 
Cedill.i 

Asterisk 

DaKK^T.  oi"  Ohelisk 

9 

f 

Ellipsis    j 

«      »      *      ♦ 

Double  Dagger 

t 

Caret 

A 

Section 

s 

Index 

*d- 

Parallel 

Rules  for  Punctuation. 

The  Period  must  be  placed  after  every  declarative  ami 
imperative  sentence  and  every  abbreviated  word. 

,E.i<j/»//«.— Obey  your  parents.  Virtue  is  the  only  nobility.  We 
write  Jas.  for  James,  N.  Y.  for  New  York,  No.  for  number,  George  I. 
for  George  the  First. 

A  period  after  an  abbreviation  does  not  take  the  i)lace  of 
other  points.  Punctuate  just  as  if  the  word  were  not  abbrevi- 
ated. But  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  closing  with  an  abbreviation 
only  one  period  must  be  used. 

Example.— "Go^o  the  P.  O.,  I  tell  you,  and  ask  for  a  U-ller  f.ir  II. 
Rob,  Jr.,M.  D.** 

A  nickname  which  is  not  really  an  abbreviation  is  not  followed 

by  a  period. 

Examples.— T>a.\c  Bidwcll ;  Sam  Slirk. 

Tlie  Interrogation  Point  must  be  placed  after 
every  interrogative  sentence,  member  and  clause  ;  also  after  the 
interjections  eh  and  hey  implying  a  question. 

/:.v,i«;/»/.-.— Has  the  air  weight?    Air  has  weight;  do  you  not  believe 

it?    You  thought  it  would  rain,  eh? 

Tiie  Exclamation  Point  should  be  placed  after 
every  exclamatory  sentence,  member,  cl.ause  and  expression. 

Exnmple.t.—llnw  disgusting  is  vice  !  Life  is  short ;  how  careful  we 
should  be  to  use  it  aright  I     l''or  shame  I 

An  exclamation  point  must  also  be  placed  after  every  inter- 


/ 


26 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


jection  except  O,  eh    and  hey,  unless  very  closely  connected 
with  other  words. 
Example. — .\h  !  who  could  have  foreseen  it?     Pshaw  !  3-ou  are  trifling. 

Tlie  Colon  must  be  placed  between  'the  great  divisions 
of  sentences,  when  minor  divisions  occur  that  are  separated  by 
semicolons. 

Example. — Man  has  effected  wonders ;  he  is  every  day  advancing^  in 
knowledge  and  power:  yet,  surpassed  by  nature  in  even  her  hum- 
blest efforts,  lie  can  not  so  much  as  make  a  blade  of  grass. 

A  colon  must  also  be  placed  before  a  formal  enumeration  of 
particulars,  or  a  direct  quotation,  referred  to  by  the  w^ords  thus, 
following,  as folloivs,  this,  these,  etc. 

Example, — There  is  much  justice  in  this  warning  of  Lavater:  "Be- 
ware of  him  who  hates  the  laugh  of  a  child." 

K  formal  enumeration  is  one  in  which  the  \\o\<i%  first,  second- 
ly, etc.,  or  similar  terms,  are  introduced.  These  words  are  set 
off  with  the  comma,  the  particulars  are  separated  by  the  semi- 
colon, and  before  the  whole  enumeration  a  colon  must  be  placed. 

Example. — There  were  fourgreat  empires  in  ancient  times :  first,  the 
Assyrian;  second,  the  Persian;  third,  the  ^Macedonian ;  fourth,  the 
Roman. 

T5sc  Semicolon  must  be  placed  between  the  members 
of  compound  sentences,  unless  the  connection  is  exceedingly 
close. 

Example. — The  wheel  of  fortune  is  ever  turning;  who  can  say,  "I 
shall  be  uppermost  to-morrow".' 

If  the  members  are  very  short  and  the  connection  is  close, 
the  comma  may  be  used  instead  of  the  sem;colon. 

Example. — ^lan  proposes,  but  God  disposes. 

A  semicolon  must  be  placed  between  the  great  divisions  of 
sentences,  when  minor  divisions  occur  that  are  separated  by 
comm.as. 

Examples. — Plato  called  beauty  a  privilege  of  nature;  Theocritus,  a 
delightful  prejudice. 

A  semicolon  should  be  placed  before  as  when  it  introduces 
an  example. 

Example. — .\n  adjective  is  a  word  which  qualifies  a  noun;  as,  a 
white  hat. 

TUe  Comma.  Adjuncts  and  clauses,  not  essential  to 
the  meaning  of  a  sentence  or  modifying  the  whole  proposition, 
are  set  off  with  a  comma  on  each  side  when  introduced  between 
a  subject  and  its  verb,  or  other  parts  that  are  closely  connected. 
At  the  commencement  or  end  of  a  sentence,  such  adjuncts 
and  clauses  are  set  off  with  a  comma  after  or  before  them,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Example.  — The  bones  of  birds,  in  a  word,  combine  strength  with 
lightness  in  a  remarkable  degree.  Blankets,  which  derived  their 
name  from  Thomas  Blanquct,  were  introduced  into  EngLand  in  1340. 
By  the  w-ay,  gunpowder  was  first  known  to  the  Chinese.  No  ms^n  can 
be  an  atheist,  if  he  will  only  examine  his  ot\-n  structure. 

Subjects  introduced  by  as  well  as,  and  not,  etc.,  fall  under  this 
rule. 

Example. — Toledo,  as  well  as  Damascus,  was  noted  for  its  sword 
blades. 

Single  words  relating  to  a  whole  proposition,  and  all  vocative 
expressions,  are  also  set  off  with  the  comma. 

Examples. — Galileo,  accordingly,  was  imprisoned.  Smile,  O  For- 
tune, smile  on  our  attempt. 

No  comma  must  be  placed  between  restrictive  adjuncts  or 
clauses  and  that  which  they  restrict. 

Examples.— \\\  must  pay  the  debt  0/ nature.  All  that  glitters  is  not 
gold.    The  man  zalio plants  tlu-Jleld  should  reap  the  harvest. 


A  noun  in  apposition,  modified  by  an  adjunct  or  adjective,  is 
generally,  with  its  modifiers,  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Example. — Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  was  defeated  by  Octavius. 

A  comma  should  be  placed  between  short  members  of  com- 
pound sentences,  connected  by  and,  but,  or,  nor,  because, 
■whereas  and  other  conjunctions. 

Example. — Beauty  dazzles,  but  ami.ability  charms. 

A  comma  must  also  be  placed  before  a  conjunction  connect- 
ing the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate,  unless  they  are  very 
short  and  so  closely  connected  that  no  point  is  admissible. 

Example. — The  sun  shines  on  all,  even  the  wicked  and  ungrateful. 

A  comma  must  be  placed  before  or  introducing  an  etjuiva- 
lent,  or  a  clause  defining  the  writer's  meaning. 

Example. — Spelter,  or  zinc,  comes  chiefly  from  Germany. 

A  comma  is  required  by  some  autliorities  on  the  subject  of 
Punctuation  before  and,  or  and  nor  preceding  the  last  of  a 
scries  of  clauses,  or  words  that  are  the  same  part  of  speech  and 
in  the  same  construction. 

Example. — Sunshine,  cloud,  and  storm,  all  arc  sent  for  some  wise 
purpose. 

When,  to  avoid  repetition,  and,  or,  nor,  or  a  verb  previously 
used,  is  omitted,  a  comma  takes  its  place. 

Examples. — Tin  is  found  in  England,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Malacca 
and  Banca.  [Instead  of  saying  England  and  Bohemia  and  Saxony 
a«rf  Malacca,  to  avoid  repetition  we  omit  and,  and  a  comma  takes  its 
place.]  ^Methusaleh  was  the  oldest  man;  Samson,  the  strongest. 
]_\Vas  is  omitted  after  Samson,  and  a  comma  takes  its  place] 

Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair. 

Example. — Joy  and  sorrow,  cloud  and  sunshine,  are  alike  sent  for 
our  benefit. 

Words  repeated  for  the  sake  of  their  emphasis  must  be  set 
off  with  their  adjuncts,  if  they  have  any,  by  the  comma. 

Example.— TruXh,  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  will  satisfy  the 
candid  enquirer. 

A  good  general  rule  for  the  use  of  commas,  as,  in  fact  of 
other  marks  for  punctuation,  is:  Use  them  when  the  meaning  is 
thereby  made  clearer. 

Tlie  Dasll  is  used  to  denote : 

1.  A  break  in  the  construction. 
Example. — Glory — what  is  it? 

2.  A  transition  in  the  sentiment  from  grave  to  humorous. 
E.vample. — London  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  buildings,  its  exten- 
sive shipping,  and— its  dexterous  pick-pockets. 

3.  A  sudden  interruption. 

Example. — "  You  know  my  feelings  ;  you  know — "  "  Hold  !  "  inter- 
rupted my  friend. 

4.  Hesitation. 

£jraw//t'.— Such  a  man  is  a — .a — I  know  not  what  to  call  him. 

5.  An  abrupt  or  exclamatory  repetition. 

Example. — Such  was  the  testimony  of  Solomon — Solomon  who  had 
all  the  pleasures  of  the  world  at  his  command. 

A  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters, 

figures  or  words. 

Example.— In  the  year  iS — ,  I  stopped  over  night  at  the  village  of 
G . 

A  dash  after  other  points  makes  them  indicate  a  greater  de- 
gree of  separation  than  they  generally  denote. 

Parentheses.  Marks  of  Parentheses  are  used  to  enclose 
words  which  explain,  modify  or  add  to  the  main  proposition, 
when  so  introduced  as  to  break  the  connection  between  de- 
pendent parts  and  interfere  with  the  harmonious  flow. 

Example.— The  Saxons  (for  they  descended  from  the  ancient  Sacx) 
retained  for  centuries  the  energy  and  morality  of  their  ancestors. 


-V. 


V 


/ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


27 


If  no  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence 
in  case  tliere  were  no  parenthesis,  then  no  points  should  be 
used  at  that  place  in  addition  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

ExampU-, — lie  (the  aforesaid  defendant)  was  ignorant  of  this  matter. 

If  a  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence, 
in  case  no  parenthesis  were  there,  then,  when  the  parenthesis  is 
inserted,  said  point  should  be  also  inserted,  and  should  be 
placed  after  the  second  mark  of  parenthesis. 

Examf'U'. — Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the 
proud  man  himself),  is  the  most  ordinary  S[>ring:  of  action. 

When  a  complete  sentence  or  complete  sentences  are  enclos- 
ed in  marks  of  parenthesis,  they  should  be  punctuated  the  same 
as  if  not  thus  enclosed,  and  the  last  point  of  punctuation  should 
come  before  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis. 

Brackets.  Brackets  are  used  principally  in  quoted  pas- 
sages, to  enclose  words  improperly  omitted  or  added  by  way 
of  correction,  observation  or  explanation. 

ExampU. — She  is  weary  with  [of]  life. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  points  before  and  after  the  brackets, 
and  the  punctuation  of  any  sentence  or  clause  within  the  brack- 
ets, the  same  rules  apply  that  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the 
marks  of  parenthesis. 

The  Apostroplie  denotes  the  omission  of  a  letter  or 
letters,  and  the  possessive  case  of  nouns. 

Examples. — 'TV*.?  for  //  is;  e'en  for  even;  don't  for  do  not;  o'clock  for 
on  [the]  clock.  So  in  the  possessive:  hero's^  Charles'^  men's^  heroes', 
children's. 

Pronouns  never  take  the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  case. 

Tlie  Hyplieu  is  used  to  connect  the  elements  of  a  com- 
pound word,  when  each  retains  its  own  accent. 

Example. — Castle-builder,  father-in-law. 

The  hyphen  is  also  used  after  a  complete  syllable  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  to  connect  the  parts  of  a  divided  word ;  also  to  de- 
note that  the  final  vowel  of  a  prefix  does  not  form  a  diphthong 
with  the  first  vowel  of  a  primitive ;  but  in  this  latter  case  a  mark 
of  dicercsis  is  more  appropriate. 

Example. — Pre -engagement,  re-establish  [preengagement,  reestab- 
lish.] 

Quotation  Points  are  used  to  enclose  words  quoted 
from  an  author  or  speaker,  or  represented  in  narrative  as  em- 
ployed in  dialogue. 

Example. — "Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth." 

When  the  substance  merely  is  given,  and  not  the  exact  words, 
quotation  points  are  unnecessary. 

Matter  within  quotation  points  is  to  be  punctuated  just  as  if 
it  stood  in  any  other  position. 

When  quotation  points  are  needed  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
they  come  after  whatever  other  point  is  required  there  if  this 
point  applies  to  the  quotation  alone,  but  before  this  point  if  it 
applies  to  the  whole  sentence  and  not  exclusively  to  the  quo- 
tation. 

Example. — Pilate  asked, "What  is  truth?"  Where  now  is  the  "man 
of  destiny".^ 

When  a  quotation  encloses  within  it  another  quotation,  the 
external  quotation  has  the  double  marks,  and  the  one  included 
has  only  the  single  marks. 

Example. — It  has  been  well  said,  "The  cnminand,  'Thou  shall  not 
kill,'  forbids  many  crimes  besides  that  of  murder." 

If  the  enclosed  or  secondary  quotation  ends  a  sentence,  three 
apostrophes  will  there  come  together,  of  which  the  first  will  be- 
long to  the  enclosed  quotation,  and  the  other  two  to  the  orig- 


inal. When  an  enclosed  quotation  itself  contains  words  or 
phrases  that  are  quoted,  those  words  or  phrases  have  the  double 
marks. 

Example. — "French  says,  'What  a  lesson  the  word  "diligence"  con- 
tains 1' " 

WHien  the  sentence  becomes  more  involved  than  this,  the  ad- 
ditional marks  of  quotation  would  create  confusion,  and  may 
therefore  be  omitted.  • 

In  some  publications  the  order  of  single  and  double  quota- 
tions is  inverted,  single  quotation  marks  being  used  where  cus- 
tom demands  double  marks,  and  quotations  within  quotations 
being  indicated  by  double  marks. 

The  Pauses. 

The  pauses  that  are  made  in  the  natural  flow  of  speech  have 
in  reality  no  definite  and  invariable  proportions.  Children  are 
often  told  to  pause  at  a  comma  while  they  count  one;  at  a  semi- 
colon, one,  two ;  at  a  colon,  one,  two,  three ;  at  a  period,  one, 
two,  three,  four.  This  may  be  of  some  use,  as  teaching  them 
to  observe  these  stops  that  they  may  catch  the  sense;  but  the 
standard  itself  is  variable,  and  so  are  the  times  which  good 
sense  gives  to  the  points.  As  a  final  stop,  the  period  is  im- 
measurable. The  following  general  directions  are  as  good  as 
any  that  can  be  given : 

The  comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause ;  the  semicolon,  a 
pause  double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  colon,  a  pause  double 
that  of  the  semi-colon  ;  and  the  period,  or  full-stop,  a  pause 
double  that  of  the  colon.  The  pauses  required  by  the  other 
marks  vary  according  to  the  structure  of  the  sentence  and 
their  place  in  it. 

Other  Marks. 

The  Ellipsis,  or  Suppression,  denotes  the  omission 

of  some  letters  or  words. 

Examples.— K. g,  for  king ;  G  *  •  *  *  m,  for  Graham  ;  A  ....  s,  for 

Adams;  H— m— hr— y,  for  Humphrey. 

The   Caret,  used  only  in  writing,  shows  where  to  insert 
words  or  letters  that  have  been  accidentally  omitted, 
would 

Example.— i^mcs  said  he  ^..^be  home  to-night. 

The  Index,  or  Hand  [i(t®"].  points  out  something  re- 
markable, or  what  the  reader  should  particularly  obser\'e. 

The  Brace  \_ — ' — .]  serves  to  unite  a  triplet,  or  to  coimect 

several  temis  to  something  to  which  they  are  all  related. 

Examples. — 

(  Xnminative. 
Case  ).  Possessive. 

t  Objective.         ♦ 


Committee 


W.  Brown. 
H.  Jones. 
R.  Smith. 
M.  Mills. 


The  Section  [§]  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  book  or 
chapter,  and,  with  the  help  of  numbers,  serves  to  abridge  ref- 
erences. 

The  Paragraph  [H]  denotes  the  commencement  of  a 
new  subject.  Tlie  parts  of  discourse  which  are  called  paragraphs 
.ire  in  general  sufficiently  distinguished  by  beginning  a  new  line 
and  carrying  the  first  word  a  little  backwards. 

Leaders  [ ]   are  used  in   cont<mts   and   indexes   of 

books  and  similar  matter  to  lead  the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  line 
for  the  completion  of  the  sense. 

.£*(/w//f.— Wharfage $5°. 


kL 


28 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


The  Asterisk,  or  Star  [*],  the  Obelisk,  or  Dagger 
[f],  the  Diesis,  or  Double  Dagger  [j],  and  the  Par- 
allels [II],  refer  to  margin;il  notes  or  explanations  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  page.     They  are  marks  of  reference. 

The  Asterisiu,  or  TUree  Stars  [-**],  a  sign  not  very 
often  used,  is  placed  before  a  long  or  general  note  to  mark  it  as 
a  note  without  giving  it  a  particular  reference. 
t 

Accent  Marks. 

The  accent  marks  are  used  to  denote  the  proper  pronunciation 
of  words.     They  are  : 

The  Acute  [ '],  which  marks  the  syllable  which  requires  the 
principal  stress  in  pronunciation ;  or  to  denote  a  rising  inflection 
of  the  voice,  or  a  close  or  short  vowel. 

The  Grave  [^  ]  is  used  in  opposition  to  the  acute  to  distin- 
guish an  open  or  long  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  falling  inflection 
of  the  voice. 

The  Circumflex  ["]  generally  denotes  a  broad  sound  or 
a  combination  of  the  acute  and  grave. 

The  Breve  [']  is  used  to  denote  either  a  close  vowel  or  a 
syllable  of  short  quantity. 


The  Itlacron  ["]  is  used  to  denote  either  an  open  vowel 
or  a  syllable  of  long  quantity. 

The  Diaeresis  ["]  is  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels 
to  show  they  are  to  be  pronounced  in  separate  syllables ;  as, 
aerial.  In  German  this  character  is  called  the  Umlaut,  and 
denotes  a  modification  of  the  sound  of  a  vowel  over  which  it  is 
placed,  peculiar  to  the  Germanic  languages. 

The  Cedilla  [.]  is  placed  under  the  letter  c  to  give  it  the 
sound  of  J  before  a  or  o]  as  in  the  words/I: fct/fr,  Ahufon. 

The  Tilde  [  "]  is  placed  over  the  lettiir  ji  in  Spanish  words 
to  give  it  the  sound  of  iiy ;  as,  sefior,  miiion. 

Emphasis. 

Emphasis,  or  prominence  to  certain  words  or  sentences,  should 
be  designated  by  the  writer  by  underscoring  the  words  or 
phrases  to  be  emphasized.  One  line  indicates  italics ;  two  lines, 
small  capitals;  three  lines,  large  capitals;  four  lines,  italic 
capitals. 

Kxatnple. — Strike!  strike!  strike!  strike!  strike!  for  freedom! 

This  would  appear  in  print  thus : 

Strike!  strike!  strike!  STRIKE!  STRIKE',   for  freedom ! 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of 
speech  with  their  classes  and  modifications. 
To  express  our  thoughts  we  use  nine  classes  of 
words,  called  the  Parts  of  Speech.  These 
nine  parts  of  speech  are  called  Article,  Noun, 
Adjective,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Adverb,  Conjunc- 
tion, Preposition  and  Interjection. 

The  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  Article  is  the  word  the,  a  or  an,  which  points  out,  de- 
fines or  limits  a  noun ;  as,  the  air,  an  island,  a  ship. 

A  IVoun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place  or  thing  that 
can  be  known  or  mentioned ;  as,  C^orge,  York^  man,  apple, 
truth. 

"An  Adjective  is  a  word  which  qualifies  a  noun ;  as,  a 
wise  man,  a  ne~o  book. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  as,  the 
boy  loves  his  book ;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he  learns  them 
well. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act  or  to  be  acted 
upon  ;  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled;  I  love,  thou  lovcst,  he 
loves. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies  a  verb,  adverb  or  ad- 
jective; as,  they  are  now  here,  studying  very  diligently. 


A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  words  and  sen- 
tences together ;  as.  Thou  and  he  are  happy,  because  you  are 
good. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  relation  of 
different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other;  as.  The  paper  lies  be- 
fore me  on  the  desk. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to  in- 
dicate some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind ;  as,  Oh ! 
alas!  avaunt ! 

Some  Rules  of  Grammar. 

Parsing  is  the  revolving  or  explaining  of  a  sentence  or  of 
some  selected  word  or  words,  according  to  the  definitions  and 
rules  of  grammar. 

A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete 
sense ;  as.  Reward  sweetens  labor. 

A  Definition  of  anything  or  class  of  things  is  such  a  de- 
scription of  it  as  distinguishes  that  entire  thing  or  class  from 
everything  else,  by  briefly  telling  what  it  is, 

A  Rule  of  Grammar  is  some  law,  more  or  less  gen- 
eral, by  which  custom  regulates  and  prescribes  the  right  use  of 
language, 

A  Praxis  is  a  method  of  exercise  showing  the  learner  how 
to  proceed. 

An  Example  is  a  particular  instance  or  model  serving  to 
prove  or  illustrate  some  given  proposition  or  truth. 


A^ 


hT 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


/ 


29 


An  £sercise  is  some  technical  performance  required  of 
the  learner  in  order  to  test  his  knowledge  or  skill  by  use. 

The  article  an  is  used  instead  of  a  before  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel  or  a  silent  /;. 

-V  Coiuiuon  Xoun  is  a  name  that  may  be  applied  to 
all  objects  of  the  same  kind;  as,  boy,  nation,  country. 

\  Proper  IVoun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object 
wnich  cannot  be  applied  to  all  others  of  the  same  kind ;  as, 
KidiarJ,  Fern. 

A  CollectiTe  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  body  of  individual 
living  olijects;  as,  nation,  mob,  herd. 

An  Abstract  IVoun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  property; 
ns,  obstinacy,  bcnc.'olcncc. 

A  Participial  IVoun  is  the  name  of  an  action  or  state, 
ei  ding  in  in^ ;  as.  Seeing  is  believing. 

A  Diminutive  IVoUU  is  the  name  of  something  of  its 
kind,  derived  from  a  primitive  by  the  addition  of  a  suffix. 
Diminutives  are  formed  with  the  suffixes  iin,  let,  ling,  ock,  iile, 
ciile,  cle,  tele,  et  or  aster,  meaning  a  little.  Streamlet,  a  little 
stream;  gosling,  a  young  goose;  animalcule,  a  little  animal, 
are  diminutives. 

In  the  gender  of  some  nouns  the  feminine  is  formed  by  ap- 
pending the  suffix  ess,  ine,  ina,  ix  or  a  to  the  masculine ;  as, 
abbot,  abbess;  hero,  heroine;  czar,  czarina;  testator,  testatrix; 
sultan,  sultana. 

Plural  of  Nouns. 

Tlie  Plural  of  most  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  s  to  the 
singular;  a^,  hat,  hats;  number,  numbers. 

Nouns  ending  in  s,  sh,  x,  z,  and  ch  soft,  form  their  plural  by 
adding  ^i;^  as,  dislt,  dishes;  gas,  gases;  waltz,  waltzes;  tax, 
taxes;  church,  churches. 

Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the  e 
into  ics;  ss,,fly,  flics;  obloquy,  obloquies. 

Nouns  ending  in  i,  0  or  «,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  take  es 
in  the  plural;  as,  alkali,  alkalies;  cargo,  cargoes;  gnu,  gnues. 
Exceptions,  canto,  duodecimo,  grotto,  junto,  lasso,  major- 
domo,  memento,  octavo,  portico,  quarto,  sorocco,  solo  and  typo, 
which  form  the  plural  by  adding  s. 

The  following  nouns  ending  in  f  and  fe  form  the  plural  by 
changing/ or/4-  intorra.-  Beef,  leaf,  sheaf,  thief  loaf,  calf,  half, 
elf,  self,  shelf,  wolf,  life,  knife,  wife;  thus,  beeves,  leaves, 
wives,  etc  IVharf  makes  both  wharfs  and  wharves.  Staff, 
a  cane,  makes  staffs  and  staves. 

Some  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  plural;  as,  child,  children; 
tooth,  teeth;  mouse,  mice. 

The  following  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular 
plural,  with  different  meanings: 

Brother,       brothers  (of  a  family)  ;  brethren  (of  a  societyj. 

Die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining) ;       dice  (cubes  for  gaming). 

Genius,         geniuses  (men  of  genius)  ;       genii  (spirits). 
Index,  ,         indexes  (tables  of  contents)  ;  indices  (alpelir.iic  exponents) 
Pea,  peas  (distinct  grains) ;  pe:ise  (taken  in  bulk). 

Penny,  pennies  (distinct  coins)  ;  pence  (an  amount  of  money). 

Compound  nouns,  to  form  their  plural,  generally  vary  their 
principal  element ;  as,  step-son,  step-sons;  sister-in-law,  sisters- 
in-law;  cousin-german,  cousins- german;  knight-errant, 
kn  ights-crrant. 


The  following  compounds  vary  both  elemeAis : 
Man-child,  men-children ;  man-servani,  men-servants ;  man- 
singer,  men-singers;  woman-servant,  women-servants ;  woman- 
singer,  women-singers;  knight-templar,  knights-templars; 
knight-baronet,  knights-baronets;  knight-hospitaller,  knights- 
hospitallers. 

Rules  for  the  Plural  of  Foreign  Nouns. 

In  forming  foreign  plurals  the  following  rules  apply:  The  ter- 
mination 

A  becomes  3E,,  sometimes  Ata :  larva,  larva;  miasma, 
miasmata. 

is  becomes  E8,  sometimes  Ides :  asis,  axes;  apsis,  ap- 
sides. 

I's  becomes  I :  magus,  magi;  but,  genus,  genera. 

I'm  and  On  become  A:  datum,  data;  phenomenon, 
phenomena. 

Ex  .and  Ix  become  Ices,  vortex,  vortices;  helix,  helices. 

O  becomes  I :  virtuoso,  virtuosi. 

Errors  in  Speech. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  go  into  all  the  minutiae 
and  details  of  grammatical  rules,  but  the  following  rules  and 
examples  will  show  the  reader  how  to  avoid  the  common  and 
most  glaring  errors  in  the  use  of  language.  These  rules 
come  under  four  divisions  :  the  improper  arrangement  of  words  ; 
improper  words  or  expressions ;  too  few  words,  and  too  many 
words.  A  careful  scrutiny  of  the  examples  quoted  below  will  be 
of  great  benefit  to  the  reader. 

These  rules  belong  mainly  to  that  division  of  Grammar  term- 
ed Syntax,  which  means  putting  together,  and  which  is  that 
part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  relations  and  arrangements 
of  words  put  together.  The  rules  that  bear  on  these  relations 
are  called  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  Violations  of  these 
rules  are  called  False  Syntax. 

AVOID  THESE  ERRORS: 

1.  Do  not  say,  "They  said  they  could  run  f:ister  than  me ; "  but, 
"  They  said  thc'y  could  run  faster  than  I."  Mc  must  be  changed  to  /, 
because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  coiilJ  run  understood. 

2.  Do  not  say.  "Oh,  blissful  hour,  and  thrice  blessed  us  that  see 
it;"  but,  "Oh,  blissful  hour,  and  thrice  blessed  we  that  see  it."  Us 
must  be  changed  to  we,  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  used  inde- 
pendently. 

3.  When  there  are  several  modifying  substantives,  they  arc  all  in  the 
possessive  case.  If  they  separately  modify  different  nouns,  each  has 
the  sign  of  the  possessive.  If  they  jointly  modify  the  same  noun,  the 
possessive  sign  is  annexcd'only  to  the  last.  If  John,  George  and 
Henry  have  different  fathers,  I  say:  "John's,  George's  ond  Henry's 
fathers  have  arrived;"  that  is,  John's  father,  George's  father  and 
Henry's  father.  H  they  are  brothers,  I  say:  "John,  George  and 
Henrj's  father  has  arrived."  jolia  and  George  are  in  the  possessive 
case;   but  as  all  these  substantives  jointly  modify  the  same  noun, 

f.Hlicr  expressed,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  last  only. 

4.  A  succession  of  possessives  is  inelegant.  Do  not  say,  "Our 
minister's  son's  partner's  brother-in-law's  store;"  but,  "The  store 
belonging  to  the  brother-in-law  of  the  partner  of  our  minister's  son." 

5.  The  possessive  case  and  of  with  the  objective  arc  not  always 
equivalent.  Thus,  "  The  Lord's  day  is  .Sunday  ;  but  ///<■  day  of  the  Lora 
is  //;.-  day  of  judgtnent."  We  may  speak  of  the  fever  of  the  field,  but 
not  of  the  field's  Jiovier. 


\ 


30 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


6.  Be  careful  not  to  use  too  many  words.  Do  not  say,  "Consider 
of  my  offer;"  but,  "  Consider  my  offer."  Also,  not  "  He  will  soon  re- 
pent him  of  his  crime ;  "  but,  "  He  will  soon  repent  of  his  crime." 

7.  Do  not  use  too  few  words.  Do  not  say;  "  Beware  the  tempter;" 
but,  "  Beware  of  the  tempter," 

S.  Avoid  making-  the  same  word  the  object  of  a  verb  and  preposi- 
tion, or  of  two  prepositions,  separated  by  intcr\'ening  words.  "  They 
not  only  themselves  vigorously  prosecuted,  but  called  on  their  allies 
to  aid  them  /;/,  the  wct/-."  Correct  thus:  "  They  not  only  themselves 
prosecuted  the  war,  but  called  on  their  allies  for  aid." 

9.  Some  verbs  are  frequently  followed  by  two  objectives.  "We 
promised  the  best  speaker  a  prize."  "  Will  you  buy  me  a  telescope." 
If  the  objects  are  transposed  a  preposition  is  inserted.  "Will  you  buy 
a  teles  cop  e/o/-  me."     "  We  promised  a  prize  to  the  best  speaker." 

10.  When  such  constructions  arc  thrown  into  the  passive  form,  the 
object  of  the  verb,  and  not  that  of  the  oreposition,  must  be  made  the 
subject;  as,  "A  prize  was  promised  to  the  best  speaker."  Not,  "The 
best  speaker  was  promised  a  prize." 

11.  To  is  omitted  before  ho7;i€,  north,  south,  etc.,  when  not  modified 
by  other  words,  but  expressed  when  they  are  modified;  as,  '*He  went 
home,  north,  south."  Cut,  "  He  went  to  his  home,  to  the  north,  to 
the  south," 

12.  Be  careful  in  the  use  of  zvho  and  whom.  Do  not  say,  "Who 
should  I  trust?"  but,  "Whom  should  I  trust?" 

13.  Do  not  say,  "It  was  me;"  but,  "  It  was  I."  After  the  verb  ^o 
^f  the  pronoun  must  be  in  the  nominative.  Thus  again:  "Did  you 
suppose  it  was  I  ?"  not,  "Did  you  suppose  it  was  me."  "  It  is  he;" 
not,  "It  is  him." 

14.  Be  careful  to  use  the  correct  number  and  person  of  the  pronoun. 
Do  not  say,  "One  cannot  collect  their  thoughts; "  but,  "One  can- 
not collect  his  thoughts."  Say:  "  I  have  lost  the  scissors;  have  you 
seen  them?"     Not,  "  have  you  seen  it?" 

15.  After  a  superlative  use  that  instead  of  who;  as,  "  Hannibal  was 
the  deadliest  enemy  that  Rome  ever  had." 

16.  Never  use  W///VA  to  apply  to  persons  except  as  an  interrogative. 
Thus,  "The  man  whom  I  met;"  not,  "The  man  which  I  met." 

17.  Do  not  use  the  pronoun  them  for  the  adjective  those.  "You 
might  have  saved  those  trees;"  not,  "You  qiight  have  saved  M^« 
trees."- 

i3.  ^^y,  this  sort  of  men;  not^these  50/-/,  because  sort  is  singular. 
These  tidings;  not,  this  tidinres. 

19.  This  here  and  these  'ere,  that  there  and  those  'ere  are  gross  errors. 
Correct  by  omitting  the  adverbs.     This  hoy;  not,  this  here  boj, 

20.  Say,  "By  this  means;"  not,  "  By  these  means."  Means  is 
singular. 

21.  Adjectives  whose  meaning  precludes  the  idea  of  comparison 
must  not  be  compared.^  Do  not  say,  the  chiefest  beauty,  a  truer  state- 
ment, so  faultless  a  character,  t!ie  firtherest  house,  a  more  nearer 
view,  the  least  surest  course.  Correct  thus:  the  chief  beauty,  a  more 
correct  statement,  a  character  so  nearly  faultless ,  the  farthest  house, 
a  nearer  view,  the  least  wise  course. 

21.  After  tlie  comparative  degree,  use  o^/^cr  with  the  latter  of  the 
terms  compared  if  it  includes  the  former,  and  only  then.  "  The  Ama- 
zon  is  longer  than  any  river."  Correct :  "  The  Amazon  is  longer  than 
any  other  river."  Otherwise  we  assert,  the  Amazon  being  a  river,  that 
it  is  longer  than  itself. 

23.  An  adjective  in  the  comparative  or  superlative  must  precede  an 
adjective  modified  by  more  or  most  relating  to  the  same  noun.  Do  not 
say:  "A  more  interesting  and  larger  volume;"  but,  "A  larger  and 
more  interesting  volume." 

24.  Be  sure  that  the  verb  agrees  with  the  right  word.  When  it  is  sep- 
arated from  its  subject  by  an  intervening  substantive,  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  make  it  agree  with  the  latter.  "A  succession  of  excite- 
ments are  sure  to  distract  the  mind  from  study."  Wrong,  because 
5Kca'.w;V/i  is  the  subject,  and  not  excitements,  which  is  the  object  of 
the  preposition  of  "A  succession  of  excitements  is,*'  etc.,  is  correct. 
So,  "Your  vessel,  together  with  twelve  others,  have  arrived."  It 
should  be,  "  Your  vessel,  together  with  twelve  others,  has,"  etc.  So, 
"This  confusion  of  ideas  in  educated  minds /s  [notare]  to  be  deplored." 


25.  Do  not  use,  "  Says  I ;  "  but,  "  Say  I." 

26.  Do  not  say  has  zuent  for  has  gone;  havingiurote  for  having  lorit- 
ten;  I  seen  ioT  I  sazv;  I  done  for  /  did. 

27.  Avoid  corrupt  forms.  Among  the  most  common  of  these  are  had 
have  for  had;  hadn't  ought  for  ought  not;  Pm  a  mind  for  /  have  a 
mind;  arn't  for  are  not;  moughtn't  for  inight  7iot,  etc. 

2S.  The  prepositionytjr  must  not  be  used  immediately  before  an  in- 
finitive. Do  not  say :  "  He  is  trying  hard/j/-  to  enter  college  ;  "  but, 
"  He  is  trying  hard  to  enter  college." 

29.  The  preposition  o/"  should  not  be  introduced  between  a  partici- 
ple and  its  object.  Do  not  say,  "  by  erecting  of  statues;"  but,  "  by 
erecting  statues."  Not,  "  for  controlling  of  elections;  "  but,  control- 
hng  elections."  It  is  sometimes  proper,  however,  to  use  of  when  the 
participle  is  preceded  by  the. 

30.  Tio  not  MSQ  how,  as  hozv,  or  hozv  that,  ioT  the  conjunction  that. 
"She  said  as  how  she  would  come."  "  Have  a  care  hozu  you  listen  to 
the  tempter."  Correct  thus:  "She  said  that  she  would  come." 
"  Have  a  care  that  you  do  not  listen  to  the  tempter." 

31.  Do  not  use  two  negatives.  Do  not  s.iy :  "  I  did  not  do  7iothing  ;  " 
but,  "  I  did  not  do  anything;  "  or,  "  I  did  nothing."  Not,  "  It  makes 
no  difference  to  you  nor  me  ;  "  but,  "  It  makes  Jio  difference  to  you  or 
me." 

32.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place  only  and  not  only  next  to  the  word 
or  words  they  are  intended  to  modify.  Otherivise  they  give  a  wrong 
impression  of  the  meaning.  If  I  say,  "  He  only  hires  the  store,"  only 
modifies ///>£-,  and  the  impression  conveyed  is  that  another  verb  will 
follow.  He  only  hires  the  store,  he  does  not  own  it.  If  I  say:  "  lie 
hires  only  the  store,"  only  modifies  store,  and  the  meaning  is,  he  hires 
the  store,  but  nothing  else — not  the  rest  of  the  house. 

33.  Do  not  use  an  adjective  for  an  adverb.  Do  not  say:  "  He  writes 
elegant ;  "  but,  "  He  writes  elegantly." 

34.  After  certain  verbs  I'y  is  used  before  a  word  denoting  an  agent 
or  living  object,  7uith  before  a  word  denoting  an  instrument  or  inani- 
mate object.  We  say,  accompanied  ly  his  friends,  accompanied  rvith 
illustrations;  attended  />y  a  servant,  attended  ivith  evil  consequences; 
illustrated />j' an  artist,  illustrated  zvith  engravings;  killed  ly  an  as- 
sassin, killed  zvith  a  dagger.     J^ollozvcd  takes  by  only.    * 

35.  Do  not  use  if  for  zvhether — or  but,  but  that  or  lest  for  that — after 
the  verbs  doubt,  fear,  deny,  or  their  equivalents.  "  Do  you  know  if 
[correct  to  whether]  a  train  will  start  this  evening."  "  Pope  was  ap- 
prehensive lest  [say  that]  his  meaning  miglit  be  mistaken."  "  Nobody 
can  deny  but  that  [say  that]  experience  is  the  best  teacher." 

36.  Be  careful  to  use  nor,  not  or,  as  the  correlative  of  neither. 
"Neither  youth  7ior  [r\ot  or]  innocence  availed  as  a  protection." 

37.  Be  careful  to  use  so., ..as,  not  as. ...as,  aftera  negative  denying 
equality  of  degree.  "  Few  cities  were  so  [not  as]  magnificent  as  Bab- 
ylon." 

3S.  Do  not  add  a  pronoun  to  its  antecedent  when  the  antecedent 
alone  would  express  its  meaning.  Do  not  sav,  "James  he  said  ;  "  but, 
"James  said."  , 

39.  Avoid  double  comparatives  and  superlatives.  "The  most  hap- 
piest day  of  my  life."     Correct:    "  The  happiest  day." 

40.  Avoid  tautology  or  the  recurrence  of  the  same  word  or  expres- 
sion. "  The  man ///rt^  I  met ///rt/ was  lame."  Say:  "The  man  that  I 
met  xvho  was  lame, 

41.  Avoid  the  use  of  improper  words.  Do  not  say:  "He  is  laying 
down;"  but,  "  He  is /j-.'W^  down."  Not:  "We  set  up;"  but,  "We 
sat  up."  Not:  *'Lcarn  me;"  but,  "Teach  me."  Not:  "I  knowcd 
it;"  but,  "  I /'Wf^y  it."  Not:  "The  coat  sets  weH;"  hut,  "  The  coat 
sits  well."  Not:  "  Them  that  expect  nothing;"  but,  "  They  that  expect 
nothing." 

42.  Do  not  say,  "  The  Volga  is  the  longest  of  any  river  in  Europe." 
Omit  of  any  and  correct:  "The  Volga  is  the  longest  river  in 
Europe." 

43-  Apply  zuho  to  persons,  zvhich  to  things,  and  that  to  both. 

44.  Do  not  say:  "Which  did  you  say  was  the  largest  lake  in  the 
world?"  S:iy  is.  Present  facts  and  unchangeable  truths  must  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  present  tense. 


r 


\ 


/ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


31 


45.  Avoid  all  improper  modes  of  expressing  comparison  or  the 
plural  of  nouns.  Do  not  say:  beauiif idlest ;  hut^  most  beaiitifnl.  Not 
"  I  saw  three  tigers;  **  but,  *'  I  saw  three  deer.''* 

46.  Avoid  clumsy  use  of  participles.  **  J/y  being  sick  was  the  cause 
oi  Mjf  being  absent."  Correct  thus:  "  My  sickness  was  the  cause  of 
my  absence." 

47.  Do  not  needlessly  use  the  passive  form  in  verbs.  "  He  is  come ; " 
say, '*  lie //(/A-  come." 

4S.  Do  not  use  needless  compound  participles.  "The  theatres  are 
now  ^t-/w^open  on  Sundays;"  say,  "  The  theatres  arc  now  open  Sun- 
days." 

49.  An  adverb  should  not  be  used  where  a  preposition  and  a  relative 
pronoun  would  better  express  the  relation  of  the  terms.  *'A  cause 
where  [say  itt  -which]  justice  is  so  much  concei^ied." 

50.  When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction  they  must  either 
agree  in  mood,  tense  and  form,  or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed. 
"  They  would  neither  ^o  in  themselves,  nor  suffered  [say,  would  suf- 
fer]  others  to   enter."     "  If  he  understands  his  business,  and  uiteud 

[say  attends]  to  it,  wherein  is  he  deficient?" 


FIGURES. 

A  Figure  in  Grammar  is  an  intentional  deviation  from  tlie 
ordinary  spelling,  formation,  construction  or  application  of 
words. 

There  are,  accordingly,  figures  of  Orthography,  figures  of 
Etymology, figures  of  Sytttax  Sindfigtires  of  Jihetorie. 

When  figures  are  judiciously  employed,  tlicy  both  strengthen 
and  adorn  expression.  They  occur  more  frequently  in  poetry 
than  in  prose,  and  several  of  them  are  merely  poetic  licenses. 

Figures  of  Orthography. 

A  Figure  of  Orthography  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Orthography  are  two,  namely: 

Mimesis,  or  Mimicry,  a  ludicrous  imitation  of  some 
mistake  or  mispronunciation  of  a  word,  in  which  the  error  is 
mimicked  by  a  false  spelling  or  the  taking  of  one  word  for  an- 
other. 

Exaiiiplc, — "Ay,  lie  was  foni  at  Monmouth,  Captain  Gower." — 
Shalcspt-rc. 

" Maister,  sa;-s  he,  have  you  any  V)cry  good  vjcal  in  your  vallet  ?  " — 
Cotitml'ian  Orator. 

This  figure  includes  all  imitations  of  brogues  and  dialects. 

Archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase  expressed  according  to 
ancient  usage,  and  not  according  to  our  modern  orthography. 
Examptt-s. — "  Unpleosing  sig^ht,  I  rvccti.^^ 

"  Bow-bent  with  eld,  liis  beard  of  snowy  hue." 

Figures  of  Etymology. 

A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  formation  of  a  word.  The  principal  figures 
of  Etymology  are  eight. 

Aphaeresis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  tlie  initi.al  letters  of 
a  word;  as,  Against,  'gan,  'neath,  iov  against,  began,  beneath. 


Prothesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  Apletive  syllable  to  a 
word;  as,  adown,  «/p.~.id,  fctruwn,  ^ranished,  jclad,  iox  etown, 
paid,  strown,  vanished,  clad. 

Syncope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  middle  letters  of  a 
word ;  as,  med'cine  for  medicine ;  e'en  for  even  ;  o'er  for  over ; 
iOiiifring  for  conquering;  se'nnight  for  scvennight. 

Apocope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of  a 
word ;  as,  tho'  for  though  ;  th'  for  the;  t'other  for  the  other. 

Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word;  as,  ivithouten  for  without;  deary  for  dear;  Johnny 
for  John, 

Diaeresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might  form 
a  diphthong;  as,  cooperate,  not  cooperate;  aeronaut,  not  aro- 
naut;  orthoepy,  not  orthapy. 

Synajresis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into  one ;  a:, 
secst  for  scht;  tacked  for  tack-ed;  drowned  for  dro-a'n-ed. 

Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts  of  a 
compound;  as,  "On a);4jV/jsidew<:i'^/';"  "Tows  ward ;"  "To 
God  ward." 

Figures  of  Syntax. 

A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intention.al  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words.  The  principal  figures  of 
Syntax  are  seven. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or  words  which  are 
necessary  to  complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary  to 
convey  the  meaning.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  understood, 
because  they  are  received  as  belonging  to  the  sentence  though 
they  are  not  uttered;  as,  "A  man  and  [a]  woman;"  "The  com- 
mon [/(zw]  and  the  statute  law;"  "I  love  [///;;/]  and  [/]  fear 
him  ;  "  "  The  active  commonly  do  more  than  they  are  bound  to 
do;  the  indolent  [commonly  do']  less  [Jhan  they  are  bound 
to  do]. 

ApOSCOpesis  is  the  leaving  of  something  unsaid;  as, 
"  Whom  /—but  first  'tis  best  the  billows  to  restrain." 

Zeugma  is  the  referring  of  a  word  to  two  different  ones 
which  in  strict  syntax  can  agree  with  only  one  of  them  ;  as,  "In 
him  who  is,  or  him  who  finds  ^friend." 

Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words ;  as, 
"/A-  that  hath  cars  to  hear,  let  him  hear ; "  "I  know  thee  who 
thou  art : "  "-Ml  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world,  and  dwellers  on 

the  earth." 

Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figurative 
sense  of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing  spoken 
of,  and  not  according  to  the  literal  or  common  use  of  the  term  ; 
it  is  therefore,  in  general,  connected  with  some  figure  of  Rhet- 
oric ;  as,  "The  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and 
we  beheld  his  glor)-."  "Then  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of 
Samaria  and  preached  Christ  unto  them." 

Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one  modi- 
fication, for  another  ;  as,  "  You  know  that  you  are  Bnitus  that 
speak  this ; "  "  Destruction's  gates  at  once  unlock." 

HyperlJaton  is  the  transposition  of  words;  as,  "He 
wanders  earth  around." 


32 


COMPOSITION. 


y 


tlOMPOSITION. 


«      ^'^ 


riow  to   Write  \\)Q    Qnnllsr)    Dan^uaae 


ffiSi 


sr- 


;orrecT 


'y- 


|VERY  educated  person  desires  to  write 

•3  well,  and  with  some  elegance  of  diction. 

*™^''^^  Accuracy  in  the  arrangement  of  words 


'•W% 


'^^W  and  the  ready  and  ccrrect  expression  of 
them  in  written  language  is  not  only  a 
desirable  but  a  needful  attainment. 
This  is  taught  by  Conipositioii. 

Style  is  the  particular  manner  in  which  a 
person  expresses  his  conceptions  by  means  of 
language.  It  is  different  from  mere  words,  and 
is  not  to  be  regulated  altogether  by  rules  of 
construction.  It  always  has  some  relation  to 
the  author's  peculiar  manner  of  thinking,  and, 
being  that  sort  of  expression  which  his  thoughts 
most  readily  assume,  sometimes  partakes  not 
only  of  what  is  characteristic  of  the  man,  but 
even  of  national  peculiarity.  The  words  which 
an  author  employs  may  be  proper  and  so  con- 
structed as  to  violate  no  rule  of  syntax,  and 
yet  his  style  may  have  great  faults. 

To  designate  the  general  characters  of  style, 
such  epithets  as  concise,  diffuse — neat,  negli- 
gent— nervous,  feeble — simple,  affected — easy, 
stiff — perspicuous,  obscure — elegant,  florid — 
are  employed.  A  considerable  diversity  of 
style  may  be  found  in  compositions  all  equally 
excellent  in  their  kind.  And,  indeed,  different 
subjects,  as  well  as  the  different  endowments  by 
which  genius  is  distinguished,  require  this  divers- 
ity. But  in  forming  his  style  the  learner  should 
remember  that  a  negligent,  feeble,  affected, 
stiff  or  obscure  style  is  always  faulty,  and  that 
perspicuity,  ease,  simplicity,  strength  and  neat- 
ness are  qualities  always  to  be  aimed  at. 


In  order  to  acquire  a  good  style,  the  frequent 
practice  of  composing  and  writing  something 
is  indispensably  necessary.  Without  exercise 
and  diligent  attention,  rules  or  precepts  for  the 
attainment  of  this  object  will  be  of  no  avail. 
When  the  learner  has  acquired  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  grammar  as  to  be  in  some  degree  qual- 
ified for  the  undertaking,  he  should  devote  a 
stated  portion  of  his  time  to  composition.  This 
exercise  will  bring  the  powers  of  his  mind  into 
requisition  in  a  way  that  is  well  calculated  to 
strengthen  them.  And  if  he  has  opportunity 
for  reading,  he  may,  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the 
best  authors,  acquire  both  language  and  taste, 
as  well  as  sentiment;  and  these  three  are  the 
essential  qualifications  of  a  good  writer. 

In  regard  to  the  qualities  which  constitute  a 
good  style,  we  can  here  offer  no  more  than  a 
few  brief  hints.  With  respect  to  words  and 
phrases,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to 
purity,  propriety  and  precision;  and  with 
respect  to  sentences,  to  perspicuity,  unity 
and  streng^li.  Under  each  of  these  heads  we 
shall  arrange,  in  the  form  of  short  precepts,  a 
few  of  the  most  important  directions  for  the 
forming  of  style. 

Of  Pnritj. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  only  such  words  and 
phrases  as  belong  to  the  language  which  we  write  or  speak. 

1.  Avoid  the  unnecessaiy  use  of  foreign  words  or  idioms; 
as,  fraichcur,  hauteur,  dclicatesse,  politessc ;  \s  repented  him- 
self;  it  serves  tc  an  excellent  purpose. 

2.  Avoid,  on  ordinary  occasions,  obsolete  or  antiquatcil 
words  ;  as,  whilom,  erewhiU,  albeit,  aforetime,  tnetkinks, 

3.  Avoid  strange  or  unauthorized  words  ;  as,  flutteratioii , 
unspcctator,  judgematical,  clecterized. 


/ 


COMPOSITION. 


33 


4.  Avoid  bombast,  or  aflectation  of  fine  writing.  It  is 
ridiculous,  however  serious  the  subject ;  as,  "Personifications, 
however  rich  the  depictions,  and  unconstrained  their  latitude  ; 
analysis,  however  imposing  the  objects  of  parallel  and  the 
media  of  comparison  :  can  never  expose  the  consequences  of 
sin  to  the  extent  of  fact,  or  the  range  of  demonstration." 

Of  Propriety. 

Propriety  of  langu.age  consists  in  the  selection  and  right  con- 
struction of  such  words  as  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to 
those  ideas  which  we  intend  to  express. 

1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions;  such  as,  "says 
/,"  "thinks  I  to  myself,"  "to gd  into  a  scrape"  "Stay  here 
while  I  return." 

2.  In  writing  prose,  avoid  words  or  phrases  that  are  nearly 
poetical;    such   as  viorn,    eve,  plaint,  lone,  amiJ,   eft,  sleepy. 

3.  Avoid  technical  terms,  except  where  they  are  necessary 
in  treating  of  a  particular  art  or  science.  In  technology  they 
are  proper. 

4.  Avoid  the  recurrence  of  words  in  the  different  senses,  or 
such  rcpetitionof  words  as  denotes  paucity  of  language  ;  as,  "His 
own  reason   might  have  suggested  better  reasons."  "  Gregory 

favored  the  undertaking  for  no  other  reason  than  this :  the 
manager,  in  countenance, yijcoreV  his  friend."  "  I  want  to  go 
and  sec  what  he  wants." 

5.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting.  Thus,  instead  of  saying, 
"This  action  increased  his  former  success, "  say,  "This  action 
increased  the  merit  of  his  former  success." 

6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions;  as,  "His  )nem- 
01  y  shall  be  lost  on  the  earth."  "  I  long  since  learned  to  like 
nothing  but  what  you  ifo." 

7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions  ;  as,  "I 
have  observed  that  the  superiority  among  these  coffee-house 
politicians  proceeds  from  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion." 
"  These  words  do  not  convey  even  an  opaque  idea  of  the 
author's  meaning." 

8.  Observe  the  natural  order  of  things  and  events  and  do 
not  put  the  cart  before  the  horse ;  as,  "  The  scribes  taught  and 
j/ki/jVo' the  law  of  Moses."  "  They  can  neither  ?-rf?<;-K  to  nor 
have  their  houses."  "He  tumbled,  head  over  heels,  into  the 
water." 

Of  Precision. 

Precision  consists  of  avoiding  all  superfluous  words  and  adapt- 
ing the  expression  exactly  to  the  thought,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither 
more  nor  less  than  is  intended  by  the  author. 

1.  Avoid  a  useless  tautology,  either  of  expression  or  senti- 
ment; as,  "return  again;  return  back  again;  converse 
together ;  rise  up;  is\\do7vn  ;  enter  in  ;  a  mutual  likeness /<?  each 
other  ;  the  latter  end  ;  liquid  streams  ;  grateful  thanks ;  the  last 
o/' a//;  throughout  the  it//;<7/^  book."  "Wherever  I  go,  he  a/- 
wa_)'j  meets  me  there."  "  \\'here  is  he  at  ?  "  "/«  there."  "Noth- 
ing f/ifbut  that."  "It  is  odious  and  hateful."  "His  faith- 
fulness and  fidelity  should  be  rewarded." 

2.  Obser\'e  the  exact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synonym- 
ous, and  employ  those  which  are  the  most  suitable  ;  as,  "A 
diligent  scholar  may  acquire  knowledge,  gain  celebrity,  obtain 
rewards,  win  prizes  and  get  high   honor,  though   he  earn  no 


money."     These  six  verbs  have  nearly  tHe  same  meaning,  and 
yet  they  cannot  well  be  changed. 

Of  Perspicuity. 

Perspicuity  consists  in  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 
It  is  a  quality  so  essential  in  every  kind  of  writing  that  for  the 
want  of  it  no  merit  can  atone.  "Without  it,"  says  Blair,  "  the 
richest  ornaments  of  style  only  glimmer  through  the  dark,  and 
puzzle  instead  of  pleasing  the  reader."  Perspicuity,  being  the 
most  important  property  of  language,  and  an  exemption  from 
the  most  embarrassing  defects,  seems  even  to  rise  to  a  degree 
of  positive  beauty.  We  are  naturally  pleased  with  a  style  that 
frees  us  from  all  suspense  in  regard  to  the  meaning ;  that 
"carries  us  through  the  subject  without  embarrassment  or  con- 
fusion, and  that  always  flows  like  a  limpid  stream,  through 
which  we  can  see  to  the  very  bottom." 

1.  Place  adjectives,  relative  pronouns,  participles,  adverbs 
and  explanatory  phrases  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to 
which  they  relate,  and  in  such  a  situation  as  the  sense  requires. 
The  following  sentences  are  deficient  in  perspicuity  :  "  Rever- 
ence is  the  veneration  paid  to  superior  sanctity,  inter- 
mixed with  a  degree  of  awe."  "The  Romans  understood 
liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we."  "Taste  was  never  made  to 
eater  for  vanity." 

2.  In  prose  avoid  a  poetic  collocation  of  words. 

3.  Avoid  faulty  ellipsis,  and  repeat  all  words  necessary  to 
preserve  the  sense.  The  following  sentences  require  the  words 
inserted  in  brackets:  "Restlessness  of  mind  disqualifies  us  both 
for  the  enjoyment  of  peace  and  \_for'\  the  performance  of  our 
duty."  "The  Christian  religion  gives  a  more  lovely  character 
to  God  than  any  [otker'l  religion  ever  did." 

Of  Unity. 

Unity  consists  in  avoiding  useless  breaks  or  pauses  and  keep- 
ing one  object  predominant  throughout  a  sentence  or  paragraph. 
Every  sentence,  whether  its  parts  be  few  or  many,  requires 
strict  unity. 

1.  Avoid  brokenness  and  hitching.  The  following  para- 
graph lacks  the  very  quality  of  which  it  spe.iks:  "But  most  of 
all,  in  a  single  sentence,  is  required  the  strictest  unity.  It  may 
consist  of  parts,  indeed,  hwi  these partsmvtst.  be  so  closely  bound 
together  as  to  make  the  impression  upon  the  mind  i>/one  object, 
nut  of  many." 

2.  Treat  different  topics  in  separate  paragraphs,  and  dis- 
tinct sentiments  in  separate  sentences.  Error:  "Tlie  two  vol- 
umes are,  indeed,  intimately  connected  and  constitute  one  uni- 
form system  of  English  grammar." 

3.  In  the  process  of  a  sentence,  do  not  desert  the  principal 
subject  in  favor  of  adjuncts.  Error:  "To  substantives  belong 
gender,  number  and  case ;  and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person 
juhen  spoken  of,  and  of  the  second  when  spoken  to." 

4.  Do  not  introduce  parentheses  except  where  a  lively  re- 
mark may  be  thrown  in  without  diverting  the  mind  too  long 
from  the  principal  subject. 

Of  strength. 

Strength  consists  in  giving  to  the  several  words  and  members 
of  a  sentence  such  an  arrangement  as  shall  bring  out  the 
sense  to  the  best  advantage  and  present  every  idea  in  its  due 


VL 


COMPOSITION. 


importance.      A  concise  style  is  the  most  favorable  to  strength. 

1.  Pl.ace  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

2.  A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger;  and 
when  the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should 
be  the  concluding  one. 

3.  When  things  are  to  be  compared  or  contrasted,  their  re- 
semblance or  opposition  will  be  rendered  more  striking  if  some 
resemblance  in  the  langu.age  and  constraction  be  preser\-ed. 

4.  It  is,  in  general,  ungraceful  to  end  a  sentence  with  an 
adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  word  or  phrase, 
which  may  either  be  omitted  or  introduced  earlier. 

A  Discourse  and  its  Parts. 

A  composition  in  which  a  proposition  is  laid  down  and  an 
attempt  made  to  persuade  others  that  it  is  true  is  an  argumen- 
tative discourse.  If  it  is  on  religious  subjects,  it  is  a  sermon; 
on  other  subjects,  a  speech  or  oration. 

Orations  by  the  ancients  were  divided  into  six  parts,  to-wit : 

The  Exordium,  or  introduction,  in  which  the  speaker  strove 
to  make  his  hearers  attentive  and  disposed  to  receive  his  argu- 
ments. 

Tr.e  Divisio)!,  or  plan  the  speaker  intended  to  pursue  in  treat- 
ing the  subject. 

The  Statement,  in  which  the  subject  and  facts  connected 
therewith  were  laid  down. 

The  Reasoning,  in  which  the  arguments  were  set  forth. 

The  Appeal  to  the  feelings — a  most  important  division  of  a 
discourse. 

The  Peroration,  in  which  the  speaker  summed  up  all  he  had 
said  and  concluded  his  discourse. 

An  Essay. 

An  Essay  is  a  composition,  generally  on  some  abstract  sub- 
ject, devoted  rather  to  an  investigation  of  causes,  effects,  etc., 
than  to  an  examination  of  visible  and  material  peculiarities. 
Brief  descriptions  and  narrations  may  be  introduced  with  ad- 
vantage. 

Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinaiy  application  of  words.  Some  figures  of  this 
kind  are  commonly  called  Tropes,  i.e.,  turns. 

The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are  twenty-two,  namely : 
A  Simile   is   a  simple   and   express   comparison   and    is 
generally  introduced  by  Hie,  as  or  so. 

Example.— "At  first, //yiv  thunder's  distant  tone. 

The  rattling  din  came  rollings  on." — Hogg. 
"  Man,  tike  ttic generous  vine,  supported  lives. 
The  strength  he  gains  is  from  th'  embrace  he  gives." 

—Pof'e. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance 
of  two  objects  by  applying  either  the  name  or  some  attribute, 
adjunct  or  action  of  the  one  directly  to  the  other. 

Example. — "  His  eye  w.is  morning's  brightest  rajy." — Hogg. 
*'  Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  bow." 

— Long/etlozu. 
An  Allegory  is  a  continued  narration  of  fictitious  events, 
designed  to  represent   and  illustrate  important  realities.     Thus 
the  Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation   under  the  symbol 


of  a  vine:    "Thou  hast  brought   a  vine  out  of  Egj-pt ;  thou 
hast  cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it,"  etc. 

Note. — The  allegoi-y  includes  most  of  those  similitudes  which 
in  the  Scriptures  are  c:).V^t& parables;  it  includes  also  the  better 
sort  o{ fables. 

Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names^alling  one  object 
by  the  name  of  another  that  sustains  some  rel.ation  to  it.  The 
principal  relations  on  which  this  figure  is  founded  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Cause  and  effect ;  as,  "Extravagance  is  the  ruin  of  many" 
■ — that  is,  the  eauseofx\xm. 

2.  Ancestor  and  descendants ;  as,  "  Then  shall  Judah 
triumph" — that  is,  the  deseendants  of  Judch. 

3.  .-Vttribute  and  that  to  which  it  belongs  ;  as,  "  Fride  shall 
be  brought  low" — that  is,  \he proud. 

4.  Container  and  the  thing  containcil ;  as,  "The  hetlle 
boils  " — that  is,  the  water  in  the  kettle. 

5.  Emblem  and  thing  represented ;  as,  "  This  was  offensive 
to  the  erown  "  — that  is,  the  iing. 

6.  Material  and  thing  made  of  it;  as,  "Gold  is  all-power- 
ful " — that  is,  money. 

Synecdoche  is  the  meaning  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  or 
of  a  part  for  the  whole  ;  as,  "This  roof  [  i.e.,  house]  protects 
you. "     "  Now  (he year  \_i.e.,  summer]  is  beautiful." 

Hyperbole  is  extravagant     exaggeration,   in   which  the 
imagination  is  indulged  beyond  the  sobriety  of  truth. 
Example. — "The  sky  shrttnk  upward  wit  It  unusual  dread, 

And  trembling  Tiber  div' d  beneath  his  bed." — Dryden. 

Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
represents  the  objects  of  his  imagination  as  actually  before  his 
eyes  and  present  to  his  senses. 

Example. — "I  see  the  dagger-crest  of  Mar  ! 
I  see  the  Moray's  silver  star 
Wave  o'er  the  cloud  of  Saxon  -war 
That  up    the  lake  comes  winding  far!  " — ^cott. 

Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject  into  an  animated  address. 

Example. — "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  Death  !  where  is 
thy  sting  ?     O  grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ?  " — /.   Cor.,  Ij :  S4-SS- 

Prosopopoeia,  or  Personitiratiou,  is  a  figure  by 
which  in  imagination  we  ascribe  intelligence  and  personality 
to  unintelligent  beings  or  abstract  qualities. 
Examples. — "The  ii'orm,  aware  of  his  intent, 

Harangued  himthus,  right  eloquent." — Cozvper. 
"Ln,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears  !  " — Rogers. 

Erotesis  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form 
of  interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  but,  in  general,  con- 
fidently to  assert  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked. 

Example, — "  Hast  thou  an  arm  like  God  ?  or  canst  thou  thunder 
with  a  voice  like  him?  " — ^Job,  40:g. 

Ecphonesis  is  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some 
violent  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Example. — "  O  liberty  !  — O  sound  once  delightful  to  everv  Roman 
ear! — O  sacred  privilege  of  Itonian  citizenship  I — once  sacred — now 
trampled  upon." — Cicero. 

Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  things  in  ojiposition  to  heighten 
their  effect  by  contrast. 


^ 


^=4^ 


COMPOSITION. 


35 


Exampli-. — "Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign  : 

Thouj;h/i><?r,  luxurious  ;  though  submissive^  vain  ; 
Though  ^/•ai'C,  yet  trijliu^ ;  zealous,  yet  untrue  ; 
And  e'en  in  penance^  planning  sius  ane-jj"-GoUlsmith. 
Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  advance 
liy  successive  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more  important 
and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is  more  and  more  min- 
ute and  particular. 
Examples. — "Then  Virtue    became  silent,  heartsick,  pined  a-.vay  anil 

Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  sneeringly  utters  the 
direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood ;  as,  "Go 
on ;  time  is  worth  nothing  " — meaning  that  it  is  very  valuable. 

Apopliasis  is  the  pretended  suppression  of  what  one  is 
all  the  time  actually  mentioning;  as,  "I  shall  say  it  oth  i  fi^  o(  the 
immorality  prevalent  in  r.iris — immorality  which  is  all  the  more 
dangerous  because  arrayed  in  the  most  attractive  garbs." 

The  Parallel  is  a  figure  used  to  show  the  resemblance 
between  two  characters  or  writings,  to  show  their  conformitv'  in 
essential  points;  as,  the  parallel  between  the  Old  and  New 
Testament. 

Paralipsis  pretends  to  conceal  or  omit  what  is  really 
suggested  ami  enforced. 

Example. — "/zvill  not  call  hint  a  villain  because  it  would  he  iini>ar- 
liamentary." 


Allusion  is  a  figure  by  which  some  word  or  phrase  in  a 
sentence  calls  to  mind,  as  if  accidentally,  another  similar  or 
analogous  subject. 

Example. — "I  was  surrounded  with  difliculties,  and  possessed  no 
clue  by  which  I  could  effect  my  escape." 

Repetition  seizes  some  emphatic  word  or  phrase,  and,  to 
mark  its  importance,  makes  it  occur  fre<|uent!y  in  the  same 
sentence. 

Example. — "He  sang  Darius,  great  and  good, 
By  too  severe  a  fate, 
Fallen,  fallen,  fallen,  fallen, 

Fallen  from  his  high  estate  and  weltering  in  his  blood." 
Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  be- 
ginning of  two  or  more  words  immediately  succeeding  each 
other. 

Example. — "The  lordly  lion  leaves  his  lonely  lair." 
Eupliemisin   is  a  softened  mode  of  speech   for   what 
would  be  disagreeable  or  oftensive  if  told  in  the  plainest  lan- 
guage. 

Example. — Cushi  did  not  say  to  David,  "Absalom  is  killed  ;  "  but, 
".ir«K  all  the  enemies  of  the  hingbe  as  thatj'oungnian.^' 

Ononiatopwia  is  the  foi-mation  of  words  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  their  sound  will  suggest  the  sense;  as, (5;/z2,  hiss,  roar. 
Example. — "On  the  ear 
Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar." 


# 


I  * 

1 — *r- 


PROSODY 


§^ 


^ 1 ^1 

~  T     r 

Dr.  Blair  says  that  the  best  definition  of 
Poetry  is  this :  "  Poetry  is  the  language  of  pas- 
sion, or  of  enlivened  imagination,  formed  most 
commonly  into  regular  numbers."  Poetry  is 
older  than  prose.  Poems  and  songs  are  the 
first  objects  that  make  their  appearance  in  all 
nations.  During  the  infancy  of  Poetry' all  its 
different  kinds  were  mingled  in  the  same  com- 
position; but  in  the  progress  of  society  poems 
assumed  their  different  regular  forms. 

Prosody  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which 
treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of  feet,  and 
the  modes  in  which  they  are  combined  in  verse. 


(f^" 


Versification. 

Versitication  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into  lines  of 
corresponding  length  so  as  to  produce  harmony  by  the  regular 
alternation  of  syllables  differing  in  quantity.  Verse  is  therefore 
language  so  arranged  in  lines  that  syllables  of  certain  length 
may  occur  at  certain  intervals. 

Verse  is  the  form  in  which  poetry  generally  appears.  Poetry 
is  distinguished  from  prose  not  only  by  this   form,  but  by  its 


V  

T  y 

containing   more   figures,  as  well   as  peculiar   words  and  ex- 
pressions. 

Tliere  are  two  kinds  of  verse.  Rhyme  and  Blank  Verse. 
Illiyme  is  that  kind  of  verse  in  which  there  is  a  corre- 
spondence of  sound  in  the  last  syllables  of  two  or  more  lines ;  as : 
"True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dress\1. 
What  oft  was  thought,  but  ne'er  so  well  express^d.^^ 
Blank  Verse  is  metrical  language  without  rhyme;  as: 
"Shall  we  serve  Heaven 
With  less  respect  than  we  do  minister 
To  our  gross  selvep?  " 


Quantity. 


By  the  Quantity  of  a  syllable  is  meant  the  time  required 
for  its  utterance.  According  to  this  time,  syllables  are  distin- 
guished as  Long  and  Short.  One  long  syllable  is  equivalent  to 
tw  o  short  ones. 

A  long  syllable  may  be  denoted  by  a  short  horizontal  line 
placed  over  its  vowel;  a  short  syllable,  by  a  curve. 

In  the  case  of  monosyllables,  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  ad- 
verbs and  inteijections  are  for  the  most  part  long  ;  articles  are 
always  short ;  prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  generally 
short ;  pronouns  are  long  when  emphasized ;  when  not,  short. 

Poetic  Feet. 

A  Foot  is  two  or  more  syllables  constituting  a  portion  of  a 
line. 

A  I.,ine  of  Poetry  consists  of  successive  combinations 

of  feet. 


\ 


3" 


-A 


COMPOSITION. 


The  most  important  feet  in  English  verse  are  as  follows  : 
The  Iambus,  a  short  syllable  and  a  long       .        .        .  '  -  severe. 

The  Trochee,  a  long  syllable  and  a  short  .  .  .  "  '  trembling. 
The  Spondee,  two  long  syllables  ....  -  ■  cold  winds. 

The  PjTi-liic,  two  short  syllables  ....  "  ■  wil|d6rness. 
The  Anapest,  two  short  and  a  long  .  .  .  .  '""  barricade. 
The  Dactyl,  a  long  and  two  short  .  .  .  .  "  "  -  tendfirly. 
The  Amphibrach,  a  short,  a  long  and  a  short  .  •  "  '  trSmendoDs. 
The  Amphimacer,  a  long,  a  short  and  a  long        "  ■  "  saddle -bags. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  the  Molosse,  of  three  long  sylla- 
bles ;  the  Tribi-ach,  of  three  short ;  the  Bacchy,  a  short  syllable 
and  two  long  ones;  the  Antibacchy,  or  Hypobacchy,  two  long 
syllables  and  a  short  one. 

The  four  principal  kinds  of  verse  or  poetic  measure  are  the 
Iambus,  Trochee,  Anapest  and  Dactyl. 

When  a  line  is  wholly  composed  of  any  of  these  four  feet,  it 
is  called  Pure.  The  remaining  feet  never  form  whole  lines 
by  themselves,  but  are  sometimes  interspersed  with  other  feet. 
A  line  into  which  different  feet  enter  is  called  Mixed. 

Metre. 

By  9Ietres  are  meant  the  different  systems  according  to 
which  verses  or  lines  are  formed.  They  are  named  from  the 
feet  employed  and  their  number. 

Metres  in  which  the  iambus  prevails  are  called  Iambic;  those 
in  which  the  trochee  prevails,  Trochaic ;  the  anapest,  Anapestic  ; 
the  dactyl,  Dactylic. 

Distinguished  by  the  number  of  feet  in  a  line,  the  varieties  of 
metre  are  as  follows :  Manometer,  which  consists  of  one  foot ; 
Dimeter,  of  two  feet;  Trimeter,  of  three;  Tetrameter,  of  four; 
Pentameter,  of  five  ;  Hexameter,  of  six ;  Heptameter,  of  seven  ; 
Odometer,  of  eight. 

Some  metres,  besides  a  certain  number  of  complete  feet,  con- 
tain a  syllable  over  at  the  end  of  the  line.  Such  metres  are 
called  Hypercatalectic,  or  Hypermeter.  When  a  syllable  is  want- 
ing the  verse  is  said  to  be  eatalectic ;  when  the  measure  is  ex- 
act the  line  is  acatalectic. 

Scanning,  or  Scansion,  is  the  process  of  dividing  a 
line  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Stanza  "Long,  Short  and  Common  Metre. 

A  Stanza  is  the  combination  of  several  lines  in  poetry, 
forming  a  distinct  division  of  the  poem  ;  as  : 

"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day. 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me." 

A  Verse  is  but  a  single  line  of  a  stanza — a  certain  number 
of  long  and  short  syllables,  metrically  disposed. 

"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 

Long  Metre. 

The  long,  short  and  common  metres  are  known  by  the  num- 
ber of  feet  or  syllables  found  in  them.  Long  metre  stanzas 
contain  in  each  line  four  iambic  feet ;  as : 

"Through  every  age,  eternal  God, 
Thou  art  our  rest,  our  safe  abode: 
High  was  thy  throne  ere  heaven  was  made. 
Or  earth,  thy  humble  footstool,  laid." 


Short  Meti'e. 

Short  metre  stanzas  contain  three  lines  of  six  syllables  and 
one  of  eight  syllables — the  third  line  being  the  longest  and  con- 
taining four  iambic  feet ;  as : 

"Sweet  is  the  time  of  Spring, 

When  nature's  charms  appear; 
The  birds  with  ceaseless  pleasure  sing 
And  hail  the  opening  year." 

Coiiuuon  Metre. 

Iambic  verse  of  seven  feet,  divided  into  two  lines,  the  first 
containing  four  and  the  latter  three  feet,  makes  what  is  known 
as  common  metre  ;  as  : 

"When  all  thy  mercies,  O  my  God  ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys. 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 
In  wonder,  love  and  praise." 

Iambic  Verse. 

In  Iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  even  syllables,  and 
the  odd  ones  are  short.     It  consists  of  the  following  measures  : 
Measure  1st.    Iambic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer> 
**0  all  I  ye  peo|  -plfi,  clap  |  y6ur  hands,  |  5nd  with  |  triuni|phant 
voic|  -es  sing; 
No    force  [   th6    mlghtl-y     pow'r  |   withstands  |  of    God  |  the 
tl|  -niversj  -  al  King." 
Each  couplet  of  this  verse  is  now  commonly  reduced  to,  or 
exchanged  for,  a  simple  stanza  of  four  tetrameter  lines  ;  thus  : 
"The  hour  |  is  come  |  — the  cher|  -ish'd  hour, 
When,  from  |  the  bus|  -y  world  |  set  free, 
I  seek  I  at  length  |  my  lone|  -ly  bower, 
And  muse  |  in  si|  -lent  thought  |  on  thee." 
Measure  3nd.    Iambic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 
"The  Lord  |  descend] -ed  from  1  above  |  and  b6w'd| the  hfiavj -ens  high." 
Modern  poets  have  divided  this  kind  of  verse  into  alternate 
lines  of  four  and  of  three  feet ;  thus  : 

"O  blind  I  t6  each  |  indull  -gent  aim 
Of  pow'r  I  supremel  -ly  wise, 
Who  fanl-cy  haplpiness  |    in  aught 
The  hand  |  of  Heav'n  |  denies  !  " 
Measure  3rd.    Iambic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 
"Thy  realm  |  f6revl-er  lasts,  1  thy  own  |  M6ssl|-ah  reigns." 
This  is  the  Alexandrine;  it  is  seldom  used  except  to  com- 
plete a  stanza  in  an  ode,  or  to  close  a  period  in  heroic  rhyme. 
3Ieasure  4th.    lamLbic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 
"F6r  praise  |  too  dear]  -ly  lOv'd  |  or  warm|  -ly  sought 
Enfee|-bles  all  j  inter| -nil  strength  |  of  thouglit." 

This  is  the  regular  English  heroic.  It  is  perhaps  the  only 
measure  suitable  for  blank  verse.  The  Elegiac  stanza  consists 
of  four  heroics  rhyming  alternately ;  thus : 

"Enough  I  has  Heav'n  |  indulg'd  1  of  joy  1  below 
To  tempt  !  our  tar|  -riance  in  |  this  lov'd  |  retreat; 
Enough  I  has  Heav'n  |  ordain'd  |  of  use] -ful  woe, 
To  make  |  us  lanl-guish  for  |  a  hap  | -pier  seat." 

Measure  5th.    Iambic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"The  j3ys  1  above  |  arc  Qn] -d5rst5od 
And  rel|-ish'd  on]-ly  by  [  the  good." 

Measure  6th.    Iambic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"Blue  light]  -nings  singe  |  the  waves, 
And  thunl  -dCr  rends  1  the  rock." 


/ 


\ 


-^  V 


•V 

« 

«      p 

i- 

a 

\ 

A 

B 

1 

COMPOSITION.                                                                                                37 

1 

» 

Measure  7th.    Iambic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

9Iva8iire  ^tli.    Trochaic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dlmetor. 

*'Tlieir  ]uve  I  and  5\ve 

"Fancy  1  viewing, 

Supply  1  thS  liw." 

Joys  en| -suing." 

Sleasure  8th.    lanibic  uf  One  Feet,  or  Monometer. 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

"How  bright 

"Tflmult  1  cEase, 

Th6  light." 

Sink  to  1  puucc." 

In  iambic  verse,  the  first  foot  is  often  varied  by  introducing 

Alea«ure  8th.    Trochaic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

a  trochee ;  as : 

"Changing, 

"Planets  1  and  suns  |  run  Ia\v|-less  through  |  thS  sky." 

Ranging." 

By  a  syn^eresis  of  the  two  short  syllables,  or  perhaps  by  mere 

substitution,  an  anapest  may  sometimes  be  employed  for  an  iam- 
bus, or  a  dactyl  for  a  trochee ;  as : 

Anapestlc  Verse. 

"OVr  manl-^  a/z-fjl-en,  nian|  -y  aji\-ery  Aip." 

In  Anapestic  verse  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third  syllable. 

Trochaic  Verse. 

The  first  foot  of  an  anapestic  line  may  be  an  iambus, 

Pleasure  1st.    Anapestic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

In  Trochaic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  syllables,  and 

"At  the  close  1  6f  the  day,  |  when  the  ham  [-let  Is  sUlI, 

the  even  ones  are  short,      Singlc-rhyiued  Trochaic  omits  the 

And  mor-\X2\s.  the  sweet  |  of  forgcl| -fulness  prove." 

final  short  syllable,  that  it  may  end  with  a  long  one.     This  kind 

HYPERMETER  WITH   DOUBLE   RHYME. 

of  verse  is  the  same  as  iambic  would  be  without  the  initial  short 

syllable.     Iambics  and  ti-ochaics  often  occur  in  the  same  poem. 

"In  aword,  I  so  completel-Iy  forestall'd  |  were  the  wish]- es. 
Even  har|-mony  struck  |  from  the  noise  |  of  the  dishl-es," 

Measure  1st.    Trochaic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer. 

HYPERMETER  WITH  TRIPLE   RHYME. 

"Once  up  1 -on  &  |  midnight  ]  dreary,  j  while  I  |  pondered,  )  weak  and  | 

weary, 
Over  [  m5ny  a  ['quaint  and  |  cQriOus  |  volume  |  of  for] -gotten  (  lore, 

"Lean  Tom,  |  when  I  saw  ]  him,  last  week,  [  on  his  horse  \  awry^ 

Threatened  loud|-ly  to  turn  |  me  to  stone  |  with  his  sor\-ccry,'''* 

While   1  1  nodded,  j  nearly  |  napping,  |  sudden]  -ly  there  |  came  a  1 

Measure  2ncl.    Anapestic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

tapping. 

"I  ammonl-arch  Of  all  |  Isun-gy; 

As   of  1  some   one  |  gently  |  rapping,  I  rapping  |  at  my  [  chamber  [ 
door." 

My  right  \  there  is  none  |  to  dispute." 

Measure  3ntl.    Trochaic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 

Measure  3rd.    Anapestic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"Hasten,  |  Lord,  to  |  rescue  |  me,  and  |  set  me  |  safe  from  |  trouble; 

"When  I  look  1  6n  my  beys. 

Shame  thou  [  those  who  |  seek  my  |  soul,  re  | -ward  their  |  mischief  | 

They  renew  |  all  my  joys." 

double." 

Measure  4th.    Anapestic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

SINGLE     RHYME. 

"On  the  land 

"Nightand  |  morning  |  were  at  ]  meeting  j  over  [  "\Vater|-]oo; 

Let  mc  stand." 

Cocks  had  [  sung  their  |  earliest  j  greeting;  j  faint  and  |  low 

they  1  crew.'* 

Dactylic  Verse. 

Pleasure  3rd.    Trochaic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 

"On  a  1  mountain  |  strctch'd  be|-n5ath  a  |  hoary  ]  will6w. 

In  the  pure  Dactylic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first  sylla- 

Lay a  |  shepherd  |  swain,  and  |  view'd  the  [  rolling  j  billow." 

ble  of  each  successive  three;   that  is,  on  the  first,  the  fourth, 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

the   seventh,  the  tenth  syllable,  etc.      Full  dactylic  generally 

"Lonely  j  in  the  I  forest,  |  subtle  [  from  his  |  birth, 

forms  triple  rhyme.     When  one  of  the  final  short  syllables  is 

Lived  a  |  necro]  -niancer,  [  wondrous  |  son  of  |  earth." 

omitted   the   rhyme   is   double  ;  when  both,  single.      Dactylic 

Measure  4tli.    Trochaic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 

with  single  rhyme  is  the  same  as  anapestic  would  be  without 
its  initial  short  syllables.      Dactylic  measure  is  rather  uncom- 

"V'Irtue's 1  brlght'nlng  ]  ray  shall  |  beam  f(5r|Sver." 

mon,  and,  when  employed,  is  seldom  perfectly  regular. 

SINGLE    RHYME, 

"Idle  1  after  1  dinner,  |  In  his  |  chair. 

Measure  1st.    Dactylic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer. 

Sat  a  1  farmer,  |  ruddy,  |  fat  and  |  fair." 

"NImr6d  th5  |  liQnt5r  w.ls  |  miglity  in  |  liQntIng,  Snil  |  famed  as  tliS  1 
ruler  af  1  cities  6f  j  yOre; 

Measure  5th.    Trochaic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

TJabel   and  |  Ercch,   and  |  Accad,    and  [  Calneh,   from  |  Shinar*s 

"RoQnd  a  1  holy  |  c^Im  dIf|-fQsIng, 

fair  1  region  his  |  name  afar  |  bore." 

Love  of  1  peace  and  |  lonely  |  musing." 

Measure  3nd.    Dactylic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 

SINGLE     RHYME, 

"Out  of  the  1  kingdom  of  |  Christ  shall  be  |  gathered,  by  |  angels 

"ResUess  1  mortals  1  toll  fur  |  naught, 

o'er  I  Satan  vici -torious, 

Bliss  in  \  vain  from  |  earth  is  |  sought." 

All   that  of;  -fendeth,  th.at  |  lieth,  that  |  faileth   to  |  honor  his  ) 

Measure  6th>    Trochaic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

name  ever  1  glorious.** 

"When  our  |  hearts  arc  [  mSurnlng." 

Measure  3rcl.    Dactylic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 

SINGLE     RHYME. 

"Time,  thou  art  I  ever  in  I  motion,  on  [  wheels  of  the  I  days,  years 

and  1  ages;                                                                                                         \ 

J 

"In  the  I  daysOf  I  old 

Restless  as  ]  waves  of  the  |  ocean,  when  |  Eunis  or  |  Boreas  | 

1 

' 

Stories  |  plainly  |  told." 

rages.'* 

,  e' 

/ 

^ 

g  , 

V 

to           ^ 

-»         O 

V*" 

\ 


r.s 


COMPOSITION. 


EXAMPLE   WITHOUT   RHYME. 

"This  is  the  |  forest  pri| -mcval;  but  |  where  are  the  |  hearts  that 
be|  -neath  it 
I-eap'd  lilie  the  |  roe,  when  he  |  hears  in  the  |  woodland  the  | 
voice  of  the  |  liuntsman?" 

Measure  4th.     Dactylic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 

"Xow  thou  dost  I  welcome  me,  |  welcome  mc  |  from  the  d.Trk  |  sea. 
Land  of  the  |  beautiful,  |  beautiful,  |  land  of  the  |  free." 

Measure  5th.    Dactylic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"Boys  will  an|-tlcipjte,  |  lavish,  and  |  dissipate 
All  that  ytSur  |  busy  pate  |  hoarded  with  |  care ; 
And,  in  their  |  foolishness,  |  passion  and  |  mulishness, 
Charge  you  with  |  churlishness,  |  spurning  your  |  pray'r.' 

Measure  Gth.    Dactylic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"Ev5rsing  ]  merrily,  |  merrily." 
Bleasure  "fh.    Dactylic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"Free  frdm  sa|  -tiety, 
Care  and  anxj-iety. 
Charms  in  val-riety 
Fall  to  his  I  share." 

Dactylic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"Fearfully, 
TearfuUv." 


31ea«ure  8th. 


Caesural  Pause. 

A  slight  pause  should  be  made,  in  reading  poetry,  at  the  end 
of  every  line,  though  the  sense  may  not  require  it.  Often  a 
pause  is  made  in  or  near  the  middle  of  the  line,  especially  when 
it  is  a  long  one.  This  brings  out  the  meaning  and  improves 
the  rhythm  and  effect.  This  pause  is  called  the  cissural  pause 
(i.e.,  cutting).  TXxt  final  pause  is  that  occurring  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  and  should  not  be  distinctly  marked  when  the  sense  does 
not  require  it. 

Varieties  of  Poetry. 

Poetry  is  of  various  kinds,  such  as  Epic,  Dramatic,  Lyric, 
Elegiac,  Pastoral  and  Didactic. 

£pic  Poetry  is  the  most  dignified.  An  epic  poem  is 
the  recital  of  some  illustrious  enterprise  in  a  poetical  form. 
The  action  or  subject  of  an  epic  poem  must  have  three  proper- 
ties: it  must  be  one;  it  must  be  great;  it  must  be  interesting. 
One  action  or  enterprise  must  constitute  its  subject  Homer's 
Iliad,  Virgil's  .Eneid  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  are  examples 
of  epic  poetiy. 

Didactic  Poetry  is  written  with  the  express  intention 
to  convey  instruction  and  knowledge.  It  may  be  executed  in 
different  ways.  The  poet  may  treat  some  instructive  subject  in 
a  regular  form,  or  he  may  inveigh  against  particular  vices  or 
make  some  moral  observations  on  human  life  and  character. 

Descriptive  Poetry  is  indicated  by  its  name.  In 
general,  description  is  introduced  as  an  embellishment,  not  as 
the  subject  of  a  regular  work. 

Various  Kinds  of  Poems. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  poems,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  chief  designations: 

A  Song  is  a  short  poem  to  be  sung  or  uttered  with  musical 
modulations. 


A  Chant  is  a  song  or  words  suited  to  musical  tones  with- 
out musical  measure. 

A  Hyillll  is  a  song  of  praise,  generally  of  a  religious  char- 
acter. 

An  Ode  is  similar  to  a  song  or  hymn.  There  are  four  de- 
nominations of  these.  I.  Odes  addressed  to  God  or  composed 
on  religious  subjects.  2.  Heroic  odes,  which  concern  the  cele- 
bration of  heroes  and  great  actions.  3.  Moral  or  philosophical 
odes,  which  refer  chiefly  to  virtue,  friendship  and  humanity.  4. 
Festive  and  amorous  odes,  which  are  calculated  merely  for 
amusement  or  pleasure. 

A  Paean  is  a  loud  and  joyous  song,  a  song  of  triumph  or 
rejoicing. 

A  Ballad  is  a  popular  song,  narrative  or  sentimental,  in 
simple,  homely  verses. 

An  Epithalamiuni  is  a  nuptial  song  or  poem  in  praise 
of  the  bride  or  bridegroom.  The  Song  of  Solomon  in  the  Bible 
is  a  specimen. 

An  Epigram  is  a  short  poem  treating  only  of  one  thing 
and  ending  with  some  lively,  ingenious  and  natural  thought. 

A  Sonnet  is  a  poem  of  fourteen  lines,  two  stanzas  of  four 
verses  each  and  two  of  three  each,  and  so  arranged  that  in  the 
first  part  the  first  line  is  made  to  rhyme  with  the  fourth,  fifth 
and  eighth,  the  second  rhyming  with  the  ^hird,  sixth  and 
seventh,  while  in  the  second  part  the  first,  third  and  fifth,  and 
the  second,  fourth  and  sixth,  also  rhyme  with  each  other. 

A  Cantata  is  a  poem  set  to  music,  comprising  choruses 
and  solos  and  recitations,  arranged  in  a  somewhat  dramatic 
manner. 

A  Canzonet  is  a  short  song  in  one,  two  or  three  parts. 

A  Charade  may  be  in  prose  as  well  as  poetry.  It  is  based 
upon  a  word,  the  parts  of  which  taken  separately  are  significant 
of  their  meaning  and  that  of  the  whole  word. 

An  Epitaph  is  a  brief  descriptive  sentence,  in  prose  or 
verse,  which  is  used  on  a  tombstone. 

A  Satire  is  a  composition,  generally  poetical,  holding  up 
vice  or  folly  to  reprobation  ;  a  keen  or  severe  exposure  of  what 
in  public  or  private  morals  deserves  rebuke ;  an  invective 
poem. 

A  Parody  is  a  kind  of  poetical  pleasantry  in  which  what  is 
written  on  a  subject,  generally  serious,  is  altered  and  applied 
in  a  ludicrous  vein. 

A  Prologue  is  a  poem  introductory  to  a  play  or  discourse, 
generally  spoken  before  the  play  begins. 

An  Epilogue  is  a  short  poem  reviewing  the  main  inci- 
dents of  a  play,  spoken  by  the  actor  or  actors  at  the  termination 
of  a  performance. 

An  Impromptu  is  a  verse  or  poetical  composition  writ- 
ten oiT-hand  without  previous  study. 

An  Acrostic  is  a  composition,  usu.ally  in  verse,  in  which 
the  first  or  last  letters  of  the  lines,  in  their  order,  or  of  words, 
one  in  each  line,  form  a  name  or  sentence. 

Poetical  Peculiarities  or  License. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities  in 
which  poets  indulge  and  are  indulged,  and  which  are  termed 
poetic  license,  which  is  a  deviation  from  the  strict  rules  of  gram- 


V 


COMPOSITION. 


39 


/ 


1.  They  very  often  omit  the  articles;  as: 

"  What  dreadful  pkasvirc  !  there  to  stand  sublime 
Like  shipivreck'd  mariner  on  desert  -waste!  " 

2.  They  abbreviate  many  nouns ;  as,  amaze  for  amazement; 
corse  for  corpse ;  fount  iox  fountain. 

3.  They  employ  several  nouns  that  are  not  used  in  prose  or 
are  used  but  rarely;  as,  bcnison,fane,  ken,  welkin. 

4.  They  introduce  the  noun  self  after  another  noun  in  the 
possessive  case ;  as  : 

"Affliction's  self  deplores  thy  youthful  doom." 

5.  They  often  place  adjectives  after  their  nouns ;  as  : 

•*  Come,  nymph  demure,  with  mantle  blue.'^ 

6.  They  place  before  the  verb  nouns  or  other  words  that 
usually  come  after  it ;  and  after  it,  those  that  usually  come  be- 
fore it;  as : 

"  No  jealousy  their  daxvn  of  love  o*crcast, 
Nor  blasted  zvere  their  zuedded  days  with  strife.** 

7.  They  ascribe  qualities  to  things  to  which  they  do  not  liter- 
ally belong ;  as  : 

"  Or  drozusy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds.'* 

8.  They  use  concrete  terms  to  express  abstract  qualities  (;.<•., 
adjectives  for  nouns) ;  as  : 

*'  Meanwhile,  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  nezv. 
Sublime  or  dreadful,  on  earth,  sea  or  sky.** 

9.  They  substitute  quality  for  manner  {i.e.,  adjectives  for  ad- 
verbs) ;  as : 

"Thither  fo«//«Kn/ pilgrims  crowded  still.'* 

10.  They  fonn  new  compound  epithets  ;  as: 

'•  In  zvorld- rejoicing s\.:i\.c,  it  moves  sublime." 

11.  They  connect  the  comparative  degree  to  the  positive  ;  as  : 

'*Near  and  more  near  the  billows  rise." 

12.  They  form  many  adjectives  in  _)' which  are  not  in  common 
use ;  as,  agleamy  ray  ;  towcry  height ;  vasty  deep. 

13.  They  employ  adjectives  of  an  abbreviated  form ;  as, 
drear  for  dreary  ;  scant  for  scanty  ;  ebon  for  ebony. 

14.  They  employ  several  adjectives  that  are  not  used  in  prose, 
or  are  used  but  seldom  ;  as,  azuie,  darksome,  rapt,  sear. 

15.  They  employ  personal  pronouns  and  introduce  their  nouns 
afterwards ;  as : 

*'//  curled  not  Tweed  alone,  that  breeze.** 

16.  They  sometimes  omit  the  relative  of  the  nominative  case  ; 
as : 

"  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  tlie  wise?" 

17.  They  omit  the  antecedent,  or  introduce  it  after  the  rela- 
tive ;  as : 

*'  Wlto  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys," 
iS.  They  remove  relative  pronouns  and  other  connections  in- 
to the  body  of  the  clauses  ;  as : 

"  Parts  the  fine  locks,  her  graceful  head  that  deck." 
19.  They  make  intransitive  verbs  transitive  ;  as : 

" A  while  he  stands, 

Gazin^the  inverted  landscape,  half  afraid 
To  meditate  the  blue  profound  below." 


20.  They  give  to  the  imperative  mood  the  first  and  the  tliird 
person ;  as : 

"  Tiiru  Ti/e  a  moment  fancy's  rapid  flight." 
"  Be  man's  peculiar  v/ork  his  sole  delight  " 

21.  They  employ  ca«,  (■!»«/</  and  would  as  principal  verbs 
transitive ;  as : 

**  fVliat  for  ourselves  we  can,  is  always  ours." 

22.  They  place  the  infinitive  before  the  word  on  which  it 
depends ;  as : 

"  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed." 

23.  They  place  the  au.\iliary  after  its  principal ;  as  : 

"  No  longer  heed  the  sunbeam  bright 
That  plays  on  Carron's  breast  he  can,*' 

24.  Before  verbs  they  sometimes  arbitrarily  employ  or  omit 
prefixes;  as,  begird,  bedim,  for  gird,  dim;  lure,  ivail,  for  al- 
lure, bewail. 

25.  They  abbreviate  verbs  ;  as,  list  for  listen  ;  ope  for  open. 

26.  They  employ  several  verbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose  or 
are  used  but  rarely  ;  as,  astound,  ween,  trow. 

27.  They  sometimes  imitate  a  Greek  construction  of  the  in- 
finitive ;  as  : 

"  For  not  to  have  been  dipp*d  in  Lethe  lake 
Could  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die.** 

28.  They  employ  the  participles  more  frequently  than  prose 
writers,  and  in  a  construction  somewhat  peculiar ;  as : 

"  He  came,  and,  standing  in  their  midst,  explained 
The  peace  rejected,  but  the  truce  obtained.*' 

29.  They  employ  several  adverbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose 
or  are  used  but  seldom  ;  as,  haply,  felly,  rifely. 

30.  They  give  to  adverbs  a  peculiar  location  ;  as : 

"  Peeping  Uom  forth  their  alleys  green." 

31.  They  omit  the  introductory  adverb  there;  as  : 

"  Was  n;«ught  around  but  images  of  rest." 

32.  They  employ  the  conjunctions  or  ....  or  and  nor 

nor;  as : 

"  Or  by  the  lazy  Scheldt  or  wandering  Po." 

33.  They  often  place  prepositions  and  their  adjuncts  before 
the  words  on  which  they  depend  ;  as :  ' 

** Against  your  fame  with  fondness  hate  combines.** 

34.  They  sometimes  place  the  preposition  after  its  object ; 

as : 

"When  beautv,  Eden's  bowers  within." 

35.  They  employ  interjections  more  frequently  than  prose 

writers ;  as : 

"  Oh,  let  me  gaze — of  gazing  there's  no  end. 
Oh,  let  me  think— Thought  too  is  wilder'd  here.** 

36.  They  employ  antiquated  words  and  modes  of  expression ; 

as: 

**  Withouten  that  would  come  an  heavier  bale.** 
"  He  was  to  weet,  a  little  roguish  page, 
^■aK^  sleep  and  play,  who  minded  naught  at  all.'* 


■<^ 


^ 


40 


ELOCUTION. 


.^%-..        , 


♦  HOW  TO  READ  AND  SPEAK  CORRECTLY  AND  ELEGANTLY. 


^If^LOCUTION  does  not  consist,  as  many 
^lp5^  suppose,  in  merely  learning  to  "  recite 
^^^g  pieces."     It  is  the  art  of  reading   and 
/'(|)^\  speaking  in  tlie  most  correct  and  ele- 
n       gant    manner.     Before  this    can  be  at- 
tained it  is  necessary  to  articulate  dis- 
tinctly, to  pronounce  correctly,  and  to  cultivate 
and  strengthen  the  vocal  organs. 

The  study  of  Elocution  is  one  in  which 
none  can  be  pronounced  perfect.  As,  in  pen- 
manship, a  proficient  may  greatly  improve  by 
practice,  and  thousands  are  content  to  possess  a 
handwriting  next  to  illegible,  instead  of  the 
neat,  elegant  hand  of  which  they  could  easily 
become  master,  so  thousands  are  satisfied  with 
a  harsh,  disagreeable  voice,  a  careless  articula- 
tion, a  monotonous  expression  and  a  repulsive 
manner,  when  by  a  proper  training  they  might 
become  fluent  conversationalists,  expressive 
readers  and  easy,  if  not  eloquent,  speakers. 
How  many  are  content  to  work  with  one 
talent,  when  they  could  readily  poesess  five! 
Among  well  educated  persons  of  taste  and 
refinement,  how  often  do  we  find  those  to 
whom  a  knowledge  of  Elocution  would  be  inval- 
uable, because  of  its  power  to  set  forth  their 
other  accomplishments !  The  first  tones  of  a 
speaker's  voice  always  convey  an  idea,  favorable 
or  unfavorable,  of  the  speaker  himself;  and,  if 
the  latter,  much  effort  will  be  required  of  him 
to  regain  the  estimation  so  unwittingly  lost. 
What  can  be  more  satisfactory  to  its  possessor 
than  a  rich,  clear,  melodious  tone,  a  distinct, 
clean-cut  articulation,  a  perfect  command  of  the 
modulations,  and  a  pleasing  style  both  in  voice 


and  manner?  All  this  is  possible  to  any  one 
who  does  not  possess  imperfect  vocal  organs 
and  who  will  assiduously  devote  himself  or  her- 
self to  the  study,  believing  it  to  be  worthy  of 
all  efforts  required  to  obtain  a  mastery  of  the 
art. 

Elocution  consists  in  the  utterance  or  ex- 
pression of  thought. 

Thought  may  be  conveyed  by  voice  or  ges- 
ture ;  the  latter  reaching  the  hearer  through  the 
eye,  the  former  through  the  ear. 

Elocution  may  be  divided  into  four  branches, 
viz. :  Vocal  Culture,  Articulation,  Expression,  or 
Modulation,  and  Gesture. 

Vocal  Culture. 

Voice  is  produced  by  breath  passing  over  the  vocal  chords, 
which  are  situated  in  the  laiynx,  or  upper  portion  of  the  wind- 
pipe. 

The  voice  is  the  principal  agent  by  whicli  thought  is  conveyed, 
and  is  the  basis  of  elocution. 

Proper  Breatlliug  consists  in  taking  in  and  givirfg 
out  full  inspirations  of  pure  air  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  in- 
terfere with  speech.  Correct  breathing  is  an  important  factor 
in  elocution,  of  more  consequence  than  might  be  supposed.  It 
should  be  so  timed  as  not  to  interfere  with  speech.  Breath  should 
be  taken  only  at  pauses.  Study  at  first  never  to  destroy  the 
connection  of  the  thought  by  a  pause  for  breathing  purposes.  In 
long  sentences  we  should  economize  the  breath  as  much  as 
possible. 

Tlie  culture  of  the  voice  should  be  a  matter  of  necessity  as 
well  as  the  training  of  the  mind  or  the  development  of  the  body. 
Frequent  vigorous  practice  induces  liealthy  activity ;  the  voice  is 
strengthened  and  rendereil  i)ure  and  resonant. 

Articulation. 

Articulation  consists  of  a  distinct  and  correct  utterance 
of  the  elementary  sounds.  These  sounds,  forty-six  in  number, 
are  forra::d  by  the  organs  of  speech  and  are  divided  into  Vocal 
Sounds,  Aspirate  Sounds  and  Combined  Sounds. 


/ 


\ 


\ 


/ 


ELOCUTION. 


41 


The  Organs  of  Articulation  are  the  tongue,  lips, 
palate  and  teeth,  forming  tlie  Lingual,  Labial,  Palatal  anil 
Dental  sounds,  respectively.  These  organs,  like  valves,  act 
either  singly  or  together  upon  the  stream  of  breath  issuing  from 
the  larynx,  and  mould  sound  into  speech.  The  mouth  cavity 
and  nasal  cavity  assist  in  modifying  the  tone  of  voice,  giving  it 
character  and  resonance. 

Vocal  Sounds  are  those  having  vocality. 

Aspirate  Sounds  are  those  produced  by  the  breath  only. 

Combined  Sounds  are  those  which  are  produced  by 
both  voice  and  breath. 

Cognates  are  those  sounds  which  occur  in  pairs,  one  vo- 
calized and  the  other  not,  but  both  having  the  same  articulate 
modification. 

The  Trilled  ''R"  often  adds  much  to  the  rendering  of 
a  passage ;  but,  like  the  flourish,  it  may  be  misplaced.  It 
should  be  used  sparingly,  seldom  or  never  in  the  most  serious 
discourse,  fn  light  descriptions  and  imit.ative  modulations  it 
may  be  employed,  taking  care,  however,  that  it  is  never  used 
unless  immediately  followed  by  a  vowel  sound. 

Practice  in  articulation  should  be  directed  especially  to  those 
exercises  in  which  transitions  or  repetitions  of  the 
same  sound  occur,  as  those  will  be  quite  difiicult  of  masteiy. 
See  that  both  sounds  are  correctly  and  distinctly  given,  and  that 
the  organs  of  speech  pass  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other. 
Examples, — i",  s.    Fal.?e  rounds. 

sh.sli.    Hu«//,  CAarlotte! 

z,  z,    A^  zealous. 

si,  si.    Severci7  siorms. 

Pronunciation. 

The  subject  of  Pronunciation  should  receive  special  attention 
by  the  learner,  as  a  good  voice  and  a  distinct  articulation  tend 
to  magnify  any  defect  in  utterance.  In  reading,  foreign  words 
are  often  found  which  are  utterly  unpronounceable  to  one  not 
having  at  least  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  language  to 
which  they  belong.  To  pronounce  such  words  according  to 
English  rules  would  in  many  cases  be  allowable  ;  but  this  could 
not  apply  to  Goethe  and  similar  names.  Clearly  the  only  cor- 
rect way  is  to  approach  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  native  pro- 
nunciation, except  in  words  and  names  thoroughly  anglicized . 
To  pronounce  Paris  Paree  would  be  pedantry. 

Modulation. 

modulation  consists  in  such  a  use  of  the  voice  as  will 
convey  the  thought  in  the  best  manner.  It  has  reference  to 
Quality,  Melody,  Form,  Force,  Time  and  Stress.  Modulation 
concerns  the  proper  management  of  the  voice  in  speech  and 
treats  of  those  changes  that  should  be  made  in  it  to  best  express 
the  sentiment. 

QU.iLITY  OF  THE  VOICE. 

The  Quality  or  kind  of  voice  may  be  Pure  or  Im- 
pure. In  ordinaiy  conversation,  reading  or  speaking,  we 
should  always  use  the  Pure ;  but  in  expressing  fear,  anger,  con- 
tempt, hatred,  loathing,  etc.,  we  should  employ  a  different  qual- 
ity of  tone.  \Vlien  we  feel  the  influence  of  these  passions,  we 
can  easily  make  use  of  the  proper  form,  but  we  should  so  con- 
trol the  voice  that,  in  reading  or  speaking  in  the  absence  of 


passion,  we  can  assume  the  tone  best  adapted  to  g;ive  expression 
to  the  sentiment. 

The  Pure  quality  is  used  in  all  cases  when  there  is  not  a 
demand  for  the  Impure.  Great  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  conversational  voice,  until  a  habit  of  cor- 
rect speech  is  acquired.  This  tone  should  always  be  full,  rich 
and  resonant.  Of  it  there  are  two  varieties,  the  Sim/le  and 
Orotund. 

The  Simple  Pure  is  used  in  ordinary  conversation, 
reading  and  speaking. 

Example. — And  he  said,  A  certain  man  had  two  sons;  and  tlic 
younger  of  them  s;iid  to  !iis  fatlier,  F;ithcr,  give  inc  the  portion  of 
goods  thiit  falleth  to  me.     And  lie  divided  unto  them  his  living. 

The  Orotund  is  a  full,  round  tone  .used  in  expressing 
grandeur,  awe,  sublimity,  courage,  reverence,  veneration  and 
other  holy  emotions. 

Example.— 'T\iO\\  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State! 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  grcatl 
The  Impure  quahty  of  voice  is  used  to  express  the  action 
of  the  baser  passions.     It  is  also  used  in  mimicr)'.    The  Impure 
qualities  are  the  .-/j/J/Vfli't-,  Pectoral,  Guttural  3iX\A  Falsetto. 

The  Aspirate  is  the  intense  whisper,  with  little  or  no  vo- 
cality.    It  is  used  to  denote  fear,  secrecy,  great  caution,  etc. 

jEAaw/Zt".— Soldiers,  you  are  now  within  a  few  steps  of  the  enemy's 
outposts. 

The  Pectoral  is  the  deep  tone  of  despair  and  anger.  It 
is  used  to  denote  great  solemnity  and  in  describing  the  super- 
natural. It  is  orotund,  very  low-  in  pilch,  and  is  formed  wholly 
in  the  throat. 

Example.— Oh,  I  have  passed  a  miscr.tblc  night— 

So  full  of  dreadful  dreams  and  ugly  sights. 
That,  as  I  am  a  Christian,  faithful  man, 
I  would  not  spend  another  such  a  night. 
Though  'twere  to  buy  a  world  of  happy  days— 
So  full  of  dismal  terror  was  the  time. 
The  Guttural  is  a  harsh  throat-tone,  lacking  the  orotund 
quality  of  the  Pectoral — the  language  of  hatred,  intense  anger, 
loathing  and  contempt. 

Example.— 1  loathe  ye  in  my  bosom, 

I  scorn  ye  with  mine  eye, 
And  I'll  taunt  ye  with  my  latest  breath. 
And  fight  ye  till  I  die  ! 
The  Falsetto  is  a  shrill,  high-pitched  tone  used  in  ex- 
pressing pain  or  terror.     It  is  also  employed  in  imitating  the 
female  voice. 

Example.— Vtlxen  the  lorn  damsel,  with  a  frantic  screech 
And  cheeks  as  hueless  as  a  brandy  peach. 
Cries,  "Help,  kyiiiJ  Jfeaveii t  "  and  drops  upon  her  knees 
On  the  green— baize,  beneath  the— canvas— trees. 

MELODY. 

Melody  in  elocution  is  the  effect  produced  upon  the  ear 
by  the  succession  of  vocal  notes.  It  has  reference  to  Pilch, 
Slides  and  Cadence. 

Pitch. 

PitCll  relates  to  the  elevation  or  depression  of  the  tone. 
It  niay  be  Natural,  Low  or  High. 
I^'atural  PitCll  is  used  in  all  ordinary  discourse. 

Exairtple. — 

Kiigland's  sun  was  slowly  setting  o'er  the  hills  so  far  away. 
Filling  all  the  land  with  beauty  at  the  dose  of  one  sad  day. 


/ 


42 


ELOCUTION. 


I^OW  Hitch  is  used  in  language  serious,  grave,  sublime, 
grand,  solemn,  reverential  and  vehement. 

Example, — Silence  how  dead,  and  darkness  how  profound; 
No  eye  nor  listening  ear  an  object  finds; 
Creation  sleeps. 

High  Pitch  is  used  to  express  sentiment  lively,  joyous 
or  impassioned.     It  is  also  characteristic  of  fear  and  grief. 
Example. — "  Oh,  spare  my  child,  my  joy,  my  pride  ; 
Oh,  give  me  back  my  child!  "  she  cried. 

Slides. 

Slides  are  inflections  of  the  voice  used  to  prevent  monotony 
and  to  give  better  expression  to  the  idea.  They  are  Ascending 
and  Descending ;  both  are  united  in  the  Circumjlex.  In  music 
the  ascent  and  descent  is  made  by  distinct  steps  ;  but  in  speech 
the  voice  is  bent  more  or  less  up- 
ward or  downward.  These 
changes  are  continually  taking 
place,  except  in  the  Monotone, 
and  they  give  expression  to  the 
voice. 

Ascending  Slides  de- 
note uncertainty,  doubt,  interro- 
gation and  incompleteness  of 
idea. 

£.roOT//t-.— Hast  thou   ever   known 
the  feeling 
I  have  felt,  when  I  have 
seen, 
'Mid   the  tombs  of    aged 
heroes, 
Memories  of  what  hath 
been? 

Descending  Slides  in- 
dicate positiveness,  determina- 
tion or  a  completion  of  the 
thought. 

Example. — Come  one,  come  all,  this 
rock  shall  fly 
From   its   firm   base    as 
soon  as  I ! 

The  Circumilex  is  used 

to  denote  suqirise  or  to  express 
a  secondary  meaning  which  may 
be  in  harmony  with  or  directly 
opposite  to  that  conveyed  by  the 
words. 

Example. — U7iall   shear  a  zuol/",  a  prowling  vjolft 

Cadence. 

Cadence  is  the  tone  with  which  a  sentence  terminates. 
According  to  the  sentiment,  it  may  have  the  ascending  or  the 
descending  slide,  the  rising  or  the  falling  circumflex,  or  it  may 
vanish  with  no  slide  whatever.  A  sentence  expressing  a  com- 
plete thought,  having  no  modifying  phrase  or  clause,  and  not 
affected  by  anything  preceding  or  following  it,  should  always 
terminate  with  a  downward  inflection ;  but  when  so  modified  it 
should  close  with  a  tone  adapted  to  the  connection  or  meaning. 
The  reader  should  study  variety  and  avoid  uniformity  in  closing 
sentences. 


FORM. 

Form  of  voice  may  be  Natural,  Effusive,  Expulsive  or 
Explosive. 

The  Xatural  is  that  ordinarily  used  in  conversation. 
Example. — While  a  single  white  cloud  to  its  haven  of  rest. 

On  the  white  wing  of  peace  floated  off  in  the  west. 
The  Effusive  is  a  very  light,  gentle  form  usually  charac- 
terized by  a  swell.     It  is  used  in  expressing  that  which  is  beau- 
tiful, tranquil  or  pathetic.     It  is  characteristic  of  lofty  sentiment 
not  requiring  vigorous  expression. 

Example. — How  beautiful  she  is  !  how  fair 

She  lies  within  those  arms  that  press 
Her  form  with  many  a  soft  caress 
Of  tenderness  and  watchful.care. 
The  ExpulsiTC  is  a  forcible  utterance  expressive  of  de- 
termination   and     intensity     ot 
feeling. 

Example. — Up,    all,   and  shout  for 
Rudiger — 
Defiance  unto  Death! 

The  Explosive  is  used 
in  vehement  language  and  in 
powerful  description.  It  usually 
manifests  itself  in  the  bursting  of 
the  voice  on  a  single  word. 

Example. — 
"Halt!" — tlie    dust-brown      rank 

stood  fast ; 
"Fire  !  " — out  blazed  the  rifle  blast. 

FORCE, 

Force  or  power  of  the  voice 
is  of  threckinds,  Natural^  Heavy 
and  Gentle. 

JVatural   Force  is   that 

most  commonly  used  in  speak- 
ing or  reading. 

Example. — 
Wc  are  two  travellers, Roger  and  I. 
Roger's    my    dog— come   here, 
you  scamp  ! 
Jump  for  the  gentleman — mind  your 


eye! 
Over  the  table— look  out  for  the 
lamp ! 

Heavy  Force  is  used  in 
grand  description   and   in   con- 
veying any  idea  of  power. 

Example. — Bell  never  yet  was  hung 

Between  whose  lips  there  swung 
So  grand  a  tongue. 
Gentle  Force  is  used  in  tender  and   pathetic  descrip- 
tion, and  in  all  cases  where  a  subdued  form  is  necessary  to  cor- 
rectly express  the  sentiment. 

Example. — Noiselessly  as  the  daylight 

Comes  when  the  night  is  done , 
And  the  crimson  streak  on  ocean's  cheek 
Grows  into  the  great  sun. 

TIME. 

Time  in  Elocution  has  reference  to    Quantity,  Rale  and 
Pause. 


-n 


\ 


\ 


ELOCUTION. 


43 


Quantity. 

Quantity  is  the  amount  of  time  given  to  a  word.     It  may 

be  Natural,  Long  or  Short. 

A'atliral  Quantity  is  tliat  usually  given  to  words  in 
unemotional  language. 

Exafnf>h\ — There  is  one  accomplishment,  in  particular,  which  I 
wouUl  earnestly  recommend  to  you.  Cultivate  assiduously  the  ability 
to  read  well. 

LiOUg^  Quantity  is  used  in  expressing  that  which  is 
grand,  sublime,  gloomy  or  humble. 

Examptf. — O  thou  Eternal  One  !  whose  presence  bright 

AH  space  doth  occupy,  all  motion  j^^aide. 
SllOI't  Quantity  is   used   to   express   sentiment   light, 
joyous,  gay  and  brisk.    It  also  expresses  haste,  fear,  command, 
indignation,  etc 

Example, — 
The  year  is  goin^,  let  him  go ; 
Ring  out  the  false,  ring  in  the  true. 

Rate. 

Rate  is  the  degree  of  rapid- 
ity or  slowness  with  which  sev- 
eral successive  words  are  utter- 
ed. It  may  be  Natural,  Slow 
or  Fast. 

Bi^atural  Rate  is  that 
which  a  person  naturally  uses 
in  reading  or  speaking. 

Example. — 
O  j^ood  painter,  tell  me  true. 
Has  yourhand  the  cunning  to  draw 
Sliapes    of   things  that   you   never 
saw? 

SlO'W  Rate  may  denote 
horror  and  awe ;  it  should  be 
used  in  language  serious,  sub- 
lime and  pathetic.     ' 

Example. — 
Meanwhile  the  shapeless  iron  mass 

Came  moving  o'er  the  wave. 
As  gloomy  as  a  passing  hearse, 

As  silent  as  the  grave. 

Fast  Rate  is  used  to  ex- 
press sentiment  lively,  joyous, 
impassioned  and  vehement. 

Example. — 

Hurrah!  the  foes  are  moving! 

Of  fife  and  steed,  and  trump  and  drum,  and  roaring  culverin  I 

Pause. 

Pause  is  the  suspension  of  the  voice.  Poetic  and  Oratori- 
cal Pauses  express  emotion.  Rhetorical  Pauses  are  those  de- 
manded by  the  sense  and  structure  of  a  sentence.  Grammatical 
Pauses  are  those  indicated  by  the  usual  marks  of  punctuation, 
and  Prosodical  Pauses  are  those  used  only  in  verse.  But  in 
this  connection  it  is  best  to  make  three  divisions,  \\i.:  Nat- 
ural Pause,  Long  Pause  and  Short  Pause. 

Natural  Pause  is  used  in  unimpassioncd  language  and 
ordinary  description. 


Example. — Have  you  heard  the  tale  of  the  Aloe  plant. 
Away  in  the  sunny  dime  ? 
By  humble  growth  of  a  hundred  years 
It  reaches  its  blooming  time. 

I^ong  Pause  usually  accompanies  Slow  Rate  or  a  change 

of  sentiment,  and  marks  a  suspension  of  the  sense. 

Example.  —  Pause  a  moment.  I  heard  a  footstep.  Listen  now.  I 
heard  it  again.  But  it  is  going  from  us.  It  sounds  fainter — still 
fainter.     It  is  gone. 

Short  Pause  accompanies  Fast  Rate,  and  is  character- 
istic of  haste,  fear,  etc. 

Example. — John,  be  quick  I  Get  some  water !  Throw  the  powder 
overboard!  It  cannot  be  reached  !  Jump  into  the  boat,  then!  Shove 
off !    There  goes  the  powder — thank  Heaven,  we  are  safe ! 


THE  AWKWARD  SPEAKER. 


Hark  to  the  mingled  din 


STRESS. 

Stress  has  much  to  do  with 
the  power,  beauty  and  general 
eflfcct  of  a  sentence.  It  is  that 
finishing,  polishing  touch  which 
causes  the  thought  to  stand  out 
in  relief — throwing  it  vividly 
upon  the  background,  with  its 
profile  well  defined,  its  lights 
and  shadows  harmoniously 
blended  —  rendering  it  com- 
plete, beautiful  and  sym- 
metrical. 

There  are  six  distinct  kinds 
of  Stress,  viz.:  Initial,  Pinal, 
Median,  Compound,  Thorough 
and  Tremulous. 

Initial  Stress  is  an  ex- 
plosive force  on  the  first  part  of 
a  syllable  or  word.  It  is  char- 
acteristic of  lively,  joyous  de- 
scription. 

Example. — 
I   come  from  haimts  of  coot  and 
hern ; 

I  make  a  sudden  sally. 
And  sparkle  out  among  the  fern, 

To  bicker  down  a  valley. 

The  Final  Stress  is  an 
explosive  force  on  the  latter  ]>art 
of  a  syllable  or  word.     It  is  used  in  expressing  defiance,  de- 
termination, or  intensity  of  feeling  or  purpose. 
Example.— .\  breath  of  submission  we  breathe  not ; 

The  sword  we  have  drawn  we  will  sheathe  not. 
IMedJan  Stress,  or  the  Swell,  characteristic  of  the  Oro- 
tund (Quality  and  Effusive  Form,  is  most  marked  in  the  sublime, 
but  it  is  found  in  all  classes  of  literature,  sometimes  occurring 
on  a  single  word  and  again  continually  through  an  entire  sen- 
tence. 

jE.ra«///.-.— Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll! 
Conipountl  Stress  is  a  union  of  the  Initial  and  Final 
in  one  word.     It  is  indicative  of  surprise,  irony  and  determi- 
nation. 
Example. — Gone  to  be  marricdl     Gone  to  swear  a  peacel 

Shall  Lewis  have  Blanche,  and  Blanche  these prozince.<  T 


r 


\ 


fv 


44 


~ 


ELOCUTION. 


Thorough  Stress  is  an  abrupt,  heavy  force,  used  in 
command,  fearlessness  and  braggadocio. 

Example, — Blaze,  with  your  serried  columns ! 
I  will  not  bend  the  knee  ! 
The  shackles  ne'er  again  shall  bind 
The  arm  which  now  is  free. 

Tremulous  or  lutermitteut  Stress  is  used  in 
fear,  joy  and  laughter,  in  the  broken  voice  of  sorrow,  and  in 
imitation  of  the  feeble  voice  of  age. 

Example. — Ho,  why  dost  thou  shiver  and  shake.  Gaffer  Gray, 
And  why  does  thy  nose  look  so  blue.^ 
"  'Tis  the  weather  is  cold,  'tis  I've  grown  very  old. 
And  my  doublet  is  not  very  new,  well-a-day." 


Emphasis. 


"  Emphasis,"  it  has  been  said,  "  is  in  speech  what  coloring  is 
in  painting.  It  admits  of  all  possible  degrees,  and  must,  to  in- 
dicate a  particular  degree  of  distinction,  be  more  or  less  intense, 
according  to  the  groundwork  or  current  melody  of  the  dis- 
course." It  consists  of  any  peculiarity  of  utterance  which  will 
call  special  attention  to  a  particular  word  or  words  in  a  sentence. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  emphasis  may  be  of  force,  stress,  qual- 
ity, pitch  or  rate.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  the  use  of 
emphasis.  It  is  so  subtile,  its  shadings  so  delicate,  that  it  can 
never  be  cabled  to  inflexible  rules.  But  in  general  we  should 
emphasize: 

1.  Words,  phrases  or  clauses  that  are  particularly  significant. 

2.  Words,  phrases  or  clauses  that  contrast. 

3.  Anything  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

4.  X  succession  of  objects  or  ideas. 


Word  Individuality. 


The  "royal  road"  to  success  in  reading  lies  in  a  true  concep- 
tion of  the  spirit  of  the  piece  and  a  faithful  delineation  of  the 
author's  meaning.  Endeavor  to  grasp  the  ideas,  make  them  a 
part  of  yourself  and  clotlie  your  hearers  with  them.  Another 
element  of  power  lies  in //a^ciH^  «//o»  words  and  giving  them 
their  full  individual  expression.  For  instance,  the  word  firm 
should  usually  be  spoken  in  a  firm  tone  of  voice,  strong  in  a 
strong  tone,  light  in  a  light  tone,  grand  in  a  manner  conveying 
an  idea  of  grandeur. 

Word  Individuality.  Expressive  Intonation,  Inii- 
tative  Modulation  and  Sound  to  Sense  are  the  terms  used  to 
express  the  act  of  Jikaying  upon  words,  sounding  the  syllables 
or  intoning  the  vowels  in  such  a  way  as  to  more  fully  bring  out 
the  meaning  of  the  word  by  its  sound.  Old,  sweet,  long,  gay, 
cold,  deep,  roar,  whisper,  fierce,  wild,  growl,  titter,  gush,  burst, 
dash — these  and  similar  words  may  be  rendered  infinitely  more 
expressive  by  giving  each  word  its  own  peculiar  individual 
character. 

The  following  table  of  derivatives  indicates  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  words  : 

St  denotes  firmness  or  strength  ;  as,  stand,  stay,  stout,  stop, 
stamp,  etc 

Sir  indicates  violent  force  or  energy;  as,  strive,  stress, 
strength,  strife,  etc. 

Thr  indicates  forcible  motion;  as,  throw,  throb,  thrust, 
threaten,  thrill,  etc. 


Gl  indicates  smoothness  or  silent  motion ;  as,  glib,  glide, 
glow,  etc. 

IVr  denotes  obliquit)'  or  distortion  ;  as,  wry,  wrest,  wrestle, 
wring,  wrath,  wrangle,  etc. 

Sw  implies  silent  agitation  or  lateral  motion  ;  a.%,sway,  sweep, 
szverve,  swing,  etc.  • 

SI  denotes  gentle  fall  or  less  observable  motion  ;  as,  sly,  slide, 
slip,  slit,  slack,  sling,  etc. 

.S^  indicates  dissipation  or  expansion ;  as,  spread,  sprout, 
sprinkle,  split,  spoil,  spring,  etc. 

— ash  indicates  something  actingnimbly  or  sharply ;  as,  crash, 
dash,  rash,  flash,  lash,  splash,  etc. 

— ush  denotes  something  acting  more  obtusely  and  dully  ;  as, 
crush,  brush,  hush,  gush,  blush,  etc. 

Analysis  and  Grouping. 

In  reading  it  is  necessary  first  to  analyze  the  thought,  to  de- 
cide in  the  mind  what  portions  are  most  prominent,  and  these 
should  receive  greatest  emphasis.  The  subordinate  thoughts 
should  be  properly  grouped  together  and  expressed  in  such  a 
manner  as  will  clearly  show  them  to  be  subordinate.  To  use  a 
figure  of  speech,  let  the  more  important  parts  stand  in  the  fore- 
ground, giving  them  intensest  light ;  the  auxiliai-y  thoughts  may 
repose  in  the  shadows  of  the  background.  In  general  the  sub- 
ject, predicate,  object  and  connectives  of  a  sentence  should  re- 
ceive emphatic  force.  Give  the  same  degree  of  force  to  words 
having  a  close  grammatic  connection,  but  separated  from  each 
other  in  the  sentence.  The  intervening  portions  shoifld  be  read 
parenthetically. 

Transition. 

Transition  is  the  art  of  changing  easily,  rapidly  and 
completely  from  one  modulation  or  form  of  voice  to  another.  It 
should  be  carefully  practiced. 

Climax. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  a  succession  of  objects  or 
ideas  should  receive  emphasis ;  that  is,  each  of  the  series  should 
be  made  more  emphatic  than  the  one  immediately  preceding. 
This  gives  a  constantly  increasing  emphatic  scale.  The  extreme 
point  of  the  scale  is  called  the  Climax.  There  the  vocal  ef- 
forts should  reach  their  culmination,  giving  great  strength  to  the 
sentence. 

Repose. 

Repose  is  the  sublime  emblem  of  infinite  power.  It  is 
reserve  force  that  is  immeasurable.  He  who  by  violent  exertion 
shows  that  he  has  reached  his  limit  loses  that  greater  concep- 
tion that  we  may  have  formed  regarding  his  powers.  Where 
Climax  is  employed  in  speech,  in  order  to  convey  the  greatest 
possible  idea  of  power  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  concluding 
portion  of  the  sentence  with  that  repose  which  indicates  unlim- 
ited reserve  strength.  It  has  been  well  said,  "The  highest 
power  is  mastery,  and  the  highest  master)-  is  self-mastery,  and 
of  self-mastery  repose  is  the  emblem." 


/■ 


Ai 


/ 


ELOCUTION. 


45 


Impersonation. 

In  Impersonation  the  reader  or  speaker  puts  himself 
in  the  place  of  another,  using  the  tone  and  stj-le  required  by  the 
assumed  character.  This,  however,  should  not  be  resorted  to 
when  the  beauty  or  sublimity  of  thought  contained  in  a  passage 
would  be  weakened  thereby,  as  an  assumed  form  always  de- 
tracts from  the  ideas  by  directing  our  attention  to  the  manner. 
But  there  are  many  times  when  person.ition  really  adds  to  the 
beauty  and  effectiveness  of  the  rendering.  The  judgment  of  the 
reader  must  decide  when  it  should  be  employed,  and  in  what 
particular  cases  it  may  be  omitted,  ^^'hen  impersonating  the 
voice  may  be  changed,  as  well  as  the  general  manner.  A  heavy 
or  light  voice,  fast  or  slow  rate,  low  or  high  pitch  will  often  be 
a  sufficient  change.  Old  at^e  requires  a  feeble  or  cracked  voice, 
higher  pitch,  slower  rate,  gentler  force,  a  greater  use  of  the  in- 
flections, and  an  apparent  toothlessness  easily  secured  by  re- 
tracting the  lower  jaw  and  drawing  the  underlip  as  far  as  possi- 
ble  over   the   teeth.      Children's  voices  are  imitated  by  light 


force,  many  rising  and  falling  slides,  using  great  expression. 
Let  the  throat  be  contracted  that  the  voice  may  appear  to  be 
formed  in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth.  In  imitating  the  voiets 
of  women  the  reader  should  employ  greater  or  lieavier  force,  as 
required. 

Dialogue  Reading. 

In  dialogue  reading  several  impersonated  voices  may  occur, 
varying  one  from  another  by  changes  of  force,  pitch,  rate  or 
quality.  As  3. general  rule,  the  direction  of  the  eyes  and  head 
should  change  with  each  transition  of  character.  When  only  two 
speakers  are  represented,  the  whole  body  may  change  position, 
but  when  several  appear  a  slight  change  only  is  required.  In 
representing  two  characters  the  gaze  is  alternated  left  and  right, 
but  the  descriptive  portions  (those  not  spoken  by  either  of 
the  characters)  should  always  be  given  front.  Let  changes  of 
position  and  voice  be  sudden  and  decided,  especially  so  when 
one  speaker  is  inteiTupted  by  another. 


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Elocution  may  be  divided  into  two  parts :  that  which  is  heard, 
and  that  which  is  seen.  The  former  is  called  Toice  ;  the  latter. 
Gesture.  Both  are  important  and  indispensable  to  its 
proper  study.  The  manner  may  be  so  out  of  harmony  that  it 
entirely  contradicts  the  words,  and  an  idea  is  conveyed  directly 
opposite  to  that  intended.  It  is  important,  then,  that  we  study 
manner  as  well  as  matter.  A  pleasing  style  of  delivery  adds 
much  to  the  effectiveness  of  a  production,  and  in  this  Gesture 
plays  an  important  part.  It  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  per- 
fect success  of  vocal  delivery  that  it  be  accompanied  by  a  man- 
ner that  will  not  provoke  criticism,  nor  in  any  way  draw  the 
hearer's  attention  from  the  thought  uttered.  It  should  rather 
aid  that  thought  by  conveying  to  the  eye  what  the  voice  sends 
to  the  ear.  Gesture  should  always  be  an  assistant,  never  a  hin- 
drance, as  it  certainly  is  when  not  properly  used.  Those  who 
naturally  employ  many  gestures  should  learn  how  to  correctly 
use  them  ;  those  who  use  few  should  cultivate  the  use  of  more 
by  making  themselves  familiar  with  the  laws  that  govern  intel- 
ligent gesticulation.  Double  Gestures  have  the  same  signifi- 
cance as  single  gestures.  They  are  used  for  variety  and  greater 
effect  and  force.  In  speaking,  do  not  employ  one  hand  exclu- 
sively, but  occasionally  use  the  other  to  avoid  sameness. 

Rules  Governing  Gesture. 

4>esture  is  that  part  of  elocution  which  appeals  to  the  eye. 
It  relates  to  Posi/ion  and  Movements. 


POSITION  OF  THE  BODY. 

The  position  of  the  body  should  be  in  harmony  with  the 
character  of  the  thought.  Vigorous  expression  requires  a  firm 
posture  ;  beauty  of  sentiment,  a  graceful  attitude.  The  position 
should  be  changed,  not  too  often,  as  quietly  and  with  as  few- 
movements  as  possible.  The  arms,  when  not  in  use,  should 
hang  easily  at  the  sides,  and  one  foot  should  be  slightly  in  ad- 
vance, the  head  being  held  naturally  erect  The  speaker  should 
always  take  his  position  near  the  front  of  the  stage,  to  be  better 
seen  and  heard.  In  reading,  always  stand  or  sit  erect,  with 
lungs  well  inflated. 

MOVEMEXTS. 

Movements  of  the  body  are  necessary  to  give  character  to  the 
delivery,  but  they  must  be  natural,  graceful  and  appropriate. 

The  Head. 

The  Head  should  maintain  an  easy  position  and  allow  the 
eyes  to  move  deliberately  over  the  audience.  Do  not  stare  into 
vacancy  while  before  a  company,  but  fix  your  gaze  upon  the  in- 
dividuals composing  the  assemblage.  Avoid  an  excessive  use 
of  the  head,  both  in  reading  and  speaking.  In  reading,  the 
eyes  should  be  raised  from  the  book  as  much  as  possible.  Prac- 
tice will  give  facility  in  reading  long  sentences  with  a  single 
glance  at  the  book.  The  expression  of  the  face  should  reflect 
the  character  of  the  thought. 


v_ 


46 


ELOCUTION. 


The  Hauds  in  gesture  should  be  used  easily  and  grace- 
fully. Frequent  practice  before  a  mirror  will  be  advantageous 
in  securing  freedom  and  grace  of  movement.  The  hands  may 
be  Supine,  Prone,  Vertical,  Pointing  and  Cloiched. 

The  Supine  Hand  lies  easily  opened,  with  the  palm  upward. 
It  is  a  common  fonn  of 
gesture. 

The  Prone  H.'iND  is 
opened  with  the  palm 
downward.  It  is  used 
to  denote  negative  as- 
sertion, superposition, 
etc. 

The  Vertical  Hand 
is  opened,  with  the  pa!m 
outward  from  the 
speaker.  It  is  used  in 
warding  off  and  in  de- 
noting a  limit. 

The  Pointing  Hand, 
forefinger  extended,  is 
used  in  designating  or 
pointing  out  any  partic- 
ular thing  or  place.  Or- 
dinarily, the  hand  is 
loosely  opened,  but, 
when  t  li  e  gesture  i  s 
emphatic,  it  is  tightly 
closed. 

Tire  Clenched  Hand 
denotes  intense  action 
of  the  will  or  passions. 

T!ie  accompanying  il- 
lustration, with  explan- 
ations appended,  shows 
the  principal  forms  of 
hand  gestures. 

The  Arms. 

The  Arms  should 
be  used  naturally  and 
with  decision.  In  forci- 
ble utterance  they  move 
in  straight  lines;  in 
graceful  expression  they 
move  in  curves,  but 
even  in  the  curves  they 
should  show  that  they 
are  servants  sent  to  per- 
form certain  duties,  and 
that  they  are  guided  in 
every  motion  by  a 
power  beyond  them- 
selves. .Sometimes,  in  familiar  gesture,  the  forearm  only  is  used, 
but  ordinarily  the  arm  moves  freely  from  the  shoulder. 

Hand  and  Arm  Gestures. 

Hand  and  Arm  iit'sturcs  me  made  in  four  general 
directions,  viz. :  front,  OHique,  Lateral  and  Backboard. 
Each  of  these  is  subdivided  into  Horizontal,  Descending  and 
Ascending. 


POSITIONS  OK  THE  II.\XDS. 

I.  Simple  :ifTirmation.  2.  Emphatic  dt-claratinn.  3.  .Vpathy  or  prostration. 
4.  EiKT^ctic  appeal.  5,  Negation  or  denial.  6.  Violent  repulsion.  7.  Indexing 
or  cautioning.  S.  Determination  or  anger.  9,  Supplication,  lot  Gentle  en- 
treaty. II.  Carelessness.  12.  Argumentation.  13.  Earnest  entreaty.  14.  Resig- 
nation. 


Front  Gestures  are  used  to  designate  or  to  illustrate  that 
which  is  near  to  us,  whether  it  be  an  object,  a  thought  or 
a  feeling.  In  addressing  an  object,  real  or  ideal,  we  suppose  it 
to  be  placed  in  the  direction  of  tlte  Front  gesture. 

Oblique  Gestures  are  less  emphatic  and  more  general  in 

their  application  than 
the  Front  Gestures. 
They  relate  to  things 
indefinitely. 

Lateral  Gestures 
denote  expansion,  ex- 
treme distance,  breadth, 
or  the  placing  of  per- 
sons, objects  or  ideas  in 
contrast  with  one  an- 
other. 

Backward  Gestures 
indicate  things  remote, 
obscure  or  hidden. 

Horizontal  G  e  s  - 
tures  are  employed  in 
general  allusions ;  they 
indicate  a  level  or 
equality  and  belong  to 
the  realm  of  the  Intel- 
lect. 

Descending  Ges- 
tures denote  inferior- 
ity or  inequality,  and, 
when  emphatic,  they 
s  h  o  w  determination 
and  purpose.  They 
belong  to  the  Will. 

Ascending  Ges- 
tures denote  superior- 
ity, greatness,  an  un- 
folding or  lifting  up 
figuratively  or  literally. 
They  belong  to  the 
Imagination. 

Make  all  gestures 
with  decision.  When 
the  gesture  is  com- 
pleted, let  the  arm  fall 
slowly  to  the  si  de. 
Ne7'er  allow  the  arms 
to  Sluing. 


T[lE  THI(EE  F0I(1V|^  OF  ^pEEdH. 


ConTersation.  This  is  the  simplest  form  of  speech,  and 
it  is  the  most  natural.  In  conversation  we  are  ourselves ;  we 
use  no  forced,  unnatural  style  of  utterance.   Always  endeavor  in 


\ 


l^ 


ELOCUTION. 


47 


/ 


conversation  to  express  the  best  thoughts  in  the  best  manner, 
avoiding  those  subjects  not  of  general  interest  to  the  listeners, 
using  the  best  language  at  command. 

Iteading^.  In  conversation  our  ideas  are  evolved  from 
c  ar  own  minds.  In  reading  the  thought  may  be  the  same  and 
the  manner  the  same,  though  the  phraseology  differ.  In  read- 
ing our  own  composition,  we  are  too  liable  to  fall  into  a  read- 
ing tone — an  finnatural  mode  of  expression.  This  droning 
process  causes  the  hearer  to  lose  a  large  portion  of  the  thought 
which  he  would  receive  were  the  reading  intclligcitt  instead  of 
mechanical.  In  emotional  reading,  he  receives  all  the  thought, 
and  it  is  intensified  in  its  conveyance  to  him.  Wicn  you  desire 
to  read  luell,  be  sure  to  previously  familiariiie  yourself  with  tlie 
words,  arrangement  of  paragraphs  and  logical  connection  of 
all  the  thoughts  contained  in  the  piece  of  reading.  Always  hold 
your  book  or  paper  in  such  a  way  that  you  can  readily  take  in 
a  whole  line  at  once.  Allow  the  letters  to  be  about  fourteen 
inches  from  the  eye,  not  directly  below,  nor  horizontal  with  the 
eye,  but  half-way  between  these  two  positions.  Look  off  the 
book  as  much  as  possible. 

PllTlIiC  Speaking.  This  is  conversation  magnified. 
The  same  forms  of  voice  are  employed  as  in  conversation  ;  the 
difference  lies  in  a  symmetrical  enlargement  of  the  sentences. 
In  this,  do  not  distort,  but  preserve  the  form  in  its  simplicity 
and  you  will  ha'i'e  it  in  its  greatest  purity  and  power.  Apply 
all  rules  of  elocution  and  rhetoric  to  your  conversation,  and  you 
will  have  the  form  best  suited  to  public  address.  Always  make 
a  marked  distinction  between  the  conversational  (or  explana- 
tory) and  the  oratorical  and  dramatic  portions.  Studiously 
avoid  anything  like  an  oratorical  style  in  simple  descriptions  or 
narratives.  Never  appear  in  public  without  thorough  prepara- 
tion, and  be  sure  that  this  is  succeeded  by  a  period  of  rest,  that 
you  may  be  in  your  best  condition.  Tone  the  voice  just  before 
beginning  your  vocal  effort.  In  your  approach,  do  not  appear 
hurried  ;  but  let  your  manner  be  graceful  and  your  bearing  dig- 
nified. This  will  insure  respect.  Put  yourself  at  ease  by  a 
strong  mental  effort  and  begin  deliberately,  gradually  warming 
up  with  your  subject.  Never  acquire  the  useless  habit  of  drinking 
water  during  a  vocal  performance.  Water  will  not  supply  the  nat- 
ural moisture  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  if  they  are  properly  used 
there  is  no  necessity  for  artificial  moistening.  Pay  special  at- 
tention to  the  articulation,  and  let  it  always  be  distinct.  Deliver 
the  sounds  sharply  and  correctly,  and  your  audience  will  ap- 
preciate your  efforts,  though  they  may  not  themselves  know 
wherein  lies  the  charm  of  the  voice  to  which, they  listen. 


DRAMATIC  ACTION. 


Dramatic  action  differs  from  oratory,  though  it  employs  the 
same  vocal  expression.  The  orator  is  always  himself,  in  his 
be3t  condition ;  the  actor  acts  an  assumed  character  which 
would  often  not  be  consistent  with  the  dignity  of  the  orator.  In 
oratory  we  may  borrow  certain  gestures  (termed  Special  Ges- 
tures) from  the  art  of  acting;  hence  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  be 
informed  as  to  the  significance  and  proper  method  of  using 
these  gestures. 


In  acting,  the  moderate  step  may  become  a  stride.  Actors 
are  permitted  to  move  in  a  lateral  direction,  while  the  orator 
can  only  advance  and  recede  from  his  audience.  Theaclormay 
also  stamp,  start  or  kneel.  These  demonstrations  are  forbidden 
the  orator. 

An  erect  position  is  the  only  one  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  the 
orator.  In  acting,  grief  depresses,  and  pride  throws  the  body 
backward. 

The  head  is  raised  in  arrogance,  inclined  in  languor  or  indif- 
ference, and  hung  in  shame.  The  head  may  take  the  following 
positions:  Inclined,  Erect,  Assenting,  Denying,  Shaking, 
Tossing,  Aside. 

Considered  in  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  eyes,  it  may  be 
Averted,  Downward,  Upward,  Around  or  on  Vacancy. 

The  countenance  may  take  the  expression  of  anger,  shame, 
contempt,  pride,  despair,  terror  or  any  other  violent  passion. 
In  oratory  this  is  not  admissible. 

The  hand  may  take  the  following  positions  :  HoUov),  Hold- 
ing or  Grasping  (according  to  the  degree  of  energy),  Applied 
(palms  together),  Clasped,  Crossed  (upon  the  breast).  Folded 
(fingers  of  right  hand  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
left).  Enclosed  (back  of  the  one  within  the  palm  of  the  other), 
Touching  (points  of  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  each  hand 
brought  into  contact),  Wringing  (clasped  hand,  lowered,  and 
separated  at  wrists,  but  without  fingers  disengaged),  Eliumer- 
ating  (first  finger  of  tlie  right  hand  laid  successively  upon  first 
and  other  fingers  of  the  left). 

The  arms  may  be  Folded  (crossed  and  enclosing  each  other). 
Akimbo  (one  or  both  hands  on  hips,  elbows  extended  at  one  or 
both  sides),  Reposed  (elbows  nearly  resting  on  the  hips,  one 
hand  holding  the  wrist  of  the  other— a  female  position). 

In  designating  the  manner  of  motion.  Gesture  may  be  con- 
sidered as  Noting  (the  hand  being  drawn  back  and  raised,  then 
advanced  and  by  gentle  stroke  depressed),  Projecting  (arm 
thrust  forward  in  the  direction  in  which  the  hand  may  be  point- 
ing), Retracting  (the  arm  drawn  back  prcparator>- to  projecting 
or  to  avoid  an  object).  Waving  (fingers  pointing  downward, 
the  hand  flung  sm.artly  upward),  the  Flourish  (in  which  the 
hand  describes  a  circle  or  part  of  a  circle  above  the  head),  the 
Sweep  (the  hand  making  a  curved  movement,  descending  from 
the  opposite  shoulder  and  rising  high  above  the  head ;  or  the 
reverse,  changing  in  the  first  case  from  the  Supine  to  the  Ver- 
tical, and  in  the  second  from  Vertical  to  Supine ;  sometimes  a 
Double  Sweep  is  used,  combining  both  movements),  Deckoning 
(wilh  wliole  hand  or  simply  the  forefinger).  Repressing  (the  op- 
posite of  Beckoning),  Advancing  (the  hand  moved  slowly  for- 
ward and  upward  to  the  horizontal,  the  whole  body  aiding  the 
action,  and  a  step  in  advance  being  taken),  Springing  (the 
hand,  having  nearly  arrived  at  the  limit  of  the  gesture,  springs 
suddenly  up  to  it  by  a  quick  movement  of  the  wrist).  Striking 
(hand  and  arm).  Bending  (preparation  for  Strikmg),  Recoiling 
(a  return  to  position  after  Striking),  Throwing  (arm  flung  out- 
ward in  Uie  direction  of  a  person  addressed),  Clinch  ing  (clench- 
ed hand  raised  threateningly),  Collecting  (arm  sweeps  inward 
toward  the  body).  Shaking (ixt^m\x\ovi?,  motion  given  to  arm  and 
hand).  Pressing  (the  hand  being  laid  upon  any  part,  the  elbow 
is  raised  and  the  fingers  contracted),  Rejecting  (vertical  hand 
pushed  toward  the  object,  head  averted). 


/ 


\ 


48 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


3USINESSt>o 


oclt.'i'^lX) 


30G1ALI» 


^Correspondences 


e^ 


— <"^— srxk'; 


-*-^- — 


■I 


Letter-Writing    in    All    Its    Korms. 


^tft(§^G 


U  ETTER-WRITING  in  its  true  ex- 
/Bw  cellence  can  scarcely  be  I'egarded 
as  an  art.  Instruction  may,  no 
doubt,  be  imparted  through  the 
medium  of  rules,  but  those  appli- 
cable to  the  subject  are  few  and,  at  the  same 
time,  of  the  simplest  character.  The  following 
observations  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  of  some 
practical  use  to  young  persons,  and  assist  them 
in  avoiding  errors  and  in  acquiring  a  degree  of 
proficiency  in  epistolary  composition. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  letter- 
writing  is  but  "speaking  by  the  pen."  The 
first  endeavor  of  a  writer  should,  therefore,  be 
to  express  himself  as  easily  and  naturally  as  in 
conversation,  though  with  more  method  and 
conciseness. 

STYLE. 

The  style  should  be  determined  in  some  measure  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject,  but  in  a  still  greater  degree  by  the 
relative  positions  of  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed.  On 
important  subjects,  the  composition  is  expected  to  be  for- 
cible and  impressive ,  on  lighter  subjects,  easy  and  vivacious ; 
in  condolence,  tender  and  sympathetic;  in  congratulation, 
lively  and  joyous.  To  superiors,  it  should  be  respectful;  to 
inferiors,  courteous;  to  friends,  familiar;  and  to  relations, 
affectionate.  An  old  writer  justly  remarks:  "Much  has  been 
said  on    the   epistolary   style,   as   if  any  one  style  could  be 


appropriated  to  the  great  variety  of  subjects  which  are  treated 
of  in  letters.  Ease,  it  is  true,  should  distinguish  familiar 
letters,  written  on  the  common  affairs  of  life,  because  the 
mind  is  usually  at  ease  while  they  are  composed.  But  even 
in  these,  topics  incidentally  arise  which  require  elevated  ex- 
pression and  an  inverted  construction.  Not  to  raise  the  style 
on  these  occasions  is  to  write  unnaturally ;  for  nature  teaches 
us  to  express  animated  emotions  of  every  kind  in  animated 
language.  The  dependent  writes  unnaturally  to  a  superior 
in  the  style  of  familiarity  ;  the  suppliant  writes  unnaturally  if 
he  rejects  the  figures  dictated  by  distress.  Conversation 
admits  of  every  style  but  the  poetic;  and  what  are  letters  but 
written  conversations  ?" 

Arrangement  of  ideas. 

The  purport  of  every  letter  should  be  well  considered 
before  its  commencement — not  only  with  a  view  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  thorough  clearness  of  expression,  which  is  of  pri- 
mary importance,  but  likewise  that  the  principal  points  to  be 
discussed  m.ay  be  prominently  brought  forward,  while  those 
of  a  trivial  nature  are  slightly  mentioned.  It  requires,  how- 
ever, not  only  a  certain  amount  of  tact,  but  some  quickness 
of  perception,  to  avoid  the  stiffness  and  formality  which  are 
incident  to  the  arrangement  of  the  subject,  and  which  are 
great  defects  in  letter-writing. 

Ornamentation. 

A  redundancy  of  ideas  and  of  language  is  a  common  fault 
with  those  capable  of  writing  with  facility.  As  a  rule,  there- 
fore, all  striving  after  effect  or  attempt  at  ornamentation  should 
be  avoided  ;  and  as  the  chief  charm  of  a  letter  is  its  origin- 
ality, writers  sliould  not  avail  themselves  either  of  hackneyed 


X 


\ 


\ 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


49 


expressions  or  of  ideas  borrowed  from  others.  An  exhibition 
of  epistolary  talent  is  far  less  likely  to  gratify  a  correspondent 
than  an  easy,  free  and  faithful  expression  of  the  sentiments 
of  the  writer;  and  by  thus  expressing  himself  he  will  also 
naturally  avoid  any  excess  of  flattery  or  exaggerated  profes- 
sions of  regard,  so  peculiarly  objectionable  in  a  letter,  and  at 
variance  with  all  delicicy  of  taste.  At  the  same  time,  a  strict 
adherence  to  the  nAtur.il  expression  of  the  thoughts  will  grad- 
ually introduce  a  degree  of  ease,  fluency  and  force  which 
may  be  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 

Long  Sentences. 

Unpracticed  persons  will  at  first  find  it  desirable  to  make 
tlieir  sentences  as  short  as  possible,  that  they  may  have  them 
completely  under  control.  Long  sentences,  even  when  well 
constructed,  frequently  occasion  some  degree  of  obscurity, 
and  are  less  forcible  than  short  ones.  Parentheses,  though 
sometimes  necessary,  likewise  tend  to  obscure  the  meanmg 
of  a  writer,  besides  weakening  the  effect  of  sentences ;  they 
should  therefore  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

COMPOSITION  OF  LETTERS. 

As  regards  the  composition  of  letters,  it  is  generally  desir- 
able to  commence  with  some  introductory  remarks,  not  as  a 
mere  formality,  but  for  the  purpose  of  conciliating  attention 
to  the  main  subject  of  communication,  which  may  otherwise 
strike  too  a'.>ruptly  upon  the  mind  of  the  reader.  The  intro- 
duction should  be  followed  by  the  development  of  the  topics 
for  discussion,  according  to  the  importance  attaching  to  each  ; 
and  the  conclusion  should,  when  occasion  requires,  be  de- 
voted to  the  confirmation  or  summing  up  of  what  has  been 
previously  stated,  and  to  expressions  of  regard  or  affection. 


Tautology. 


Tautology,  or  the  repetition  of  the  s.ame  words,  should  be 
guarded  against,  as  forming  a  blemish  of  a  striking  character. 
In  this  effort,  the  continual  need  of  words  of  like  meaning 
will  soon  render  a  writer  familiar  with  a  variety  of  synonyms ; 
and  the  possession  of  a  copious  vocabulary  will  conduce 
greatly  to  the  general  freedom  of  the  composition. 


Postscripts. 


Postscripts  are  generally  indicative  of  thoughtlessness,  and 
should  be  avoided,  except  when  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
mentioning  some  circumstance  that  has  occurred  after  a  letter 
has  been  written.  To  convey  any  assurance  of  regard  or 
alTeclion  by  means  of  a  postscript  is  a  great  impropriety,  as 
appearing  to  imply  that  the  sentiments  are  so  slightly  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  of  the  writer  as  to  be  almost  forgotten. 
There  are  special  circumstances,  however,  which  may  render 
an  expression  of  feeling  in  a  postscript  even  more  impressive 
than  in  the  body  of  the  letter;  but  such  cases  are  exceptional, 
and  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  practiced  writer. 


Quotations. 

Quotations  shoul"  not  be  introduced  too  frequently,  for, 
though  a  short  and  appropriate  one,  occasionally  given,  is 
both  effective  and  elegant,  yet  to  give  them  prominence  in  a 
letter  appears  pedantic  and  affected.  The  common  use  of 
French  or  proverbial  phrases  also  offends  against  good  taste. 

Underlinings. 

Underlinings  and  interlineations  are  objectionable.  A  well 
constructed  sentence  will  seldom  require  the  emphasis  to  be 
marked  by  underlining  any  of  the  words,  and  a  frequent  re- 
petition of  the  practice  is  not  complimentary  to  the  under- 
standing of  a  correspondent.  Any  occasion  for  interlineations 
may  usually  be  superseded  by  the  exercise  of  care  in  writing 
and  by  a  little  forethought. 

Grammatical  Correctness. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that  correctness  in 
grammar  and  spelling  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  that 
no  elegance  of  diction  compensates  for  imperfection  in  these 
respects,  but  rather  serves  to  render  more  glaring  errors  so 
essentially  indicative  of  a  defective  education.  When  the 
rules  of  grammar  are  understood,  the  constant  attention  to 
apply  them  will  soon  render  them  familiar,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  tend  to  promote  readiness  of  expression.  Abbreviations 
in  spelling,  even  though  warranted  by  general  practice,  have 
a  certain  appearance  of  laxity,  and  detract  much  from  a  good 
style. 

Contractions  and  Abbreviations. 

Be  careful  and  do  not  use  tlie  character  ,j-  except  in  the  title 
of  firms;  as,  Brown  &  Cox,  A.  T.  Scott  &  Co.  As  a  general 
thing,  characters  are  to  be  avoided.  The  economy  of  time 
and  space  secured  by  their  use  hardly  compensates  for  the 
mutilated  appearance  of  the  words  and  the  liability  to  error 
involved.  Don't,  can't,  isn't,  and  other  contractions  of  the 
same  class,  are  allowable  in  familiar  letters,  and  where  familiar 
conversation  is  quoted,  but  not  in  any  graver  style. 

Figures  of  Arithmetic. 

Numbers,  except  dates  and  sums  of  money,  should  be 
spelled  in  full,  unless  exceeding  three  words  in  length.  Never 
write,  "  I  saw  5  birds,"    "  We  have  8  cats." 

Capitals. 

Capitals  should  be  cautiously  used  in  letter-writing.  We 
should  certainly  not  confine  the  writer  of  a  lett^  to  the 
rigid  rules  observed  in  printed  literature,  because  an  impor- 
tant word  may  sometimes  be  graced  with  a  capital  which  in  a 
printed  form  would  begin  with  a  small  letter.  But  an  indis- 
criminate, or  even  frequent,  use  of  capitals  may  be  taken  as  a 
proof  of  the  ignorance  of  the  writer. 


v 


~o  V 


-A 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


Punctuation. 

\ 

Proper  punctuation  is  essential  to  a 
correct  and  regular  mode  of  expression. 
The  best  general  rule  to  follow  is  to 
place  tlie  points  where  a  pause  would 
occur  in  speaking.  Dashes  should  only 
be  used  to  mark  a  sudden  change  in 
sentiment  or  in  place  of  parentheses. 
Correct  punctuation  not  only  gives  ele- 
gance to  a  composition,  but  it  makes  its 
meaning  clear,  enforces  attention  to  those 
words  or  passages  which  most  require  it, 
and,  to  a  great  extent,  prevents  a  mis- 
understanding or  wilful  misconstruction 
of  the  writer's  meaning. 


[Dale.] 


c^Z^j./^,  <^.  (^.,^i^  ///4  /^^j. 


\Cotnptimeniary  address.] 


[Baefy  0/ Letter.] 


C^^t^//- 


Repetition. 


Avoid  repetitions.  They  always  offend 
the  judicious  ear,  and  are  seldom  proper, 
except  when  they  enforce  any  particular 
meaning  or  explain  it  more  fully. 

Form  of  a  Letter. 

A  letter  usually  consists  of  six  parts, 
viz.:  the  date,  complimentary  address, 
body  of  the  letter,  complimentary  closing, 
signature,  superscription. 

Position  of  the  Parts  of  a 
Letter. 


The  Date  is  written  near  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  the  sheet. 

The  Complimentary  Address  is  be- 
gun on  the  line  next  beneath,  one  inch 
from  the  left  side  of  the  sheet. 

The  Body   of  the   Letter   is   com- 
menced  nearly  under  the  last  letter  of   the    complimentary 
address. 

The  Complimentary  Closing  is  begun  on  the  line  next 
beneath  the  body  of  the  letter,  one-half  of  the  distance  from 
the  left  to  the  right  side  of  the  page. 

The  centre  of  the  Sig.nature  should  be  under  the  last 
letter  of  the  complimentary  closing. 

The  Name  and  Address  of  the  person  written  to  should 
come  on  the  line  beneath  the  signature  at  the  left  of  the  sheet. 

Tiie  Date. 

The  date  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  particularly  in 
business  letters.  You  cannot  be  too  careful,  therefore,  to  state 
it  in  full  and  correctly.  Unless  you  write  from  a  large  city 
like  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Brooklyn,  New  Orleans,  Cin- 
cinnati, Boston,  Chicago  or  St.  Louis,  you  should  always 
mention    the  State,   and   generally   the    county,  as  there  are 


'U'U-n^et^  fe.  ■u^ytc  fc-  ^ui/H'i^n-  <■(  -Ce-  n4/nt^  txoi^  un/i,  -C'-e. 


&€<6   CiC    ft'tM/- 


T' 


if/i^^^^n. 


[  Complimentary  closing.  ] 


^% 


^'. 


64l'Li-    /i-CH^. 


[Signature.] 


[^avteS] 


^^^^e^ni^  ^&^-Ciztu-c^n. 


v^e-Ui^tiotf/, 


[Address^ 


many  post-offices  of  the  same  name  in  the  United  States.  If 
you  write  from  a  street,  mention  the  name  and  number  of  the 
street,  or  the  name  of  the  hotel.  With  English  writers,  it  is 
customary  to  put  the  day  before  the  month  in  dating  a  letter  ; 
as,  l8th  September,  instead  of  September  iSlh.  Custom 
favors  the  latter  in  this  country. 

Proper  Modes  of  Address. 

The  styles  of  address  are  varied  to  suit  the  occasion,  and 
the  terms  of  compliment  at  the  close  of  a  letter  are  always 
considered  as  mere  courtesy  or  form  ;  they  should  not,  there- 
fore, on  any  occasion  be  avoided.  To  a  person  with  whom 
a  writer  is  not  well  acquainted  he  should  say  "Sir,"  or 
"Madam,"  conchiding  with  "Your  obedient  servant,"  or 
"Yours  respectfully;"  to  those  with  whom  he  is  tolerably 
well  acquainted,  "Dear  Sir,"  or  "Dear  Madam,"  with 
"Yours  faithfully;"  and  to  those  with  whom  he  is  on  familiar 


T 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


SI 


terms,  "My  dear  Sir,''  or  "My  dear  Madam,"  with  "Yours 
truly,"  "Yours  very  truly,"  "  Yours  sincerely,"  or  "Yours 
very  sincerely."  To  two  or  more  ladies,  married  or  single, 
the  form  of  address  is  "Ladies."  To  a  young  unmarried 
lady,  the  salutation  is  usually  omitted  to  avoid  the  repetition 
of  "Miss,"  the  address  alone  being  used  as  an  introduction. 
The  complimentary  address  is  generally  written  .^t  the  top  of 
a  business  letter. 

Model  Headings. 

Mr.  JVilliam  C.  Jones, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


Dear  Sir  : 


Your  letter  of  the  I2lh — 


Mrs.  Maria  Jansen, 

Philadelphia. 
Dear  Madam  : 

I  send  you  herewith— 


Miss  Edith  Blaine, 

Chicago  : 

You  will  receive  by  express- 


Messrs.  Harpet^Bros., 
Broadway, 

New  York. 


Dear  Sirs: 


Yours  of  the  1st  inst. — 


Messrs.  Harper  Bros., 
Broadway, 

New  York . 
Dear  Sirs:  Yours  of  the  26th  ult.  was- 


Messrs.  Smith,  Beggs  ^  Co., 
Chestnut  St., 

Philadelphia. 
("■entlemen  : 

We  have  none  of  the  goods — 


Messrs.  Smith,  Beggs  ^  Co., 
Chestnut  St., 

Philadelphia. 

Gentlemen  :  We  have  the- 


Miss  I.uey  Hooper, 

Paris,  III.  : 

We  have  received  your — 


My  dear  James  : 

Your  note  of  the  loth- 


My  dear  Cousin  : 

I  have  been  so  busy — 


My  dear  .'>on  : 

You  have  not  written — 

Materials. 

The  names  of  the  different  kinds  of  papers,  and  when  used, 
are  as  follows  : 

Legal-cap  is  used  in  writing  all  legal  documents,  articles 
of  agreement,  etc.  The  characteristic  of  legal-cap  is  a  red 
line  running  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  sheet. 

Bill-paper  is  used  for  bills,  etc.,  and  is  ruled  expressly 
for  the  purpose,  and  usually  bears  the  name  and  business  of 
the  person  using  it  at  the  top. 

Foolscap  is  used  in  writing  notes,  orders,  receipts,  com- 
positions, petitions,  subscription  headings,  etc. 

Letter-paper  is  used  for  the  ordinary  letter. 

Note  and  billet  paper  is  used  for  notes  of  invitation, 
parents'  excuses  for  children  to  teachers,  and  all  brief  com- 
munications.    It  is  the  smallest  sheet-paper  made. 

Commercial  note  is  used  for  business  letters,  and  is 
generally  narrower  than  ordinary  paper. 

Titles. 

Titles  in  America  are  either  social,  scholastic  or  official. 

Social  titles  are  Mr.  (Mister,  formerly  Master),  Sir,  Esq. 
(Esquire),  Gentlemen  (only  in  the  plural),  Master  (for  beys 
only),  Mrs.  (Mistress),  M.-idam,  Miss,  and  Ladies.  Esq.  is 
properly  used  only  to  persons  of  some  prominence. 

Scholastic  titles  are  those  conferred  by  universities  or  other 
institutions  of  learning.  They  may  follow  or  precede  the 
name,  as  Prof.  W.  M.  Jones;  W.  M.  Jones,  A.M.;  Dr.  W. 
M.  Jones;  W.  M.  Jones,  M.D. 

Official  titles  include  titles  applied  to  persons  in  the  civil, 
military  or  naval  service. 

The  following  list  illustrates  the  various  titles  used  for  the 
different  ranks  among  individuals  either  in  the  complimentary 
address  or  superscription  on  the  envelope  : 

To  Royalty— To  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 

To  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 

To  His  R0y.1I  Highness  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

To  Her  Royal  Highness  the  Princess  of  Wales. 

To  His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Connaught 

To  Her  Royal  Highness  the  Princess  Beatrice. 
To  No6ilily—To  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

To  Her  Grace  the  Duchess  of  Devonshire. 

To  the  Most  Noble  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury. 

To  the  Most  Noble  the  M.irchioness  of  Salisbury. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  E;irl  of  Carlisle. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  the  Countess  of  Carlisle. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Lord  Viscount  Palmerston. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  the  Viscountess  Palmerston. 

To  the  Honorable  Baron  Crandall. 

To  the  Honorable  the  Baroness  Crandall. 
The  younger  sons  of  noblemen  in  England  are  addressed 
as  Honorable ;  also  members  of  Parliament  and  other  persons 


.i 


V 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


A 


\ 


holding  certain  positions  of  honor  and  trust.  The  elder  sons 
of  noblemen  take  by  courtesy  the  title  next  in  rank  below  that 
of  their  fathers. 

Baronets  are  addressed  thus  :  Sir  Waiter  Scott,  Bart. ;  and 
Knights  thus  :  Sir  Morton  Peto,  Kt. 

Clerical  Titles. 

T/ie  Pope—ii\s  Holiness  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
Cardinal — His  Eminence,  John,  Cardinal  McCloskey. 
Archbishop— '^os\.  Rev.  Peter  R.  Kenrick,  D.D. 
Bishop— Ki.  Rev.  P.  J.  Ryan,  D.D. 
Vicar-General — Very  Rev.  Henry  Muehlsiepen. 
Priest  or  Clergyman — Rev.  James  Farquhar. 
Rev.  Dr.  Amos  Foley. 

Titles  Used  In  the  United  States. 

His  Excellency — The  President  of  the  United  States, 
Governor  of  any  State,  Ministers  to  foreign  countries. 

Honorable — Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  members 
of  the  Cabinet,  members  of  Congress,  heads  of  Departments, 
Assistant-Secretaries,  Comptrollers  and  Auditors  of  the 
Treasury,  Clerks  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
State  Senators,  Judges,  Mayors  of  cities. 

Miscellaneous  Titles. 

His  Excellency  and  Mrs.  R.  B.  Hayes. 

Governor  and  Mrs.  Thos.  T.  Crittenden. 

Hon.  and  Mrs.  James  G.  Blaine. 

Rev.  Dr.  and  Mrs.  T.  De  Witt  Talmage. 

Professor  and  Mrs  J.  F.  Crunden. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Henry  Ames. 

Drs.  John  M.  and  Chester  H.  Thorn. 

Drs.  Walter  C.  and  Mary  C.  Williams. 

Mr.  W.  T.  and  Mrs.  Dr.  E.  C.  James. 

Rev.  H.  E.  and  Mrs.  Dr.  E.  C.  Howe. 

Rev.  Mrs.  William  Bass. 

Rev.  Mrs.  W.  H.  Crow. 

Rev.  Jane  H.  Moon. 

Rev.  Miss  Jane  H.  Moon. 

The  Envelope. 

The  superscription  on  the  envelope  should  be  written  very 
plainly.  It  is  fashionable  to  write  it  as  near  the  right-hand 
under  angle  or  corner  of  the  envelope  as  convenient  The 
full  name  and  title  of  the  person  addressed,  with  place  of  res- 
idence, written  out  fully,  including  town,  county,  State,  and 
country,  if  it  goes  abroad. 

The  number  of  the  post-office  box,  or  the  door  number  and 
the  name  of  the  street,  or  the  name  of  the  county,  may  stand 
at  tlie  lower  left-hand  corner. 


P.  O.  Box  . 


\    STAMP.    \ 

^^. 

^A^  ^^0^, 

^^it^ei€(e/n-Ad.€7,j 

2J7S  Chestnut  St. 

1 

Or: 


<     STAP 


In    writing   to    the  President  of  the  United  States,   he  is 
addressed  on  the  envelope  thus  : 


^4=^ 


5.  ,K- — 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


The  Governor  of  a  State  is  thus  addressed: 


%> 


m-- 


When  a  person's  official  designation  is  given  in  full  it  forms 
the  next  line  below  the  name. 


A  letter  of  introduction  should  be  addressed  in  this  manner : 


$    SVAMP,   < 


Q^l-i.  ag/ua4A^  <^^au.AnJ, 


(^/^et^o: 


Introducing 

Mr.  Edward  Granger ^ 

0/ Charleston,  S.  C. 


^«^    (^ii^. 


When  a  letter  is  sent  by  a  friend  the  name  of  the  bearer  is 
written  on  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


-*. tfr^i? 


■^eri/-^ 


-k),. I'S 


■DH 


Be  sure  you  affix  the  proper  stamp  to  every  letter  before  you  send 
it.  A  letter  will  not  be  forwarded  unless  it  is  prepaid  at  least  one 
full  rate. 

In  >vriting  a  letter  the  answer  to  which  is  of  more  benefit  to  your- 
self  than  the  person  to  whom  you  write,  enclose  a  postage  stamp  for 
the  reply. 

A  letter  of  introduction  or  recommendation  should  never  be  sealed, 
as  the  bearer  to  whom  it  is  given  ougrht  to  know  the  contents. 

As  a  rule,  everv  letter,  unless  insulting  in  its  character,  requires  an 
answer.  To  neglect  to  answer  a  letter  when  written  to  is  as  uncivil 
a^  to  neglect  to  reply  when  spolten  to. 

In  thereply,  acknowledge  first  the  receipt  of  the  letter,  mentioning 
its  date,  and  afterwards  consider  all  the  points  requiring  attention. 

In  business  and  ceremonious  letters  do  not  write  on  both  sides. 

A  person  in  mourning  should  never  write  a  congratulatory  letter  on 
mourning  paper. 


Either  ruled  or  plain  paper  may  be  used,  but  unruled  or  plain  paprr 
is  more  stj-lish,  and  is  to  be  preferred. 

Avoid  all  erasures  or  blots,  even  if  compelled  to  rewrite  your  letter. 

Letters  of  compliment  should  always  be  written  in  the  third  person. 

Avoid  writing  with  a  pencil.  Never  write  other  than  business 
letters  on  a  half  sheet  of  paper. 

Owing  to  the  almost  universal  use  of  gummed  envelopes,  the  use  of 
sealing-wax  has  become  nearly  obsolete,  though  it  adds  a  much  more 
refined  appearance  to  a  note  than  simply  closing  jt  with  adhesive 
gum.  A  neat  little  seal  of  red  wax  for  a  gentleman,  and  of  gold, 
blue,  or  other  fancy  color,  for  a  lady,  is  elegant  and  appropriate. 

The  envelope  should  be  adapted  both  in  size  and  color  to  the  paper. 

The  stamp  should  be  placed  on  the  upper  right-hand  comer  of  the 
face  of  the  envelope.  The  stamp  should  be  right  end  up,  and  the 
edges  of  the  stamp  should  be  parallel  with  the  edges  of  the  envelope, 
as  putting  a  stump  upside  down  or  awry  indicates  carelcssaessi  imd 
is  disrespectful  to  the  person  to  whom  it  is  sent. 


\ 


^ 


54 


BUSINHSS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


'^Tp^HE  characteristics  ot  the  commercial  style  are  concise- 
"1  JfT  ness  and  perspicuity.  AVith  the  exception  of  a  few 
^^  terms  of  compliment,  scarcely  a  superfluous  word  should 
be  used.  It  is,  however,  not  at  all  necessary  to  sacrifice 
correctness  of  style  or  language.  A  careful  simplicity  and 
the  clearness  of  expression  necessary  to  convey  the  ideas  to 
be  imparted,  combined  with  the  rejection  of  all  words  not 
absolutely  indispensable,  while  giving  rise  to  a  forcible  style, 
form  in  themselves  some  of  the  chief  essentials  of  true 
elegance. 

Persons  unpracticed  in  correspondence,  before  writing  a 
letter  of  any  length,  should  note  down  the  several  heads  of 
the  matter  forming  the  subject  of  communication,  so  that  the 
various  points  may  be  brought  forward  in  proper  consecutive 
order.  If  several  subjects  are  to  be  alluded  to,  they  should 
be  kept  perfectly  distinct,  as  the  proper  division  of  a  letter 
into  paragraphs  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  A  confusion  of 
sentences  not  only  looks  extremely  ill,  but  is  very  likely  to 
lead  to  a  misapprehension  of  the  writer's  meaning,  and  to 
result  in  delay  or  injury,  or,  at  all  events,  to  necessitate  further 
correspondence. 

In  replying  to  a  letter,  each  point  should  be  taken  up  as  it 
arises,  and  be  discussed  in  a  separate  paragraph  ;  and  each 
paragraph  should  be  so  clear  and  unambiguous  that  its  pur- 
port may  in  no  way  be  doubted.  All  business  letters  should 
be  answered  the  same  day  they  are  received.  In  all  letters 
of  business,  it  is  customary  to  write  the  name  and  address  on 
the  first  page,  as  otherwise,  if  the  superscription  were  lost, 
it  would  not  appear  to  whom  the  letter  had  been  written. 
Business  letters  should  always  be  written  upon  plain  paper. 
To  use  gilt-edged  or  any  other  fancy  paper  for  this  purpose 
is  accounted  the  extreme  of  vulgarity. 


From  a  Yoang  Man  Commencing  Business  to  a  Whole- 
sale House,  with  Order. 

Greenville,  III.,  July  2,  1SS3. 

AUisrs.  Gray  O'  ll'ardwell.  New  York. 

Gentlemen.  Having  commenced  business  here  on  my  own  ac- 
count, w.th  every  prospect  of  success,  1  shull  be  glad  to  open  an 
account  with  your  house,  doubting'  not  it  will  be  to  our  mutual 
advantage.  With  tins  view,  I  note  below  an  order,  which  I  shall 
thank  you  to  execute  with  the  least  possible  delay,  and  on  your  best 
terms  as  to  goods  and  prices.  I  bt-g  to  refer  you  to  my  late  employer, 
Henry  Weatherby,  of  Chicago,  who  will  satisfy  you  as  to  my  integrity 
and  trust^vorthIness;  but,  as  this  is  a  first  transaction,  on  your  for- 
warding me  an  invoice  of  the  goods,  deducting  discount  for  cash,  I 


shall  remit  a  sight  draft  on  a  bank  in  your  city  for  the  amount  per 
return  mail.  Requesting  your  usual  prompt  attention,  I  am, 
gentlemen, 

Yours  respectfully, 

John  Hardaway. 


Reply  from  "Wholesale  House,  with  Inroice* 

New  Yoxk,  July  Sth,  1SS3. 

Dear  Sir  :   Agreeably  to  your  esteemed  order  of  the  2nd  inst.,  we 

have  the  pleasure  to  enclose  invoice  of  goods  amounting  to  $ , 

subject  to  five  per  cent  discount  for  prompt  cash. 

We  may  mention  that,  from  the  opinion  entertained  of  you  by  Mr. 
Weatherby,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  opening  the  account,  and  at 
once  placTng  you  on  our  best  terms.  The  parcels  have  been  dis- 
patched this  day  per  Adams  Express,  and  we  trust  they  will  arrive 
safely  and  receive  your  approval.  We  believe  the  goods  will  bear  a 
favorable  comparison  with  those  of  any  house  in  the  trade,  and 
desire  that  you  should  satisfy  yourself  as  to  value  and  quantities 
before  remitting  settlement.  We  are,  dear  Sir, 
Yours  respectfully, 

Gray  &  Wardwell. 

To  Mr.  yohn  Hardaway ,  Greenznl^e^  III. 


From  Country  Merchant  Complaining  of  Quality  of 
his  Goods. 

Waukesha,  Wis.,  Jan.  14,  *S3. 

Dear  Sir:  Since  I  entered  into  business  transactions  with  you,  it 
has  been  my  invariable  course  to  act  with  integrity  and  honor,  expect- 
ing the  same  conduct  in  return.  Until  lately,  indeed,  I  had  no  cause 
to  complain ;  but  the  goods  I  had  last  week  from  you,  as  well  as  the 
parcel  just  delivered,  are  so  inferior  in  quality  that  I  hesitate  to  offer 
them  to  any  of  my  customers.  As  I  can  have  much  better  value  else- 
where, and  I  do  not  sell  job  goods  on  any  account,  I  am  reluctantly 
obliged  to  advise  you  that,  unless  you  can  send  me  others  in  their 
stead,  I  must  withdraw  my  correspondence  altogether.  Meantime, 
both   parcels   are  laid    aside   awaiting  your   orders.     An  immediate 

answer  will  oblige 

Yours  respectfully, 


To  Mr.  yames  Sa7ttee^Neiv  York. 


Abram  Matthews. 


To  a  Publisher's  Firm,  Proposing  to  Open  an  Account. 

Cincinxati,  Jan.  1st,  18S2. 
Gentlemen:  As  our  business  is  rapidly  on  the  increase,  we  are 
desirous  of  opening  an  account  with  your  house,  and  shall  feel 
obliged  by  your  transmitting  us  a  trade  list  of  your  publications,  as 
well  as  some  of  vour  general  catalogues.  Our  UMial  terms  of  settle- 
ment are  as  follows:  (here  state  them).  Should  they  be  agreeable  to 
your  house,  the  favor  of  an  early  attention  to  our  request  will  oblige, 
Gentlemen, 

Your  obedit;nt  servants, 

Benson  &.  Co. 
To  Messrs,  Scribner  &^  Co.,  New  York. 


K" 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


k~ 


55 


Letters  of  Recommendation. 


^^^"W^W^W'^WW^^'^^^^^"^^^'"^ 


UR  examples  under  this  head  will  be  useful  as  afford- 
ing specimens  of  an  appropriate  style  to  be  adopted 
"^^-^^■^  in  answering  advertisements  or  in  applying  for  situa- 
tions. On  such  occasions,  while  the  proper  deference  due  to 
an  employer  should  be  exhibited,  it  is  desirable  to  preserve 
that  tone  of  self-respect  which,  the  employes  should  bear  in 
mind,  has  a  much  better  effect  than  any  subservient  expres- 


From  a  Youtli  Applying  for  a  Junior  Clerkship. 

Albany,  Jan.  i6th,  iSSo, 

Gentlemen.  Understanding  by  your  advertisement  in  the  Herald 
of  the  15th  inst.  that  you  are  requiring  the  services  of  a  junior  clerk, 
I  be^  respectfully  to  offer  myself  as  a  candidate  for  the  appointment. 
I  am  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  from  my  attainments  in  various  branches 
of  education,  I  believe  myself  qualitied  for  the  duties  required. 

I  may  mention  that  I  am  not  altogether  unacquainted  with  book- 
keeping and  accounts,  having  for  some  months  past  assisted  my 
father,  Mr.  Phineas  Kincaid,  lumber  merchant,  in  the  counting- 
house  department  of  his  business. 

Should  you  entertam  my  application,  I  beg  to  refer  you  to  Mr. 
AVillis  Bancker,  of  Walnut  St.,  Philadelphia,  and  Mr.  Paul  Parker, 
of  Chambers  St.,  New  York,  who  will  have  pleasure  in  testifying  to 
my  character  and  abilities.     I  am,  gentlemen, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Philip  Kincaid. 

To  Messrs,  Cole  &^  Taylor,  Trenton^  N.  1'. 


Keply  of  the  Finn. 

Trenton.  N.  J.,  July  19th,  1SS2. 
Sir:  Having  made  inquiries  of  Mr.  Parker,  one  of  the  rcterences 
mentioned  in  your  letter  of  the  i6th  inst.,  we  are  satisfied  with  his 
recommendation.  Before  making  an  arrangement,  however,  we 
should  desire  a  personal  interview,  and  should,  therefore,  be  glad  if 
you  could  make  it  convenient  to  call  at  our  counting-house  on  Satur- 
day forenoon  at  eleven  o'clock. 

Yours, 

Cole  &  Taylor. 
To,  Mr.  Fhilip  Kincaid,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


Application  for  Situation  as  Housekeeper. 

No.  20  Canal  St.,  New  York, 
Box  301,  Post-Office  :  I  beg  respectfully  to  offer  myself  as  a  can- 
didate fcr  the  situation  advertised  as  above  in  to-day's  Hcra.d,  I  am 
at  present,  and  have  been  for  five  years,  housekeeper  in  the  family  of 
Mr  Hamilton,  2314  Madison  Avenue,  to  whom  I  can  confidently  refer 
ytiu  as  to  my  character  and  qualifications  for  the  duties  required.  I 
am  aUo  permitted  to  refer  you  to  John  Houseman,  Esq.,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
with  whom  I  served  two  years  in  the  same  capacity  previous  to  my 
enga-jement  with  Mr.  Hamilton.  My  age  is  tliirty-two  years,  and  I 
am  unmarried. 

I  am  your  most  obedient  servant, 

Elizaoeth  Ellis. 


From  a  Nursery  Goyerness  in  Answer  to  an 
Advertisement. 

Germantown,  Pa.,  March  4th,  1SS3. 
Madam:  Understanding  that  you  have  a  vacancy  for  a  nurserj- 
governess  for  your  three  daughters,  I  beg  to  state  that  I  have  occu- 
pied that  position  for  three  years  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Anthony,  and 
only  left  in  consequence  of  the  family  going  to  reside  in  the  West.  I 
am  well  acquainted  with  the  usual  routine  of  an  English  education, 
and  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  French,  drawing  and  music  to  teach 
the  first  rudiments,  and  attend  to  the  practicing  in  the  absence  of  the 
teacher,  which,  I  presume,  is  all  you  would  require.  I  enclose  some 
testimonials  which,  I  venture  to  hope,  will  satisfy  you  as  to  my 
character  and  competency  for  the  office.  Should  you  honor  me  with 
your  confidence,  I  assure  you  that  neither  kindness  nor  exertion  shall 
be  wanting  to  do  justice  to  your  children,  without  exercising  undue 
severity  or  unkindness.  Awaiting  the  favor  of  your  reply, 
I  remain.  Madam, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Helen  Uolmes. 
To  Mrs.  Jeremiah  Borie,  Pkilad^lpkia. 


Application  to  a  Cler^mau  for  a  Testimonial. 

Beeker  St.,  Boston,  May  4,  •S2. 
Reverend  Sir:  Being  a  candidate  for  the  appointment  of  matron 
in  the  New  York  Hospital,  I  beg  to  solicit  tlie  favor  of  a  testimonial 
from  you  as  to  my  general  conduct,  which  you  have  had  opportunities 
of  observing  in  your  capacity  of  director  and  visitor  of  the  institution 
where  I,  at  present,  fill  a  responsible  place.  And  should  you  deem 
me  worthy  of  the  more  important  situation  referred  to,  anything  you 
can  do  to  forward  my  interests  will  be  ever  gratefully  acknowledged 
by,  reverend  Sir, 

Your  dutiful  and  humble  servant, 

Eliza  Hazleton. 
To  the  Rev.  yohn  Snozvden, 

Rittcnkouse  Square,  Boston. 


Application  for  a- Situation  as  Gardener. 

No.  231  Canal  St.,  New  York,  June  3d,  'S3. 

Sir  :  Understanding  that  you  want  a  gardener,  I  beg  to  offer  myself 
as  a  candidate  to  fill  the  vacancy.  I  have  had  constant  experience 
both  in  nursery  grounds  and  private  gardens,  and  am  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  management  of  the  green-house  and  hot  house. 

I  inclose  some  testimonials  from  gentlemen  with  whom  1  have  lived, 
which,  I  hope,  will  prove  satisfactory.  The  last  situation  I  filled  was 
with  Mr.  Ogden,  who  will,  I  believe,  speak  favorably  of  my  character 
and  fitness  for  the  office.  I  am  a  married  man,  with  a  family  of  three 
children,  and  my  age  is  thirty-five.  Should  you  entertain  my  appli- 
cation, a  letter  directed  lo  the  above  address  will  meet  with  prompt 

attention  from. 

Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

James  O'Reilly. 
To  Henry  Houghton,  Esq.,  Troy,  N.  Y. 


/ 


\ 


\ 


56 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


J/A^N  old  writer  says:  "We  all  delight  to  talk  of  our- 
selves; and  it  is  only  in  letters,  in  writing  to  a  friend, 
that  we  can  enjoy  that  conversation,  not  only  without 
reproach  or  interruption,  but  with  the  highest  propriety  and 
mutual  satisfaction.  In  such  letters,  above  all  things,  a 
natural  and  lucid  expression  of  the  sentiments  of  the  writer  is 
necessary.  Friends  expect  our  thoughts  and  feelings,  not  a 
letter  filled  with  unmeaning  verbosity  ;  and  though,  where 
excellence  is  aimed  at,  considerable  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  disposition  of  the  words  and  sentences,  it  must  not  be 
at  the  sacrifice  of  the  energy  resulting  from  a  free  expression 
of  the  sentiments.  Let  the  thoughts  first  be  mastered,  and  the 
words  be  suggested  by  the  sentiments,  without  the  slightest 
affectation  of  manner.  The  ease  of  diction,  so  essential,  may, 
in  a  measure,  be  acquired  by  familiarity  with  the  best  English 
authors,  and  an  approach  thus  made  to  that  perfection  which 
may  be  said  to  be  attained  only  by  the  happy  union  of  ease 
and  freshness  with  the  dignity  of  true  friendship/* 

It  is  a  common  saying  with  young  friends,  as  an  excuse  for 
remissness  in  their  correspondence,  that  they  have  nothing  to 
write  about;  but  surely,  between  friends,  there  must  be  a 
similarity  of  taste  on  some  subjects,  and  a  discussion  of  their 
sentiments  and  opinions  on  any  one  of  them,  in  a  course  of 
correspondence,  would  be  acceptable  and  also  valuable,  as 
tending  to  their  mutual  improvement.  But  this  division  of  our 
subject  comprises  also  the  letters  passing  between  relatives 
and  others  united  by  ties  of  affection — excepting  only  the 
corraspondence  of  lovers,  and  of  parents  with  their  children, 
which  form  distinct  chapters.  In  such  letters,  the  heart 
speaks  and  the  imagination  is  most  eloquent.  Letters  of 
courtesy  should  be  written  on  the  best  paper.  For  those  to 
gentlemen  the  paper  should  be  neither  figured  nor  tinted. 


To  a  Lady  Friend,  with  a  Ring/ 

Cincinnati,  October  4111,  1SS2. 
Mv  Dear  Miss  Atkins:  As  a  ring  was  adopted  by  the  ancients 
as  a  symbol  of  eternity,  I  venture  to  request  your  acceptance  of  tlie 
accompanying  little  circlet  as  an  emblem  of  esteem  and  affection  on 
my  part,  which,  I  am  sure,  will  be  perpetual.  Ple;ise  receive  it  in  the 
spirit  in  which  it  is  tendered.  Place  it  on  your  finger,  and  let  me  hope 
that  as  often  as  you  look  at  it  you  will  be  pleasantly  reminded  of  one 
who  has  experienced  much  happiness  in  your  society,  and  who  is  now, 
as  heretofore, 

Your  uld  and  .sincere  friend, 

IIenky  Lewis. 


The  Reply,  Returning  the  Present. 

West  Thirtieth  St.,  New  York,  Oct.  loth,  iSSa. 

Dear  Sir:  I  hope  you  will  not  be  offended  at  the  liberty  I  have 
taken  in  returning-  your  kind  present,  as  I  make  it  a  rule  never  to 
receive  anything  in  this  way  from  gentlemen.  I  assure  )"ou  that, 
while  my  sentiments  of  respect  and  esteem  are  as  cordial  as  ever,  i 
cannot  allow  myself,  even  on  the  score  of  friendship,  to  infringe  on  a 
hitherto  inviolate  principle;  and  I,  therefore,  trust  the  rejection  of 
your  valuable  and  kindly-meant  gift  will  not  be  thought  unfeeling  or 
impolite.  True  good-will  and  esteem,  indeed,  are  superior  to  such 
external  evidences,  and  I  am  satisfied  your  generous  mind  will  not  for 
a  moment  doubt  the  sincerity  of  those  feelings  I  continue  to  cherish 
toward  you. 

I  am,  dear  Sir,  your  faithful  well-wisher, 

Lizzie  Atkins. 

To  Mr.  Henry  Lewis ^  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


A  Young  Lady  Congratulating  an  Aunt  on  Her 
Birthday. 

Rittexhol'se  Square,  Philadelphia, 
Januarv  loth,  1SS2. 
My  Dear  Aunt:  To-morrow  will  be  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
your  natal  day,  and  I  should  do  injustice  to  my  feelings  were  I  to 
permit  the  occasion  to  pass  without  expressing  my  sincere  congratu- 
lations and  wishing  you  many  happy  returns  of  the  day.  Aside  from 
the  near  tie  of  relationship  which  exists  between  us,  I  shall  ever  cherish 
with  feelin^^s  of  gratitude  and  affection  the  remembrance  of  the  very 
many  favors  and  kindnesses  I  have  received  at  your  hands.  Conse- 
quently it  is  only  natural  I  should  feel  a  grateful  interest  in  each  return 
of  this  happy  anniversary.  Fortunate,  indeed,  shall  I  esteem  niysclf 
if,  at  your  age,  I  can  review  my  past  life  with  equal  satisfaction,  for, 
after  all,  there  is  no  happiness  so  complete  as  that  afforded  by  looking 
back  upDn  a  well-spent  life.  Birthdays  are  the  milestones  which 
mark  the  progress  of  the  traveller  along  the  difficult  highway  of  life, 
and  happy  is  the  individual  who  can  pass  each  one  without  a  sigh  of 
regret  or  a  feeling-  of  mistrust  in  tlie  future.  With  my  best  wishes 
for  your  future  happiness,  I  remain, 

Your  affectionate  niece. 


To  Mrs.  Mary  Page^  Fifth  Avenue,  N.  Y. 


Kitty  Pine. 


To  a  Friend,  on  Being  Married. 

New  York,  Jan.  4th,  1SS2. 
My  Dear  Phil:  I  believe  there  are  certain  stereotyped  phrases  in 
which  it  is  customary  to  congratulate  newly-married  folks;  but, 
utterly  disregarding  all  rules  and  regulations  in  such  cases  made  and 
provided,  I  wish  you  joy  in  tlie  familiar  words  which  our  friendship 
warrants  and  my  feeling-s  suggest.  If  your  married  life  is  half  as 
happy  as  I  desire  it  to  be,  you  will  have  good  cause  to  be  satisfied 
with  your  lot.  Present  my  kind  regards  and  compliments  to  your 
bride.  Wishing  you  many  happy  returns  of  the  anniversary  of  your 
wedding-day,  I  remain. 

Your  friend, 


To  Mr.  Fhilip  Brandon^  Chicago^  III, 


Walter  Coopek, 


K 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


57 


^  #     #     fi     Letters  of 


.^s- 


-^t 


7! 


<W 


Friendly  Counsel  and  Remonstrance.      F^ 


"<i^3- 


JERHAPS  no  class  of  letters  demand  more  delicate 
treatment  than  such  as  one  friend  sends  to  another 
with  words  of  counsel  or  remonstrance,  either  in  com- 
mon emergencies  or  on  subjects  of  general  importance.  We 
give  a  variety  of  examples.  One  is  from  the  correspondence 
of  Franklin,  and  is  worthy  of  study  as  a  model  of  the  instruc- 
tive class,  when  the  writer  is  the  acknowledged  superior  of 
his  correspondent  in  knowledge  and  experience. 


From  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  to  a  Yonng  Lady. 

My  Dear  Friend:  I  send  you  the  books  I  mentioned  to  you  last 
night.  I  hegyou  to  accept  thera  as  a  small  mark  of  my  esteem  and 
friendship,  Tliey  are  written  in  the  familiar,  easy  manner  fur  which 
the  French  are  so  remarkable,  and  afford  a  good  deal  of  philosophical 
and  practical  Knowledge,  unembarrassed  with  the  dry  mathematics 
used  by  more  txact  reasoners,  but  which  are  apt  to  discourage  young 
beginners.  I  would  advise  you  to  read  with  a  pen  in  your  hand,  and 
enter  in  a  little  book  short  hints  of  what  you  find  that  is  curious  or 
that  uiay  be  useful,  for  this  will  he  the  best  metliod  of  imprinting  such 
particulars  on  your  memory,  where  they  will  be  ready  either  for  prac- 
tice on  some  future  occasion,  if  they  are  matters  of  utility,  or,  at  least 
to  adorn  and  improve  your  conversation,  if  they  are  rather  points  of 
curiosity.  And  as  many  of  the  scientific  terms  are  such  as  you  can- 
not have  met  with  in  your  common  reading,  and  may,  therefore,  be 
unacquainted  with,  I  think  it  would  be  well  to  liave  a  good  dictionary 
at  hand,  to  consult  immediately  when  you  meet  with  a  word  you  do 
not  comprehend  the  meaning  of.  Tliis  may  at  first  seem  troublesome 
and  interrupting,  but  it  is  a  trouble  that  will  daily  diminish,  as  you 
will  daily  find  less  and  less  occasion  for  your  dictionary  as  you  become 
more  acquainted  with  the  terms ;  and,  in  the  meantime,  you  will  read 
with  more  satisfaction,  because  with  more  understanding.  When  any 
point  occurs  on  which  you  would  be  glad  to  have  more  information 
than  your  book  affords  you,  I  beg  that  you  would  not  in  the  Ic.ist 
apprehend  that  I  should  think  it  a  trouble  to  receive  and  answer  your 
questions.  It  will  be  a  pleasure  and  no  trouble.  For  though  I  may 
not  be  able,  out  of  my  own  littfe  stock  of  knowledge,  to  afford  you 
what  you  require,  I  can  easily  direct  you  to  the  book  where  it  may  be 
found.    Adieu,  and  believe  me  ever,  my  dear  friend, 

Yours  affectionately, 
B.  Franklin. 

To  a  Friend  wlio  has  Traduced  You. 

No.  31  Madison  Av.,  New  York, 

October  izih,  iSSj. 
Sir;  I  have  it  from  good  authority  that  you  have  spoken  of  me  in 
most  unfriendly  terms  to  our  mutual  acquaintances.  At  first  I  could 
scarcely  believu  it,  and  hoped  that  there  was  some  mistake;  but  the 
proofs  of  your  misstatements  and  misrepresentations  are  too  strong 
to  be  doubttd.  What  could  have  been  your  motive  for  thus  slander- 
ing me,  I  cannot  conceive.  As  you  know  full  well  that  there  were  no 
grounds  for  the  disparaging  assertions  you  have  made,  the  least  you 
can  do  is  to  repair  the  evil  by  disabusing  the  minds  of  those  to  whom 
you  have  traduced  me.  This  I  shall  expect  of  you,  and  without  delay. 
Yours,  etc., 

CuARLEs  Singleton. 
To  Sidney  Delaney^  Esq.,  iVaiiSt.,  N.  V. 


Answer  to  the  Foregoing. 

Wall  St.,  Oct.  13th,  1SS3. 
Dear  cir:  1  think  the  remarks  to  which  you  refer  have  been  taken 
more  seriously  than  they  should  have  been  by  the  parties  who  re- 
ported them  to  you.  Still,  I  do  not  deny  that,  under  the  influence  of 
vexation,  for  which  I  now  believe  there  was  not  sufficient  cause,  I  did 
speak  of  you  in  terms  of  which  I  am  now  ashamed.  I  therefore  owe 
you  an  apology,  and  make  it  freely.  Any  false  impressions  concern* 
lug  your  character  and  conduct  which  may  have  been  derived  from 
my  words,  I  will  take  care  to  remove  by  a  full  explanation.  Hoping 
that  this  candid  acknowledgment  will  satisfy  you, 
I  remain.  Sir, 

Truly  yours, 

Sidney  Delanky. 
To  Charles  Singleton,  Esq.,  No.  21  Madison  Av. 


From  an  Aged  Lady  to  her  Niece. 

"  The  Highlands,*'  Sept.  4th,  '82. 
Dear  Niece:  The  sincere  love  and  aftection  which  I  have  for 
your  indulgent  father,  and  ever  had  for  your  virtuous  mother  when 
alive,  together  with  the  tender  regard  I  have  for  your  future  happi- 
ness and  welfare,  have  prevailed  on  me  to  inform  you  of  what  I  have 
heard  of  your  unguarded  conduct,  and  the  too  great  freedom  you  take 
with  Mr.  Martindale.  You  have  been  seen  with  him  at  the  theatres, 
in  the  Central  Park,  and  other  public  places.  Don't  imagine  that  I 
write  this  from  a  desire  to  find  fault,  but  believe  me,  your  familiarity 
with  him  gives  me  no  small  concern.  His  character  is  extremely  bad, 
and  he  has  acted  in  the  most  ungenerous  manner  to  two  or  three 
young  ladies  of  my  acquaintance  who  entertained  too  favorable  an 
opinion  of  his  honor.  It  is  possible,  as  he  has  an  uncle  of  consider- 
able fortune,  that  you  may  be  tempted  to  imagine  his  addresses  an 
offer  to  your  advantage;  but  that  is  greatly  to  be  questioned,  for  I 
have  heard  that  he  is  deeply  in  debt,  and  also  that  he  is  privately 
engaged  to  a  rich  old  widow  at  Flushing.  Let  me  prevail  on  you, 
dear  niece,  to  avoid  his  company;  for,  notwithstanding  your  purity 
of  heart,  your  good  name  may  be  compromised  by  .such  open  acts  of 
imprudence.  I  have  no  other  motive  but  an  unaffected  zeal  for  y<^ur 
interest  and  welfare,  and  I  flutter  myself  you  will  not  be  offended 
with  the  liberty  here  taken  by  your  sincere  friend 
And  affectionate  aunt, 

Sarah  Glasgow. 

The  Young  Lady's  Answer. 

St.  Luke's  Place,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  5,  'S2. 
Dear  Aunt:  I  received  your  letter,  and  when  I  consider  your 
reasons  for  writing,  thankfully  acknowledge  you  my  friend.  It  is 
true  I  have  been  at  those  public  places  you  mention  with  Mr.  Martm- 
dale,  but  was  utterly  ignorantof  his  true  character.  He  did  make  me 
proposals  of  marriage,  but  I  told  him  I  would  do  nothing  without  my 
father's  consent.  He  came  to  visit  me  this  mornmg,  when  I  told  him 
that  a  regard  for  my  reputation  obliged  me  never  to  see  him  any 
more,  nor  even  correspond  with  him  by  letter,  and  you  may  depend 
on  my  adhering  to  that  resolution.  In  the  meantime,  I  return  you  a 
thousand  thanks  for  your  friendly  advice.  I  shall  leave  New  York 
in  .about  six  weeks,  and  will  call  to  see  you  after  I  have  been  at  my 

father's. 

I  am,  dear  aunt,  your  affectionate  niece, 
To  Mrs.  Sarah  Glasgow.  Bella  Burns. 


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.X  ETTERS  of  this  kind,  although  they  do  not  relate 
'.*-^  to  transactions  which  bear  a  commercial  value,  are 
^^^  generally  connected  with  business  and  require  prompt 
attention.  Introductions,  for  example,  are  often  of  the 
highest  value,  and  as  such  favors  can  always  be  reciprocated, 
they  are  seldom  refused  or  neglected  by  men  acquainted  with 
the  usages  of  society.  Such  letters  may  be  written  by  persons 
having  only  a  business  acquaintance,  or  may  pass  between 
mutual  friends. 

Soliciting  a  Loan  from  an  Intimate  Friend. 

Broad  St.,  Philadelphia,  May  n,  'S3. 
My  Dear  Sir:  A  disappointment  in  the  receipt  of  some  money 
due  has  exposed  me  to  a  temporary  embarrassment.  The  sum  whjch 
would  extricate  me  from  this  painful  difficulty  is  not  large,  as  $400 
wnuld  be  amply  sufficient  to  release  me  from  my  present  pressure.  I 
have  so  great  an  aversion  to  borrowing  money  from  a  professional 
lender  that  I  prefer  the  course  of  soliciting  tlie  aid  of  some  well- 
known  friend.  I  have  thought  of  several,  but  none  with  a  greater 
degree  of  confidence  than  yourself.  Can  you  grant  me,  then,  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  above  sum  without  in  any  way  intrenching  on 
your  own  convenience?  If  you  can»  I  believe  I  may  rely  on  your 
readiness  to  do  so  ;  and  you  may  in  turn  depend  upon  it  being  reim- 
bursed with  the  strictest  punctuality  by  the  5th  of  April.  A  speedy 
reply  to  this  request  will  extremely  oblige,  my  dear  Sir, 
Yours  most  sincerely, 

Howard  Thomas. 
To  Mr,  Lee  Williams,  21  PineSt.,  Philadelphia. 


In  Answer  to  the  AboTe,  on  Account  of  Incapability. 

No.  21  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia,  May  13,  'S3. 
Mv  Dear  Sir  :  I  truly  regret  that  my  circumstances  will  not  per- 
mit mc  to  oblige  a  friend  so  dear  to  me  as  yourself ;  but  at  present  I 
am  in  great  need  of  money,  and  last  Friday  I  was  compelled  to  borrow 
to  meet  a  pressing  obligation.  I,  therefore,  do  not  have  it  within  my 
power  to  comply  with  your  request.  Trusting  that  you  may  be  more 
successful  in  some  other  quarter,  and  with  feelings  of  regret  at  my 
own  inability  to  render  you  a  service  which  you  might  otherwise 
readily  command,  believe  nic  to  remain. 

Ever  your  sincere  friend, 

Lee.  Williams. 
To  Howard  Thomas^  £'9-,  Broad  St. y  Philadeiphia. 


Friendly  Letter  of  Introdnction. 

Chicago,  Feb.  4th,  iSSo. 
My  Dear  Sik  :  This  will  introduce  to  you  my  esteemed  friend  Mr. 
Henry  W.  RonsaJl,  whom,  I  am  sure,  you  will  be  happy   to  know. 
Any  Attention  you   may  have  it  in  your  power  to  bestow  during  liis 
visit  to  Boston  will  be  gratefully  reciprocated  by 
Vour  friend, 

Chauncey  Gardener. 
To  Ktiyntond  IIoivclls^  Esq.,  Boston^, 


Soliciting  a  Sabseription  for  the  Benefit  of  a  Widow. 

LoGAM  Square,  Philadelphia,  April  4,  'S2. 
Madam:  I  venture  to  solicit  your  benevolent  aid  on  behalf  of  an 
urgent  and  most  deserving  case.  The  widow  of  John  Wood,  a 
laborer  on  the  Hudson  River  Railroad,  who  was  killed  by  an  accident 
on  the  line,  has  been  left  by  his  untimely  end  with  a  family  of  six 
helpless  children.  The  two  youngest  are  at  present  afflicted  with  a 
dangerous  fever,  and  require  their  mother's  sole  care,  thus  preventing 
her  from  obtaining  employment  or  doing  anything  for  the  support  of 
those  depending  on  her. 

As  Mrs,  Wood  is  a  respectable  and  well-behaved  woman,  and  is 
very  mxich  averse  to  applying  for  ward  assistance,  a  very  moderate 
sura  is  being  raised  to  relieve  her  immediate  necessities,  and,  if 
possible,  to  establish  her  in  a  small  shop  as  a  means  of  future  sub- 
sistence. Trusting  you  will  excuse  this  intrusion,  and  that  I  may 
have  the  pleasure  of  adding  your  name  to  the  accompanying  sub- 
scription-list, 

I  am,  Madam, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Janb  Headley, 
To  Mrs.  Kathcrine  Roosevelt, 

Fifth  Avenue^  N.  Y. 


Answer  to  the  Foregoing. 

Mrs.  Roosevelt  has  received  Mrs.  Headley's  letter,  anu  is  happy  in 
being  able  to  assist  with  her  mite  so  worthy  an  object,  and  is  gratified 
in  placing  her  name  on  the  subscription-list  for  five  dollars,  which 
sum  is  herewith  enclosed.  Mrs.  Headley  will  oblige  by  a  note  of 
acknowledgment. 

Fifth  Avenue,  N.  V.,  April  5th,  iSSi. 


From  a  Gentleman  to  his  Friend,  Requesting  the 
Loan  of  a  Book. 

**  Ingleside,"'  Oct.  loth,  1SS3. 
Sir:  When  last  at  your  house  you  called  my  attention  to  a  book 
entitled  "  The  Origin  of  Species,"  which  I  remember  as  a  work  of  so 
much  interest  that  I  feel  much  inclined  to  peruse  it,  and  should  esteem 
it  a  great  favor  if  you  would  lend  it  to  me.  I  will  take  great  care  of 
it  and  return  it  in  a  few  days,  as  I  have  at  present  abundant  leisure 
for  reading. 


I  am.  Sir, 


Your  obedient  servant, 


To  Nathan  Sherueii,  Esq.,  "  The  Oaks." 


John  Carter, 


Affirmative  Answer  to  the  Foregoing. 

"The  Oaks,"  Oct,  nth,  1SS3. 
Dear  Sik:  You  are  quite  welcome  to  the  volume  you  express  a 
wish  to  see;  but  I  must  ask  you  to  let  me  have  it  by  the  middle  of 
next  month,  as  I  shall  then  have  occasion  to  use  it  for  some  literary 

purposes. 

Believe  me,  dear  Sir, 

Yours  very  truly, 


To  John  Carter,  Esq.,  "  JngUside,*'  N.  K. 


Nathan  Shewell. 


K" 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDKNCE. 


"A 


59 


;:{:  i)  :|:  ^  :|:  i)  :|:  ^  t'^ 


Letters  of  Sympathy  and  Condolence. 


h»"'Y    "-T-"    6       .Ts,       U       J^       y     '"T-'( 


JTVKETTERS  of  this  class  are  among  the  more  important 
^|l  (^  of  those  which  friendship  and  affection  dictate. 
^Cj--^^*  Their  composition  should  be  more  studied  than  ordi- 
nary letters  of  friendship.  The  most  important  rule  is  to 
avoid  mere  conventionalities.  In  the  composition  of  such 
there  must  be  no  high-flown  words  or  expressions,  no  strain- 
ing after  effect.  If  heart  speaks  not  to  heart  in  the  simplest, 
most  soothing  language  of  nature,  words  will  to  the  sufferer 
prove  cold  and  unimpressive — worse  than  useless.  Be  it  ever 
borne  in  mind  that,  to  the  afflicted,  the  mourner  in  spirit, 
"there  is  only  one  true  source  of  consolation,  that  we  shall 
meet  those  we  love  in  another  and  a  better  world,  where  the 
wicked  cease  from  troubling  and  the  weary  are  at  rest." 

Courtesy  requires  that  the  letters  of  condolence  to  a  friend, 
on  the  death  of  a  relative,  should  be  written  on  black-edged 
paper  and  sealed  with  black  wax,  even  though  you  should 
have  been  unacquainted  with  the  deceased. 


To  a  Lady  ou  the  Death  of  Her  Child. 

Chicago,  Jan.  nth,  iSSo. 
My  Dear  Hester  :  The  painful  news  of  the  removal  of  your  dear 
child  has  just  reached  me,  and  I  hasten  to  express  my  affectionate 
sympathy  with  you  under  so  severe  an  affliction. 

Aias  I  how  fresh  in  my  memory  is  the  recollection  of  the  liveliness 
and  innocence  of  the  lovely  departed!  ^Vll  that  was  mortal  ischanj^fed 
now,  and  clouded  forever;  but  how  great  is  your  comfort  in  the  well- 
grounded  assurance  that  the  Good  Shepherd,  who  "  careth  for  his 
flock,"  has  taken  the  gentle  lamb  into  his  own  fold  I  Your  child  has 
gone  to  him  who  said,  **  Suffur  little  children  to  come  unto  me,"  and 
we  know  not  how  soon  our  hour  may  come.  Oh,  that  we  may  all 
meet  in  that  brighter  and  liappier  world,  where  sorrow  and  sin  and 
suffering  are  alike  unknown  I 

That  a  higher  than  human  power  may  console  and  support  you 
under  this  heavy  stroke  is  the  earnest  prayer  of, 
My  dear  Hester, 

Yours  sincerely, 

'     Arabella  Winters. 
Ta  Mrs»  Hester  AppUby,  Coiutndits,  O. 


Reply  to  the  Foregroing:. 

CoLUMBts,  O.,  Jan.  13th,  iSSo, 
My  Dear  Arabella:  It  is  indeed  true,  although  yet  "we  can 
scarcely  believe  it.  A  little  while  ago  our  darling  child  was  regarded 
as  the  strong  one  of  the  family,  overflowing  with  happy  animal 
spirits— the  fountain  of  joy  in  the  house.  Now  her  poor  earthly 
garment  is  laid  m  the  early  grave,  and  her  generous,  loving,  truthful 
spirit,  with  its  mine  of  unwrought  wealth,  can  be  with  us  only  by  the 
eye  of  faith.  Wonderful  is  this  dispensation  of  a'heavenly  Father's 
chastening  hand  t  Yet  can  we  see  many  merciful  preparations  for 
it,  the  foremost  being  the  dear  child's  own  inner  life;  and  through 


the  trials  of  the  past  five  or  six  weeks  there  have  been  mercies  in- 
numerable,  tempering  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb.  Our  hope  and 
prayer  is  that,  though  seen  no  longer,  she  may  be  a  ministering  angel 
in  our  home.  "To  do  good  and  distribute  "  was  her  element  when 
visibly  present.  It  may  be  that  her  desire  to  bless  those  she  so  fondly 
loved  may  only  have  received  a  deeper  and  more  inward  power. 
Believe  me  ever 

Most  truly  yours, 

Hester  Appleby. 
To  Mrs,  Arabella  Winters^  Chicago,  III. 


On  a  Sudden  Reverse  of  Fortnne. 

Stamford,  Ct.,  July  6th,  iSSo. 
My  Dear  Friend:  Hackneyed  phrases  of  condolence  never  yet 
comforted  a  man  in  the  hour  of  trouble,  and  I  am  not  going  to  try 
their  effect  in  your  case.  And  yet,  let  me  say,  in  heartfelt  earnest, 
that  I  was  deeply  pained  to  hear  of  your  sudden  and  unexpected 
reverse  of  fortune.  Misfortune  is  very  hard  to  bear  when  it  falls  upon 
one  like  a  flash  of  lightning  from  a  clear  sky,  without  any  warning. 
But  do  not  be  discouraged.  When  Senator  Benton  saw  the  work  of 
many  years  consumed  in  ten  mmutes,  he  took  the  matter  coolly, 
went  to  work  again,  and  saw  the  damage  repaired  before  his  death. 
So,  I  hope,  will  you.  There  is  no  motto  like  "  Try  .igain  "  for  those 
whom  fate  has  stricken  down.  Besides,  there  are  better  things  than 
wealth,  even  in  this  world,  to  say  nothing  of  the  next,  where  we  shall 
neither  buy  nor  sell.    Cheer  up,  and  believe  me,  as  of  old, 

Your  friend, 

Willis  Goodhelp. 

To  Mr,  Harvey  Brown^  Boston,  Mass, 


To  a  Lady  on  the  Death  of  Her  Husband. 

New  York,  December  lath,  iSSa. 

My  Dear  Mrs.  James:  Although  unwilling  to  intrude  on  the 
sacred  privacy  of  grief  until  its  first  pangs  have,  in  some  measure, 
subsided,  I  participate  so  sincerely  in  your  afiliction  that  I  cannot 
longer  keep  myself  from  writing.  And  yet,  so  weak  and  ineffectual 
is  all  human  consolation,  that  I  scarcely  know  how  to  express  the 
deep  sense  I  have  of  the  heavy  stroke  under  which  you  are  prostrated. 
Yours  is,  indeed,  a  sad  bereavement;  but  I  doubt  not,  from  your  strong 
faith  in  Him  who  "  doeth  all  things  well,"  you  will  be  sustained  and 
comforted  by  his  own  consolations,  which  are  **  neitlicr  few  norsmall." 
The  recollections  of  him  who  has  so  lately  departed  must  be  so  full  of 
painful  regret,  that  I  will  not  dwell  on  this  dark  side  of  the  picture, 
but  rather  look  to  its  brighter  aspect,  in  the  hope  that  he  has  gone  to 
a  happier  sphere,  and  that  what  is  loss  to  you  is  to  him  "  unspeakable 
gam." 

1  add  no  more  but  my  fervent  prayer  thiU  you  may  be  divinely 
comforted  in  your  sore  trial,  and  be  roused  from  yourgrief  by  claims 
of  duty  to  those  whose  welfare  demands  your  care  and  affection. 
Believe  me,  my  dear  Mrs,  James, 

Your  sympatliizing  friend, 

Jane  Harvey, 

To  Mrs.  Henry  ya/nes,  Nantucket,  Mass, 


/ 


Letters  Between  Parents  and  Children.   <'-^'^ 


'^  -i    i 


T^ETTERS  expressing  the  feelings  of  children  toward 
their  parents,  and  the  anxious  affection  of  parents  for 
their  children,  affi>rd  themes  of  the  most  interesting 
character,  and  examples  of  the  most  perfect  confidence.  In 
style,  they  have  the  widest  range  ;  **from  grave  to  gay,  from 
lively  to  severe.'* 

Children  away  from  home,  in  the  excitement  of  new  scenes 
and  new  acquaintances,  may  for  a  lime  forget  and  neglect 
their  parents;  but  moments  must  recur  reminding  them  of 
their  affectionate  solicitude,  and  in  trouble  and  affliction  mak- 
ing them  yearn  for  a  sympathy  they  may  then,  only  in  its 
absence,  thoroughly  appreciate ;  and  it  is  at  such  times  that  a 
letter  reveals  the  heart  of  the  writer  and  moves  that  of  the 
parent.  Children  should,  however,  accustom  themselves  to 
write  regularly  to  their  parents,  and  they  should  express  them- 
selves in  the  same  easy,  cheerful  way  that  they  would  do  in 
speaking  at  home.  The  only  rule  we  think  it  necessary  to 
lay  down  is  the  propriety  of  preserving  a  due  regard  to  the 
relationship  in  which  the  writers  are  placed  to  each  other. 
A  father,  when  writing  to  a  son,  should  preserve  his  superior- 
ity by  a  gentle  degree  of  authority,  and  a  son  should  never 
lose  sight  of  the  manner  in  which  he  can  best  express  his  sense 
of  filial  authority. 

From  a  Father  to  Ms  Son  at  School. 

Tremont  St.,  Boston,  SepL  23rd,  1SS3. 
Mv  Dear  Son:  I  am  delighted  to  hear  of  your  progress,  and  send 
you  a  iitllc  rcmiUance  of  pocket  money  to  prove  to  you  that  I  am  ever 
ready  to  give  encouragement  when  it  is  deserved.  You  must  always 
bear  in  mind  that  upon  your  career  at  school  much  of  your  future  liie 
depends.  To  waste  the  precious  hours  of  youth  is  to  make  prepara- 
tion for  a  useless  and  dishonorable  aid  age;  whereas  by  steady 
industry,  care  of  that  health  with  which  God  has  happily  blessed 
you,  and  submission  to  those  who  have  the  best  right,  as  well  as 
the  best  inclination,  to  advise  you  for  your  good,  you  may  hope  to 
ripen  into  a  respectable  and  useful  member  of  society,  and  to  render 
yourself  fit  to  encounter  those  responsibilities  which  fall  to  every 
man's  lot.  Your  mother  unites  in  hearty  wishes  that  you  may  go  on 
as  you  have  be^jun,  and  that  your  whole  life  may  prove  a  credit  t»> 
yourself  and  a  CDinfort  to  us.  Give  our  best  respects  to  your  excellent 
preceptor,  and  believe  me 

Your  affectionate  father, 

James  McHenry. 
Ta  Master  William  McHenry, 

Nazareth  Hall^  Nazareth^  Pa. 


I  have  made  such  satisfactory  progress  that  I  have  not  only  been  re* 
moved  one  class  higher  in  the  school,  but  have  carried  off  the  second 
prize  for  Latin  verse. 

I  sincerely  hope  that  I  may  continue  sufficiently  industrious  to  keep 
up  all  the  expectations  you  have  formed  of  me,  and  which  you  have 
spared  no  pains  or  expense  to  realize.  With  mingled  feelings  of 
regret  at  leaving  my  kind  preceptor  and  of  delight  at  the  prospect  of 
our  speedy  meeting  for  the  holidays, 
I  remain,  my  dearest  parents. 

With  kindest  love  to  all  at  home, 

Your  affectionate  son, 

William  McHenry. 
To  Mr,  and  Mrs,  McHenry  ^ 

Tremont  St,,  Boston. 


From  a  Young  Ladj  to  her  Mother. 

Boston,  Mass.,  June  Sth,  'Si. 
My  Dear  Mamma:  From  what  you  know  of  Boston,  you  will  not 
be  surprised  to  hear  that  I  have  enjoyed  an  incessant  round  of  gaiety 
and  pleasure.  My  health,  too,  is  completely  recruited,  and  my 
friends  are  so  kind  that  I  feel  almost  at  home.  But  I  have  another 
serious  matter  to  confess  to  vou,  at  which,  I  hope,  you  will  not  fetl 
angry.  It  seems  almost  ungrateful  to  think  of  loving  any  one  but 
you;  but  oh,  Mamma,  if  you  saw  Harry  Leaning,  you  would  forgive 
me,  I  am  sure.  He  is  so  handsome,  so  gentle  in  his  manners,  and 
yet  so  sensible  and  so  accomplished!  We  met  at  a  party  given  by 
vour  old  friend,  Mrs.  Grayson,  and  he  scarcely  quitted  my  side  the 
whole  evening.  Mrs.  Grayson  has  so  high  an  opinion  of  him  tliat  she 
repeatedly  invited  him  to  her  house,  until  his  visits  have  become  of 
almost  daily  occurrence.  He  is  most  honorable  and  straightforward, 
and  only  waits  permission  to  write  to  you,  in  order  to  give  you  full 
particulars  as  to  his  condition  and  prospects.  Forgive  me,  dear 
mamma,  when  I  tell  you  that  my  feelings  are  deeply  enlisted  in  his 
favor,  and  that  I  feel  as  if  much  of  my  future  happiness  depended  on 
our  union.  I  wish  vou  \vere  here  to  counsel  and  advise  me,  for  never 
before  did  I  so  much  feel  my  own  heart  master  of  my  reason.  I  hope 
you  will  write  directly  or  come  immediately  to  your  affectionate  but 

anxious  child, 

Minnie  Howson. 
To  Mrs.  Gertrude  Howson^  Fifth  Av.,  N".  V, 


From  a  Boy  at  School  to  Both  Parents. 

Nazareth,  Dec.  4th,  1883. 
My  Dear  Parents:  It  will  doubtless  givtyou  much  pleasure  to 
learn  that,  owing  to  tlie  unremitting  attention  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  KJuge, 


The  Mother's  Reply. 

Fifth  Avenue,  June  10th,  'Si. 
My  Dear  CiiiLn:  Make  yourself  perfectly  at  ease  as  to  my  consent 
to  anything  that  will  promote  your  happiness.  If  Mr.  Lenning  prove 
to  be  what  you  represent,  my  fondest  wishes,  that  you  might  meet  a 
desirable  partner  in  life,  will  be  realized.  At  the  same  time,  do  not 
he  too  hasty  to  give  an  unqualified  assent  to  his  proposals,  but  take 
time  to  study  his  character  and  disposition  through  a  longer  acquaint- 
ance. I  shall  be  in  Boston  on  the  15th,  and  I  shall  be  delighted,  not 
only  to  meet  my  dear  child  again,  but  to  be  introduced  to  the  man 
whom  she  has  thought  so  worthy  of  her  affections. 
Your  ever  loving  mother, 

Gertrude  Howson. 
To  Miss  Minnie  Hovason^  Boston,  Mass, 


FT 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


6l 


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fHE  form  of  the  note  is  most  frequently  adopted  by 
ladies,  who  in  this  way  generally  issue  invitations  to 
parties.  It  is,  however,  on  many  general  occasions 
extremely  useful,  as  in  returning  thanks  for  any  courtesy 
shown,  or  when  any  misunderstanding  has  arisen  between 
friends,  in  which  case  it  tends  to  guard  against  personalities. 
It  is  a  form  useful,  also,  as  being  intermediate  between  the 
distant  and  the  familiar  styles,  though  it  is  not  usually  em- 
ployed *hen  the  communication  is  of  any  length.  Notes 
must  be  written  in  the  third  person  throughout,  any  departure 
from  this  rule,  either  in  allusion  to  the  writer  or  to  his  corre- 
spondents, being  a  fault  of  the  most  glaring  kind.  It  is  neces- 
sary, also,  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  use  of  the  personal 
pronouns,  which  may  be  effected  by  occasionally  repeating 
the  names  of  writer  aud  correspondent  when  the  length  of  the 
note  requires  this  expedient.  The  date  and  the  address  of  the 
writer  should  always  be  at  the  foot  of  the  note.  The 
established  forms  for  notes  of  invitation  to  dinner,  to  evening 
parties,  etc.,  are  given  under  the  division  of  Etiquette.  A 
note  of  invitation  from  an  intimate  friend  may  be  appropri- 
ately written  in  whatever  style  the  degree  of  mutual  under- 
standing between  the  parties  may  justify.  The  chief  reason 
for  introducing  this  class  of  letters  is  to  point  out  that  they 
should  always  be  definite^  however  brief,  and  however  freely 
written.  The  best  guide  in  these  cases  is  to  consider  for  a 
moment  the  time  and  circumstances  under  which  the  letter 
will  be  received.  How  often  has  unnecessary  trouble  and 
doubt  been  caused  by  a  note  without  date  or  even  the  day  of 
the  week,  inviting  the  recipient  to  come  and  dine  with  the 
family  to-morrow !  Another  infallible  recipe  for  obscurity 
in  this  class  of  notes  is  to  write  on  a  Tuesday  afternoon,  for 
example,  and  write  your  friend  to  come  next  IVednesday. 


An  Inyitation  to  a  Bachelor  Party, 

Sept.  2oth,  1SS3. 
My  dear  Alf:  Mv  festive  self  and  half-a-dozun  other  good 
fellows  are  going  to  devote  a  few  hours  on  Thursday  evening  to  the 
enjoyment  of  a  few  glasses  of  wine,  a  game  of  euchre,  and  so  on.  I 
hope  you  will  make  one,  as  wc  have  not  enjoyed  "  the  feast  of  reason 
and  flow  of  soul"  in  each  other's  company  for  some  time  past. 
Believe  me,  dear  Alfred, 

Yours  ever, 

Harry  Hunter. 
To  Alfred  BellvitU,  Esq.^ 

Ko,  ig  Madison  Av.,  A',  K". 


A  Lady  to  Her  Friend  in  the  City,  Inyitin^  Her  to 
Spend  a  Month  in  the  Countrj'- 

Eddington,  Bucks  Co.,  Pa.,  June  4th,  1SS3. 
My  dear  Friend:  I  need  scarcely  tell  you  that  I  always  feel  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  your  society,  and  am  selfish  enough  on  the 
present  occasion  to  covet  it  for  a  month,  or  for  a  longer  period,  should 
it  suit  your  convenience.  If,  therefore,  you  are  not  so  wedded  to  the 
attractions  of  a  city  life  as  to  he  loth  to  leave  them  for  a  short  time,  I 
think  you  would  gather  some  amusement,  and  also,  perhaps,  improve 
your  health,  by  a  sojourn  in  the  country.  Will  you,  then,  do  us  the 
favor  of  making  our  rural  retreat  your  temporary  abode,  assuring 
yourself  that  your  presence  will  enliven  our  family  circle,  and  be  a 
source  of  real  enjoyment  to 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Eliza  Hooper. 
To  Mrs.  Letty  Davidson^  Fifth  Av.,  N.  K 


Answer  to  the  Samet  Afflnuatirely. 

Fifth  Avexue,  N.  Y.,  June  5th,  iSSj. 
My  dear  Eliza;  I  have  just  received  your  kind  letter  inviting  me 
to  spend  a  short  time  at  your  pleasant  home.  Though  I  live  so  much 
in  New  York,  I  assure  you  that  there  are  few  wlio  feel  more  delighted 
with  the  country  than  myself,  and  I  could  be  well  contented  to  make 
il  my  residence  during  a  larger  part  of  every  year,  and  should  cer- 
tainly do  so  did  the  pursuits  of  Mr.  Davidson  allow  us  to  live  out  of 
the  city.  However,  my  domestic  duties  are  not  at  present  of  so  press- 
ing a  nature  as  to  force  me  to  decline  your  friendly  invitation,  and 
Mr.  Davidson,  so  far  from  offering  any  obstacle  to  my  absence  from 
home  for  a  short  time,  has  urged  me  to  send  you  an  affirmative 
answer,  as  he  thinks  that,  in  addition  to  the  enjoyment  which  I  can  - 
not  fail  to  experience  in  the  society  of  yourself  and  family,  I  shall 
benefit  my  health  by  a  change  of  air  and  scene.  I  therefore  accept 
your  kind  invitation  most  cheerfully,  1  may  add  gratefully.  And  I  am. 
My  dear  Eliza, 

Your  ever  affectionate  friend, 

Letty  Davidson. 
To  Mrs.  Eliza  Hooper^  Eddington^  Pa. 


An  Inyitation  to  a  Water-Party, 

August  loth,  1SS3. 
Dear  Charlie:  Jack  Halcoll,  myself  and  four  others  are  going 
down  the  bay  in  a  six-oared  boat  next  Wednesday.  Now,  you're  a 
jully  fellow  and  a  good  steersman,  so  I  hope  you  will  give  us  your 
company  and  your  scr\'ices ;  indeed,  we  will  take  no  excuse.  We 
shall  set  out  from  my  rooms  at  7:30  p.m.  without  fail.  Donotdis* 
appoint  us. 

Yours  truly,  ia  haste, 

Edward  Neville. 

To  Charles  Eilwood^  Esq.^  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


Miscellaneous  Letters. 


!jrX3C 


fHE  reader  will  find   arranged    under  this    heading   a 
variety  of  letters  for  a  variety  of  circumstances  and 
"^^^^^   occasions.     With  the  examples  given  on  the  preceding 
pages,  they  make  the  department  of  "Business  and  Social 
Correspondence  *'  a  complete  and  comprehensive  guide  for  all 
classes  of  letter-writers. 


From  One  Youn^  Man  to  Another  in  Reference  to  an 
Attaehnieut. 

Atlanta,  Ga.,  Feb.  4th,  18S3. 
Mv  Dear  Kenneth;  You  will  laugh  at  me,  and  with  suine  reason, 
when  I  tell  you  that  all  my  old  skepticism  about  matrimonial  happi- 
ness is  at  an  end,  I  have  met  with  a  young  lady  who,  I  believe, 
would  convert  even  you  to  a  belief  that  marriage  may  be  a  very 
happy  state  and  that  bachelors  are  only  miserable  wretches  after 
all.  In  brief,  I  am  the  engaged  and  accepted  suitor  of  Miss  Ford, 
whose  visit  to  New  York  you  remember.  Words  cannot  suffice  to 
express  how  great  has  been  the  enjoyment  I  have  hitherto  derived 
from  her  society,  and  the  more  I  see  of  her  amiable  character  and 
high  accomplishments,  the  more  certain  do  I  feel  that  the  day  that 
first  made  known  to  me  her  consent  to  share  my  fortunes  will  prove 
one  of  the  happiest  in  my  whole  existence.  You  may  think  this  a 
very  wild  effusion  and  one  strangely  at  variance  with  my  former 
avowed  callousness  on  the  score  of  domestic  life;  but,  believe  me, 
you  will  soon  be  a  convert  when  you  see  my  dear  Lettie.  Wishing 
that  you  may  prove  as  fortunate  in  the  selection  of  a  partner  as  1 
have  been,  I  remain, 

My  dear  boy, 

Ever  affectionately  yours, 

John  Norton. 
To  7amcs  Caskill,  IVall  St.,  A'.  Y. 


Invitation  from  a  Familiar  Friend. 

Dear  Mk.  Mitchell:  We  shall  look  fur  you  on  Monday  evening 
(the  14th,  mind  !)  at  seven  o'clock,  and  if  Mrs,  Mitchell  can  leave  her 
ha'iy  and  come  with  you,  I  need  not  say  that  we  sliall  be  douhly 
glad  to  see  her.  In  great  haste,  whicli  1  know  you  will  excuse 
and  rather  admire  than  otherwise, 

I  ain  sincerely  yours, 

Gertrude  Gibson. 
Cambrii>gk,  M:irch  loth,  1S83. 


Recjnesting  a  Friend  to  Forward  Letters. 

Nohkistown,  April  9th,  1SS3. 
Dear   Sir:    May  I  trespass  on  your  kindness  to  send  me  in  the 
enclosed  envelope  any  letter  that  may  come  through  you  to  me  up  to 
W'cdn'jsday,  2isl  inst.?     By  so  doing  you  will  add  t<>  tlie  many  kind  ■ 
ncsses  experienced  by, 

Dear  Sir, 

Your  obliged  friend, 

Harriet  Haht. 

To  }ienry  Chase^  Esq.,  20j  Arch  Si.,  Pkiia. 


To  a  Daughter  on  Her  Birthday. 

My  dearest  Child:  You  father,  brothers  and  sisters  "U  unite 
with  me  in  sending  you  a  thousand  good  wishes  pn  this  your 
fifteenth  anniversary.  We  could  all  have  desired  that  circ%"*istances 
would  have  admitted  of  your  spending  it  with  us  ;  hut  feeling  in  these 
matters  must  sometimes  be  sacrificed  for  our  good,  and  ^'^r  selfish 
delights  must  not  be  permitted  to  interfere  with  the  prospects  of  those 
dear  to  us.  The  package  which  accompanies  this  letter  contains  not 
only  some  trifling  tokens  of  affection  from  all  of  us,  but  the  materials 
for  a  little  entertainment  which,  I  have  no  doubt,  Mrs.  B-^^nton  will 
allow  you  to  give  to  your  school -fellows,  as  I  have  writiw^  to  beg  a 
half -holiday  on  the  occasion.  God  bless  you,  my  dea»"  child!  and 
that  every  succeeding  year  may  see  you  increase  in  all  i'^'W.  is  desir- 
able in  body  and  mind,  is  the  earnest  prayer  of  your  ^  *ir  anxious 
parents.  AVith  best  compliments  to  your  mistress  and  teachers, 
Believe  me, 

Your  ever  affectionate  mother, 

Margaret   *homas. 
To  Miss  Lettie  T/ioitias, 

^*  Linden  Hall"  Sfininary,  Lititz,  Pa. 


A  Oentleman  to  His  Son,  on  the  Latter's  MaiT^*ige. 

Philadelphia,  Jan.  30th,  SS5. 
My  dear  Son:  It  is  with  no  small  pleasure,  and  a  slight  feeling 
of  parental  pride,  that  1  now  congratulate  you  upon  your  r^rent 
change  of  state.  That  you  have  my  best  and  heartiest  wishes  foryour 
future  happiness,  you  already  know ;  but  I  feel  natural  pleasure  fir 
again  giving  them  expression  ;  and  here  I  have  to  add  that  no  pare"* 
could  ]oin  in  those  wishes  with  more  fervent  sincerity  than  your  dear 
and  kind  mother,  who  desires  to  unite  with  me  in  the  most  affection- 
ate regards  to  our  new  relation,  our  daughter-in-law.  That  your 
mariiage  state  may  be  blessed  with  the  same  domestic  happiness  that 
has  fallen  to  my  lot,  is  the  sincere  wish  of 

Your  ever  affectionate  father, 

John  Paul  Jones. 
To  Henry  Paul  ^ones,  Pollstown,  Pa. 


ReqneStinff  a  Friend  to  Execute  a  Commission. 

Yonkers,  June  3d,  1SS3. 

My  dear  Jennie:  Will  you  kindly  execute  tlie  following  little 
commissions  for  mc  as  soon  as  you  can  make  it  convenient.'  Purchase 
for  me  at  Stewart  &  Co.'s  the  following  articles  (.here  state  muslin, 
lace,  etc.)  Will  you  also  call  at  Appleton's  and  inquire  when 
Bulwer's  new  novel  will  be  out,  as  I  am  all  anxiety  to  know? 

Please  give  them  my  address  at  Stewart's,  and  tell  them  to  pack  the 
parcel  carefully  and  send  it  by  express. 

The  weather  up  here  is  delightful,  but  I  wish   1  had  the  pleasure  of 

your  company  to  render  it  more  so.     Pray  write  a  line,  and  let  me 

know  how  soon  you  can  make  me   a  visit,  and  thus  afford  mc  an 

opportunity  to  ihank  you  personally  for  your  kindness. 

£lla  Fokesthk. 
To  Miss  yennie  Hale, 

No.  40  Sixth  Avenue,  N,  V, 


^ 


'K~ 


BUSINESS    AXn    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


63 


Applicatiou  of  Servant  for  Testimonial  • 

East  Fourth  St.,  N,  Y.,  Jan.  i,  'S2. 
Respected  Madam:  Bein^  desirous  of  again  entering  service  in 
my  former  ciipacity  of  cook  :intl  laundress,  1  write  to  ask  the  favor  of 
a  testimonial  from  you  as  to  my  general  character  and  ca^iability.  I 
am  sorry  to  have  to  trouble  you,  but  1  feel  that  you  will  do  anything 
you  can  to  further  me  in  obtaining  employment.  With  sincere  thank-s 
for  your  past  kindness, 

I  am,  respected  Madam, 

Vour  grateful  servant, 
^  Charlotte  Fields. 

To  Mrs,  Louise  Baimer^ 

No,  24  litest  Ft/ty first  St.,  New    York, 


Aeknowledg:ln^  Receipt  of  Testimonial,  with  Thanks. 

Beaker  St.,  Rostox,  May  15,  'Sj. 
Reverend  Sir;  I  have  received  your  most  obliging  and  con- 
siderate communication,  and  I  beg  that  you.wlll  accept  my  warmest 
thanks  for  tiie  handsome,  if  not  too  llattering,  testimonial  you  have 
been  pleased  to  hand  me.  I  sincerely  trust  that  my  future  career  may 
continue  to  be  marked  by  conduct  wortliy  of  your  approbation,  and 
assuring  you  of  my  deep  sense  of  the  obligation  under  which  you  have 
placed  me, 

I  am,  reverend  Sir, 

Your  obedient  and  grateful  servant, 

Eliza  Hazleton. 
To  the  Rev.  yohn  Snowden^ 

Rittcnhouse  Stjuare,  Boston. 


Inquiry  Regarding  a  Servant's  Character. 

No.  1428  Pine  St,,  St.  Locis,  May  4,  *S3, 
Madam:  Susan  Macy,  who  is  applying  for  the  place  of  cook  in  my 
house,  refers  me  to  you  for  her  character  and  qualifications.  I  shall, 
therefore,  feel  obliged  by  your  informing  me  if  she  is  honest,  cleanly, 
industrious  and  obliging;  also  if  she  is  well  acquainted  with  plain 
cookery, 

1  am,  Madam,  yours  respectfully, 

Mary  Martin. 
To  Mrs.  Ann  Cooper,  243  Arch  St,^  Phila, 


A  Merchant  Ur^in^  Payment  of  Account. 

Warren  St.,  New  York,  May  3,  'Sj. 
Sir  ;  I  must  solicit  your  prompt  attention  to  the  enclosed  account, 
which  has  already  been  due  over  two  months.  On  the  lolh  1  have  a 
heavy  obligation  to  meet,  which  will  require  all  the  funds  I  can  pro- 
cure ;  and,  as  you  have  not  remitted  me  any  cash  for  some  time  past, 
I  trust  you  will  comply  with  my  request,  and  forward  a  draft  for  the 
whole  or  a  considerable  part  of  the  balance  due  me.  Please  reply  by 
return  mail,  and  let  me  know  whether  I  may  depend  upon  you. 
Your  obedient  servant, 

Jambs  Parsons, 
To  Henry  P.  yoneSf  Brooklyn. 


A  Letter  of  Introduction. 

New  Orleans,  June  3d,  'Si, 
Dear  Sir  ;  The  present  will  be  handed  you  by  Mr.  Smith,  partner 
of  Mr.  Stillwell,  who  was  himself  an  associate  of  the  house  of  Cross 
&  Black,  Men-.pbis.  Mr,  Smith  intending  to  visit  your  city  on  business 
of  his  house,  we  take  the  liberty  of  recommending  him  to  you,  and  of 
bcgL;ing  you  to  render  him  all  the  services  in  your  power,  and  lo 
furnish  him  all  the  information  of  which  he  may  have  need,  or  which 
may  appear  likely  to  you  to  insure  the  success  of  his  trip.  Should 
Mr.  Smith  have  need  of  any  money  for  his  expenses,  you  will  be  good 
enough  to  let  lum  have  what  he  may  ask  for,  and  charge  the  same  to 
our  account. 

Very  respectfully, 

Yours,  etc.. 

Lord  A:  Taylor, 

T.>  yulius  St'chei,  F.Tf/.,  iraii Street,  N.  V. 


From  a  Lady  to  Another,  an  Invalid*  • 

Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia,  May  i,  1SS3. 
My  Dear  Miss  Hartman;  I  am  truly  grieved  to  hear  of  your 
continued  indisposition,  but  trust  that  you  may  speedily  enjoy  the 
return  of  your  wonted  health  and  energy.  There  is  much  consolation 
in  the  fact  that  your  spirits  are  good,  and  that  the  illness  does  not 
affect  any  vital  part.  Considering  which,  I  have  every  confidence 
that,  with  God's  blessing,  the  careful  attentions  of  your  friends  will 
soon  make  your  complete  recovery  a  matter  of  certain  and  cordial 
congratulation.  With  kindest  wishes  and  sympathy,  I  am,  dear  Miss 
Hartman, 

Yours  ever  sincerely, 

Amanda  Mkkrill. 
To  Miss  Ella  Hartman^  Columbus,  Ohio, 


An  Invitation  to  a  Picnic  Tarty. 

Newark,  June  isth,  1SS3. 
My  tear  Sir  :  "We  are  endeavoring  to  get  up  a  small  excursion  to 
visit  High  Bridge  on  tlie  iSthof  this  month.  Will  you  do  us  the  favor 
of  making  one  of  our  number?  Mrs.  Shaw  and  my  family  desire 
their  compliments,  and  request  me  to  mention  that  they  have  taken 
upon  themselves  the  task  of  providing  the  '*  creature  comforts"  for 
that  occasion,  and  trust  that  their  exertions  will  meet  with  unanimous 
approval.  Should  you  have  no  previous  engagement  tor  that  day, 
and  feel  disposed  lo  join  our  party,  a  carnage  will  be  at  your  door  by 
seven  o'clock  on  Wednesday  moming.  And  believe  me  to  be, 
My  dear  Sir, 

Vours  most  sincerely, 

Charles  Shaw. 

/'.  S. — The  favor  <if  an  early  answer  will  oblige. 
To  Stephen  IVainwright,  Esq,,  VorU-ers,  N.  K 


c 


K 


64 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Co: 


SYNONYMS 


6^"-^- 


Antonyms. 


Containing  over  Twenty  Tliousand  Words  of  botli  Similar  and  Contrary  Meaning. 


OTHING    can    be   more 
embarrassing    than   that 
deplorable     poverty     of 
speech   which  makes   a 
man    iterate    and  reiter- 
;^-0    ate  his  one  word,  when 
but  a   slight  knowledge 
of  Synonyms  would  permit  him 
to   express   his  ideas  in  an  ele- 
gant and  faultless  manner. 

Every  one  has  felt  the  neces- 
sity, in  writing  or  speaking,   of 
having    at    command    a    ready 
vocabulary  from  which  to  select 
words  that  will  clearly  and  forci- 
bly convey  the  intended  meaning 
and    at    the    same   time    save  the 
inelegance  of  frequent  repetitions. 

In  fact,  some  writers  have  made  the  number 
of  Synonyms  in  a  language  the  test  of  its  civil- 
ization and  fitness  for  literature.  Thus  the 
ancient  Greek  fairly  teems  with  words  having  a 
like  signification,  so  that  every  delicate  shade  of 
meaning  might  be  clearly  and  forcibly  put; 
the  same  may  be  said  of  Latin  and  of  Hebrew. 
On  the  other  hand,  while  the  English  language 


contains  about  forty  thousand  words,  Latham 
and  other  scholars  have  decided  that  the  vocab- 
ulary of  the  English  peasant  does  not  contain 
more  than  five  or  six  hundred  vvords.  Conse- 
quently it  seems  clear  that  a  knowledge  of 
words  is  the  most  direct  possible  test  of  culture 
and  civilization. 

The  rhetorical  fault  known  as  tautology  is 
best  overcome  by  an  acquaintance  with  Syno- 
nyms. On  the  other  hand  a  knowledge  of  An- 
tonyms stands  next  in  importance  to  Synonyms, 
for  one  of  the  strongest  figures  of  speech  is 
"Antithesis,"  or  the  putting  of  matters  in  start- 
ling contrast  and  opposition — a  method  known 
of  old  as  one  of  the  most  effective  weapons  in 
the  armory  of  the  rhetorician.  The  Dictionary 
of  Antonyms  following  will  be  found  one  of  the 
most  complete  ever  published.  The  student 
will,  upon  finding  the  antonym  he  wishes,  turn 
to  its  peculiar  synonyms,  and  thus  find  the,  very 
word  for  which  he  may  be  seeking.  To  illustrate 
the  use  and  necessity  of  synonyms  to  the  writer 
and  speaker  we  append  a  sentence  which  clearly 
shows  the  value  of  a  dictionary  of  this  char- 
acter. 


-^^ 


Example. 

lie   was  a   man    of  acute    perception,  acute 
judgment,  acute  intellect  and  acute  observation. 

The  Same  Sentence  Improved. 

{acute  1 
keen    V  perception, 
quick  j 

(shrewd        )  (bright^ 

^  piercing       yjudgment,<  sharp    Vmtellectand 
(discerning  j  (subtle) 

( intelligent      ^  ^      • 

<  penetrating     >  observation. 
(  clear-sighted  j 


On  the  other  hand  there  are  cases  when  the 
reiteration  of  the  same  word  gives  strength  and 
consistency  to  a  sentence ;  when  the  same  word 
used  again  and  again  comes  at  last  to  be  like 
the  blows  of  a  hammer,  riveting  attention  to  the 
subject. 

Of  this  character  is  Webster's  celebrated  sen- 
tence in  his  speech  on  "American  Institutions.'* 

Webster's  Celebrated  Sentence. 

"  Our  Government  can  stand  trial,  it  can  stand 
assault,  it  can  stand  adversity,  it  can  stand  per- 
secution ;  it  can  stand  everything  but  the  weak- 
ness of  our  own  strength,  it  can  stand  everything 
but  disorganization,  disunion  and  nullification." 


Abandon,  v.  i.  Leave,  quit,  forsake, 
drop,  relinquish,  evacuate,  give  over,  cast  oft. 
2.  Surrenclcr,  cede,  resign,  waive,  vacate. 
Anio.,  keep,  hold,  retain. 

Abandoned.  aJj.  u  Deserted,  forsaken. 
2.  Depraved,  corrupt,  proHi^ate,  shameless, 
incnrri>rihle.  Anio.,  i.  Kept,  cared  for.  2. 
Virtuous,  holy. 

Abase,  v.  i.  Reduce,  lower.  2.  Degrade, 
humble,  dtsgmce.  Afi/o.,  i.  Increase,  raise. 
J.   Honor,  praise. 

Abash.  7'.  Shame,  confuse,  humiliate. 
A>th>.,  embolden,  reassure. 

Abate.     7>.     I.    Lessen,   reduce,   diminish. 

2.  Moderate,    allay.      3.    Suppress,    remove, 
terminate.     ^4«/t?.,"i.  Augment.     2.  Infuriate, 

3.  Kmpower,  permit. 

Abbreviate,  v.  Curtail,  shorten.  Anio., 
enlarge,  lengthen. 

Abduct.    V.     Kidnap.    Anto.y  rescue. 

Abet.  V.  Aid,  assist,  help.  2.  Favor, 
sanction.  3.  Instigate,  incite.  Auto.,  i.  Re- 
sist.    2.  Op'pose.     3.  Forbid. 

Abhor,    z 
love,  admire. 


Abide 

depart,  leave. 
Ability.    / 

Conipetencv. 


Hate,   loathe,  detest.     An/o., 
Sojourn,  live,  dwell.     Anto.y 


I.  Power,  force,  might.  2. 
3.  Capacity,  genius,  turn. 
Aftto'.,  Inability.  J.  Feebleness.  2.  Insuffi- 
ciency.    3.  Incapability. 

Abject.  aifj.  Base,  vile,  mean,  low. 
Aiiio.,  loft}',  good,  noble. 

Able.  ad/.  1.  Clever,  accomplished,  tal- 
ented. 2.  Qualified.  3.  Gifted,  strong,  mighty. 
Auto.,  I.  Stupid.    2.  Unfit.     3.  Weak,  feeble. 

Abolish.  V.  I.  Repeal,  revoke,  annul, 
cancel.  2.  Overthrow,  Anio.y  1.  Enforce, 
hold.     2.  Establish. 

Abominable,  adj.  i.  Hateful,  odious. 
2.  Loathsome,  nauseous.  3.  \'ile,  wretched. 
Anto.y  I.  Lovable.  2.  Pleasant.  3.  Happy, 
good. 

Abridge,  v.  Contract,  compress.  Atito., 
expand.     .SV^  Abhrei'iate. 

Abrupt,  adj.  I,  Broken,  rugged.  2. 
Steep,  3.  Sudden,  unexpected.  4,  Short, 
curt.  Afi/o.,  I.  Smooth,  2.  Level.  3.  Slow. 
4.  Long,  courteous. 

AbHolute.  ad/,  i.  Real,  nositrve.  2. 
Arbitrary,  despotic.  3.  Indepenaent.  A/Uo., 
I,  Shadowy.     2.  Limited.     3.  Dependent, 

Abstinence,  n.  Temperance,  fast.  Anio., 
feast,  plenty,  orgies. 

Abstru^fe.  adj.  Profound,  recondite,  hid- 
den.    Anto.,  simple,  clear. 

Absurd,  ad/.  Silly,  foolish,  laughable. 
Attto.t  wise,  solemn. 


Abundance,       n.      Plenty,    profuseness, 
richness.    Auto.,  famine,  want,  poverty. 

Abuse.  V.  I.  Pervert,  misuse.  2.  Harm,^ 
injure.  3.  Ilevik-,  reproach,  malign.  Anto., 
1.  Use.     2,  Protect.     3.  Praise. 

Accept,    V.   Receive,  take.    Anto.,  refuse, 
reject. 

Acceptable.      adj.      Pleasing,    welcome. 
Ajzto.,  displeasing. 


Casual.      Anto.,   pre- 

t.  Oblige,  serve,  assist. 
3.  Ruconcile.  adjust, 
iinpede.      2.    Spoil.     3. 

Complete,     perform, 


Accidental,     adj. 
concerted. 
Accommodate,  jv 

2.  Fit,  suit,  adapt. 
Anto.,  I.  Disoblige, 
Embitter. 

Accomplish.      i<. 
execute.    Anto.,  fail. 

Accomplished,  adj.  i.  Educated,  ex- 
perienced, practiced,  adroit,  talented.  2. 
Polished,  refined,  polite,  Anto.,  :.  Ignorant, 
awkward.     2.  Boorish,  ill-bred. 

Account,  n.  Narrative,  recital,  history. 
Anto.,  rebuttal,  negation. 

Accrue,  z'.  Result,  issue,  ensue.  Anto., 
stop,  delay,  bar. 

Accun»ulatc.  v.  i.  Collect,  gather.  2. 
Store,  garnt-r,  hoard.  3.  Increase,  grow. 
Anto.,  1.  Dissipate,  scatter.  2.  Spend.  3. 
Lessen,  diminish. 

Accurate,  ad/.  Correct,  exact,  precise. 
Anto.,  wrong,  loose,  errotieous. 

Accuse,  7'.  Charge,  criminate,  arraign. 
Anto.,  exonerate. 

Accustom.      IK      Habituate,    familiarize, 
addict.     Anto.,  unused,  undrilled. 
Achieve,    t.     See  Accomplish. 
Acknowledge,  v.  Admit,  concede,  avow. 
Anto.,  denv. 

Acquaint-,  v.  Tell,  inform,  notify.  Anto., 
deceive. 

Acquire,  v.  Get,  gain,  secure,  win,  ob- 
tain.   Anto.f  lose. 

Acquit.  %'.  Clear,  absolve,  exonerate. 
Anto.,  convict,  indict. 

Act.  V.  I.  Work,  move,  execute.  2.  Be- 
have, demean,  3.  Operate.  4,  Do,  perform, 
t;.  Personate,  play,  enact.  Anto.,  1.  Idle, 
loaf.  2.  Misbehave.  3.  To  be  inert.  4.  Re- 
fuse.   5.  Verify. 

Act.  w.  I.  Deed,  performance.  2.  Statute, 
law.     3.  Part  of  a  play. 

Active,  adj.  1.  Brisk,  alert, _  nimble, 
smart,  2.  Busv,  diligent,  enterprising.  3. 
Powerful,  drastic.  Anto.,  i.  Lazy.  2.  Lack- 
ing energy.    3.  Weak. 

Acttially.  adzK  Really,  truly,  verily. 
Anto.f  falsely,  deceptively. 


Acute,  adj.  i.  Keen,  shrewd,  sharp, 
discerning,  knowing,  quick,  smart,  brij^ht, 
intelligent,  ingenious,  subtle,  penetrating, 
piercing,  clear-sighted,  sharp-witted,  long- 
headed. 2  Severe,  violent,  intense,  exn\iis- 
ite,  pungent.    Anto.,    i.    Dull.   2.   Stupid. 

Add.  7'.  I.  Join,  annex,  append,  t.ag.  2. 
Sum.  cast  up.  Anto..  1.  Disconnect,  separate. 
2.  Subtract,  take  away. 

Address,  n.  i.  Appeal,  petition,  en- 
treaty. 2.  Speech,  discourse,  oration.  3. 
Skill,  art.  tact.  4.  Siipei-scnption,  direction. 
5.  M.anner.  Anto.,  3.  Clumsiness,  awkward- 
ness. 

Adhere,  v.  Cling,  cleave,  cohere.  Anto., 
loosen. 

Adjacent,  adj.  Near,  bordering,  con- 
tiguous.   Anto.,  far,  asunder. 

Adjust.  V.  Arrange,  trim,  regulate,  adnpt. 
accommodate.  Anto.,  disarrange,  disorder, 
confuse. 

Admirable,  adj.  Excellent,  fine,  praisc- 
worthv.     Anto.,  blamable,  execrable. 

Admire,  v.  Wonder,  like,  esteem,  love. 
Anto.,  hate,  despise,  dislike. 

Admit.  7'.  1.  Grant,  concede,  confess. 
2.  Let  in.  Anto.,  i.  Deny,  2.  Keep  out,  ex- 
clude. 

Admonish,  r.  Advise,  warn,  reprove. 
Anto.,  recommend. 

Adulation,  n.  Flattery.  Anto.,  blame, 
scolding. 

Advancement,  n.  Preferment,  progres- 
sion. Anto.,  displacement,  retrogression, 
receding.  ^     .  .  ,        , 

Adventure,  w.  i.  Stake,  risk,  chance. 
2.  Accident,  danger,  event.  Anto.,  i.  Ccr- 
taintv.     2.  Quiet,  safety. 

Adversity.    ;/.    Trouble,  misfortune,  sor- 
row, distress.     Anto.,  prosperity,  wealth,  joy. 
Advertise,     z:     Announce,   publish,  pro- 
claim.    Anto.,  conceal.  ^ 

Advice,  u.  i.  Counsel,  caution.  2.  in- 
formation. 

Affable,  adj.  Civil,  sociable,  easy.  ^I«/t?., 
surlv,  discourteous. 

Affection.  «.  Partiality,  fondness.  Anlo.^ 
dislike. 

Amict.  7'.  Trouble,  annoy,  torment, 
harass.     Anto.,  please. 

Affront.  V.  Insult,  abuse,  condemn,  yl/i/o., 

'^'^Agent.      «.      Factor,     substitute.      Anio., 

principal.  ,     ,      ,  

AKgrcRate.    w.    Total,  whole,  lump,  sum, 

mass.     Anto.,  part. 

Asrile.     adj.     See  Active. 

Afcitation.  n.  i.  Excitement,  cornmo- 
tion,  tumult.  2.  Debate,  discussion.  Anto., 
tranquility. 


VL 


■J'  ,S~" 


-ojv 


r^ 


66 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Agree.  7'.  I.  Concur,  acquiesce,  unite.  2. 
Engage,  contract.  AiUo.,  i.  Differ,  disagree, 
.i.  Kefuse. 

Ai<I.     Z'.     Assist,  help.     Anio.,  resist. 

Alarm.  _w,  Krit^ht,  dismay,  appreliension. 
Auto,,  confidence,  courage. 

Alert.     aJj.     Sit- Active. 

Aliment,  w.  Food,  sustinence,  nourisli- 
inent. 

Allay.  V,  Soften,  lessen,  quiet,  ease. 
Auto.,  excite. 

Alleviate,     v.     See  Allnv. 

Alliaiiee.  «.  League,  confederacy,  union. 
yl«/(j.,  disunion,  discord. 

Allowance,  ii.  i.  Salarv-,  wages,  pav. 
2.    Permission.      Alllo.,  2.  Prohibition. 

Allure.    V.     Tempt,  decov.     Afito.,  repel. 

Amass.     V.     See  Accumulate. 

Amatory,  ailj.  Tender,  amorous,  erotic. 
Auto.,  hateful. 

Amazement.  «.  Wonder,  .astonishment. 
Auto.,  anticijiation. 

-VmbiRuous.  a,i/.  Doubtful,  dubious. 
Auto.,  clear. 

Amicable,  adj.  Kind,  fiiendlv,  pleasant. 
Auto.,  hostile. 

Ample,  atfj.  i.  Spacious.  2.  Plentiful, 
abundant.  Auto.,  i.  Confined,  narrow.  2. 
Scarce. 

Amuse.  7..  Divert,  entertain.  Auto.. 
weary,  tire. 

Alialojt}-.  z:  Similarity.  Auto.,  diyer- 
sitv,  difference. 

Ancestors.  «.  Forefathers.  Anlo.,  pos- 
terity. *^ 

Ancient,  adf.  Old  antique.  Auto.,  modern. 
Anecdote.     «.     Tale,  story. 
Anger.     «.     Resentment,  wrath,  ire,  fury, 
rage,  choler.   Auto.,  peacefulness,  amiability 
calm. 

Anguish,  u.  Pain,  distress,  agony.  Auto 
bliss. 

Animal,  n.  Creature,  beast,  brute,  ^k/o., 
things  inanimate. 

Animate,  v.  Inspire,  cnliyen,  cheer,  in- 
cite, urge.     Auto.,  depress. 

Animation.  «.  Life,  spirit,  yivacity. 
Auto.,  apathy. 

Animosity.  ;,.  Enmity,  hostility,  mali>r. 
nancy.     Auto.,  liking,  friendliness.   '  " 

Annex,  v.  Attach,  append,  join.  Auto., 
detach,  separate. 

Announce,    -v.     See  Advcrti.^e. 

.\unoy.  7-.  Disturb,  molest,  trouble. 
Auto.,  convenience,  please,  .accommodate. 

AuniU.  V.  Kescind,  abolish.  Auto,  af- 
firm. 

Answer.  ;/.  Reply,  rejoinder,  .-hito  , 
question. 

Anterior.  a,lj.  Prior,  before,  previous 
Auto.,  posterior,  subsequent. 

Antici|>.ate.  v.  Foresee,  forestall,  pre- 
vent.     Auto.,  surprise. 

Antipathy.  ,,.  Aversion,  dislike,  hatred. 
S.e  .'iutuio.'iitj'. 

Antique,  adj.  Old,  ancient,  obsolete. 
Auto.,  modern,  new,  fresh. 

Anxiety.  «.  Care,  solicitude,  worry 
Auto.,  certainty,  repose. 

.\ny.  adj.  frou.  J.  Anyone.  2.  Some. 
.■into.,  none. 

.\partment.  n.  Lodging,  room,  chamber. 

-Vpathy.  «.  Ccddness,  torpor,  unconcern. 
.luto.,  animation,  -.ohich  see. 

Ape.     ;•.     Imitate. 

Apologize.    V,  Excuse,  exculpate.   Auto. 

lu-lllt,  justify,  ' 

.Vppal.    ;..   .Scare,  shock,  frighten.     Auto. 

einliolden.  encourage.     See  A/arm. 

.Vpparcl.       „.       Dress,     clothing,     attire 

Auto.,  nuditv. 

Apparent,     adj.     Visible,  plain,  obvious, 

evident.     Auto.,  concealed,  ambiguous,  -.o/iic/, 

Apparition. 

spirit,  phanttun. 

Appear,  v.  1.  I-;merge,  come  into  view 
2.  Seem,  look.     Auto.,  disappear. 

Appearance.  «.  1.  Coming,  arrival.  2. 
Air,  figure.  ,^.  Semblcnce.  Anto.,  1  Dep,lrt- 
ure.     -i.   I'nlikeness 

Appease.  V.  Calm,  pacify  Auto.,  in- 
fiaine. 


An    appearance,   ghost. 


kL 


Appellation,    n.    Name,  title. 

Applaiul.  7:  Cheer,  praise,  extol.  Auto., 
his-;,  Mitnic,  belittle. 

Api>li<':itioii.  71.  Industry,  persistency. 
Aula.,  idleness,  ficklenuss. 

Apply.  V.  Use,  appropriate,  devote. 
A/i/o.,  misapply. 

Appoint,  v.  I,  Fix, establish.  2.  Name, 
constitute.     Anto.,  1.  Chang-e. 

Appraise.     ?■.     Value,  estimate,  rate. 

Appreciate.  2'.  Kstimate,  value,  nppraisc. 

Appreliend.    v.    l.  Catch,  capture,  arrest. 

2.  Ll^nderstand,  comprehend.     3.  Kuar,  dread, 
alarm.     Anio.,i.  Jiscape.    2.  Misunderstand. 

3.  Knibolden. 

Apprise,     v.     SW  Ath/tofiis//. 
Approach.    7-.   Approximate,  come   near. 
Auto.,  depart. 

Ap|)robation.  n.  Approval,  sanction, 
consent.     Anto.,  dis:ippro\  al. 

Approximate,     z;     ^ce  Approacli. 

Apt.  ad/.  I.  Kit,  meet,  suitable,  qualified. 
2.  Ready,  quick,  prompt.  Anto.,  i.Vn^U  2. 
Slow. 

Arbitrary,  adj.  Irresponsible,  tvrannous. 
Anto.,  noniiiil,  reL^ular,  constitutional. 

Arbitrator.     //.    Jud^e,  umpire,  referee. 

Areliives.     ;/.     Records,  chronicles. 

Ardent,  adj.  Zealous,  fervid,  hot,  in 
tense.     Auto.,  calm,  cool. 

Arduous,  adj.  Difficult,  trying,  labori- 
ous.    Anto.,  easy,  facile. 

Argue.  71.  1.  Evince,  prove.  2.  Reason, 
discuss,  debate.     Atito.^  disprove. 

Arjfuiueiit.  n.  Reason,  proof,  discussion, 
dispute.     Anto.,  folly,  mistake. 

Arise,  z'.  Mount,  ascend,  get  up.  2.  Be- 
gin, originate.     Anto.,  descend,  go  do\vn. 

Aristocratic,  adj'.  Haughty,  proud,  ar- 
ro^iint.     Anto.y  democratic,  plebeian. 

Anns.     «.     Weiipons. 

Army,     n.     Force,  troops.     Afno.,  mob. 

Arraign,     v.     See  Arc/tse.     Anto.,  acqmt. 

Arrange,  7-.  i.  Distribute,  rank,  classifv. 
2.  I'ian,  devise,  organize.     Afi/o.,  disarran;<e. 

Arr<»gance.  ».  Pride,  haughtiness,  :su- 
perciiiousness.     Anto.,  humility. 

Artful,  adj.  1.  Skilful.  2,  Subtle,  shrewd, 
cralty.     Anto.,  simple,  unaffected. 

Artifice,  «.  Cunning,  trick,  stratagem. 
Anto.y  honesty,  simplicitv. 

Artist.  71.  I.  Designer.  2.  Painter 
sketcher.  3.  Sculptor,  mudeller.  Anto., 
dauber. 

Assay.  «.  Test,  examination,  chemical 
analysis  of  metals. 

Association,  k.  Society,  guild,  combin- 
ation.    Anto.-  separation. 

Atli<',  adj\  Classic,  elegant,  pure.  Anto., 
stupid,  modern,  imclassical. 

Attitude.     )i,     Pusture,   phase,   situ.-ition. 

Attorney,  n.  Lawyer,  counsellor,  agent. 
Anto.,  client. 

Attract.  V.  Allure,  fascinate,  captivate. 
Anto.,  repel. 

Attraction.  ;/.  Charm,;  fascination. 
Anto.,  repulsion. 

Audacity,  n.  Daring,  hardihood,  pre- 
sumption, insolence.  Anto.,  timidity,  meek- 
ness. 

Augment.  7'.  Increase,  enlarge,  mag- 
nify.    Anto.,  decrease,  diminish. 

Author.     71.     Writer,  composer,  maker. 

Authority,  n.  Liberty,  permit,  order, 
warrant.     Anto.,  prohibition. 

Avarice,  «.  Closeness,  cupidity,  covet- 
ousness.     A7ito.,  liberality,  prodi^iirity. 

Avow,  V.  Artirm,  confess,  declare.  Anto., 
deny. 

Awake,  adj'.  Watchful,  vigilant.  Anto,, 
sleepy,  drowsy. 

Awe.     ;/.    'Dreiul. 

Awkward.  adj.  Unskilful,  unhnndv, 
boorish,  rough.  Anto.,  aceum])lished,  subtle, 
graceful. 

B 

llahble.  V.  Prate,  chatter.  Anto,,  to  be 
laconic, 

IlatHe.  7'.  Circumvent,  foil.  vI«/o,,  suc- 
cor, aid,  abet. 

IJaggage.    ;/.     Luggage. 


Halance,  v.  Equalize,  counteract,  poise. 
Anto.,  preponderate. 

Hand.  w.  i.  Company,  crew,  gang,  2. 
Chain,  fetter,  shackle.  3.  Fillet,  bandage.  4. 
Orchestra,  company  of  musicians.  Anto.,  in- 
dividual, one. 

Exile,   send   away,   exclude. 


Rally,  twit,  taunt. 
Unclotlied,     naked.       Auto., 

.     Agreement,  contract,  sale. 
Exchange,    sell,    commute. 


Itanish. 

Anto.,  recall. 

Banter,    v. 

Hare,      adf. 
clad. 

Bargain,    n 

Barter,     v. 
Auto.,  retain. 

Base.     adj\     See  Abject. 

Bear,     7^     i.  Uphold.    2.  Undergo,  suffer. 
3.  Generate,  bring  forth. 

Beastly,     adj.     Brutal,     sensual,     bestial. 
Anto.,  humane,  polite. 

Beat.    7:    1.  Knock,  hit,  strike.    2.  Defeat, 
conquer,  subdue. 

Beau,     ;/.      1.    Admirer,   suitor.      2.    Fop, 
dandy      Anto,,  belle. 

Beauty.   «,  Comeliness,  gfacc,  symmetry. 


Anto.,  ugliness. 

Beconiing.      ad/. 
fit.     Anto.,  unsuitabl 

I5*'»'    v.     Beseech,  solicit 
grant. 

Beguile.  z\  Amuse,  divert,  delude. 

Behavior,     n.    Conduct,  bearing,  deport 
ment.     Auto.,  misbehavior. 

Behold.     i7itftj.     See,  look. 

Believe,    v.    Credit,  assume,  deem 
doubt. 

Beloved,     adj'.      Dear,     darling, 
hated. 

Below,     prep.      Under,    beneath, 
over,  above. 

Benefaction,    «.     Gift,  gratuity 

Bequeath,    z?.    Leave,  devise,  will.  Anto. 
inherit. 

Deprive,  take  away,  strip. 


Appropriate,    seemly, 
entreat.    Auto., 


.  Anto., 
Anto,, 
Anto., 


.     See  Beg. 
Confer,  give,  grant 


Auto,, 
amend,     correct. 


pompous 


Bereave. 

Anto.,  enrich 
Beseech, 
Ifestow. 

Witllhold. 

Better.      7'.      Improve, 
Auto..  ciMifuse.  deteriorate 

Bill,  n.  1.  Reckoninj^.  statement,  account. 
2,  Draft.     3.  Beak.     4.Tick-axe. 

ISlame,  «,  Censure,  reproof,  reproach. 
Auto.,  praise. 

Blemish,  n.  Stain,  spot,  speck,  Jlaw. 
Anto.,  immaculate. 

Blind,  adj.  1.  Sightless.  2.  Heedless. 
Anto.,  f;ir-sighted. 

Bloody,    ndj.     Sanguinary,  gory. 

ISoast.     7'.     Brag,  vaunt,  glory. 

Boldness.  ;/.  ],  Courage,  bravery,  vnlor. 
2.  Eftronfery,  impudence.  Anto.,  i.  Coward- 
ice.    2,   Bashfulness,  modestv. 

Bombastic,       adf.       Inflated, 
griindiliiquent.     Anto.,  concise. 

Bord4'r.  «.  Verge,  brim,  edge,  frontier. 
Anto..  middle,  interior. 

Bore.  u.  1,  Nuisance,  a  prosy  talker.  2. 
Hole,  calibre. 

Boundless,  adj'.  Unlimited,  immeasura- 
ble, infinite.     Auto.,  limited. 

Bountiful,  adj'.  I^iberal,  generous,  boun- 
teous,    Anto.,  niggardly,  miserable. 

Bravery.     «.     See  Boldness. 

I$reeding.  ;/.  Nurture,  training,  manners. 
Auto.,  impoliteness. 

Brief,  adj.  Short,  concise.  Auto.,  pro- 
tr;icted. 

Bright,  adj.  Shining,  radiant.  Anto., 
dull. 

Brilliancy.  ;/.  Luster,  radiance.  Anto., 
dullness. 

Brittle,  adf.  Fragile,  frail,  crumbling. 
Anto.,  tough. 

Broil,  u.  Quarrel,  brawl,  fight,  affray. 
Anto.,  quiet,  peace. 

Brutal,  adj'.  Cruel,  unfeeling,  savage, 
ferocious.     Anto.,  humane. 

Bud.     Z).     Sprout,  slioot,  germinate. 

Buffoon.  «.  Harlequin,  fool,  idiot.  Anto., 
sage. 

Build.  7'.  Raise,  erect.  Antd.,  destroy, 
pull  down. 


Bulk.  «.  Size,  inaj^nitutU-,  Ixniy,  ^rnss. 
Aiito.,  tenuity. 

Burial,  ii.  Interment,  sejiulturc.  Auto., 
resurreclion. 

IStirst.     V.     Kxpl'ule,  break  open. 

Itiisiiicss.  ;;.  Calling,  einployinent,  voca- 
tion.     Auto.,  leisure. 

IttistU'.  «.  Stir,  tumult,  fuss.  Anio.y 
quiet. 

IJutt.     «.    I,  Mark,  object,  tarjjct.    2.  Cask. 

Itiixoin.  aii/.  Healtliy,  brisk,  cheerful, 
lively.     Anto.,  spiritless. 

Kiiy.  7'.  Purchase,  cheaoen,  barg^ain  fi)r. 
Auto.,  sell. 


•  Cabal,    «,     1.  Clique,  set,  league.   2.  Plot, 
intrii^iie,  conspiracv. 

Cajole,  j;  Cctiix,  Hatter,  wheedle.  A/ito., 
CiunpLl. 

Calamity.  «.  Mishap,  misfortune,  disas- 
ter.    Ante.,  good  fortune,  luck, 

Cal<'iilate.  v.  Reckon,  count,  compute, 
rate,  Lsliinute. 

<'all.  ;••  !.  Cry,  shout.  2.  Invite,  bid, 
suninioii.  Anto.,  1.  Whisper.  3.  Ortler  away, 
send. 

i'alliiif;.    H.     See  Business. 

Callous,  adj.  Hard,  unfeeling,  dead. 
Auto.,  sensitive,  nervous. 

<'aliii.  oiij.  I.  Composed,  collected.  2. 
Quiet,  tranquil,  placid,  Anto.,  1.  Stormy.  2. 
Agitated. 

Candid.  adj.  Open,  honest,  sincere. 
Auto.,  deceitful,  treacherous. 

Capacity.  «.  1.  Volume,  amplitude.  2. 
Ability,  competency,  faculty,  talent.  3.  Char- 
acter, office.  ,-l«/<>.,2.  Incapacity, incompeten- 
cy, stupidity,  inabilitv. 

Caprice.  ;/.  Whiin,  freak,  fancy,  vagary. 
Auto.,  settled  purpose,  conviction. 

Captious,  oiij.  Peevish,  petulant,  fretful, 
cross.     Auto.,  good-humureJ,  facile,  easv. 

Captivate.  z\  Fascinate,  charm,  encbant. 
Auto.f  disgust,  displease. 

Carel'uT.  adj.  i.  Heedful,  attentive.  2. 
Watchful,  cautious,  circumsi>ect.  Auto., 
heedless,  careless,  rash. 

Caress,  «.  Kiss,  embrace.  yln/tJ.,  buffet, 
spurn. 

Carousal. 
Auto.,  t;tbt. 

Cash,     «.     Money,  coin,  specie. 

Casualty,  ti.  Accident,  mischance,  con- 
tiiigency. 

Cause.      7".      Produce,    create,     occasion. 

<'ause.  «.  Reason,  motive,  inducement, 
incitement.     Auto.,  effect. 

Cavity,     w.     Aperture,  opening,  hollow. 

Cautious,  otfj.  Prudent,  careful,  watch- 
ful. See  CarejuL  Auto.,  rash,  headlong, 
heedless. 

Celebrate,  v.  i.  Commemorate,  keep, 
obiierve,  honor,  solemnize.  2,  Praise,  extol, 
glorify.  Auto.,  1.  Forget,  ignore.  2.  Execrate. 

Ceiisure.  v.  Blame,  approve,  chide,  scold, 
berate.  Auto.,  praise,  honor,  congratulate, 
ajijirove. 

Certain,  adj.  i.  Sure,  assured,  confident. 
2.  Infallible,  unfailing.  3.  Plain,  positive, 
absolute,  indubitable.  Auto.,  uncertain.  1. 
l>ubious,  doubtful.  2.  Fallacious,  3.  Dark, 
disputed,  challenged. 

Chance,  n.  i.  Accident,  fortune,  foriuitv, 
casualty.  2.  Hazard,  risk,  peril,  jeopardv. 
Auto.,  r.  Design.  2.  Safety, cerlamty, security. 

Change,     v.     Alter,  vary,  turn. 

Character.  «.  Repute,  reputation,  stand- 
ing. 

Charm,  u.  Grace,  attraction.  Auto.,  re- 
j)ulsinn. 

Chastity,  n.  Purity,  modesty,  virtue, 
continence.  Auto.,  impurity,  lewdness,  in- 
continence. 

Chattels.  n.,pl.  Goods,  effects,  personal 
property.     Auto.,  real  estate. 

Chatter,    v.     See  Babble. 

Cheat.  V.  Deceive,  trick,  defraud, 
swindle. 

Cheer.  %>.  1.  Applaud.  2.  Comfort,  con- 
sole, gladden,  encourage.  Auto.,  i.  Hiss.  z. 
Distress, 


Feast,    banquet,    orgie. 


Cheerfnl,  adj.  Lively,  merry,  sprightly, 
gay.    Auto.,  sad,  \veary,  downcast,  mournful. 

Cherish,  7'.  1.  Nourish,  nur-^e.  nurlure. 
2.  Kncourage.  3.  Harbor,  protect,  love. 
Auto.,  J.  St;^ve,  famish.  2.  Dishearten.  3. 
K\pose,  detest. 

Chief,  u.  Leader,  commander.  Auto., 
subordinate,  subaltern. 

C'hietly.  ad;-.  Principally,  maiidy,  mostly, 
eniinently.      Auto.,  secondarily,  sulisequently. 

Childlioo<l,  ;/.  Minority,  infancy.  Auto., 
majority,  manhood. 

Childish,  adj.  1.  Young,  juvenile,  in- 
fantile, i.  Weak,  trilling,  silly.  Anto..  1. 
Manful,  experienced.  2.  Strong,  earnest, 
wise,  sapient. 

Choice,  n  Selection,  election,  option, 
J)  reference. 

Choke.  7'.  I,  Suffocate,  strangle,  throttle. 
2.  Stop,  block,  obstruct.  Anto.,  i.  Breathe, 
animate       2.    -Vssist,  help. 

Choose.     V.     Prefer,  pick,  select,  elect. 

Circulate,  v  Propagate,  disseminate, 
diffuse,  spread.  Anto.,  confine,  stop,  bound, 
retard. 

Circumspect,  adj'.  Judicious,  discreet, 
prudent,  cautious,  wary.  Anto.,  imprudent, 
rash,  toolisti. 

Circumstance.    «.     Incident,  accident. 

Cite.  V.  I.  Quote,  adduce.  2.  Summon. 
Auto.,  2.  Discharge,  releiuie. 

Civil,  adj.  I.  Civic,  municipal.  2,  Ur- 
bane, obliging,  courteous,  jiolite,  refined. 
Auto.,  ].  Rural,  countrified.  2.  Rude,  boor- 
ish, impolite. 

Civility,  «.  i.  Courtesy,  politeness, 
suavity.     2.  Benefit,  favor,  kindness.     Anto., 

1.  Discourtesy,  asperity.  2.  Unkindness,  in- 
civilitv. 

Civilization,  n.  Culture,  cultivation,  re- 
finement. Auto.,  barbarism,  savagery,  ignor- 
ance. 

Clad,  v.,  p.  p.  Dressed,  clothed,  attired. 
Auto.,  naked,  bare. 

Clandestine,  adj.  Concealed,  hidden, 
sly,  private.  Auto.,  open,  prominent,  con- 
spicuous, advertised. 

Clasp,  7'.  CJrasp,  clutch,  gripe.  Anto,, 
loosen,  open,  unchtsp. 

Clean,  odj.  Unsoiled,  spotless,  pure,  im- 
maculate. Auto.,  impure,  dirty,  filthy,  soiled, 
nasty. 

Clear,   adj.  \.  Transparent,  bright,  limpid. 

2.  Fair,  cloudless,  serene.  3.  Plain,  lucid, 
perspicuous.  4.  Patent,  obvious,  visible,  evi- 
dent.    Auto.,    I.    Opaque,   dark.     2.  Gloomy. 

3.  Ambiguous,  dubious,  4.  Occult,  hidden, 
obscure. 

Clear,  v.  Acquit,  exonerate.  Anto.,  con- 
vict. 

Clever.  «<//.  1.  Skillful,  apt,  smart,  quick, 
able.  2.  Kind.  Anto.y  stupid,  clumsy,  awk- 
ward, ignorant. 

Climb.  7'.  Ascend,  clamber,  scramble. 
Auto.,  descend,  go  down,  fall. 

Clin^,     V.     Adhere,  stick.      Anto.,  loosen. 

Close.  V,  I.  Shut.  2.  End,  finish.  Anto., 
I.  Open.     2.  Begin,  commence. 

Clothes.  «,  Raiment,  dress,  attire,  garb, 
costume,  habiliments.     Anto.,  nudity. 

<.'Ioy,  V.  Surfeit,  sate,  satiate,  glut.  Anto., 
famish. 

Clumsy, .  adj.     See  Awk^vard. 

Coarse,  adj.  i.  tJross,  vulgar.  2.  Rude, 
uncivil,  gruff.  Anto.,  1.  Nice,  jjolite.  2.  Re- 
fined. 

Coax.    7'.   Flatter,  wheedle,  cajole.  Anto., 


orcible,  powerful,  potent, 


commund,  comjiel,  force. 

Co^jent.     adj.     Forcil 
Convincing.     Auto.,  weak, 

Cold.  adj.  I.  Cool,  frigid,  wintry.  2.  l^n- 
feeling,  stoical.  Auto.,  1.  ^V■arm,  tropical, 
fervid,  hot.      2.  Sensitive. 

Cold.     n.     Catarrh,  cough. 

Collect.  V.  I.  Gather.  2.  Accumulate, 
amass.     Anto.,  scatter,  disperse. 

Collection,  n.  1.  Crowd,  gathering.  2. 
Accumulation,  store,  aggregation.  3.  Con- 
tribution. 

Color,  n.  I.  Shade,  tinge,  tint,  hue.  2. 
Pigment,  paint. 


Comhinntinn.  «.  1.  Union,  coniunclion, 
2.  Alliance.  3.  Mixture.  Anto.,  disunion, 
disconnection. 

C'oine.    :•.    i.  Approach.   2.  Arrive.  Anto., 

1,  (Jo.     i.   Depart. 

<'omely,  adj.  Handsome,  pretty,  sym- 
metrical. Auto.,  ugly,  homely,  dispropor- 
tionate. 

Comfort,  V.  Solace,  cheer,  console. 
Auto.,  discomfort,  disease. 

('oniical.  adj.  Droll,  funny,  humorous, 
Uulicrous.     .Xuto.,  solemn,  serious. 

Commanding,  adj.  Imperative,  authori- 
tative. 

Commence,  v.  Begin,  originate.  Anto., 
end,  finish. 

Commend.  7-.  1.  Intrust,  commit,  2. 
Praise,  extol,  la\id,  eulogize.  Anto.,  i.  'I'nke 
from,  withdraw.  2.  Blame,  censure,  Uisap- 
jjrove. 

Comment,    n.     i.   Remark,  observation, 

2.  Note,  explanation. 

Commercial,     adj.    Trading,  mercantile. 

Commission,  t.  i.  Kmpower,  author- 
ize,    i.   Dciiiilc.  delegate. 

Comniodiuns.  adj.  Fit,  suitable,  con- 
venient.    Auto.,  unfit,  inconvenient. 

Commodities.  «.,  //.  Wares,  goods, 
merchandise,  produce. 

Common,  adj.  i.  General.  2.  Usual, 
habitual,  customary,  3.  Trite,  stale  4.  Or- 
dinary,low.  Auto.,  1.  Occasional,exceptu>nal. 
2.  Unusual.  3.  Fresh.  4.  Peculiar,  extraor- 
dinary. 

Communication.  «.  Conference,  con- 
versation, letter. 

Community,  n.  1.  Society,  public,  peo- 
ple.    2.  Association,  brotherhuoci. 

Companion,  n.  1.  Male,  comrade.  2. 
Partaker,  sharer. 

Company,  u.  i.  Assembly,  group, gather- 
ing. 2.  Party.  3.  Visitors.'  4.  Fellowshi^i, 
society.  5.  Corporation,  firm.  --Iw/tf.,  indi- 
vidual, personality. 

Compassion,  u.  Pity,  tenderness,  clem 
ency.     Anto  ,  severity,  harshness,  cruelty. 

Coinpatihle,  adj.  Consistent,  consonant. 
Auto.,  incompatible,  inconsistent.^ 

Compel,  7'.  Force,  coerce,  drive.  Anto.. 
cajole,  coax,  lead. 

Compendium.  «.  Compend,  abridg 
ment.  Auto.,  discourse,  enlargement,  aug- 
mentation. 

Compensation,  n.  Reward,  recompense, 
satisfaction.  Anto.,  loss,  punishment,  correc 
tion. 

Competent,  adj.  i.  Able,  qualified.  2. 
Adequate,  fit.  Anto.^  1.  Incompetent,  feeble. 
2.   Inadequ::te. 

Competition.  «.  Rivalry,  contest,  emu- 
lation.    Auto.,  monop()ly.  combination. 

Complain.  ;'.  Murmur,  grumble,  lament. 
Anto.,  rejoice,  lubilate. 

Complimeiit.  u.  Praise,  commendation, 
encomium.     Auto.,  insult,  blame,  detraction. 

Comply,  V.  Confirm,  yield,  submit.  Anto., 
disobey,  rebel. 

Compound,  adj.  Composite,  complex. 
Auto.,  simple,  uniform,  plain. 

CompouiKl.  7'.  Mix,  combine,  intermin- 
gle.    Anto.,  simplify,  analyze,  separate. 

Comprehend,  v.  i.  Comprise,  include, 
embrace.  2.  Grasp,  see,  understand,  perceive. 
Auto.,  I.  Exclude.   2.  Mistake,  misapprehend. 

C<miprise.  v.  Include,  contain,  embody, 
comprehend.      Auto.,  exclude. 

Compulsion.  «.  Constraint,  coercion. 
Anto.,  freedom,  liberty. 

Compunction,  n.  Remorse,  regret,  sor- 
row, penitence.  Anto.,  joy,  gratulation, glad- 
ness, buoyancy. 

Compute,  v.  Reckon,  calculate,  estimate, 
count. 

Conceal.  7-.  1.  Hide, secrete. coyer,screen. 
2.  Disguise,  dissemble.  -■!«/(>.,  1.  Reveal,  un 
cover. "display. 

Concede,  v.  1  Yield,  surrender.  2. 
Grant,  admit.  Auto.,  i.  Rebel,  repel,  a. 
Deny. 

C«mceit.  n.  V.inity,  egotism.  ATmo., 
hiuuilitv,  meekness. 

Concert.  «.  i.  Concord,  harmot,/.  2 
Musical  entertainment.    Anto.,  1.  Discord. 


\^ 


^ 


68 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


^ 


/■ 


Concise,  adj.  Short,  brief,  curt,  laconic, 
terse.     Aitfo.,  verbose,  discursive,  lengthy. 

Conc-liKle.  V.  i.  Deciile,  determine.  2. 
End,  finish,  terminate.  Auto.,  1.  Differ,  dis- 
agree.    2.  Begin,  commence. 

Concur,    v.   Agree,  coincide,  join.   Anio., 
disagree. 
Concussion.    ?/.    Clash,  shock. 
Condemn,     v.     Blame,  censure,  reprove, 
disapprove.     A}ito.,  acquit,  exonerate,  excul- 
pate, clear,  justify. 

Conduct.  71.  I.  Management.  2.  Behavior, 
deportment,  demeanor. 

Confess,  v.  i.  Admit,  grant,  concede.  2. 
Acknowledge,  avow,     Anio.,  deny,  traverse. 

Confidence,  n.  i.  Faith,  tn;st,  belief.  2. 
Assurance,  courage.  A/iio.,  1.  Distrust,  in- 
credulity.    2.    Timidit\'. 

Conflict.  ri.  Contest,  struggle,  fight, 
battle. 

Confound,  t.  Amaze,  perplex,  bewilder, 
stupefy,  dumbfound. 

Confusion.  «.  i.  Jumble,  disarray,  dis- 
order. 2.  Tumult,  commotion.  3.  Shame, 
abashment.  Afi/o.,  i.  Order,  arrav.  2.  Quiet. 
3.   Pride,  hauteur,  self-possessioh. 

Congenial,  tjdj.  Suited,  adapted,  agree- 
able.    Auto.,  unsuited.  uncongenial. 

Conjecture.  «.  Guess,  supposition,  sur- 
mise.    Anto.,  demonstration,  proof. 

Conjugal,  adj.  Matrimonial,  nuptial, 
bridal,  connubial.     Anio.,  celibate. 

Connoisseur.  «.  Critic,  judge.  Atito., 
ignoramus. 

Connubial,    adj.     See  Conjugal. 

Conquer,  v.  Overcome,  vanquish,  sub- 
due, checkmate,  master,  subject,  crush.  Auio.y 
fail,  yield,  give  up,  surrender. 

Consanguinity,  n.  Kindred,  relation- 
ship. 

Consideration,  v.  i.  Cause,  reason, 
ground,  motive.  2.  Attention,  deliberation. 
Aiilo.,  2.  Inattention. 

Consistent,  adj.  Accordant,  compatible. 
Anio.,  inconsistent,  discordant. 

Conspicuous,  ad/,  i.  Prominent,  emi- 
nent. 2.  Visible,  apparent.  Auto.,  1.  Un- 
known, lowly.     2.  Obscure,  hidden. 

Constrain,  v,  1.  Compel,  coerce,  force. 
2.  Curb,  restrain.  Anio.^  j.  Cajole,  coax.  2. 
Loosen,  liberate. 

Construct,  v,  i.  Fabricate,  erect,  build, 
raise.    2.  Make,  form,  frame,  institute.  Anto., 

1.  Overturn.     2.  Destroy. 

Consume,  v.  Devour,  expend,  waste, 
destroy.     Auto.,  build  up,  save,  keep. 

Contagious,   adj.    i.  Catching,  infectious. 

2,  Poisonous,    deadly,    pestilential.      Anio., 
2.  Healthy,  wholesome. 

Contaminate,  v.  Defile,  sully,  pollute. 
Aiilo.,  clean,  whiten,  clear. 

Contempt.  ;/.  Scorn,  disregard,  disdain. 
Anto.,  regard.  liking,  admiration. 

Contemptible,  adj.  Mean,  base,  despica- 
ble, abject.     Anio.,  loftv,  nohle,  honorable. 

Contentment,  n.  '  Kase,  satisfaction. 
Auto.,  discontent,  sorrow,  melancholy 

Contest.     «.     St-e  Conflict. 

Contingent,  odj.  Uncertain,  conditional. 
Anto.,  sure,  certain,  fixed. 

Continual.  a<p'.  Kndless,  unceasing, 
nernctual,  eternal.  Anio.,  intermittent, 
broken. 

Contract.  ».  Bargain,  compact,  agree- 
ment, slipulation. 

Contrary.  t,dj.  i.  Opposite,  counter,  ad- 
verse. 2.  Conlhcting,  repugnant,  v  t*'^f- 
veree,  stubborn,  obstinate.  Anto.,i.  Similar. 
2.  Unanimous.     3.  Agrecible. 

Control.  z>.  Direct,  regulate,  manage, 
govern. 

Convenient,  adj.  Suitable,  appropriate, 
useful.     Anio.,  unsuitable,  wrong. 

Conversation,  n.  Talk,  dialogue,  collo- 
quv.     Anto.,  silence. 

Convertible.  ad/.  Interch.angeable. 
Anio.,  unchangeable,  immovable. 

Conveyance,  w.  i.  Transfer,  alienation, 
deed.     2,  Carriage. 

Convict.  7'.    Condemn,  find  guiltv.   Anto 
acquit,  exculpate,  exonerate. 

Copyince.  v.  Satisfy,  persuade.  Anto., 
dissuade. 


i;onviviaI.     adf.     Jovial,   jc 
Anto.,  gloomy,  sad,  thouglitful. 

Cool.  adj.  1.  Not  warm.  2.  Collected, 
calm,  dispassionate.  Anto.,  1,  Warm.  2. 
F-xcited,  enthused.  "* 

^^py-  ^'.  1.  Transcribe.  2.  Imitate.  Anto., 
originate. 

Cordial,  adj.  Sincere,  warm,  hearty, 
heartfelt,  ardent.  Anto.,  heartless,  cold,  de- 
ceitful. 

Correct,  adj.  Right,  true,  accurate,  fault- 
less.    Anto.,  wrong,  erroneous,  faulty. 

Correspondent,  adj.  Answerable,  suit- 
able.    Anto.j  unsuitable,  unfit. 

Cost.     71.     Expense,  charge,  price. 
Counsel.     «.     i.  Counsellor,  attorney,  ad- 
vocate, barrister,  lawyer.    2.  Opinion,  aHvicc, 
admonition,  recommendation. 

Counterfeit,  adj.  i.  Forged,  spurious. 
2.  Sham,  feigned,  simulated.  Anto.,  i.  Gen- 
uine, real.  2.  Sincere,  actual. 
Couple.  //.  Pair,  brace. 
Courage,  n.  Bravery,  spirit,  valor,  hero- 
ism, fearlessness.  Anio.,  cowardice,  timidity, 
fear. 

Courtesy.     «.    Civility,  urbanit>',  polite- 
ness.    Anio.,  rudeness,  boorishness. 
Covenant,     n.     See  Contract. 
Covert,     adj.     Secret,   disguised,    hidden, 
concealed.     Anto.,  open,  displayed,  shown. 

Covetousness.  ;/.  Stinginess,  avarice, 
parsimony,  pcnuriousness.  ^//o., generosity, 
liberalitv. 

Cowardice,  n.  Fear,  timiditv,  poltroon- 
en.',  pusillanimity.  Anto.,  courage,  bravery, 
valor. 

Coy.  adj.  Shv,  bashful,  reserved,  demure, 
modest.     Anto.,  bold,  brazen,  shameless. 

Crack,  k,  i.  Crevice,  chink,  cranny, 
opening,  breach,  fissure.  2.  Explosion,  re- 
port. 

Crafty,  adj.  Shrewd,  cunning,  artful, 
astute,  subtle,  tricky,  Anio.,  simple,  artless, 
ingenuous. 

Cravat,  n.  Necktie,  neck-cloth,  necker- 
chief. 

Crave,  v.  i.  Beg,  beseech,  solicit,  en- 
treat, implore.  2.  Desire.  Atiio.,  i.  Give,  of- 
fer, confep.     2,  Disdain. 

Crazy,  adj.  1.  Insane,  mad,  lunatic.  2. 
Ricketty,  tottering.  Anto.,  i.  Sane.  2.  Strong, 
stalwart. 

Create,  v.  i.  Cause,  produce,  originate. 
2.  Make,  constitute.     .4«/t»..  destrov. 

Credit,     71.     1.  Trust,  belief,  faith,  confi- 
dence.    2.  Esteem,  reputableness,  regard.    3. 
Ilonur,    merit.     Anto.,  discredit,  incredulitv. 
Creditable,    ad/.     Reputable,  honorable. 
Anto.,  dishonorable,  shameful. 

Credulous,  adj.  Unsuspeclinij.  super- 
stitious, gullible.  Anto.,  knowing,  disbeliev- 
ing, doubtful. 

Creed.  n.  Belief,  doctrines,  dogmas. 
Anto.,  skepticism,  heterodoxy. 

Crestfallen,  adj.  Discouraged,  dis- 
heartened, depressed,  dejected.  Anio.,  en- 
couraged, emboldened,  determined. 

Crisis,      n.      i.    Height,  acme.      2,  Emer- 
gency, exigency,  strait,  pinch. 
Criterion,  'w.    Measure,  test,  standard. 
Croak,     v.     Murmur,  grumble,  complain. 
Anio.,  rejoice,  congratulate. 

C^rooked.  adj.  i.  Hent,  curved,  awrv, 
distorted.  2.  Dishonest,  knavish,  unfair,  un- 
scrupulous. Anio.,  I.  Straight,  2.  Honest, 
fair,  honorable. 

<'ross.  adj.  Captir.us,  peevish,  petulant, 
fretful,  snappish.  Anio.,  agreeable,  gocid- 
humored. 

Cruel,  adj.  Pitiless,  unmerciful,  inhuman, 
barbarous  brutal,  savage.  Anto.,  kind,  piti- 
ful, merciful,  human. 

Cube.  H,  Die,  a  regular  solid  with  six 
equal  square  sides. 

Cultivation,  n.  i.  Culture,  civilization, 
refinement.  2.  Tillage.  Anio.,  desolation, 
desert. 

Cure,    «.     I.  Remedv,  restorative,  correc- 
tive.      2.     Healing,    restoration,      Anto.,    i. 
Poison,     2.   Relapse. 
<*urious.     adj.     i.  Prying,  inquisitive. 


ire,  unique,  queer.     Anto.,  i.  Uninterested, 


careless.     2.  Common,  ordinary,  usual. 


Current,  adj.  i.  Present,  existing,  2. 
Coiniiinn,  general,  rife.  Anio.,  1.  Past.  2. 
Rare,  unique,  singular. 

Curse,  n.  Imprecation,  execration,  male- 
diction.    Anto.,  blessing,  benison. 

Cursory,  adj.  Superficial,  hasty,  careless, 
desultory.     Anto.,  thorough,  careful,  exact. 

Curtail.  t<.  Retrench,  reduce,  shorten, 
abridge,  decrease.  Anto.,  increase,  augment, 
lengthen. 

Custody,  n.  Care,  keeping,  watch,  pro- 
tection. 

Custom.  11.  I.  Usage,  practice,  habit.  2. 
Tax,  ini]iost,  dut\',  tribute. 

Cynical,  adj.  Morose,  carping,  sarcastic, 
snarling,  satirical.  Anto.,  agreeable,  jovial, 
companionable. 


Daily,  adj.  Diurnal,  quotidian.  Aftio., 
irregular,  disordered. 

I>ainty.  ad/,  i.  Nice,  delicate,  savor\', 
delicious.  2.  Squeamish,  fastidious.  3.  Ele- 
gant, fine.  Anto.,  1.  Nasty,  tasteless,  bitter. 
2.  Careless,  slovenly.     3.  Coarse. 

Dalliance.  «.  Fondling,  caressing,  en- 
dearment. 

Damage,  v.  Mar,  harm,  hurt,  impair, 
injure.     Anto.,  help,  strengthen,  defend. 

Dampness,  n.  Moisture,  humidity,  damp. 
Anto,,  dryness,  aridity. 

Damsel,  ti.  Lass,  miss,  maid,  maiden, 
girl.     Anto.,  lad,  boy,  youth,  young  man. 

Danger.  «.  Risk,  venture,  hazard,  peril, 
jeopardy.    Anto.,  safety,  security. 

Daring,  adj.  Courage,  bravery,  valor, 
intrepidity.  Anio.,  cowardice,  fear,  timidity. 
Dark.  adj.  i.  Cloudy,  rayless,  murky, 
shady,  unilluminated.  2.  Glootnv,  dismal.  3. 
AVicked,  foul,  atrocious.  4.  Obscure,  mys- 
tical, mysterious.  Anto.,  brij^ht,  light. "  3. 
Honest,  fair.     4.  Open,  intelligible. 

Date.  //.  Time,  period,  age,  era,  epoch. 
Dead.  adj.  \.  Inanimate,  lifeless,  breath- 
less, defunct.  2.  Dull,  frigid,  obtuse,  callous. 
3.  Useless,  unprofitable.  Ante.,  i.  Live, 
breathing.  2.  Attentive,  active,  sharp.  i. 
Useful.  ^  .  ,  V       i 

Deadly,  adj.  i.  Deleterious,  destructive, 
noxious,  fatal,  mortal.  2.  Rancorous,  im- 
placable.    Anto.,  wholesome,  healthy. 

Dear.  adj.  i.  Beloved,  darling,  precious. 
2.  Costly,  high-priced,  expensive.  Anto.,  1. 
Hated,  despised,  loathed.  2.  Cheap,  low, 
common. 
Debase,  v.  See  Abase. 
Debate,  v.  Discuss,  canvass,  argue,  dis- 
pute, contest. 

I>eccitful,  adj.  Deceptive,  illusive,  de- 
lusive, fallacious.  Anto.,  truthful,  plain, 
open,  honest.  Correct. 

Deceive.  ?■.  Delude,  over-reach,  fool, 
trick,  cheat,  gull,  dupe. 

Decide,  v.  Determine,  conclude.  Anto., 
differ,  disagree. 

Declaration.  ».  Assertion,  averment, 
avowal,  affirmation,  asseveration.  Anio.,  de- 
nial, negative.     ' 

l>ccorate.  v.  Deck,  adorn,  ornament, 
embellish,  beautify,     Anto.,  spoil,  spot. 

I>ccorum.  n.  Propriety,  decency.  Anto., 
impropriety,  irisbehavior, 

Dccroy.  V.  Tempt,  allure,  entice,  inveigle, 
seduce.     Anto.,  repel,  warn,  advise. 

Decrease,  t.  D i m i n ish .  lessen.  Anio, , 
increase,  augment,  replenish. 

l>€M'rcc.     n.     Order,  mandate,  fiat,  edict. 
Deduct.       f.       Separate,     subtract,     take 
away.     Anto.,  add,  increase,  augment. 

Defame.  71.  Asperse,  calumniate,  slan- 
der, vilify.  Anto.,  praise,  glorify,  celebrate, 
detend. 

l>cfcat,  T.  I.  Beat,  conquer,  overcome, 
rout.  2.  Balk,  disappoint,  bafile,  foil,  frus- 
trate. 

Defect,  n.  1.  Flaw,  blemish,  imperfec- 
tion. 2.  Fault,  failing.  Anio.,  perfection, 
improvement,  beautv. 

l>efcn<l.  7'.  I.  Guard,  shield,  protect.  2. 
ITpIiold^  maintain,  vindicate.  Anto.,  1.  Ex- 
pose.    2.  Asperse,  slander,  defame. 

l>efer,  t.  Adjourn,  delay,  postpone, 
^«/().,  l>ush,  force,  expedite. 


\ 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


69 


/ 


Deference,  n.  Rep^ard,  respect,  rcvcr- 
uncu,  honiiigi:.  A/ito.,  disrespect,  irreverence, 
contumely. 

Definite.  a<fj.  Certain,  determined,  exact, 
precise.     Anto.^  uncertain,  indefinite,  vague, 

Defraud,     v.     Cheat,  gull,  over- reach. 

Defy.  V.  Ilrave,  dare,  disregard,  despise. 
Anto.y  submit,  humiliate,  concede. 

I>eity.  II.  Divinity,  Godhead,  God,  Anio., 
Devil. 

D«j<'rtefl.  GiiJ.  Depressed,  disheartened, 
despondent.      yl«/fl.,  joyous,  mercurial,  glad. 

Delay,  zi.  Linger,  stop,  procrastinate. 
Anto,,  li;isten,  expedite. 

Delectable,  adj.  Pleasant,  agreeable,  de- 
lightful. Anto.y  abominable,  despicable, 
nasty. 

Delegate.  «.  Commissioner,  represen- 
tative, deputy. 

Delicious,  adj.  Delicate,  palatable,  lus- 
cious.    Anlu.,  bitter,  nauseous. 

Delightful,  adj.  Charming,  enchanting, 
ravishing.     Anio.,  displeasing. 

Delinquent.  «.  Offender,  wrong-doer, 
culprit,  criminal. 

Delirium.  «.  Wandering,  hallucination, 
derangement. 

Delude,    x*.     See  Deceive. 

Demand,  t.  Require,  claim,  exact.  Anio.^ 
give,  offer,  relinquish. 

Deiuolisli.  z'.  Destroy,  overthrow,  level, 
ruin.     Anio.,  build,  construct,  raise. 

Demonstrate.  v.  Show,  establish, 
prove. 

Demonstration.  «.  Proof,  manifesta- 
tion. 

Demoralize.  t>.  Corrupt,  deprave,  vitiate. 
>4«/o.,  reform,  rescue. 

Denote,  v.  Imply,  signify,  indicate, 
mark,  designate. 

Deny.  v.  1.  Contradict,  gainsay.  2.  Dis- 
own, disavow,  abjure.  3.  \\  ithhold.  Anto,^ 
avow,  admit,  concede. 

Depai-t.  V.  I.  Go,  start,  leave,  set  out. 
2.  Vani.sli,  disappear.  Auio.y  i.  Come,  re- 
turn.    2.  Emerge,  ajjpcar.     * 

Dependence,  n.  Keliance,  trust,  confi- 
dence.    Anto.t  independence. 

Depict.  V.  I.  Describe,  z.  Delineate, 
portray,  pencil,  paint. 

Deplore,  v.  Lament,  mourn,  bewail, 
bemoan.  Ari/o.,  rejoice,  congratulate,  cele- 
brate. 

Deportment.  ».  Demeanor,  behavior, 
carriage,  ctmduct. 

Deprecate,  v.  Regret.  Art/o.,  desire, 
commend. 

J>eprcciate.  v.  i.  Underrate,  undervalue, 
lessen  the  price  of.  2.  Censure,  degrade,  tra- 
duce, malign.  Auto.,  i.  Overrate.  2.  Praise, 
vindicate. 

Depress,  z/.  i.  Lower,  drop,  sink.  2. 
Deject,  dispirit,  chill.  3.  Debase,  humiliate. 
Anio.,  I.  lilevate,  raise.  2.  Encourage.  3. 
Exalt. 

Derange.    7/.    Confuse,  displace,  unsettle, 
disorder.    Anto.^  arrange. 
Descend,  v.   i.  Fal",  drop,  smk,  go  down. 

2,  Dismount.     Anto.^  ascend. 

Design,  tt.  1.  Sketch,  outline,  plan, 
draught.  2.  Intent,  aim,  purpose,  object, 
scheme. 

Designate,  v.  i.  Name,  call,  style,  de- 
nominate. 2.  Denote,  indicate,  show,  specify. 

3.  Appoint. 

Desire,  v.  i.  Ask,  request.  2.  Wish, 
■want,  fancy,  covet,  crave. 

Dcsulntinn.  h.  i.  Glnnm,  sadness, 
wretchedness,  misery.  2.  Ruin,  destruction. 
Anto,,  joy,  pleasure,  happiness. 

Despair.  «.  Desperation,  despondency, 
hopelessness.     Anto.^  hope,  cheerfulness. 

Despicable,  adj.  Mean,  pitiful,  con- 
temptible, abject.  Anto.,  elevated,  generous, 
praiseworthy. 

Despotif!.  adj.  Absolute,  arbitrary,  im- 
pericms,  tyrannical.  AfUo.,  free,  democratic, 
constitutional. 

Destiny.  «.  1.  Fate,  necessity.  2.  Lot, 
doom,  fortune,  fate. 

Destroy,  v.  1.  Consume,  waste,  devour, 
desolate.     2.    Demolish,   overthrow,  subvert. 


3.  Annihilate, extirpate, eradicate,  kill.  Anio., 
create,  build,  call  together,  construct. 

Detach.  v.  Separate,  sever,  disjoin. 
Anto.,  join. 

Detain,  v.  Restrain,  confine,  dcKiy,  re- 
tain.   Anto.,  hasten,  expedite,  send  away. 

I>etcct.     z'.     Descry,  discover,  expose. 

Determine,  t.  i.  Settle,  end,  decide, 
conclude.  :;.  Lead,  influence,  induce.  3.  As- 
certain, verify.  Anto.^  I.  Begin,  commence, 
unsettle,     i.    Follow.     3.  Falsify,  negative, 

]>etraction.  «.  Censure, slantler, calumny, 
defamation.     Anto.,  praise,  commendation. 

Develop.  7-.  Unfold,  open,  evolve, grow. 
Anto.,  close,  end,  wither,  wilt,  droop. 

Devil.  M.  1.  Satan,  Belial,  Lucifer,  arch- 
enemy, the  tempter,  the  adversary,  the  prince 
of  darkness.     2.  Demon.     Anto.,  God,  Deity. 

Devoid,  adj.  Empty,  destitute,  vacant, 
void.     Anto.,  full,  complete,  overflowing. 

Dexterous.  «<//'.  Adroit,  skillful,  handy, 
apt,  clever.  Anto.,  awkward,  unskillful, 
boorish,  rough. 

l>iction.  w.  Expression,  phraseology, 
lanjjuage,  style. 

Dictionary.  «.  1.  Lexicon,  glossar\*, 
vocabulary.     2.  Encyclopedia. 

Die,  7'.  Expire,  decease,  wither,  perish. 
Anto.,  live,  breathe,  flourish,  grow. 

I>ifferent.  adj.  i.  Various,  manifold, 
unlike,  diverse.  2.  Separate,  distinct.  Anto., 
similar,  alike,  homogeneous. 

Ditlieult.  adj.  Arduous,  hard,  herculean. 
Anto.,  easy,  facile. 

]>igest.  «.  Compend,  abstract,  brief,  epi- 
tome. 

Dilemma,  n.  Strait,  predicament,  quan- 
darv. 

Diligence,  m.  Activity,  industry,  perse- 
verance, assiduity,  Anto.^  idleness,  laziness, 
lassitude,  languor. 

Diminish,     f.     See  Decreaxe. 

Direction.  «.  i.  Order.  2.  Address,  su- 
perscription.    3.  Course,  bearing. 

Disaffection,  n.  Breach,  disagreement, 
dissatisfaction,  estrangement,  alienation, 

I>isagTee,  ii.  i.  Quarrel,  wrangle,  bicker. 
2.  Dissent,  differ,  vary.  Anto.,i.  Conciliate, 
pacifv.     2.  Agree,  equate. 

Disappear.  7'.  Vanish,  pass,  fade,  dis- 
solve. Anto.,  appear,  emerge,  come  into 
view. 

Disapproval,  n.  Disapprobation,  dis- 
like, displeiUiure.  Anto.,  approbation,  liking, 
pleasure. 

Disarrange.  v.  Unsettle,  derange. 
Anto.,  order,  marshal,  fix. 

Di.sbelief.  m.  Incredulity,  distrust,  doubt, 
skepticism,  infidelity.  Anto.^  faith,  belief, 
trust. 

Discomfort,  v.  Annoy,  trouble,  disturb, 
molest.  Anto.,  comfort,  ease,  quiet,  pacify, 
calm. 

Discontent,  «.  Uneasiness,  disquietude, 
dissatisfaction.  Anto.^  comfort,  ease,  quiet, 
peace,  contentment. 

Discourtesy,  «.  Incivility,  impoliteness, 
rudeness.  Anto.,  courtesy,  breeding,  good 
manners,  l>ehavior. 

Discredit,  n.  1.  Distrust.  2.  Disrepute, 
obloquy.  Anto.,  i.  Credit.  2.  Reputation, 
standing. 

Dis<^us8.  V.  Canvass,  sift,  argue,  ventilate, 
debate. 

Disease.  ;/.  Ailment,  complaint,  illness, 
sickness,  malady.    Anto.,  health. 

Disgrace,  v.  Degrade,  debnse,  sully, 
stain,  dishonor.  Anto.,  ex(merate,  exculpate, 
clear,  release,  justify,  vindicate. 

Dishonest,  adj.  Unfair,  false,  knavish, 
fraudulent.  Anto.,  honest,  reputable,  right, 
proper,  trusty,  sincere,  candid. 

I>islike,  w.  Aversion,  antipathy,  repug- 
nance, disgust.  Auto.,,  liking,  admiration, 
love,  regard. 

Dismiss.  V.  Discharge,  discard,  turn  off. 
Anto.,  receive,  take  back. 

Disoblige,  v.  Discommode,  offend,  dis- 
please.    Anto.,  oblige,  favor. 

Dispassionate,  adj.  Sober,  calm,  tem- 
perate, composed,  imperturbable.  Anto.,  pas- 
sionate, stormy,  ciisturbcd. 


Display,  v.  1.  Exhibit,  show.  3.  Un- 
fold, open,  spread.  Anto.,  hide,  conceal, 
Cover,  close. 

Displease,  t.  i.  Dissatisfv,  offend,  dis- 
gust. .:.  Anger,  irritate,  affiont.  Anto., 
l)lease,  comfort,  e;tse,  quiet. 

Disregard.  7'.  Overlook,  slight,  neglect, 
contemn.  Anto.,  regard,  favor,  notice,  watch, 
oversee. 

Dissembler,    n.    Feigner,  hypocrite. 

Dissipate.  7-.  i.  Lavish,  squander, 
waste.  2.  Dispel,  scatter.  Anto.,  1.  Save, 
economize.     2.  Gather. 

Dissolute,     adj.     See  Abandoned. 

Distant,  adj.  i.  Remote,  far.  2.  Re- 
served, coy,  shy,  cold.  Anto.,  1.  Near,  close. 
2.   Bold,  shameless,  impudent. 

Distress.  «.  i.  Suffering,  pain,  anguish, 
agony.  2.  Adversity,  trouble.  3.  Want,  in- 
digence, poverty.  Anto.,  i.  Pleasure,  ease, 
contentment.  2.  Happiness.  3.  Wealth,  af- 
tluence. 

Distrust.  «.  Mistrust,  suspicion,  dis- 
credit, disbelief.  Anto.,  trust,  confidence,  re- 
liance. 

Diversity.  «.  i.  Variation,  unlikeness, 
ditference.  2.  Variety.  Anto.^  sameness, 
likeness,  homogeneity. 

Docile,  adj.  Apt,  tractable,  teachable. 
Anto.,  intractable,  savage,  untamable. 

Doleful,  adj.  i.  Melancholy,,  woeful, 
sad,  sorrowful.  2.  Dolorous,  gloomy.  Anto.^ 
jovous,  bright,  happy. 

Domestic,  adj.  Homely,  tame.  Anto., 
exoteric,  extraneous,  foreign,  wild. 

Doubt.  «.  I.  Suspense,  irresolution,  un- 
certainty.      2.    Suspicion,    mistrust.      Anto., 

1.  Foreknowledge,   resolution,   certainty.     3. 
Confidence. 

Drag*    V.    Draw,  pull,  haul,  tug. 

Dread,  n.  Fear,  awe,  apprehension. 
Anto.,  courage,  boldness,  valor. 

Dreadful,  adj.  Awful,  frightful,  fearful, 
direful,   horrible,  terrible. 

Droll,  adj.  1.  Odd,  queer.  2.  Comic, 
funny,  farcical.    Anio.,   1.   Usual,  ordinary. 

2,  S(ilemn,  funereal. 

Dr€>op.  7K  I.  Decline,  fail,  languish.  2. 
Fade,  wilt,  wither.  Anto.,  i.  Rise,  succeed. 
2.  Bloom,  blossom,  grow,  wax. 

Dull,  adj.  1.  Stupid,  shallow.  2.  Inert, 
sluggish.  3.  Blunt,  obtuse.  4.  Gloomy.  Anto., 
T.  Knowing,  deep.  2.  Active.  3.  Sharp, 
shrewd.     4.  Bright. 

Dunce,  n.  Simpleton,  fool,  nmny,  idiot, 
dolt,  oaf,  dullard.    Anto.,  sage. 


Eager,  adj.  i.  Zealous,  ardent,  impetuous. 

2.  Impatient,   longing,   yearning.      Anio.,    i. 
Lukewarm.     2.  Patient. 

Karn.  Xf.  i.  Gain,  obtain,  get.  acquire, 
win.     2.  Merit,  deserve.     ^«/(>.,  squander. 

Easy.  adj.  Light,  not  difficult.  2.  Quiet, 
comfortable.  3.  Unconstrained.  Anto.,  1. 
Difficult.     2.  Uneasy.     3.  Confined. 

Eccentric,  adj.  Odd,  peculiar,  erratic, 
anomalous,  aberrant.  Anio.,  usual,  ordinary, 
commonplace. 

Ecstacy,  n.  i.  Delight,  rapture,  trans- 
port. 2.  Enthusiasm.  Anto.,  despair,  sorrow, 
torture.  

Educate,  v.  Tram,  discipline,  instruct, 
school,  teach.     Anto.,  ignore. 

Efface.  V.  Cancel,  blot,  erase,  expunge, 
obliterate.     Anto.,  rewrite,  strengthen. 

Effective,  adj.  i.  Active,  effectual.  2, 
SulHcient,  cogent,  energetic,  forcible,  potent. 
Anto..  ineffectual,  idle.  slow.  weak. 

Effectual,     adj.     See  Effecttve,        ^ 

Egotistical,  adj.  Conceited,  self-impor- 
tant, selfish.  Anto.,  humble,  lowly,  gener- 
ous. . 

Elevate,  v.  i.  Exalt,  promote.  2.  U.iisc, 
lift  %.  Improve,  refine,  ennoble.  4.  Animate, 
cheer,  elate.  Auto.,  depress,  lower,  vulgarize, 
deaden. sadden. 

Embarrass,  v.  i.  Disconcert,  confuse, 
confound,        2.       Distress,      hamper,      clog. 

3.  Perplex.     Anto.,  assist^  help,  explain. 
EniDolden.  v.  Inspirit,  reassure,  animate 

encourage.    Anto.,  abash,  confuse. 


VL 


70 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Emergency.  «.  Strait,  difficulty,  exi- 
gencv,  necessity,  crisis. 

Eminent.  adj.  Exalted,  remarkable, 
prominent,  conspicuous,  distinguished. -^/i/t»., 
obscure,  lowly,  meek,  humble. 

£motion.  n.  Feelint;,  excitement,  agita- 
tion, passion.     Anto.-,  calm,  quiet,  ease. 

Kmploynient.  «.  Engagement,  occu- 
pation, pursuit,  avocation,  business.  Auto., 
uileness,  leisure. 

ICiicoura^e.     See  Kmbolden. 
£nilless.      adj.    i.    Unlimited,  boundless, 
illimitable,  infinite.    3.  Eternal.      Anto.,  lim- 
itud,  epliemcral.     2.  Finite,  mortal. 

Energetic,  adj.  Active,  forcible,  strong, 
vigorous,  powerful.  Anto.^  ieeble,  weak,  en- 
ervated. 

Enervate,  v.  Weaken,  enfeeble,  break, 
debilitate,  paralyze.  v4«/(7., invigorate, nerve, 
strengthen. 

Engagement,  n,  i.  Emijlovment.  2. 
Encounter,  battle.  3.  Promise,  pledge,  assur- 
ance, contract. 

Engross,      v.      Occupy,   absorb,   engage, 

monopolize,  forestall.     Atiio.,  vacate,  empty. 

Enhance,    zf.     1.    Raise,  heighten,  swell, 

advance.        2.    Augment,   increase.        Auto., 

lower,  recede,  reduce. 

EnjojTnent.      «.      Gratification,  delight, 
pleasure,  happiness.     Anto.,  sorrow,  sadness, 
grief. 
Enlarge.     See  Augmeni. 
Enmity.    7i.    Animosity,  aversion,  hostil- 
ity, hatred,  malevolence.    'Anto.,  friendship, 
kindliness,  love,  admiration. 
Ennoble,    -v.     See  E/t-vati'. 
Ennui.       n.       Listlcssness,     irksomeness, 
tedium,  languor,  lassitude.     Anto.,  liveliness, 
vigor,  enjoyment,  buoyancy. 

Enterprise,  n.  1.  AttJmpt, undertaking, 
endeavor,  venture.     2.  Energ\. 

Entertain.  z<.  Divert,  amuse,  please, 
Aiito.t  sadden,  make  gloomv. 

Enthnsiasm.     «.     Earnestness,  devotion, 
zeal,   ardor.       Anio,^  frivolity,   ennui,   luke- 
warmness. 
Entice,    v.     See  A/lure. 
Entreat,    t'.     Petition,  ask,   beseech,  im- 
plore, i>ray,  supplicate. 

Ennmerate.  z-.  Number,  count,  reckon, 
numerate. 

Ephemeral,  adj.  Short-lived,  transitory, 
living  but  a  day.     Anio.,  eternal,  endless. 

Epicure.  «.  Gourmand,  syliarite, sensu- 
alist, vohiptuary.     Aitio.,  ascetic,  stoic. 

Epitliet.  «.  Name,  designation,  appel- 
lation. 

Equable.  adj.  Even,  regular,  steady, 
equal,  uniform.  Anto.^  eccentric,  unequal, 
rugged. 

Equestrian.  ;/.  i.  Rider,  horseman.  2. 
Chevalier,  cliasse\ir,  knight,  cavalier.  Anto., 
pedestrian,  mfantrv,  footm.an. 

Equitable,  aiij.  1.  Fair,  reasonable, 
justifiable,  right,  2.  Just,  honest,  impartial. 
Anto.,  unjust,  unreasonable,  wrong,  dis- 
honest. 

Equivocate.  v.  Lie,  shuffle,  dodge, 
quibbk-,  prevaricate. 

Error.  «,  i.  Oversight,  mistake,  blunder. 
2.  Transgression,  fault,  offence,  sin. 

Erudition.       u.       Learning,    knowledge, 
lore,  science,  scholarship.     Anto.,  ignorance. 
Eschew.     7'.     Av<iid,shun.     Anto.,  sgcV.. 
Espouse.    V.     I.  Marry,  wed.    2.  Betroth. 
Anto.,  divorce. 

Establish,  v.  i.  Organize,  found,  insti- 
tute, lix,  plant,  settle.  2.  Prove.  3.  Confirm, 
ratify.  Anto.,  i.  Overthrow. destroy, unsettle. 
2.    Disprove.     3.   Deny,  refuse. 

Esteem,  u.  1.  Honor,  respect,  reverence. 
2.  Valuation,  opinion.  Anto.,  contempt, 
irreverence. 

Eternal.     .S"^^  End/esx. 

Evasion.  «.  Quibble,  shift,  subterfuge, 
equivocation. 

Evening.  «.  Dusk,  twilight,  eve,  even, 
nightfall.     Anto.,  morning,  dawn,  aurora. 

Event.  ?;.  I.  Occurrence,  incident,  acci- 
dent.    2.  Conchtsir>n,  result,  consequence. 

Ever.  adj.  t.  Evermore,  always,  ave, 
perpetually, eternally.  2.  At  any  time."  Anto., 
never. 


Evident,     adj.     Apparent,  obvious,  clear,    ' 
palpable,  manifest.     Anto.,  obscure,  hidden. 

Exalt.  T.  I.  Glorify,  bless,  praise,  extol, 
magnify,  2.  Raise,  erect,  elevate.  3.  Dignify, 
ennoble,  Auio.,i.  Execrate.  2.  Lower.  3. 
Abase. 

Exasperate,  z'.  Irritate,  vex,  offend,  pro- 
voke, incense,  anger,  enrage.  Auto.,  soothe, 
mollify,  pacify,  jiieasc. 

Excellent.'  adj.  i.  Choice,  prime,  ster- 
ling, matchless,  suiierior.  2.  Good,  virtuous, 
worthy.  Anto.,  bad,  low.  2.  Villainous, 
worthless. 

Excel.  7'.  Surpass,  beat,  outdo,  exceed. 
Anto.,  fail,  fall  behind. 

Excerpt.     «.     Citation,  extract,  quotation. 

Exculpate,  v.  Excuse,  justify,  pardon, 
clear,  exonerate.  Anto.,  convict,  indict,  ar 
raign,  blame. 

Excursion,  n.  Ramble,  jaunt,  trip,  tour, 
journey. 

Excuse.  M.  I.  Plea,  justification,  apology. 
2.  CJuise,  color,  pretext,  pretence. 

Execute.     See  Accomplish. 

Exegesis.  «.  i.  Exegetics,  explanation, 
exposition,  interpretation. 

Exercise,  z-.  Practice,  pursue.  2.  Drill, 
train,  discipline.  3.  Exert,  use,  apply.  Auto., 
rust,  decav,  degenerate,  become  sluggish. 

Exhale.  v.  Breathe,  evaporate,  emit. 
Anto.,  inhale,  inspire. 

Exhilarate,  v.  Animate,  gladden,  cheer, 
elate,  inspirit.  Anto.,  depress,  discourage, 
deject,  dampen,  chill. 

Exigency.     See  Emergency • 

Exonerate.     See  Actjuit  and  Exculpate. 

Expectation,  n.  Prospect,  anticipation, 
confidence,  hope,  trust,  reliance.  Anto.,  sud- 
denness, abruptness,  fear,  dismay. 

Expedite.  7'.  Quicken,  hurry,  hasten, 
accelerate,  speed.  Anto.,  delay,  retard,  clog, 
bar. 

Expense,  n.  Outlay,  charge,  expenditure, 
cost. 

Experience,  n.  1.  Knowledge,  wisdom. 
2.  Practice,  Anto.,  i.  Ignorance.  2.  Inexper- 
ience. 

Experiment,  -v.  Proof,  test,  trial,  ex- 
.amination,  assay. 

Explain.  7'.  Expound,  illustrate,  unfold, 
interpret,  elucidate.  Anto.,  confuse,  muddle, 
darken. 

Expound.     See  Explain. 

Expression,  n.  i.  Plirase,  term,  utter- 
ance, declaration.  2.  Look,  appearance,  as- 
pect. 

Extend.  7'.  r.  Expand,  augment,  dilate, 
enlarge,  protract,  prolong,.  2.  Yield,  offer. 
Anto.,  I.  Abridge,  shorten,  lessen.  2.  Take, 
receive- 

Extraordinary.  adj.  Uncommon,  sig 
nal,  rare,  unusual,  remarkable.  Anto.,  com- 
mon, usual,  customary. 

Extravagant.  Adj.  i.  "Wasteful,  lavish, 
profuse,  prodigal.  2.  Wild,  absurd.  3.  Un- 
reasonable, inordinate,  preposterous.  Anto., 
I.  Stingy,  miserable,  close.  2.  Probable, 
credible.     3.  Common,  ordinary,  custoniarv. 

Extricate,  v.  Relieve,  clear,  disentan- 
gle.    Anto.,  involve,  entangle. 

Exuberate,  adj.  Full,  copious,  liberal, 
lavish.     Anto.,  empty,  vacant,  scarce. 


Eable.  «.  i.  Talc,  novel,  romance,  mvth. 
2.  Falsehood,  fiction,  labricatioii,  lie.  Anto., 
history.     2.  Truth,  veritv.  fact. 

Facetious,  adj.  Sportive,  waggish,  I'o 
cose,  jocular.  Anto.,  serious,  gloomy,  sat- 
urnine. 

Fail.  V.  1.  Miss,  miscarry.  2.  Omit,  neg- 
lect. 3.  Decay,  wane,  decline.  4.  Break, 
vlw^o.,  accomplish,  succeed.  2.  Perforin.  3. 
Grow,  strengthin.     4.  Mend. 

Faithful,  adj.  I.  Constant,  loyal,  true. 
2.  Reliable,  truthful.  3.  Close,  strict.  Anto., 
faithless,  deceitful. 

Faithless,  ad^'.  Perfidious,  treacherous, 
false.     Anto.,  faithful. 

False,  adj.  i.  Untrue.  2.  Deceptive, 
fallacious,  spurious,  counterfeit.  3.  Incor- 
rect, Anto,,  I.  True.  2.  Real,  genuine,  act- 
ual.    3.  Correct. 


Family,    k.    i.  Class,  race,  lineage,  tribe. 
2.  Household.    3.  Order.      Auto.,  inaividual. 
Fascinate,      v.    Charm,  catch,  cajitivate, 
bewitch,  enamor.     Anto.,  alarm,  dismay,  dis- 
enchant, intimidate. 

Fast.  71.  I,  Abstinence,  f:isting.  Anto., 
feast,  gorge. 

Fate.  n.  i.  Fatality,  destiny,  lot,  doom, 
Anto.,  chance. 

Feast,  n.  i.  Festival,  holiday.  2,  Enter- 
tainment, banquet,  carousal.  Anto.,  fast, 
abstinence. 

Feeble,  adj.  i.  Weak.  2.  Languid, 
sickly,  frail,  debilitated.  ^«^c., strong, ener- 
getic, stalwart. 

Feeling.  7i.  i.  Affectation,  sensibility, 
emotion.  2.  Sensation,  touch.  Anto.,  cal- 
lousness, hard-heartedness. 

Feminine.  adj.  1.  '  Delicate,  soft, 
womanly.  2.  Effeminate.  Anto.,  1.  Coarse, 
hard.     2.  Masculine. 

Fervor,     n.     i.  Eagerness,  ardor,  zeal.     2. 
Warmth.     Anto.,  laziness,  apathy. 
Festival,     n.     See  Feast. 
Feudal,     adj.     F'eodal,  military    (tenure.) 
Anto.,  allodial,  democratic. 

Fickle,     adj.    Changeable,  unstable,  vari 
abk',  capricious,  inconstant.    Anto.,  faithful, 
constant,  immutalilu. 

Final,  adj.  i.  Conclusive,  decisive.  2. 
Ultimate,  last.     Anto.,  opening,  beginning. 

Fine.  adj.  1.  Nice,  refined.  2.  Little, 
small,  minute.  3.  Excellent.  4.  Handsome, 
beautiful,  elegant.  5.  Delicate.  O.  Light. 
Anto.,  coarse,  large,  mean,  ugly. 

Finisb.  7-.  1.  Conclude,  end,  terminate. 
2.  Perform,  accomplish,  complete.  3.  Per- 
fect. Anto.,  I.  Begin,  open.  2  and  3.  De- 
stroy, tear  down. 

Firmness.  ;/.  i.  Strength,  stability.  2. 
Solidity,  hardness.  Anto.,  1.  Weakness.  2. 
Softness,  penetrability. 

Flag.  n.  Standard,  colors,  ensign,  ban- 
ner. 

Flashy,  adj.  Gay,  airy,  jaunty,  showy, 
tawdry,  ostentatious,  Haunting,  Anto.,  som- 
bre, solemn. 

Flattery,  n.  i.  Adulation,  fawning,  ser- 
vility, sycophancy,  obsequiousness.  2.  Com- 
pliniL-nt'.  Anto'.,  blame,  objection,  disap- 
proval, detraction. 

Flavor.  «.  i.  Taste,  smack,  savor,  2. 
Stnull,  odor,  fragrance.  Anto.,  tastelessness. 
Flaw.  n.  I.  b'racture,  crack.  2.  Speck, 
spot,  fault,  imperfection,  defect,  blemish. 
Anto.,  I.  Whole, solid.  2.  Perfect,  iininaeu- 
late,  clear. 

Flimsy,  adj.  i.  Thin,  slight.  2.  Trivial, 
feeble,  weak,  frivolous,  shallow.  Anto.,  1. 
Strong,  stalwart.  2.  Worthy,  good,  earnest, 
deep. 

Fluctuate,  v.  i.  Waver,  vacillate.  2. 
Oscillate. 

Fluency,  n.  Flow  ,  glibness,  volubility. 
Anto.,  silence,  taciturnity. 

Fondness,  n.  1.  Liking,  partiality.  2. 
Love,  tenderness.     Anto.,  hate,  dislike. 

Food.     n.     Victuals,  viands,  fare,  subsist- 
ence, alimeilt,  nutriment. 
Fool.     See  Dnme. 

Foppish,  adj  Dandified,  coxcombical, 
dandyish,     Anto.,  slovenly,  untidy. 

Forcible,  adj.  i.  Vigorous.  2.  Strong, 
potent,  cogent,  jiowerfiil.  3.  Violent.  Anto., 
feeble,  weak,  i)unv. 

Foreg<».  x\  Resign,  yield,  surrender,  re- 
linquish, abandon.  -4///(J.,  take,  receive,  de 
niand. 

Foresight.  w.  Prudence,  precaution, 
anticipation,  forecast,  i)rescience.  Anto., 
imprudence,  rashness. 

Forethought,     n.     See  Foresight. 
Forgivp.       z:       Excuse,    absolve,  pardon, 
acquit.     Auto.,  avenge,  charge,  indict,  impli- 
cate, accuse. 

Formidable.  adj.  Dreadful,  tremen- 
dons,  terrible,  shockmg.  Anto.,  small,  ri- 
diculous, puny. 

Fiirsake.  7'.  Abandon,  quit,  desert,  re- 
nounce, forswear.     Anto,   cleave. 

Forswear,  z>.  i.  Renounce,  forsake,  de- 
sert.   2,  Recant,  abjure.    Anto.,  subscribe. 


/ 


Fortita.lf.     «.    Resohilion.firmniss,  in- 
duianci;.     Aiilo.,  weakness.  ^„;,,. 

"KoHnne.      «:      ■•.  Chance,    uck,  fortrnty. 
2.  Propertv.cslato,  riches,  weallh.      .V    "•-* 
1  „v  lot  fate,  doom.    Atilo.,  2.  l'<'r'--rty-, 
fragile.      ".'/    Weak,  feeble,  fra.l,  frag- 

""fr„^;a;.;r";^-  Aron,a  pcrf„n,e,  bahni- 
ness,  incense.     A«to.,  stench,  efflnv.a. 

J;:;:;:u.%.-'SpS:t^"Ce-.  artless,  can. 

■^  Fraul"'  """ch..a,,  deception,  collusion. 
triiilo      Auto.,  liom-stv.  ^   l   ^ 

^  Freak.  «.  Fancy,  humor,  crotchet,  va- 
gary, whim,  caprice.      AnIo.,  purpose,  res- 

"'ri-ee.    «.//.      ..  Unrestrained,  un..bstn.ct. 
ed       2    Gnituitous,  willing.     ,V    l",""''!,^'"- 
ce;e,  artless.      4.  (Jenerous      .beral       ^    /'>.,   | 
..Slavish.    2.  Costly.    3;,'^""';.  f-,^^"ti: 

Free.     v.     i.  Clear,  nd.      i.  Kele.lse,  no 
erate,  emancipate.     A,Uo.,  h'"-!.  enslave. 

Freeze.     7'.       '■  Congeal.      2.    Chill,  Dc 

""Fretful""';.*  "taptious,  waspish,  splen. 
cticrsnappish.-'petuUnt.  Anlo..  equable, 
good-humored. 

Frivolous,    o.y.     •?<<•  F/imsy. 

Frugality.  «.  Carefulness,  economy, 
thrift.     .'l«/o.,  exlravag.mce,  wastefulness. 

Fruitful.  «rfy.  1.  1-ecund,  prolific,  pro- 
ductive. 2.  Plenteous.  A>U0.,  sterile,  fruit- 
less, unproductive. 

Frtiitless.  u.V.  Barren,  sterile  unpro. 
diK-tive.     2.  Futile,  useless       A'"":-    '";^\"\-, 

Frustrate.     7.      Balk,  baffle,  defeat,  fo.l, 

'"Fi;i^:"«<(A"'^Vl^i^'^^i->y.-"'">^'"^- 

^'i^^riuure.  „.  1.  Effects,  goods,  mov- 
aides,  chattels.  2. -Xpparatus.  3.Decorations. 

"'¥\S^-  o^>i.  .•  Useless,  frmtle^,  vain, 
idle.  2.  Frivol. HIS,  trifling.  .4«/o.,  i.  iTuit- 
ful.    2.  Earnest. 


Gage.    n.    I.  Challenge.     2.  Pawn,  secur- 

'Vln*!^";,.      Advant.age,     benefit,     profit, 
emolument.     yl«<w.,  loss. 

Gain.    tj.    Get, secure, win,  earn,  achieve, 
obtain,  procure.    Anlo.,  lose. 

<iai.g.  ".  Band,  party,  set,  company, 
colerie.     Anlo.,  individual. 

Oarb.  «.  Dress,  habit,  attire,  apparel. 
Anlo.,  nudity,  nakedness. 

Garble.  J'.  Falsify,  misquote,  mutdate. 
\iito.,  restore,  verifv.  . 

GarruUty.  ».  Babble,  talkativeness,  lo. 
cuiacitv.    ylw'i'.,  taciturnity. 

Gathering.  «.  Meeting,  company,  as. 
sembly,  concourse.  2.  Earning,  acquisition. 
•1.  Abscess.  _,      , 

Gaudy,    adj.    See  Fla.'^hy. 

Gawky.     aJJ.     See  Awkward. 

Generous.     (/<//.    Liberal,  b.>untiful,  mag-    j 
nif.cent,  noble.     '•■!«'"■.■•,  S'i>7-  .^-  ^•^•.'"■, 

Gentle.  adj.  i.  Bland,  lenient,  kiml, 
mild,  humane.  2.  Docile,  tame,  quiet,  tract. 
able.    Anto.,  rough.  .;..■„     I 

Genuine,  ad/,  i.  True,  authentic,  iin- 
•illoved.    2.  Unaltected, sincere.    yl«/<>., false. 

Ilirtdiness.     «.     Di/.zincss.  vertigo.  | 

Gid.ly.  adj.  I.  Dizzy.  2.  Fickle,  uns  a- 
ble.  J,.  Flighty,  careless,  heedless.  Anlo., 
sedate,' balanced.  ,      ,    r        ,. 

<;ift.  «.  I.  Endowment,  talent,  taculty. 
Kinius  2.  Present,  donation,  offering,  grat- 
S  tv,  contribution,  subscription,  douceur. 

Gigantic.  adj  ,  Huge,  vast,  colossal. 
yl«/.).,  small,  moan,  little. 

(iingerly.      «.^!'.      Dainty,    careful,    cau- 
tious, fastidious.     Anlo.,  rash,  careless. 
(iirdle;       ».     Band,  cincture,  belt,  cestus. 

zone.  .  ....        ■    .       1 

<;lad.    adJ     i.  Pleased,  gratified,  rejoiced. 

2.  Clieerful,  joyous.      3.  Gratifying.      Anlo., 

sad.stunbre.  _    ..      ,  ,•         1 

4;loumv.      adj.      1.  Dull,  obscure,  disma  , 

dusky,   lowering.        2.    Depressed,   dejected. 

sad.     Anlo.,  bright,  joyful. 


Go.     V.     1.   Move,  advance,  proceed.    2.  | 
De,".rt.    \.  Extend.    4.  l''"^'=.    5-  Lend,  con- 
tribute.     Anlo.,  come. 

Go.    inttri.    Av  aunt,  begone. 

God.     «.     Eord.  Creator,  Almighty,  Omni- 
potence, Providence,  Jeliovah.         •  ,u;,:... 

^  Good  Nature,    n.      Kindness,  ^""-^'h'   'S 
benevolence,  benignity.     Anto.,  malevolence, 

'"^mSi.    «  ,    /A      ..  Wares,  merchandise. 

2.  Chattels,  furniture.  i-„;,,.      , 

Gran.leur.     «.     Greatness,  ?>'';''""l>-    ■=• 

Dignity,  state,  magnibcence,  majesty.    Anlo., 

humilitv.  ,         ,     •*      «    f\\v,. 

Graiit.     V.      I.  Concede,  admit.    2.  Give, 

bestow,  vouchsafe.        3-    Transfer,  convej. 

"■'<i?;;/efui  ttdi  1.  Obliged,  beholden, 
thai  kf  1  2.  P:ilatable.  corSial,  delicious, 
refreshing,  i  Pleasant,  agreeable,  delighttul. 
Gratify.  !-.  Indulge,  humor,  delight,  sat- 
isfv,  please.    yl«/«.,  dispjeiUie. 

Great.      «.'/      1.  Bulky,  big,  large,  hi.gi, 
vast       2.    Noted,  distinguisheir,  eminent,  ex- 
'    aited,  illustrious.      3-    Noble,  magnanimous. 
4.  Numerous.    --Orfi'.,  small.  ,„,„„„  :„ 

Greedy,  adj.  (iluttonons,  rapacious,  in- 
1  satiate,  ravenous,  voracious.  Anto.,  geiier- 
I    ous,  unselfisli.  .    ..iti;,.. 

Grief.     «.    Distress,  sorrow,  regret,  afflic- 
tion, tribulation,  woe,  anguish.     •'l''"';.3<;>; 

Gruff.      .(.//.      Ulunt,  harsh,   rough,  nule, 
churlish.     Aiilo.,  polite. 
<;rumble.    ,..     Croak, murmur,  compl.nn, 

trrowl      ^-Iw/f'.,  rejoice.  .  •  ,  1 

*=  i?liard.  T.  l-rotect.watcb,shelter,shield, 
defend      Anto.,  attack,  harass. 

.        (itiarded.     '„,/,•.      Ca.eful,  watchful,  cau- 
tious wary.    Anlo..  nngu.arded. 

1        Gui.ianee.     n.     Lea8,  conduct,  direction, 
government.     Anlo..  following 

iiuile.  «.  Artifice,  duplicity,  deceit,  snn- 
tlety?cunning,  craft,  fraud.       Ante,  honesty, 

^"Guiltless,  adj.  Innocent,  blameless,spot- 
less   pure,  immaculate.     ^K/0..,  guilty..     . 

Guilty:  adj.  Culpable,  sinful,  criminal. 
Anlo..  guiltless.  , 

Gyrate,    v.    Whirl,  rotate,  revolve. 


Heighten.    :-.   i.  Raise,  elevate,  exalt.    3. 
Increase,     enhance.     3-     Intensify.     Anlo., 

'"Hell^'^TTlades,  purgatory  Gehenna. 
^'ri:^,i'f«T""«.y.  Useful,  bene-.:nt,  con- 
''^fie;^W^r;;;(/.W&eble,infirm.pow«. 
Irss,  impotent,  imbecile.  yl»/.^.,  strong,  help. 

'"Her.ulean.    adj.    .T«  ■'^'•■"••>!-J''^^""\r 
Heroic.    ...//    i.-Ilold,  vabant.brave,  cour- 
ageous, noble,  daunUess.      2.  Epic.      Anlo., 

''HeTitation.   ».    Doubt,  suspense    "ncer- 
fiintv  vacillation.     Anlo.,  determinatiop. 
Hid.^us.  «.//  Dreadful,  frightfiil,  horrible. 


appalling,  ghastly.     ^'",-.  h-"" 
Highwayman 


bandit,  bri- 


H 

Hail.    V.    Greet,  welcome,  salute. 
Hale.    adj.    Sound,strong,healthy,hardy, 

beantifnl.     2.  Ami/e,  plentiful.     3.  Uenerous, 


magnanimous,  lu.lile.     Anlo.,  ngl>  ■  , 

ifaiipiness.      «.     Enjoyment,  bliss.  Peat 

■  tilde    felicitv.     yl«/i'.,  sorrow. 

Harass.-;,     i.  Worrv,  vex,  plague,  tease, 

troiiMeTdlstress.   ^    2.    Fag,  exhaust.   ,ade. 

Anto    nlease,  comfort,  protect. 
HarS.      aA-.      ■•  Compact,  solid,  impene- 

trab"      2.    Knotty,  dilh^^ult.      .1.    Arcfuous. 

laborious.    4.  Unfavorable.    S-  Callous,  cruel. 

^Hakteni    V.     Accelerate,  dispatch,  speed. 

Quicken,  expedite.     ^«/<i.,  hinder,  delav. 

^  Hate!    7..      Detest,  abominate,  loathe,  ab- 

■^  Hate:"";,!"' Enmitv,  antipathy,  hostility, 
detestation,  hatred.    Anto.,  love.  ., 

Haughty,  adj.  Loltv,  proud  supercil. 
ious,  airoiiaut.    Anlo.,  modest. 

Head-strong,  adj.  Unruly, dogged,stub. 
born,  iVbstinate.*' yl«/:;..  reasonable  judicious. 

Heal.  V.  1.  Ueinedy,  cure,  restore.  2. 
Se"tle,  reconcile.    .1;,/.,..  i.  Hurt,  wound.    2. 

"""^^^^^"tk    Well,  sound,  hale,  vigor. 

"Heal-ken.^^'.'Attend,  listen,  hear. 

S^::jl?;;r.&5':,^"Desolate,wretched, 
di"onsolate,  inconsolfible.       Anlo.,  joyous. 

''^Heartless.  «.//.  Unkind,  cruel,  cold, piti- 
less.   .'!«/.'.,  cordial,  kind.  .  , 

Heavenly,  adj.  ..  Angel.r,  divine,  god- 
like.    2.     criestiai.     -•'"'"•.  ^'"•"VVr'c  ;n.,t 

Heedless.  «.(,-.  Careless,  thoughUess.in.it- 

tentive,  negligent.    Anto.,  careful. 


llobb. 

g.."nd7™'j'-'B<^"!'   niarauder 

'^  Hinder,    v.    Stop,  impede,  retard,  check, 

ihwirt      yl«/p.,  hasten.  .     , 

Hint.    «.  Allusion,  suggestion,  intimation. 

"Holma;:  «.  Festival,  anniversary,  cele. 
'Holy.  adj.  ■•  «ood.  pons,  religious  dc- 
vout,  pure,  saintly,  godlv.  2.  Hallowed. 
,;-irr,*(l        •I///<»..  wicked,  bad.  . 

Home:    «.    Abode,    domicile,    residence, 

''"Hllmelv.  ad!,  i.  Plain, coarse,  uncomely. 
2  "Domes'fic  l^omelike.  3-  Ugly.  ^l"'"- 
'"=iVonela^':;:!r'".Equi,abl=,right,  proper, 
honor  .We-  2.  True,  faithful,  ust  upright, 
Irustwortiiy.  .V  Candid,  sincere.  ^»/<...  Uls- 
hone.st,  inequitable.  n.snect 

Honor.  «.  Credit,  esteem.  2.  "esptct 
homlire  \.  Distinction,  dignity  4-  Integ- 
ri"m>1;ib-?y,probHy..^»/....  dishonor 

Honor.     V.    D  guifv,  exalt.     2.  tJoscrve, 
ce"bra?e      3-  Respect,-  reverence,  venerate. 

"''Hoi.e':'',';:    Believe,  trust,   desire,    expect. 
-'iiii.fS":;;?/.    ..  Adverse,  onnosite^con. 
trary,    repugnant.       2.    Unfriendly.       Anto., 
amic.lble.  friendly. 
3:;t!";:^    r:    i^te,^'2:  pungent,  bl.ng. 

-:^te^iic;biefi,n;:!^;,r^:^^»::-^. 

"""Hue.    n.    Tint,  tinge,  shade,  color. 
>^iiSiltyr";^Mo?sw:;neeness,,ow,i. 

"^^;.lr;!;;;;::n<(/''iJ^^y:":^ti;;;  jocular, 

jocose,  facetious.      .4»/(..,  serious. 

Surr?:    «';  "i^m^e^'dispatch,  prompti- 
tu"?  cedent".    2.    B.u.tle,  flutter,    precip.la- 

''Hvooerisy':''"«".De*«i.,  dissimulation. 
Hypocrisy,     n.      ■  .      •     ■    „      sanctimo- 


I 

Ideal,  adi.  Fancied,  unreal,  shadowy,  iui- 
"^H&sf  "^'  "^-ctivity,  inertness,  hi.i- 

j),iiorii"  Anto.,  knowledge, 

"'^^n'hrea  '    -.^"uneourtlV.     uncouth,  un- 
po"shed,  impolite,  rude,  j,^  (f  ••.|°'    -.is.     2. 

■"iuTcrious.  adj   ^^^-^lii;,^;^.  pas. 

sioXv;o;:^t:-henSi"--.  Amo., 

calm. 


r^ 


72 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


liL 


Importance,  ji.  Moment,  weight,  con- 
cern, _  significance,  consequence.  Anto., 
frivolity. 

Impression,  h.  i.  Stamp,  impress.  2. 
Idea,  notion.  3.  Effect,  sensation,  in- 
fluence. 

Improve,  v.  i.  Mend.  2.  Progress.  3. 
Rise,  increase.     Auto.,  deteriorate,  lessen. 

Imprudent,  atij.  Incautious,  indiscreet, 
injudicious,  careless,  rash.     Auto.,  cautious. 

Impure,  adj.  1.  Unclean.dirtv.  foul,  filthy. 
2.  Coarse,  gross,  immodest,  indecent,  ob- 
scene, vulvar,  lewd.     Auto.,  pure. 

Inability.  «.  i.  Incompetency,  inca- 
pacity, inefficiency,  impotence.  2. '  Disabil- 
ity, disqualification.      Auto.,  abilitv. 

Inaccurate,  adj.  Inexact,  incorrect,  erro- 
neous.   Anto.^  accurate. 

Inapt,  adj.  Unfit,  unsuitable,  inappropri- 
ate, inapposite.     Auto.,  suitable,  meet. 

Incapacity.     «.  See  Inabilitv. 

Incompatible,  adj.  Unadapted,  incon- 
gruous, inconsistent,  unsuitable.  Auto., 
cojnpatibie. 

incompetent,    adj.  i.  Unable,  incapable. 

2.  Disqualified,  incapacitated,   unfit.     3.    In- 
sufficient.    Aitlo.,  able,  fit,  sufficient. 

Inconsistent,  adj.  i.  Contrary.  See  In- 
compatibli-. 

Incontinence.  «.  Unchastity,  wanton- 
ness, lechery,  lewdness,  lasciviousness.  Anto.^ 
chastity. 

Inconvertible,  adj.  Unchangeable,  un- 
alterable, not  convertible.  Afito.,  change- 
able. 

Incorrect,  adj.  i.  Faulty.  2.  Inaccurate, 
inexact,  erroneous,  false,'  untrue.  Anto., 
correct. 

Indefinite.  adj.  Undefined,  indistinct, 
unsettled,  doubtful,  uncertain,  loose.  A/ito., 
definite. 

Independence.  ».  Libertv,  freedom, 
self- direction.     Ante,  dependence. 

Individual,  n.  Being,  person,  character. 
Auto.,  band,  community. 

Inefiectual.  adj.  i.  Feeble,  weak,  po\vcr- 
less.  2.  Inoperative,  unavailing,  useless, 
abortive.     Afito.,  effectual. 

Inequitable,  adj.  Unfair,  unjust,  dis- 
honorable.    Arito.,  equitable. 

Inexperience.  ».  Ignorance,  greenness, 
rawness.     Auto.,  experience. 

Ingenuous,  adj.  Honest,  frank,  candid, 
artless,  guileless.     Auto.,  craftv. 

Inharmony.  ».  Discord,  harshness,  dis- 
sonance, discordance.     Auto.,  concert. 

Innocent,  adj.  i.  Harmless,  innocuous.  2. 
Clean,  guiltless,  spotless,  immaculate.  Auto., 
Guilty. 

Insanity.     ».     See  Ltmacy. 

Inspire,     v.    1.  Inhale.      2.  Infuse,  instil. 

3.  Cheer,  animate,  inspirit.  Anto.,  i.  Respire. 
3.  Discourage. 

Instruction.     ».     r.  Direction,   mandate. 

2.  Discipline,   teaching,  training,   education. 

3,  Counsel,  precept. 

Insult,  n.  Aifront,  indignity,  offence, 
outrage.     Anto.,  apolog^',  favor. 

Integrity,  n.  Honestv,  honor,  rectitude, 
probity,  virtue.  2.  Completeness,  entirety. 
Anto.,  dishonesty. 

Intellect.  «.'  Mind,  sense,  brains,  reason, 
understanding.     Anto.,  body. 

Intemperance.  »,  Excess,  dissipation. 
Anto.,  temijcrancc. 

Intense,  adj.  i.  Extreme,  excessive.  2. 
Severe,  close,  strained.  3.  Ardent,  earnest. 
u4«/().,  slight,  frivolous. 

Intercede,  v.  Mediate,  plead,  arbitrate, 
interpose.     Anto.,  demand,  require. 

Intermission.  «.  Pause,  rest,  suspcn- 
sion,  slop,  interruption.    Anto.,  continuation. 

Intermit,  v.  Subside,  abate, cease.  Anto., 
continue,  persist. 

Interpose,  v.  i.  Remark.  2.  Mediate, 
ari>itrate,  intercede. 

Interpret.  7/.  Construe,  render.  2.  De- 
fine, explain,  elucidate,    decipher. 

Interrogate,  v.  Ask,  examine,  question, 
catechize.     Anto.,  answer. 

Interval.  «.  Season,  term  ipace,  spell, 
period.     Anto.,  continuation. 


Interveniing.  adj.  Interjacent,  interme- 
diate, interposed. 

Intimidate,  t.  Daunt,  frighten,  alarm, 
scare,  terrify.     Anto.,    embolden,   encourage. 

Intoxication,  n.  Drunkenness,  inebriety, 
inebriation.     Anto.,  temperance,  sobriety. 

Intrepid,  adj.  Brave,  daring,  valorous, 
bold,  dauntless.     Anto.,  cowardly. 

Intrinsic,  ad/.  1.  True,  genuine,  essential, 
real.  2.  Inherent,  inborn,  native.  Auto.  i. 
Counterfeit.     2.  Alien,  foreign. 

Introductory,  adj.  Preliminary,  prefa- 
tory. 

Intrude,  -v.  i.  Obtrude.  2.  Trespass, 
infringe,  encroach.  Anto.,  eject,  expel,  pro- 
trude. 

Intrust.  V.  Consign,  deliver,  commit, 
confide.     Anto.,  distrust. 

Invade,  -v.  i.  Assault,  attack,  assail.  2. 
Infringe.     Auto.,  repel. 

Invalid,  adj.  1.  Weak.  2.  Null,  void. 
Anto.,  valid. 

Invalid,     n.     Valetudinarian,  sick  person. 

Invective.  «.  i.  Abuse,  contumely.  2. 
Satire,  sarcasm,  lampoon.     Anto.,  panegyric. 

Invent,  v.  i.  Devise.  2.  Fabricate.  3.  Im- 
agine, originate,  concoct.  Anto.,  copy,  fol- 
low. 

Invest:  x>.  I.  Put  at  interest.  2.  Array, 
clothe,  dress. 

Investigation.  «.  Scrutiny,  examination, 
inquisition,  inquiry. 

Invigorate,  z-. 'Animate,  fortify,  strength- 
en.    Anto.,  weaken. 

Invincible,  adj.  Unconquerable.  2.  In- 
surmountable,   insuperable.     Anto.,  vincible. 

Invite,  z*.  1.  Bid,  summon, ask,  request. 
2.  Attract,  entice  allure.  Anto.y  reject, 
delay,  provoke 

Involve,  -v.  Include,  embrace.  2.  En- 
tangle, implicate.  3.  Entwine,  interweave. 
Auto.,  simplify,  anahze. 

Irksome,  adj.  Weary,  tiresome,  tedious, 
wearisome.     Au/o.,  pleasant. 

Irony,  n.  Banter,  mocker}-,  raillery,  ridi- 
cule.    Anto.,  praise. 

Irrational,  adj.  i.  Brutish.  2.  Unwise, 
silly,  unreasonable,  absurd.     Anto.,   rational. 

li-refragible.  adj.  Undeniable,  irrefut- 
able, indubitable,  incontestable,  Anto., 
dubious. 

Irritate,  t.  Fret,  nettle,  incense,  pro- 
yoke,  exasperate.     Anto.,  soothe. 

Irruption.  «.  Inroad,  foray,  raid,  in- 
cursion. 

Issue.  «.  1.  Offspring,  children,  prog- 
eny. 2.  Conclusion,  outcome,  result.  3. 
Outlet,  exit.     Anto.,  return,  inlet. 

Itinerant,  adj.  Wandering,  nomadic,  rov- 
ing, travelling.     Anto.,  homely,  settled. 


Jade*  7'.  Fatig;ne,  weary,  tire,  fag,  ex- 
haust.    Anto.,  invigorate. 

Jealousy,  n.  Suspicion,  apprehension. 
Anto.,  confidence. 

Jest.  n.  Quip,  crank,  joke,  sally,  witti- 
cism. 

Jocose,  adj.  Droll,  witty,  comical,  spor- 
tive, facetious.     Anto.,  serious. 

Jocund,  adj.  Joyful,  blithe,  jolly,  gay, 
buxom.     Anto.,  sad,  gloomy. 

Join.  zf.  I.  Combine,  unite,  couple.  2. 
Annex,  add,  attach.     ^;//o.,  separate. 

Joke.     n.     St-e  Jest. 

Jollity.  H.  Merriment,  gayety,  fun,  frolic, 
hilarity. 

Journey,  n.  Excursion,  trip,  expedition, 
travel,  tour. 

Joy.  n.  Happiness,  bliss.  2.  Delight, 
gladness,  glee,  ecstacy,  transport,  Anto., 
sorrow. 

Joyous,  adj.  Glad,  happy,  gleeful,  joyful, 
jolly.     Auto.,  sad. 

Judgment.  «.  1.  Opinion,  decision,  esti- 
mate. 2.  Sense,  discernment,  sagacity,  wis- 
dom. 

Just.  adj.  I.  Exact,  correct,  true.  2. 
Merited,  descr\'ed.  3.  Equitable.  4.  Honest, 
fair,  upright.  Auto.,  Unjust,  unfair,  fraud- 
ulent. 


Justice,  n.  i.  Right,  fairness,  equity.  2. 
Judge.     Anto.,  injustice. 

Justify.  7'.  Warrant,  defend,  exculpate, 
vindicate.     Anto.,  criminate. 

Justness,  n.  1.  Fairness,  right,  equity. 
2.  Accuracy,  propriety.  Anto.,  i.  Criminality. 
2.  Improprietv. 

Juvenile,  adj.  Childish,  puerile,  young, 
youthful.    Anto.,  manly.  , 


Keen.     adj.    i.  Shrewd,  sagacious,  astute. 

2.  Earnest,  zealous.  3.  Severe,  poignant, 
caustic.     4.  Sharp.     Auto.,  dull. 

Keep.      V.    I.   Retain.     2.  Fulfil,   observe. 

3.  Support,  maintain.  4.  Preserve,  con- 
tinue. 5.  Celebrate.  Auto.,  dispense^  dis- 
tribute. 

Kind.  adj.  Good,  clement, humane, gentle, 
sympathetic,  tender,  affectionate.  Anto., 
cruel,    unkind. 

Kingly,  adj.  Royal,  august,  imperial,  re- 
gal.     Anto.,  plebeian. 

Knon'ledge.  n.  i.  Learning,  lore, 
scholarship,  erudition.  2.  Notice.  3.  Per- 
ception, judgment.     Anto.,  ignorance. 


I^abor.      n.      i.  Toil,  \vork,   effort,   drud- 

fery.       2.    Child-birth,     parturition.       Anto. 
dleness. 

Lack.  n.  Need,  deficiency,  scarcitj',  in- 
sufficiency.   Auto.,  plenty. 

Lament,  r.  Mourn,  grieve,  weep.  Anto., 
rejoice. 

Lancinate.  v.  Sever,  mangle,  tear,  lacer- 
ati;.     Auto.,  heal,  join. 

Laud.     fi.    Soil,  ground,  earth,  real  prop 
erty. 

Landscape.  «.  Prospect,  view,  rural 
scene. 

Language,  n.  Speech,  expression,  ver- 
nacular, dialect,  tongue. 

Languish,  v.  i.  Faint,  wither,  fade, 
droop.  2.  Look  tender.  Anto.,  invigorate, 
strengthen. 

Larceny,  n.  Theft,  pilfering,  thievery, 
stealing. 

Large,  adj.  i.  Bulky,  big, great.  2.  Broad, 
extensive.      3.  Full,  abundant.    Auto.,  small. 

Lascivious,  a.  Loose,  unchaste,  lustful, 
lewd,  lecherous.     Auto.,  chaste,  pure. 

Last.  adj.  1.  Latest.  2.  Ultimate,  final. 
3.  Hindmost.     4.  Extreme.     Anto.,  first. 

Last.     adv.     The  last  time- 
Last,  z:  Remain,  continue,  endure.  Anto., 
perish,  dissolve. 

Latent,  adj.  Secret,  unseen,  veiled,  con- 
cealed.    Anto.,  patent. 

Laugb,  M.  Laughter,  cachinnation,  roar, 
guffaw.     Anto.,  sigh. 

Laugliable.  adj.  Droll,  ridiculous,  farci- 
cal, comical.     Anto.,  solemn. 

Lavish,  adj  Extravagant,  wasteful,  pro- 
fuse.    Anto.,  niggardly. 

Lavish,      f.     Dissipate,  waste,  squander. 

Law,  ft.  I.  Rule,  regulation,  statute,  enact- 
ment, ordinance.  2.  Formula.  3.  Code.  4. 
Jurisprudence.     Anto.,  lawlessness. 

Lan-ful.  adj  Legal,  legitimate,  constitu- 
tional.    Anto.,  unlawful. 

La^vJ■er.  n.  Attorney,  counsellor,  advo- 
cate, counsel. 

Lazy.  ndj.  Idle,  dronish,  sluggish,  inac- 
tive, slothful.     Anto.,  active,  nimble. 

Lead.  n.  Direction,  guidance,  leader- 
ship.    Auto.,  following. 

League.  «.  Combination,  alliance,  con - 
federacy,  union.  Anto.,  disunion,  separa- 
tion. 

Lean.  v.  Incline.  2.  Bear,  recline,  rest. 
3-  Tend.  .     . 

Leave,  n.  Allowance. permission,  license, 
liberty.     Anto.,  prohibition. 

Lecture,  n.  Lesson,  discourse,  prelec- 
tion. 

Legacy,  «.  Gift,  bequest,  devise. 

Legal,     adj.    See  Lazv/'n/. 

Legible,  adj.  Fair, readable,  plain.  Auto., 
illegible. 


kl 


n ..^ 


SYNONYMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


73 


I<ei8ure.  «.  Spare  time.  Anio.,  occupa- 
tion. 

Leng^thon.  t.  i.  Extend,  protract,  pro- 
long, fontinuc.  2.  Stretch,  clongutc.  Aftio., 
shcrten. 

Lenienry,  «.  Tcntlt-mcss,  mercy,  mild- 
ness, ckmuncv.     Anto.,  crui-lty. 

Letter,  n.  Note,  tpistle.'  i.  Alphabeti- 
cal character. 

Levity,  n.  Frivolity,  giddiness,  (light i- 
ncss,     Anto.y  sobriety. 

Liberality,  n.  i .  Bounty,  generosity, 
beneficence,  cliarity.  i.  Toleration,  candor. 
Auto.^  closeness,  meanness. 

Liberate.  7-.  Discharge,  emancipate,  re- 
lease.    Anio.y  arrest. 

Lie.  n.  Fib,  untruth,  falsehood.  Anio., 
truth. 

Lie.  V.  I.  Falsify,  z.  Recline.  3.  Rest, 
remain.  Auto.^    i.  \*erify. 

Life.  M.  I.  Vitality.  2.  Existence.  3. 
Memc»ir,  biograptiv.     Anto.,  death. 

Light,  n.  I.  Daylight,  sunrise.  2.  Illum- 
ination. 3.  Instruction.  4.  Window.  A7ito.y 
darkness. 

Light,  adj.  I.  nuoyant.  2.  Easy.  3.  Por- 
ous. 4.  Unburdened.  5.  Triflmg,  small.  6. 
Flimsy.     7.  Airy,  gay.     Atiio.,  heavy. 

Like*  adj.  Resembling,  same,  similar. 
Anto.^  unlike, 

Like.  V,  Choose,  prefer,  list,  elect.  Anto., 
dislike. 

Liking.  «.  Choice,  preference,  par- 
tiality.    Anto.,  impartiality. 

Limitetl.  adj.  Confined, bounded, restrain- 
ed, defined,  restricted, circumscribed,  Anto,, 
unlimited. 

Lineage.  ?;.  Race,  house,  family,  ances- 
try, line. 

X.ink.  V.  Conjoin,  tie,  bind,  connect, 
unite.     Anto.,  loosen, 

Liqiiiilatlon.  «.  Adjustment,  discharge, 
settlement,  payment. 

Little,  adj.  i.  Small,  diminutive,  minute, 
tinv.  2.  Scanty,  inconsiderable.  Anto.^ 
noble,  large. 

Live,  adj.  i.  Existing,  alive,  living.  2. 
Alert,  enterprising.     Anto.^  dead. 

Live,  %'.  1.  Exist.  2.  Endure,  con- 
tinue. 3.  Abide,  dwell,  reside.  4.  Subsist. 
Anto.^  die. 

Lively,  adj.  i.  Agile,  quick,  nimble.  2. 
Sprightly,  blithe,  joyous.  3.  Vigorous,  pi- 
quant, strong.  4.  Vivid.  Anto.,  slow,  slug- 
gish, languid. 

Loathsome,  adj.  Offensive,  disgusting, 
appalling,  revolting.  Ante,  delectable,  pleas- 
ant. 

Lofty.  I.  High.  2.  Dignified,  sublime. 
3.  Haughty,  proud,  arrogant,  Anto. ^  humble, 
modest. 

Lonely,  adj.  \.  Companionless,  lone, 
solitary.  2.  Secluded,  lonesome,  isolated. 
Anto.,  crowded. 

Loosen,  v.  i.  Relax.  2.  Loose,  release. 
Anto.,  tighten,  tic,  bind. 

Lordly,  adj.  Dignified,  majestic,  lofty- 
2.  Proud,  haughty.  Anto.^  meek,  lowly> 
humble. 

Lose.  V.  I.  Miss,  forfeit.  2.  Waste, squan- 
der.    Anio.f  I.  Find.     2.  Gain,  earn. 

Loss.  «.  Deprivation,  privation,  for- 
feiture, waste,  damage,  detriment,  destruction. 
yl«/(7.,gain,  profit. 

Love.    V.    Like.    Anto., h:ite. 

Love.  w.  Affection,  attachment,  fond- 
ness, liking.     Anto.,  hate. 

Low,  adj.  1.  Depressed,  2.  Mean,  ab- 
ject, disreputable.  3.  Cheap.  Anto.,  i.  High. 
2.  Proud,  worthy.     3.  Dear. 

Loyal,  adj.  Faithful,  true.  Anto.,  dis- 
loyal, traitorous. 

Lucid,  adj.  1.  Clear,  transparent,  pel- 
lucid, distinct,  plain,  bright,  shining.  Anto., 
ambiguous,  opaque,  sombre. 

Luck.    «.    Chance,  hap,  fortune,  fate. 

Lunacy.  «.  Derangement,  madness,  in- 
sanity, craziness.    Anto.,  sanity. 

Luxuriate,  v.  i.  Revel,  wanton.  2.  Flour- 
ish.   Anto.,    I.  Chasten.    2.  Wither. 


M 

Maceration,  n.  Soaking,  softening, 
sti  :ping.     Anto.,  drying. 

Macliin:ition,  «.  Plot,  stratagem,  in- 
trigue, conspiracy.    Ante.,  artlessness. 

Mud.  adj.  1,  Crazy,  delirious,  insane. 
2.  Enraged,  frantic,  violent.  Anto.,  1.  Sane. 
2.   I'acihed. 

31agic,  n.  Enchantment,  sorcery,  necro- 
mancy. 

Magnanimous,   ad/.      .SW  Noble,  Lofty. 

Magiiiticeiicc.  ;/.  (irandeur,  splendor, 
eclat.    Anto.,  squalor,  poverty, 

31ain.  udj.  Principal,  leading,  chief. 
Anto.,  subordinate,  secondary. 

Majority,  n.  1.  Manhood,  full  age.  2. 
Greater  number.     Anto.,  minority. 

Malefactor,  n.  Culprit,  criminal,  felon, 
convict. 

Malice,  n.  Spite,  rancor,  hate,  venom, 
malignity,  Anto.,\o\^,  benevolence,  benig- 
nity. 

Mammoth,  adj.     SeeLar^e. 

Manly,  adj.  Manful,  brave,  stout,  strong, 
bold,  nol)le,  heroic.     Anto.,  effeminate. 

3Ianife8t.  adj.  Clear,  apparent,  patient, 
obvious,  plain,  glaring.  Anto.,  hidden,  ob- 
scure, occult. 

Manners.  «.  Breeding,  behavior,  de- 
portment, habits,  morals.  Anto.,  misbe- 
havior, vulgarism. 

Marry,  v.  Espouse,  wed,  take  for  hus- 
band or  wife.    Anto.,  divorce. 

3Iask.  V.  Disguise,  slnoud,  screen,  veil, 
hide,  cliak.     Anto.,  display. 

Matchless,  rtt//.  Excellent,  inimitable,  un- 
rivaled, peerless,  incomparable.  ^;//y., com- 
mon, ordinary 

Matrimony.  n.  Wedlock,  marriage, 
nuptial  state.  .4«/tf.,  spinsterhood,  bachelor- 
hood. 

Mean,  7'.  1.  Purpose,  intend,  design.  2. 
Denote,  imply,  signify. 

Mean.  adj.  1.  Average,  middle,  medium. 
2.  Miserly,  stingy,  base,  surly,  grumbling, 
poor,  petty,  wretched.  Anto.,  1.  Extreme.  2. 
Noble,  lofty. 

Meek.  adj.  Modest,  humble,  mild,  gentle, 
submissive.    Anto.,  bold. 

Meekness.  «.  Modesty,  humility,  gentle- 
ness, mildness,  submissivcness.  Anto., 
boldness,  hardihood. 

Melancholy,  n.  Depression,  gloom,  sad- 
ness, dejection,  despondency.  Anto.,  joy, 
buoyancy. 

Memory.  «.  i.  Remembrance,  recol- 
lection. 2.  Reputation,  renown,  fame.  Anto., 
forgetfulness,  oblivion. 

Mental,  adj.  Ideal,  rational,  intellect- 
ual, metaphysical.     Anto.,  physical. 

Mercy,  «.  Mildness,  compassion,  clem- 
ency, lenity.  Anto.,  harshness,  implaca- 
bility. 

Meritorious,  adj.  Good,  worthy,  deserv- 
ing, excellent.    Anto.,   unworthy. 

Slerry.  adj.  Gay,  gleeful,  mirthful, 
joyful,  hilarious.  Anto.,  sad,  sorrowful. 

Mighty,  mi/.  1.  Able,  strong,  puissant, 
2.  Effective,  forcible.  3.  Immense,  vast, 
stupendous.     Anto.,  feeble,  small. 

Mind.  n.  i.  Reason,  intellect,  under- 
standing.    2.  Inclination,  desire. 

Minority,  u.  1.  Nonage,  infancy,  pupil- 
age, childhood.  2.  Smaller  number.  Anto., 
majority. 

Misadventure.  «.  Misfortune,  mishap, 
reverse,  mischance.     Anto.,  adventure. 

Mischief,  n.  1.  Trouble.  2.  Detriment, 
harm,  Iiurt,  evil,  injury.  Anto.,  benefit,  ad- 
vantage, utility. 

Miserable,  adj.  i.  Depressed,  unhappy, 
affected,  forlorn.  2.  Abject,  mean,  value- 
less. Anto.,  happy,  lucky,  lofty. 

Moderate,  adj.  1.  Mild,  judicious, rea- 
sonable. 2.  Frugal,  sparing.  Anto.,  im- 
moderate, extravagrant. 

Modern,  adj.  Late,  new,  novel,  recent. 
Anto.,  ancient,  old. 

Modest,  adj.  i.  Humble,  unpretend- 
ing. 2.  Moderate.  3.  Chaste,  pure.  Anto,, 
bold,  lofty,  immodest. 


Morality,  rt.  i.  Goodness,  virtue.  2. 
Ethics,  Tiu}rals.     Auto.,  immorality. 

Morbi«l.  adj.  Unsound,  j-ickly,  unhealthy, 
vitiated       Anto.,  sf>und,  healthv.' 

Mornuig.  n.  Daybreak,  dawn,  forenoon. 
Anto..  evening. 

Mortal,  od/.  Deadly,  fatal.  2.  Human, 
Anto.,  immortal. 

Mortal.  Jt.  Human,  man.  Anto.,  immor- 
t.il. 

Mundane,  adj.  Worldly,  earthly,  ter- 
restrial.    Anto.,  heavenly. 

Murmur,  n.  i.  Whisper,  muttering.  2. 
complaint.  Anto.  i.  Shout,  j.  Commen- 
dation. 

Muse.  7'.  Think,  contemplate,  reflect, 
ponder,  meditate,  brood. 

Music.  «  Harmony,  symphony,  melody, 
science  of  harmonics, 

Mutual,  adj.  Interchangeil,  reciprocal, 
correlative.     Auto  ,  sole,  solitary. 

Mystify,  v.  Puzzle,  perplex,  baffle,  be- 
wilder, pose.     Anto.,  clear,  explain. 

N 

Naked,  adj.  1.  Nude,  bare,  imdrcssed. 
2.  Defenceless^,  unjirotecied.  3.  Sheer,  sim- 
|)le.     Anto.,  clad,  covered. 

Natural.  1.  Regular  normal.  2.  Native, 
liriginal,  characteristic.     Anto.,  unnatural. 

Near,  iidj  Clo^^e  nigh,  adjacent  2. 
Familiar,  allied,  intimate.  3.  Impending, 
imminent.    Anto.,  far. 

Nerve.  t.  Brace,  fortify,  strengthen, 
invigorate.    Anto.,  weaken, 

Never,  adv.  Not  e\'er.  >^;//<j.,  ever,  alwavp. 

New.  adj  Fresh,  novel,  2.  Modern, 
recent.     Anto..  old,  ancient. 

Nice,  adj.  1.  Precise,  exact,  critical.  2. 
Subtle,  fine.  3,  Delicate,  dainiy,  delicious, 
Anto.,  1.  Cart-less.  2    Coarse    3    Unpleasant. 

Niggardly,  ad/  Mean,  mercenary,  stingv, 
miserly,  illiberal,  avarieious.  yl«/(>., gener- 
ous, open. 

Nimhle.  ad/.  Quick,  agile,  alert,  spright- 
ly. Anto.,sUn\f^  lazy. 

"Noble,  odj.  I.  Dignified. worthy, superior, 
exalted.  3.  Grand,  magii  ficent.  Anto.,  ig- 
noble. 

Noise,  M.  Sound,  din,  clatter,  uproar, 
clamor.     Anto.,  silence. 

Nominate,    a    Name,  propose, designate. 

Note.  «.  I.  Minute,  memorandum.  2.  Com- 
ment, remark.  3.  Celebrity,  renown.  4.  Bill, 
jiromissory  note. 

Note,  V.  1.  Record.  2.  Notice,  obser\e, 
heed.    3.  Denote,  designate. 

Noted,     adj.     Stt'  lllwitrioHS, 

Notion,    w.     See  Id»a. 

Notorious,  adj.  i.  Conspicuous.  2.  Open, 
obvious,  well-known.  Anto.,  unknown. 

Novel,     adj.     See  AViy. 

Novel,     n.    Tale,  story,   romance,   fiction. 

Noxious,  adj.  Haniiful,  hurtful,  dele- 
lerious,  baleful,  deadly.     Anto.,    wholesome. 

Number.  ;/.  1.  Numeral,  figure,  digit. 
2.  Multitude,  many. 

Nuptials.  K.  \Vedding,  marriage.  Anto., 
divorce. 

Nurture,  h.  Discipline,  training,  breed- 
ing, schooling,  education. 

Nutriment,  w.  Food,  diet,  provision, 
sustenance,  nutrition,  nourishment.  An/o., 
poi'^on. 

Nutritious,    adj.  Sustaining. 

Nourishing:,  ad;.  \\'holesome,  strengthen- 
ing.   Anto.,    noxious. 


Obdurate,  adj.  Obstinate,  stubborn,  cal- 
lous, unfeeling.    Anto.,  llexible. 

0!>3eet.  «.  End,  purpose,  aim,  design.  2. 
Mark.     Anto.,  subject. 

Oblige,  I.  Please,  favor,  accommodate, 
serve.  2.  Obligate.  3.  Compel,  coerce.  ^«/t)., 
disoblige. 

Oblivion,  ft.  Forgetfulness,  amnesty. 
Anto.,  remembr.ance. 

Obscure,  adj.  Dark,  dim,  vague,  indis- 
tinct. 2.  Humble,  unknown.  Anto.,  i.  Light, 
plain,  clear,    2.  Noted. 


kl 


\ 


74 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


y] 


Obscnre.  t.  Cloud, darken, shade, eclipse. 
.^«/(i., clear,  illuminiittr. 

Obsequies,     w.     Funeral  rites,  exequies. 

Obsolete,  adj.  Disused,  antiquated, 
neglected.     Aiito.^  new,  fashionable. 

Obvious,  oiij.  Plain,  clear,  manifest, 
visible,  apparent.     Auto.,  hidden. 

Occasional,  adj.  Casual,  irregular,  inci- 
dental.     Auto.,  regular. 

Occupation,  n.  i.  Calling,  business, 
pursuit,  profession.  2.  Use,  possession.  Attto.t 

1.  Idleness.     2.  Forfeiture. 

Occupy,  -v.  Hold,  possess,  use.  Anto.y 
vacate. 

Occurrence,  ft.  Adventure,  incident,  con- 
tintjencv. 

Otlor.     H.     Scent,  perfume,  fragrance. 

Offend.  V.  Displease,  annoy,  vex.  Anio.f 
please. 

Offence,  ji.  Crime,  indignity,  injury,  in- 
sult, misdeed,  transgression,  trespass,  out- 
rage.    Atito.,  favor,  obligation. 

Offensive,  ad/.  Abusive,  impertinent,  in- 
lurious,  insulting,  insolent,  obnoxious,  oppro- 
Drious,  rude,  scurrilous.      Anio.,  pleasant. 

Offering;,  m.  i.  Oblation,  presentation, 
gift.     2.  Sacrifice. 

Office.   «.    I.  Charge,  trust,  duty,  service. 

2.  Situation,  bertli,  station. 

Oiticious.  adj.  Active,  busv,  forward,  in- 
trusive, obtrusive.     A/ito.,  modest. 

Offspring.  «.  Children,  issue,  descend- 
ants, posterity.      Auto.^  ancestry. 

Only.  adj.  Alone,  adv.  Uarely,  merely, 
simply,  jiingly,  solely. 

Opaque,  adj.  i.  Dark,  obscure.  2.  Not 
transparent,  irapcr\'ious  to  light.  Anio.f 
transparent. 

Open.  a.  i.  Unclosed,  extended.  2.  Clear, 
public.  3-  Fair,  candid,  inreserved.  4. 
Liberal.     5.  Unsettled.     Auto.,  closed. 

Opening.  «.  Apcrture,cavity,  hole,  fissure. 
Anto.,  solid. 

Operation.  «.  Action,  agency,  surgical 
act,  process. 

Opinio II.  n.  Notion,  view,  judgment, 
belief.     2.   Estimate. 

Opinionated.  adj\  Conceited,  egotistical, 
obstinate      Anto.,  modest. 

Opponent,  n.  Adversary,  antagonist, 
enemy,  foe.     Antn.,  friend,  ally. 

Opposite,  adj.  Adverse,  contrary',  inimi- 
cal, repugnant.    Anto,,  alike,  congenTal. 

Oppro)>rious.  adj'.  Abusive,  insulting,  in- 
solent, offensive,  scurrilous,  Anio.,  eulogis- 
tic. 

Opprobrium,  n.  Disgrace,  ignominy, 
infamy.     Anto.,  eminence. 

Option.     «.     Choice,  election. 

Oration.  «.  Address,  speech,  discourse, 
harangue. 

Ordain,  v.  Appoint,  order,  prescribe, 
invest. 

Order.  «.  i.  Class,  degree,  fraternity, 
method,  rank,  series,  succession,  2.  Com- 
mand, injunction,  mandate,  precept.  Anto.y 
disorder. 

Orderly,  ad;',  i.  Methodical,  systematic, 
regular,  quiet.  2.  h.  Soldier,  ^w/o.,  irregu- 
lar. 

Ordinary,  adj'.  i.  Usual,  common,  habit- 
ual. 2.  Homely,  plain,  ugly.  3,  Inferior, 
vulgar.     Anto.,  extraordinary. 

Origin.  «.  i.  Cause,  occasion,  2,  Spring, 
luginning,  source.     Anto.,  end. 

Orifoual.  ad/'.  First,  primarj-,  primitive, 
pri^tine.     Anto.,  copied. 

Ornament,  r.  Adorn, embellish,  beauti- 
fy, decorate.     Anio.,     spoil,    wreck,   destroy. 

Ornate,  adj.  Adorned,  bedecked,  dec(^)rat- 
cd,  embellished,  garnished.  Anto..  unadorn- 
ed, 

Ostenoible.  ad/.  Colorable,  feasible,  pro- 
fessed, plausible,  specious,  ajiparent,  de- 
clared, manifest.     Anio.,  real. 

Ostentation,  rt.  Show,  display,  flourish, 
pomposity.     Auto.,  plainness. 

Outlive.     V.     See  Survive, 

Outrage,  v.  Abuse,  maltreat,  offend,  in- 
sult, shock.     Anto.,  honor,  praise. 

Ontrnpe.  «.  Affront,  offence,  abuse,  in- 
dignity, insult.    Anto.,  favor,  obligation. 


OutTvard.  aii/.  Extraneous,  exterior,  ex- 
ternal, extrinsic,  outer.     Ante,  inward. 

Oval.     adj'.     Egg-shaped,  elliptical. 

Overbearing,  adj.  Haughty,  arrogant, 
lordly,  imperious,  domineering,  dictatorial. 
Auto.,  gentle. 

Overcome,  v.  Conquer,  subdue,  sur- 
mount, vanquish.     Anto.,  surrender. 

Overflow.  7'.  1.  F"Iow,  deluge,  inundate. 
2.  Overrun,  overspread. 

Oversight,  n.  1.  Blunder,  mistake,  er- 
ror, inadvertency.  2.  Management,  super- 
vision, control.     Anio.,  correction. 

Overthrow.  7'.  i.  Defeat,  overcome, 
conquer,  vanquish.  2.  Upset,  overturn,  sub- 
vert. 3.  Ruin,  molest.  Anto.,  surrender,  yield. 

OverAvhelni.  t.  i.  Overflow.  2,  Defeat, 
conquer,  vanquish,  subdue. 

Owner,    n.    Holder,  possessor,  proprietor. 


Pacify.  V.  i.  Appease,  conciliate.  2. 
Calm,  still,  compose,  tranquilize,  quiet, quell. 
Anto.,  excite. 

Pain.  n.  1.  Ache,  distress,  suffering, 
pang,  angiiish,  agony.  2.  Penalty.  3.  Un- 
easiness, sorrow,  grier,  woe.   Anto.,  pleasure. 

Paint.  7'.  1,  Depict,  delineate,  portray, 
pencil,  sketch.     2.  Color.     3.  Represent. 

Pair.     n.     Brace,  couple.     j4«^(7.,  single. 

Pale.  adj'.  1.  Colorless,  wan,  whitish, 
ashy,  pallid.     2,  Dim,  sombre.     Anto.,  florid. 

Palliate*  v.  Cover,  extenuate,  gloss, 
varnish.    Anto.,  accuse,  charge. 

Palpable,  adj'.  Obvious,  evident,  mani- 
fest, plain,  glaring.  2.  Tangible.  --l«/(7.,  occult. 

Palpitate,  v.  Pulsate,  throb,  flutter,  go 
pit-a-pat.     Anto.,  quiet. 

Paltry,  adj'.  i.  Little,  small, unimportant, 
petty,  miserable,  trivial.  2.  Abject,  base, 
mean,  jiitiful,  contemptible.  Anio.,  wojrthy, 
great,  noble. 

Panegyric,  n.  Encomium,  praise,  eulogi,-. 
Anto.,  condemnation. 

Pang.     n.     See  Pain. 

Parasite,  n.  Flatterer,  sycophant,  han- 
ger-on. 

Pardon,  n.  Grace,  forgiveness,  remis- 
sion, absolution,  mercy,  amnesty.  Anto.,  im- 
placability. 

Parentage.  «.  Birth,  lineage,  pedigree, 
stock. 

Parody,  n.  Burlesque,  travesty,  carica- 
ture. 

Parsimonious,  adj.  Close,  mean,  stin- 
gy-, miserly,  penurious,  covetous,  sordid. 
Anto.,  generous. 

Partial,  adj.  i.  Incomplete,  imperfect. 
2.  Unfair,  warped,  biased,  prejudiced,  un- 
just.    Anto.,  complete, 

Pai"t.  «.  I.  Piece,  portion,  fraction.  2. 
Element,  ingredient.  3.  Lot.  4.  Charge, 
function. 

Particle,  tt.  Grain,  jot,  tittle,  iota,  bit, 
atom,  molecule.     Anio.,  mass. 

Particular,  adj.  Appropriate,  circum- 
stantial, distinct,  exact, exclusive,  nice,  pecu- 
liar, punctual,  specific.  Anio.,  careless,  in- 
appropriate. 

Particularly,  ad^.  Chiefly,  distinct! v, 
especially,  specifically,  principally.  Anto., 
generally. 

Partisan.  «.  Supporter,  adherent,  fol- 
lower, disciple,  champton,  votary.  Anto.,  op- 
ponent. 

Partly,     adv.     In  part.     Anto.,  wholly. 

Partner.  «.  1.  Colleague,  associate, 
sharer,  participator,  partaker.  2.  Member  or 
a  firm. 

Passion,  w.  1.  Ardor,  emotion,  fervor. 
Jical.  2.  Love,  affection,  fondness,  attach- 
ment, devotion.  3.  Anger,  wrath,  furv*.  4. 
Patlios.      Anio.,  quietude,  placidity,  languor. 

Passive,  adj.  Cairn,  patient;  resigned, 
submissive,  unresisting.     Anto.,  rebellious. 

Patent,  adj.  Open,  plain,  apparent,  ob- 
vious,    Anio., latent. 

Pathetic.  adj.  Touching,  affecting, 
moving,  tender,  melting,  plaintive.  Anto., 
ludicrous. 

Patience.  «.  Resignation,  endurance, 
fortitude,  sufferance.    Anto.,  impatience. 


Patient,  aip'.  Composed,  calm,  enduring, 
passive,     n.     An  invalid.     Anto.,  fretful. 

Patrician.  n.  Nobleman,  aristocrat. 
Anto.,  plebeian. 

Patronize,  -v.  Aid,  favor,  support,  help, 
befriend.     Anto.,  abuse,  condemn. 

Pause.  V.  I.  Stop,  cease,  desist,  delay, 
rest,  stay.  2.  Waver,  hesitate.  Anto.,  con- 
tinue. 

Pay.  n.  Compensation,  reward,  requital, 
wages,  salary-,  hire. 

Peaceable,  adj.  Calm,  gentle,  pacific, 
mild,  quiet,  serene,  tranquil,  undisturbed. 
Anto.,  turbulent. 

Peaceful,  adj.  i.  Still,  quiet,  undisturb- 
ed, calm,  placid,  tranquil,  serene.  2,  Mild, 
friendly.     Anto.,  disturbed. 

Peculiar,  adj.  Particular,  singular,  spe- 
cial, characteristic,  rare,  exceptional. 

Peevish,  adj.  Captious,  cross,  fretful, 
irritable,  petulant.     Anto.,  patient. 

Penalty.  «.  Chastisement,  fine,  forfeiture, 
mulct,  punishment.     Anto.,  reward. 

Penetrating,      adj.      Discerning,   intelli- 

fent,  sagacious,  acute,  keen,  shrewd.  Auto., 
ull. 

Penitence.  «.  Compunction,  remorse, 
contrition,  repentance,     Anto.,  impenitence. 

Penniless,  adj.  Poor,  destitute,  needy, 
indigent,  reduced,  pinched,  distressed.  Anio., 
rich,  moneyed. 

Penurious,  adj.  Beggarly,  miserly,  nig- 
gardly, parsimonious,  sparing'.  Anto.,  gener- 
ous. 

Penury.  «.  Indigence,  need,  poverty, 
want.     Anto.,  affluence. 

Perceive,  v.  i.  Notice,  see,  discover, 
discern.  z.  Feel.  3.  Understand,  know. 
Anto.,  miss. 

Perception,  n.  Conception,  sensation, 
idea,  notion,  sentiment. 

Peremptory,  adj.  Absolute,  arbitrary, 
despotic,  dogmatical,  positive.  Anto.,  vacil- 
lating. 

Perfect.  ad/,  t.  Finished,  complete, 
elaborate,  2.  Blameless,  pure,  holy.  Anio., 
imperfect. 

Perfidious,  adj.  Faithless,  treacherous. 
Anto.,  faithful. 

Perforate,     v.      Bore, 


An/o.,pl\.ig,  fill, 
'foi 


pierce,   penetrate. 


Perform.  7-.  Accomplish,  achieve,  ef- 
fect, execute,  fulfil,  produce.     Anto.,  fail. 

Perfume.  «.  Aroma,  fragrance,  balmi- 
ncss,  incense.     Anto.,  stench. 

Peril,  u.  Venture,  risk,  danger,  hazard, 
jeopardy.     Anto.,  safety. 

Period,     n.    Circuit,  date,  age,  epoch,  era. 

Perjure,     v.     See  For.'^vjear. 

Permanent,  adj.  Fixed,  abiding,  last- 
ing, stable,  enduring,  steadfast,  immutable. 
Anio,,  unstable. 

Permit,  v.  Allow,  suffer,  consent,  ad- 
mit, toler.ite,  yield.     Anto,,  refuse. 

Pernicious,  adj.  Destructive,  hurtful, 
mischievous,  noisome,  noxious.  Anto., 
healthful. 

Perpetual,  adj.  Continuous,  constant, 
incessant,  unceasing,  uninterrupted.  Anto., 
transient. 

Perplex.  7'.  1.  Pu7,zle,  embarrass,  be- 
wilder, confound.  2.  Involve,  entangle,  com- 
plicate.    Anto.,  explain. 

Persevere,  z'.  Continue,  insist,  persist, 
prosecute,  pursue.     Anto.,  unstable. 

Perspicuity.  «,  Transparency,  clear- 
ness, translucency.     Anto.,  obscurity. 

Persuade,  v'.  i.  Convince.  2.  Influence, 
induce,  lead,  incite,  impel.     Anto.,   dissuade. 

Pertinent,  adj.  Apposite,  appropriate. 
Anto.,  improper. 

Perverse,  adj.  Cross,  crooked,  forward, 
stubborn,  iintractable.     Anto.,  yielding. 

Pestilential,  adj.  Contagious,  epidem- 
ical, infectious,  mischievous.  Anto.,  whole- 
some. 

Petition.  «.  Application,  appeal,  prayer, 
suit,  entreaty,  supplication. 

Picture.  «.  Eftigy,  likeness,  representa- 
tion. 

Pious.  adj.  Relieioiis,  devout,  holy, 
saintly,  godly.    Anto.,  impious. 


jy 


'? .^ 


Pique.  «.  Offence,  resentment,  umbrage, 
grudge,     Anlo.y  plcjisurc,  friencUiiicss. 

Pique.  V,  i.  Urge,  spur,  incite,  instigate. 
2.  Displease,  offend,  irritate,  nettle,  ex;isper- 
ate.     Atilo.,  please. 

Fitil^'MS.  atij.  Unmerciful,  relentless, 
ruthless,  cruel,  unfeeling,  inexorable.  A»/o., 
merciful. 

Pity,  ft.  Sympathy,  compassion,  fellow- 
feeling.     Anto'.,  cruelty. 

Place,  I.  «.  Cirou'nd,  post, position, seat, 
site,  situation,  space,  i.  adj.  Dispose,  lay, 
order,  put,  set.     A/i/o.^   2.  Displace. 

Plariil.     tuf/.     6V^  Peaceful. 

Plague.  I'.  Tease,  vex,  trouble,  fret, 
bother.     A»io.,  please. 

I'lensniit.  aJj'.  i.  Agreeable,  pleasing, 
delightful.  2.  \\  itty,  sportive,  amusing.  3. 
Cheerful,  lively,  vivacious.  Anio.,  disagree- 
able. 

Please,  v.  Delight,  gratify,  humor,  sat- 
isfy.    Auio.,  displease. 

Pleasure.  «.  i.  Comfort,  eniovment, 
gralitication,  joy,  2.  Luxury,  volupluous- 
riess.  3.  Choice,  will,  preference.  Anto.t 
pain. 

Plebeian,  adj.  Mean,  base,  vulgar,  ig- 
nohle.     Auto,,  patrician. 

Pleclffe.  «.  Deposit,  earnest,  hostage, 
security,  pawn. 

Plentiful,  adi.  Abundant,  ample,  copi- 
ous, exuberant,  jilenteous.     Anto.,  scarcity. 

Pliable,  adj.  t.  Limber,  riexible,  sujiple, 
lithe,  z.  Compliant,  tractable.  Anto..  inflex- 
ible. 

Pliant,  adj.  Rending,  flexible,  pliable, 
lilhej  limber,  supple,  yieloing.     Aftto,,  stiff. 

Plight.  V.  C;Lse,  condition,  predicament, 
situation,  state. 

Plot.  V.  Scheme,  concoct,  project,  devise, 
brew,  hatch. 

Plurk.  «.  Resolution,  courage,  spirit, 
mettle,  nerve,  fortitude.     Anto.,  cowardice. 

I'<»lishe<l.  adj.  1.  Refined,  accomplished, 
polite,  cultivated,  elegant.  2.  Burnished.  3. 
Attic,  classic.     Auio.,  r<uigh,  coarse. 

Polite,  adj.  Refined,  accomplished,  gen- 
teel, courteous,  courtly,  polished,  urbane. 
Anto.,  impolite. 

Politeness,  n.  Affability,  civility,  cour- 
teousness,  courtesy,  good  manners.  Anto.y 
inipolitcncss. 

Politic,  adj.  Artful,  civil,  cunning,  pru- 
dent.    Anio.,  impolitic. 

Pollute.  «.  Contaminate,  corrupt,  defile, 
infect,  vitiate.     Anto.,  purifv. 

Pomp.  n.  Display,  parade,  show,  pa- 
geantrj',  state,  ostentation. 

Pompous,  adj.  Dignified,  lofty,  magis- 
terial, magnificent,  stately,  showy,  ostenta- 
tious.    Atiio.,  modest. 

Ponder.  z-.  Consider,  muse,  reflect, 
think. 

I'ortion.  «.  Division,  dower,  fortune, 
part,  quantity,  share,     Anto.,  whole. 

Position,  n.  Place,  post,  situation,  sta- 
tion. 

Po.sitive,  adj.  Certain,  confident,  dog- 
matical, real.     Anto.,  doubtful. 

Possess.  V.  Have,  hold,  occupy.  Anto., 
dispossess,  distrain. 

Posterior.  «<//.  1.  Hind,  rear,  bark.  2. 
Following,  succeeding,  subs.equent,  ensuing. 
Anto.,  anterior. 

PfKHtpoue.  V.  Adjourn,  defer,  delay,  pro- 
crastinate.    Anto.,  expedite. 

Posture.  «.  Action,  attitude,  gesture, 
position. 

Potent,  adj.  Strong,  influential,  cogent, 
powerful,  mighty,  jjuissant.    Anto.,  weak. 

Poverty.  «.  Indigence,  need,  penurv, 
want.     -4«/().,  wealth. 

Powerful,  odf.  Mightv,  influential,  po- 
tent, strong,  vigorous.     Anto.,  weak. 

l*rarticable.  ndj.  Feasible,  possible, 
practical.     Anto.,  ii:ii)racticable. 

Pr.ictiee.  «.  Custom,  habit,  manner,  use. 
Anto.,  prodig)'. 

Praise,  «.  i.  AVorship,  homage.  2.  Ap- 
proval, commendation,  liiudation,  applause, 
encomium,  3.  Kulogy,  panegyric.  Anto., 
blame. 


Praise,  v.  i.  Exalt,  glorify.  2.  Approve, 
applaud,  commend.  3.  Eulogize,  extol.  Anto., 

censure. 

Prayer.  «.  Entreat^',  petition,  suit,  re- 
quest, supplication.     Anto.^  anathema. 

Precarious,  adj.  Doubtful,  equivocal, 
dubious,  uncertain.     Anto.,  certain. 

Precedence,  «.  Pre-eminence,  prefer- 
ence, priority.     Anto.,  subsequence. 

Precedent,  i.  «.  Example.  2.  Adj. 
Former,  antecedent.     Anto.,  j.  Subsequent. 

Preceding-,  adj.  Antecedent,  anterior, 
foregoing,  former,  previous,  prior.  Anto., 
following. 

Precept.  «.  Doctrine,  law,  rule,  injunc- 
tion, mandate,  maxim,  principle. 

Precious,  adj.  Costly,  uncommon,  val- 
uable.    Anto.,  common. 

Precise,  aii/.  i.  Accurate,  correct,  exact. 
2.  Nice.     3.  Stifi,  strict.     Anto.,  not  exact. 

Preclude,  v.  Hinder,  obviate,  prevent. 
Anto.,  assist. 

Preconcerted,  adj.  Premeditated,  pre- 
determined, considered  beforehand.  Anto., 
unconsidered. 

Precursor.  «.  Forenmner,  harbinger, 
messenger,     Anto.,  follower,  disciple. 

Pretficament.  ;/.  i.  Condition,  plight, 
situation.     2.  Class,  state. 

Predict,  v.  Foretell,  prophesy,  prognos- 
ticate. 

Predominate,  adj.  Overruling,  supreme, 
prevalent,  prevailing. 

Preface.  «.  Introduction,  prelude,  proem. 
Anto.,  conclusion,  peroration. 

Prefer,  t.  Aavance,  choose,  forward, 
encourage,  promote.     2.  Offer,  present. 

Preference.  «.  Choice,  precedence, 
priority. 

Preferment.  «.  Advancement,  prefer- 
ence, promotion.     Anto.,  abasement. 

Prejudice.  ;/.  1.  Bias,  detriment,  disad- 
vantage,hurt,injury.  2.  Prcp^i^jsession.  Anto., 
justice. 

Preliminary,  ad/.  1.  Antecedent,  intro- 
ductory, preparatory,  previous.  2.  A  first 
step. 

Prepare,  v.  Equip,  make  ready,  fit, 
qualify.    Anto.,  retard. 

Preponderate,  v.  i.  Outweigh,  over- 
balance.    2.  l*revail. 

Proficiency,  w.  Advancement,  progress, 
improvement.     Anto.,  deticientv. 

l*rofit.  ;/.  Advantage,  benefit,  emolument, 
gain.     Anto.,  loss. 

Profligate,     adj.     Si-t  Ahandoned. 

Profuse,  adj.  Extravagant,  lavish,  prod- 
igal.    Anto.,  niggardly. 

Progeny,    n.    Issiie,  offspring,  race. 

Progress,  n.  Advancement,  gradation, 
motion,  proficiency.     Anto.,  retrogression. 

Project,     w.     Design,  plan,  scheme. 

Prolific,  adj.  Fertile,  fruitful,  produc- 
tive.    Anto.,  barren,  sterile. 

Prolix,  adj.  Diffuse,  long,  tedious.  Anto., 
brief,  lac<mic. 

Prolong.  V,  Belay,  extend,  postpone, 
procrastinate, protract, retard.  Anto.,^\\nxWx\. 

Prominent,  adj.  Conspicuous,  protuber- 
ant, eminent,  projecting.  Anto.^  unnotice- 
able. 

Promiscuous,  adj.  Mingled^  indiscrim- 
inate, common,  confused.     Anto.,  select. 

I*rotiiise,  «.  Word,  assurance,  engage- 
ment, pledge. 

l*romote.  v.  Advance,  encourage,  for- 
ward, prefer.     Anto.,  discournge. 

Prompt,  adj.  i.  Early,  punctual,  timely. 
2.  Apt,  ready,  quick.  Anto.,  \inready^dilati*ry. 

Pr<»iiouuce.  v.  Aflinn, articulate, declare, 
speak,  utter. 

l*roof.  n.  I.  Argument.  2.  Demonstra- 
tion, e\  idence,  testimony. 

Propagate,  v.  Circulate,  diffuse,  dis- 
seminate, increase,  multiply.  ./l«/u.,  diminish, 
prune. 

Propensity.  «.  Inclination,  proncness, 
bias,  tendency. 

Proper,  adj.  i.  Fitting,  appropriate, 
suitable,  becoming,  seemly,  right.  2.  l*;irtic- 
ular,  specific,  not  common.     Anto.,  wrong. 

Propitiate,  t.  Appease,  reconcile,  atone, 
conciliate.     Anto.,  provoke. 


Propitious,      adj.     i.  Auspicious,  favor- 
able.    2.  Kind,  merciful,    .^rt/o.,  unfavorable. 
Proportion,      n.      Form,    rate,    relation, 

ratio,  size,  symmetry. 

Proportionate,  adj.  Adequate,  equal, 
commensurate.     Anto.,  unequal. 

Propose.  2'.  Bid,  intend,  offer,  purpose, 
tender. 

Prosecute,  v.  i.  Arraign,  accuse.  2. 
Continue,  pursue.     Anto.,  exculpate,  pardon. 

Pr*»spect.     n.     Landscape,  survey,  view. 

Prospective,  adj.  Foreseeing,  forward, 
future. 

Prosperity,  n.  Welfare,  success,  thrift, 
luck,  happiness.     Anio.,  loss, poverty. 

Prosperous,  adj.  Flourishing,  fortunate, 
lucky,  successful.     Anio.,  unsuccessful. 

Protect.  7>.  Cherish,  defend,  foster, 
guard,  patronize,  shelter,  shield.  Auto., 
abandon. 

Protract,  v.  Defer,  delay,  postpone, 
prolong,  rel.ird.     Anto.,  contract. 

Protracted,  adj.  Continued,  extended, 
prolonged,  drawn  out.     Auto.,  shortened. 

Proud,  adj.  Arrogant,  assuming,  con- 
ceited, haughty,  vain.     .Anto..  unassuming. 

I*rfiverb.  ;/.  Adage,  aphorism,  maxim, 
apt>thegm,  by-word,  saw,  saving. 

Provide,  v.  Furnish,  prepare,  procure, 
supply. 

Provident,  adj.  Careful,  economical, 
c;iutious,  frugal,  far-sighted,  prudent.  Anto., 
prodigal. 

Pro\isions.  w.  Subsistence,  food,  vict- 
uals, viands,  bread,  provender. 

Proviso,     n.     Condition,  stipulation. 

Provoke,  i*.  1.  Irritate,  anger,  offend, 
:iffr<mt,  enrage,  exasperate,  infurititi..  2. 
Awaken,  arouse,  excite,  stimulate,  inflame. 
Anio.,  propitiate. 

l*roxy.  n.  Deputy,  representative,  agent, 
substitute. 

I*rudence.  n.  Carefulness,  discretion, 
forethought,  judgment,  wisdom.  Anto.^  in- 
discretion. 

Prudish,  adj.  Coy,  demure,  reserved, 
over- modest.     Anto.,  brazen,  immodest. 

Publish.  z\  I- Announce,  declare,  pro- 
claim, herald,  advertise.  2.  Issue,  emit 
Anio.,  suppress. 

Puerile,  adj.  Boyish,  childish,  juvenile. 
Anio.,  manly. 

Pull,  7'.'  Drag,  draw,  gather,  hale,  haul, 
pluck,  lug.     Auio.,  push. 

Pulsation,  «.  Beat,  beating,  throb,  throb- 


bing. 

Pulverize 
triturate. 

Punctual. 

Punish 


V.    Bruise,  grind,  comminute 


adj.     See  Prompt. 
Correct,  discipline,  chastise, 
castigate,  whip,  scourge.     Auto.,  reward. 

Pure.  adj.  i.  Clear,  clean,  unsullied,  un  - 
defiled,  spotless,  untarnished,  immaculate.  2. 
True,  innocent,  sinless.  3.  Chaste,  modest.  j{. 
Unmixed,  genuine.     Anto.,  impure. 

Purpose,  n.  Object,  aim,  intent,  end, 
design. 

Pursue.  V.  Chase,  continue,  follow,  pros- 
ecute, persist.     Anto.,  escape. 

Puzzle,     z'.     6Vv  Perplex. 

Puzzle,  n.  1.  Mysterv,  riddle,  enigma. 
2.  Embarrassment,  perplexity,  nonplus. 


Quack,  n.  Impostor,  pretender,  lunubug, 
charlatan.     Anto.,  savant. 

Quail,  f.  Shrink,  blanch,  (piake,  cower, 
tremble.     Anto.,  brave. 

Qualified.  adj.  Ad;ipted,  competent, 
fitted.     Anto.,  incompeteiii. 

Qualify.  i>.  Adapt,  equip,  furnish,  fit, 
modify,  prepare,  temper. 

Quality.  ;/.  Rank,  property,  distinction, 
accomplisliment,  attribute. 

Quandary.  «.  Puzzle,  difhculty,  per- 
plexity, strait,  nonplus,  dilemma. 

Quarrel.  n.  Disagreement,  wrangle, 
squabble,  c<mtention,  dissension,  strife,  alter- 
cation, brawl.     Anto.,  agreement. 

Queer,  adj.  Odd,  singular,  droll,  strange, 
whimsical,  unique,  quaint.  Auto,,  usual,  or- 
dinary, customary. 


kl 


^r" 


76 


SYNONYJIS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


-A 


Query.  «,  Inquiry,  question,  interroga- 
torv.     Anio.y  answer. 

Question,     n.     See  ^uery. 

Question,  -v.  I.  Ask,  enquire,  examine, 
itittrrrogate,  catechize.  2.  lioubt,  dispute, 
contr<»VLrt.     Anto.^  reply. 

Questionable,  adj.  Doubtful,  suspici- 
ous.    Anto.y  authentic. 

Quiek.  adj.  i.  Brisk,  active,  prompt, 
agile,  z.  Rapid,  swift.  3.  Clever,  sharp, 
slircwd,  acute,  keen,  discerning.  Anto.^  dull, 
slow. 

Quiet,  adj.  Still,  resting,  dormant,  mo- 
tionless, quiescent.     Auto,,  turbulent. 

Quit,  T.  I.  Leave,  withdraw,  vacate.  3. 
Resiojn,  abandon,  forsake.  3.  Clear,  acquit, 
absolve. 

Quiver,  v.  Shake,  tremble,  shudder, 
shiver,  quake. 

Quota.  H.  Share,  portion,  allotment, 
contingent,  proportion. 

Quotation.  «.  Extract,  excerpt,  selection, 
citatif>n. 

Quote,   t'.    Adduce,  cite.    Anto..,  originate. 


Rabble.    «.    Mob,  rout,  herd. 
Race.     «.     Breed,  course,  family,  genera- 
tion, lineage,  progress.     Anto.,  mongrel. 

Radiance,  w.  Brightness,  brilliancy,  lus- 
tre, splendor,  effulgence.     Afiio.,  gloom. 

Radical,  adj.  i.  Entire,  complete,  thor- 
ough,* perfect.  2.  Fundamental,  original, 
organic.  3.  Simple,  primitive,  underived. 
Aftto.,  superficial. 

Rage.  II,  Anger,  cholcr,  fury,  violence. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Raise.  z\  Advance,  collect,  elevate, 
heighten,  erect,  exalt,  propagate.  A?ito., 
lower. 

Rally.    T.     I.  Eantcr,  deride,  mock,  ridi- 
cule.   2.  Collect.    A/ito.,  1.  Praise.   2.  Scatter. 
Random,      adj.     Casual,  chance,   fortui- 
tous.   Afito.,  chosen,  destined. 

Rank,     n.     Class,  degree,  position. 
Ransom.       «.       Free,  redeem,   manumit. 
Anto.f  imprison. 

Rapacious,  adj.  Greedy,  ravenous,  vo- 
racious.    A/ito.,  generous. 

Rapidity.  ?i.  Agility,  celerity,  fieetness, 
speed,  swiftness,  velocity.     Af/to.^  sloth. 

Rapt.  adj.  Charmed,  delighted,  enrapt- 
ured, fascinated,  entranced,  transported,  rav- 
ished.   Aftto.,  dejected. 

Rapture.  ».  Ecstacy,  transport.  Anto., 
deiection. 

Rare,  adj.  t.  Excellent,  incomparable. 
2.  Raw.  3.  Tnin.  4.  Scarce,  singular,  uncom- 
mon.    Anto.,  1,4.  Common.     3.  Dense, 

Rash.  adj.  Impulsive,  hasty,  heedless, 
headlong,  reckless,  precipitate.  .«4«^tf.,  cal- 
culating. 

Rate.  n.  Assessment,  degree,  proportion, 
jirice,  quota,  ratio,  value. 

Rational,  adj,   1.  Sane.  2.  Sensible,  wise, 
jnlulligent.   3.  Re.asonable.    ^w^o.,  irrational. 
Ravenous,      adj.     Greedy,  rapacious,  vo- 
racious.    Anto,,  generous. 

Refer,  v.  i.  Allude,  suggest,  hint,  inti- 
mate.     2.  Appeal.     3.   Bear,  bring. 

Refined,  adj.  1.  Accomplished,  cultur- 
ed, polite,  polished,  elegant,  courtly.  2.  Puri- 
fied. 3.  Pure,  chaste,  classic,  exquisite,Attic. 
Anto.,  coarse. 

RttHect.  V.  Consider,  censure,  muse,  pon- 
der, reproach,  think. 

Reform,  v.  Amend,  better,  correct,  im- 
jirovc,  rectify.     Anto.,  injure,  mar. 

Refraetoi*y.      adj.      Contumacious,   per- 
verse,   ungovernable,    unruly.     Auto.,    obe- 
dient. 
Refrain,  v.  Abstain,  forbear,  snare. 
Refresh.     7:     Cool,    renew,    invigorate, 
revive.     Anto.,  tire. 

Disprove,    oppugn,     Anto., 


Refute. 

accept. 
Regale. 

fresh. 
Rei^ard. 

liking,  affection 


Entertain,  feast,  gratify,  re- 

I.  Concern,  esteem,  respect, 
2.    Relation,  reference.     3. 


Consideration,  heed.     Anto,,  contempt. 


Regardless,  adf.  Heedless,  indifferent, 
negligent,  unconcerned,  unobservant.  Anto,^ 
Oliservant. 

Region.  «.  1.  District,  clime,  territory. 
2.  Portion,  part. 

Regret,  t.  Complain,  grieve,  lament,  re- 
pent.    Anto.,  rejoice. 

Regiilate.  zf.  Adjust,  direct,  rule,  dis- 
pose, govern,  plan,     Anto.,  disorder. 

Reiterate.  7-.  Repeat  again,  quote,  re- 
cite.    ^«/o.,  retract. 

Rehearse,  v.  1.  Recapitulate.  2.  Recite, 
repeat. 

Reject.  V.  Refuse,  repel,  decline.  2. 
Discard.     Anto.,  accept. 

Rejoice,  v.  Triumph,  exult,  glory.  Anto., 
lament. 

Rejoinder.  ;;.  Answer,  reply,  replica- 
tion, response. 

Relevant,  adj.  Apposite,  fit,  pertinent, 
prctper,  suitable  to  the  purpose.  Anto.,  ir- 
relevant. 

Reliance,  n.  Confidence,  dependence, 
repose,  trust.     ^«/o.,  suspicion. 

Relieve,  zu  Aid,  alleviate,  assist,  help, 
mitigate,  succor.     Anio.,  injure,  despoil. 

Religious,  ad/.  Devout,  holy,  pious.  An- 
to., profane. 

Reluctant,  adj.  Disinclined,  unwilling, 
indisposed,  loth,  averse,     Anto.,  willing. 

Reiunin,  v.  Abide,  await,  continue,  so- 
journ, stav,  tarry.     Anto.,  depart. 

Remainder,  ji.  Remnant,  residue,  rest. 

Remains.     ;/.     Leavings,  relics,  manes. 

Remark,  n.  Annotation,  observation, 
note,  comment. 

Reminiscence.  «.  Remembrance,  recol- 
lection,memoir. 

Remiss,  adj.  i.  Careless,  negligent,  in- 
attentive. 2.  Slow,  slack,  dilatory,  Anto., 
careful. 

Remit,  v.  i.  Abate,  relax.  2.  Absolve, 
forgive,  liberate,  pardon.     3.  Transmit. 

Remorse,  n.  Compunction,  sorrow, 
penitence,  conviction.     Anto.,  callousness. 

Renegade.    «.    i.  Turncoat,  apostate. 

Renew,  v.  Refresh,  renovate,  revive. 
Anto.,  wear  out. 

Renounce,  v.  Abandon,  abdicate,  fore- 
go, quit,  relinquish,  resign.     Anto.,  keep. 

Renovate,  v.  Restore,  renew,  revive, 
resuscitate. 

Renown.  ?/.  Celebrity,  fame,  reputation, 
distinction.     Anto.,  infamy. 

Renunciation,  «.  1,  Abandonment, 
surrender.  2.  Abnegation,  rejection,  repu- 
diation. 

Repair,  zi.  Recover,  restore,  retrieve. 
Anto.,  destroy. 

Reparation,     n.     Amf  nds,     restoration, 
restitution.     Anto.,  injury. 
Repartee,    n.    Reply,  retort. 

Repeal,  v.  Abolish,  abrogate,  annul, 
cancel,  destrov,  revoke.     Anto.,  reenact. 

Repel,  7'."RepuUe,  drive  b.ick.  2.  With- 
stand, resist,  confront,  oppose,  check.  Anto., 
attract. 

Repetition,     adj.     Recital,  tautology. 

Replenish,  v.  Fill,  refill,  supply,  Anto., 
empty. 

Repose,  n.  Ease,  quiet,  rest,  sleep.  Anto. 
dis(|uiet. 

Reprehensible,  adj.  Blamablc,  censur- 
able, culpable,  reprovable,  Anto.,  commend- 
able. 

Reproach,  t.  Blame,  condemn,  censure, 
reprove,  upbraid.     Anto.,  commend. 

Reproof,  z'.  Blaine,  censure,  reprehen- 
sion.    Auto,,  praise. 

Reprove,  v.  Chide,  rebuke,  reprimand. 
Anto.,  praise. 

Kepugnanre,  w.  Antipathy,  aversion, 
dislike,  haired.     Anto.^  liking. 

Repugnant,  adj.  Adverse,  contrarv, 
hostile,  inimical,  opposite, dist;u>teful.  Anto., 
similar,  homogeneous. 

Repulsion,  n.  Power  of  repelling,  resist- 
ance.    Anto.,  attraction. 

Reputation,  n.  Character,  renown,  cred- 
it, fame,  honor,  repute.    Anto.,  notoriety. 

Request,  f.  Ask, beg, beseech,  dematid, 
entreat,  implore,  solicit.     Anto.,  grant. 


Requisite.  adj.  Essential,  expedient, 
necessary.     Anto.,  unnecessary. 

Requite,  z-.  i.  Compensate,  reward,  re- 
cipi'ocate.     2.     Avenge. 

liesearch.  n.  Examination,  enquiry,  in- 
vestigation, careful  scrutinv. 

Resemblance.  7/,  Likeness,  similarity. 
Anto.,  unlikeness. 

Reservation.  «,  Reserve,  retention. 
Anto.,  donation. 

Reside,  v.  Abide,  inhabit,  sojourn, 
dwell,  live,     Atlto.,  alienate. 

Residence.  ?;.  Abode,  domicile,  dwell- 
ing. 

Residue.     ?i.     Remainder,  remnant. 

Resign,  z'.  Abdicate,  forego,  give  up, 
relinquish,  renounce.     Anto.,  retain. 

Resignation.  «.  Acquiescence,  endur- 
ance, patience,  submission.    Anto.,  rebellion, 

Resist,  z'.  Confront,  oppose,  witlistand. 
repel.     Anto.,  assist,  submit. 

Kesolute.  adj.  Courageous,  determined, 
fixed,  steadv.     Anto,,  irresolute. 

Resolution,  jt.  i.  Intention,  resolve.  2. 
Firmness,  constancv,  decision.  Anto.,  2. 
Irresolution,  weakness,  vacillation. 

Resort,    zi.    Frequent,  haunt. 

Resource.     «.     Expedient,  means,  resort. 

Respect.  72.  1.  Esteem,  regard,  rever- 
ence, veneration.  2,  Favor,  good  will.  3. 
Reference.     Anto.,  irreverence. 

Respect,  v.  Honor,  esteem,  regard, 
venerate.     Anto.,  dishonor,  disgrace. 

Respectful,  adj.  Civil,  dutiful,  obedient. 
Anto.,  uncivil. 

Respite,  n.  i.  Interval.  2.  Reprieve, 
suspension,  delay.     Anto.,  continuation. 

Response,  n.  Answer,  reply,  replication, 
reioinder.     Anto.,  question. 

Responsible,  adj.  Accountable,  amen- 
able, answerable.     Anto.,  irresponsible. 

Rest,  n.  I.  Cessation,  ease,  intermis- 
sion, quiet,  repose,  stop,  pause.  2.  Remain- 
der, others.     Anto..     I.  Motion,  unrest. 

Restless,  adj.  Unsettled,  unquiet,  roving. 
Anto.,  quiet. 

Restore,  z'.  i.  Heal,  cure.  2.  Give  up, 
repay,  return,  render,  replace.  Anto.,  2.  Keep. 

Restoration.  ;/.  Amends,  reparation, 
restitution.     Anto.,  retention. 

Restrain,  v.  Coerce,  constrain,  limit, 
repress,   restrict,  curb.     Anto.,  liberate. 

Restrict,  v.  Bound,  restrain,  limit,  con- 
fine.    yJ«/(7.,free. 

Result,  n.  Consequence,  effect,  event, 
issue. 

Resurrection,    «.     Rising  again. 

Retain,  z,-.  Detain,  hold,  reserve,  keep. 
Anto.,  vield. 

Retaliation,  n.  Reprisal,  repayment. 
Anto.,  pardon. 

Retard,  v.  Hinder,  obstruct,  delay, 
cluck,  impede.     Anto.,  hasten. 

Retire,  v.  Recede,  retreat, secede,  with- 
draw.    Auto.,  coix\Q  for^vard,  approach. 

Retract.  z\  Abjure,  recall,  recant,  re- 
voke.    Anto.,  reiterate. 

Retrenchment,  «,  Diminution,  reduc- 
tion, curtailment.     Anto.,  increase. 

Retrieve.  ;•.  Regain,  recover.  A7ito.,\osc. 

Retrogression,  n.  Retrogradation,  go- 
ingbackward.     Attto.,  progression. 

Retrospect.  «.  Review,  re-survey.  Anto., 
forecast. 

Reveal.  z\  Discover,  disclose,  divulge, 
communicate,  impart,  publish.  Anto.,  con- 
ceal. 

Revenge,  n.  Requital,  retaliation.  Anto., 
forgiveness. 

Revenue.  7t.  Income,  receipts.  Anto., 
expenditure. 

Revere,  z).  Honor,  venerate,  adore, rev- 
erence.    Anto.,  execrate. 

Reverse,  z\  Change,  subvert,  overturn, 
in\ert.     Anto.,  establish. 

Review,  z:  Notice,  revise,  survey,  recon- 
sider, inspect. 

Revi.sio'n.  «.  Review,  reconsideration, 
revisal. 

Revive,  v.  i.  Refresh,  quicken,  rouse, 
cheer,  animate,     2.   Revivify. 

Revoke,  z:  Abolish,  abrogate,  annul, 
cancel,  repeal,  retract.     Aftto.,  reiterate. 


^ 


\ 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


77 


Reward,  w.  Cf»rnnensntion, recompense, 
rcimiiu-ration,  requital,  satit^fiiction.  Anto.^ 
punishment. 

RirlK^H.  w.  Fortune,  wealth,  affluence, 
opulence.     Anio.,  poverty. 

Ridioule.  «.  Mockery,  derision,  sneer, 
sarcasm,  riiillery,  satire.     Anto.y  sympathy. 

liidiculoiis.  adj.  Absurd,  preposterous, 
diMll,  ludicrous,     ^n/o.v solemn,  funereal. 

Ki^ht.  aiij.  True,  straight,  just,  proper, 
Auto.,  wrong. 

Right.  «.  Privilege,  claim,  immunity. 
Auto.,  disadvantafje. 

Rigrhteous.  aaj.  Good,  honest,  virtuous, 
upright,  just,  devout,  religious,  pious,  holy, 
suinuv.     A/ito.t  bad. 

Ri^id.  ai/J.  i.  Strict,  stern,  severe,  harsh, 
rigorous.  2.  Stiff,  unpliant,  inflexible.  Anto., 
pliable. 

Rigorous,  aii/.  i.  Rigid,  severe,  harsh, 
austere.  2.  Precise,  accurate,  exact.  Auto., 
lax. 

Ripe.  aiij.  I.  Mature.  2.  Finished,  con- 
summate. ^.  Ready,  tit,  prepared.  Ante, 
green,  raw,  immature. 

Ripeuess,  ji.  Maturity,  perfection, 
growth.     Anto.,    immaturity. 

Rise.  n.  Increase,  ascent,  origin,  Anto.^ 
subsidence. 

Rite.     ;/.     Ceremony,  form,  observance. 

Rivalry,  v.  Contention,  emulation,  com- 
petition,    Anto.,  friendliness. 

Road.     ft.     Course,  path,  way,  route. 

Roam.  V.  Ramble,  range,  wander,  rove, 
stroll. 

Robust.  a<IJ.  Athletic,  stout,  strong, 
brawny,  stalwart,  hale,  mighty,  powerful. 
Anto.yWe^V.. 

Romance.  «.  Tale,  story,  novel,  fiction. 
Aft  to., history. 

Room.    n.    Apartment,  chamber,  space. 

Room,     -v.     Lodge. 

Rough,  adj.  i.  Coarse, 'rude,  blunt,  un- 
gentle, churlish.  2.  Uneven.  3.  Unpol- 
ished.    Atito.y  smooth. 

Round,  adj.  Globular,  circular.  Atito., 
cubical. 

Round.  «.  I.  Circuit,  tour,  step.  j. 
Globe,  orb,  sphere.    Anto,,    2.  Cube. 

Roundness,  n.  Rotundness,  rotundity, 
circularity,  sphericity'. 

Route.    K.     Road,  way,  course,  path. 

Rude.    adj.     See  Rough. 

Rudeness.  «.  i.  Roughness.  2.  Gruff- 
ness,  coarseness,  incivility,  churlishness.  3. 
Inelegance.     Anto.,  politeness,  urbanity. 

Rugged.  adj.  1.  Uneven,  irregular, 
rough.  2.  Harsh.  3.  Robust,  vigorous. 
Anto.,  smooth. 

Ruinous,  adj.  Baneful,  noxious,  des- 
tructive, calamitous.     Anto,,  helpful. 

Rule.  K.  I.  I-aw,  government,  com- 
mand. 2.  Maxim,  nietnod,  precept.  3. 
Guide,  regulation.     Anto.,  lawlessness. 

Rule.  I'.  1.  Govern,  control.  2.  Mark. 
Anto,,  rebel, 

Rum<»r.  «.  Talk,  gossip,  report,  news, 
bruit. 

Rupture.  n.  1.  Altercation,  quarrel, 
feud.     z.    Hernia.     3.  Fracture,  breach. 

Rural,  adf.  Country,  pastoral,  ruslir. 
Anto.,  urbane. 

Ruse.     n.     Artifice,  fraud,  trick,  wile. 

Rustic.  H.  Clown,  peasant,  swain,  boor, 
lout,  bumpkin. 

Rustic,  adj.  I.  Uncouth,  unpolished,  awk- 
wark,  rude.  2.  Country,  rural.  Anto., 
urban. 

Ruthless,  adj.  Cruel,  pitiless,  merciless, 
relentless,  savage,   inhuman.     Anto.,  pitiful. 


s 


Sacred,  adj.  Divine,  devoted,  holy. 
Anto.,  profane. 

Sad.  adj.  I.  Depressed,  sorrowful,  cheer- 
less, disconsolate.  2.  Dismal,  gloomy, 
mournful.     Anto.,  joyous. 

Safe.  adj.  i.  Guarded,  protected.  2. 
Sound,  secure.   3.  Reliable.  y4///«3.,  dangerous. 

Sagacity.  n.  Acutcness,  discernment-, 
penetration.     Anto,,  dulness. 


.Sailor.      «.        Mariner,    seaman.       Anto., 

landsman. 

Salary.     ;/.     Hire,  pay,  stipend,  wagfs. 

Sanction.  H.  I.  Countenance,  sui>port. 
2.  Katitication,  conflrination.  Anto.,  rejec- 
tion, prohibition. 

Sane.  adj.  Sober,  lucid,  sound.  Anto., 
crazy. 

Sapient,  adj.  Sagacious,  wise,  discern- 
ing.   Anto.,  foolish. 

Sarcasm.     ;/.     Irony,  ridicule,  satire. 

Satiate,  z'.  1.  Cloy.  glut.  2.  Satisfy, 
gratify.    Anto.,  hunger,  starve. 

Satisfaction.  «.  1.  Atonement.  2.  Con- 
tent. 3.  l^emuneration,  reward.  Anto.,  dis- 
satisfaction. 

Satisfy,  v.  Gratify,  please.  2.  Glut, 
satiate,  cloy.     Auto.,  displease. 

Saving,  adj.  Thrifty,  economical,  fru- 
gal, sparing.     Anto.,  prodigal. 

Saying.  h.  i.  Remark,  observation, 
st.ateinent.  2.  Maxim,  proverb,  aphorism, 
adage,  saw. 

Scandal,  n.  Discredit,  disgrace,  infamy, 
reproach,  detraction.     Anto.,\ir:\\sc. 

Scarce,  adj.  Singular,  rare,  uncommon, 
Anto.,  common. 

Scarcity.  «.  Want,  lack,  deficiency, 
de-arth.     ."Iw/o.,  abundance. 

Search,  v.  Examine,  investigate,  en- 
quire, pursue,  scrutinize,  seek. 

Secede.  v.  Recede,  retire,  withdraw. 
Anto.,  return. 

Seclusion,  h.  Loneliness,  retirement, 
privacy,  solitude. 

Secondary,  adj.  Inferior,  subordinate, 
second.     Ante,  primary. 

Secret,  adj.  Clandestine,  covered,  hid- 
den, concealed,  latent,  mysterious.  Auto., 
open. 

Secular-  adj.  Temporal,  worldly.  Anto., 
religious. 

Secure,  v.  1.  Be  certain,  guard,  make 
sure.     2.  Guarantee.     Anto.,  lose. 

Sedate,  adj.  Calm,  cmnpnsed,  quiet, 
still,  serene,  unrufBed.     Anto.,  lively. 

Seduce,  v.  Allure,  attract,  decoy.  Anto., 
repel. 

See,  V.  Behold,  eye,  look,  observe,  per- 
ceive, view. 

Seek.  V.  i.  Search  for,  ask  for,  2.  Strive, 
ti^-,  endeavor.    Anto.,  lose. 

"Sell.  -v.  Vend,  barter,  dispose  of.  Anto., 
buy. 

Senile,  adj.  Aged,  old,  infirm.  Anto., 
juvenile. 

Sensation.  ;/.  Perception,  sentiment, 
feeling. 

Sense.  «.  Feeling,  judgment,  import, 
meaning,  reason. 

Sensil>ility.  h.  Delicacy,  feeling,  sus- 
ceptibility. 

Sensitive,  adj.  i.  Impressible,  easily  af- 
fected.    2.  Perceptive.     Anto.,  callous. 

Sentence.  «.  Decision,  judgment,  period, 
phrase,  proposition. 

Sentiment.  «.  Feeling,  notion,  opinion, 
sensation.     Anto.,  insensibility. 

Sentimental.  adj.  Koniantic.  Anto., 
prosaic. 

Separate,  v.  i.  Disjoin,  divide,  detach, 
disunite,  isolate.  2.  Cleave,  sever.  Anto., 
join. 

Serious,  adj.  1.  Weighty,  momentous. 
2.  Sober,  grave,  solemn,  earnest.  Anto.,  jo- 
cose. . 

Servile,  adj*  Fawning,  mean,  slavish. 
Anto.,  free. 

Settle.  V.  Adjust,  arrange,  determine, 
establish,  regulate, fix.     Anto.,  unsettle. 

Settled,  adj.  Conclusive,  confirmed,  de- 
cisive, definitive,  established.  Anto.,  unset- 
tled. 

Sever,  -v.  Detach,  disjoin,  divide,  separ- 
ate.   Anto.,  join. 

Several,  adj.  Different,  distinct,  diverse, 
sundrv,  various. 

Severe,  adj.  Austere,  cruel,  harsh,  rigid, 
rigorous,  rough,  sharp,  strict,  unyielding, 
stern.     Anto.,  mild. 

Severity.  «.  i.  Austerity,  rigor,  stern- 
ness. 2.  Keenness,  causticity,  3.  \'iolence. 
Anto.,  mildness. 


Shake,  v.  Agit.-»tc,  quake,  quiver,  shiver, 
shudder,  totter,  tremble.     Anto.,  steady. 

Shallow,  adj.  1.  Shoal.  2.  Frivolous, 
flimsy,  trivial.  3.  Superficial,  ignorant.  Anto., 
deeii. 

Sliiime.  ;/.  Disgrace,  dishonor,  ignominy, 
reproach.     Anto..  honor. 

Sliameless.  adj.  Immodest,  impudent, 
indecent,  indelicate.     Anto.,  modest. 

Shape,     V.     Fashion,  form,  mould. 

Share,  v.  Apportion,  distribute,  divide, 
part;di,e,  participate. 

Share.    ;/.     Dividend,  part.    Anto.,  whole. 

Sharpness.  n.  Acrimony,  acutencss, 
pinetration,  shrewdness,  sagacity.  Anto., 
dulness. 

Shelter.     ».    Asvlum,  refuge,  retreat. 

Shelter,  v.  Cover,  defend,  harbor,  lodge. 
protect,  screen.     Anto.,  cast  forth. 

Shine.  :-.  Gleam,  glare,  glisten,  glitter. 
Anto.,  darken. 

Shining.  adj.  i.  Brilliant,  glittering, 
radiant,  sparkling.  2.  Bright,  splendid,  re- 
splendent.    Anto.,  dark,  dim. 

Shock.  V.  I.  Affright,  terrify.  2.  Appal, 
disturb,  dism.ay.  3.  Otfend,  disgust.  Anto., 
encourage,  inspirit. 

Shocking,  adj.  Dreadful,  disgusting, 
terrible.     Auto.,  pleasant. 

.Short,  adj.  I.  Defective,  scanty,  want- 
ing. 2.  Brief,  concise,  compendious,  laconic, 
succinct,  summary.    yl«/(>.,  long. 

Shorten,  v.  1.  Abridge,  abbreviate,  rei 
trench.     2.  Diminish.     Anto.,  extend. 

Show.  «,  I.  Display,  parade,  pomp.  2. 
Exhibition,  representation,  sight,   spectacle. 

Show.  V.  Display,  exhibit,  parade.  Anlo., 
hide,  cover. 

Showy.  adj.  Gay,  gorgeous,  gaudy, 
flaunting,  garish.  2.  Pompous,  ostentatious, 
magnificent.     Anto.,  simple,  plain. 

Shrewd,  odj.  Acute,  keen,  penetrating, 
artful,  siv,  :>agaciou&.     Anto.,  dull. 

.Shudder,  v.  Shrink,  shake,  quake, 
quiver. 

Shun.  V.  Avoid,  elude,  evade,  eschew. 
Anto.,  seek. 

Sickly,  adj.  Disc.ased,  ill,  indisposed, 
morbid,  sick,  unwell.     Anto.,  healthy. 

Sign.  «.  I.  Mark,  note,  symptom,  prng- 
nostic,  presage,  signal.  2.  Omen,  token,  sym- 
bol. 

Signify,  v.  i.  Betoken,  declare,  express, 
intimate,  testify,  utter.     .;.  Denote,  imply. 

Significant,  adj.  i.  Indicative,  expres- 
sive, betokening.  2.  Momentous.  Anto., 
common,  usual. 

Silence.  ;/.  Stilncss,  taciturnity,  mute- 
ness, oblivion.     Anto.,  sound,  noise. 

.Silence,     v.     Still.  stt>p,  appease. 

.Silent,  adj.  1.  Dumb,  mute,  speechless. 
2.  Still,  quiet.     Anto.,  noisv. 

Silly,  adj.  Absurd,  foolish,  simple, stupid, 
weak,  dull.      Anto.,  sedate. 

Similarity.  «.  Likeness,  resemblance, 
similitude.      Anto.,  unlikeness. 

Simil«%     «.     Comparison,  similitude. 

Simple,  adj.  i.  Klementary,  single,  not 
complex.  2.  Open,  artless,  sincere.  3.  Plain. 
4.  Silly.     ^I«/(J.,  complex,  artful. 

Simplicity,  n.  Artlessness,  plainness, 
singleness.     2.  Folly.     Anto.,  artfulness. 

simply.  adz>.  i.  Merely,  only,  solely.  2. 
Artlessly. 

Since,     conj.    As,  because,  for, 
as. 

Sincere,     adj.      1.    Frank,  honest,  plain, 

?enuinc.  2.  True,  upright,  incorrupt.  Anto., 
alse. 

Sinewy,    adj.     See  Robust. 

Single,  adj.  1.  Unmarried.  2.  Alone, 
solitary.  3.  Particular,  individual.  Anto., 
married,  double,  several. 

Singular,  adj.  1.  Odd,  strange,  uncom- 
mon, rare.  2.  Peculiar,  exceptional.  Anto.^ 
customarv,  usual. 

Situation.  «.  1.  Case,  plight,  predica- 
ment, condition.  2.  Locality,  place,  position, 
site.  ,    , 

Skilful.  adj.  Clever,  skilled,  knowing, 
intelligent,  ready,  adroit,  quick.  Anto.,  un- 
skilful. 


insomuch 


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78 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


-»U 


Slander,  t.  Asperse,  blacken,  defame, 
traduce,  libel.     Anto.,  praise. 

Slavery,  n.  Bondage,  captivity,  servi- 
tude, drudgery.    Anto.,  freedom. 

Slender,  adj.  i.  Fragile, slight.  2.  Slim, 
thin.    3.  Limited.     Anto.^  thick. 

Slight,  adj.  1.  Cursor}',  desultory,  super- 
ficial. 2.  Slim,  weak,  Anto.^  1.  careful.  2. 
sulid. 

Slight,  -v.  Neglect,  scorn.  Anto.,  notice, 
commend. 

Slow.  adj.  I.  Deliberate.  2.  Heavy, 
dull,  stupid.     3.  Sluggish.     Anto.,  quick. 

Small,  adj.  1.  Little,  diminutive,  stunted, 
tinv.  2.  Minute,  microscopic.  3,  Narrow, 
illiberal.     Anto.,  large,  great. 

Smell,  n.  Fragrance,  odor,  perfume, 
scent,  stench. 

Smooth,  adj.  i.  Bland,  mild,  easy.  2. 
Even,  level.     Anto.,  rough. 

Smother,  v.  i.  Stitle,  suffocate.  2.  Sup- 
press. 

•  ^"^^^^°ff-    "*(''•    Cynical,  snappish,  wasp- 
Sober,      adj.      I.    Abstemious,   abstinent, 
temperate,  moderate.      2,  Grave.      Anto.,  in 
temperate,  gav. 

Sobriety,  n.  i.  Abstinence,  temperance. 
2.  Coolness,  soberness,  gravity.  Anto.j  in- 
temperance, intoxication. 

Social,  -v.  Companionable,  conversable, 
familiar,  sociable,  convivial.    Anto.,  unsocial. 

Society,  adj.  i.  Companv,  association, 
fellowship,  corporation.     2.  The  public. 

Soft.  adj.  I.  Compliant,  ductile,  flexible, 
tractable,  pliant,  yielding.  2.  Mild,  docile, 
gentle.     Anto.,  hard. 

.Soiled,  adj.  Stained,  spotted,  tarnished, 
defiled,  polluted.     Anto.,  clean,  pure. 

Solicit.  7-,  I.  Ask,  request.  2.  Beg,  en- 
treat,  implore.  3.  Beseech,  supplicate.  Anto.^ 
Ki\e.  .    .        ^ 

Solicitation,  n.  i.  Importunit%',  entreat}'. 
2.  Invitation.     Anto.,  offering. 

Solicitude,  n.  Anxiety,  carefulness, trou- 
ble.    Anto.,  carelessness. 

Solid,  adj.  Firm,  hard,  stable,  substan- 
tial.    Anto.,  unstable. 

Solitary,  adj.  1.  Alone,  retired,  sole.  2. 
Desolate,  deserted,  remote.  3.  Lonely,  only 
Anto.,  crowded. 

Sombre,  adf.  1.  Dark,  shadv,  dusky 
sunless.  2.  Sad,  doleful,  mournful".  Ajtto 
gay,  bright.  * 

Soothe,  -v.  I,  Allay,  lessen,  mitigate, 
ease.  2.  Quiet,  compose,  pacify,  appease, 
Anto.,  irritate.  -'»     ft- 

Sorrow.  n.  i.  Grief,  affliction,  trouble, 
sadness.     2.  Regret.     Anto.,  joy. 

Sort,  n.  I.  Kind,  species.  2.  Order 
rank.     3.  Manner. 

Sound,  adj.  1.  Heart\-,  healthy,  sane.  2. 
Entire,  perfect,  unhurt.     Anto..  ill.' 

Sound,  n.  i.  Tone,  noise,  report,  2. 
Strait.     Anto.,  silence. 

Sour,  adj.  Acid,  acrimonious,  acetose, 
acetous,  sharp,  tart.     Anto.,  sweet. 

Source.  «.  Cause,  fountain,  origin,  rea- 
son, spring. 

Spacious,  adj.  Ample,  capacious.  Anto.. 
small.  * 

Sparkle,  v.  i.  Twinkle,  glitter,  glisten, 
scintillate,  corruscate.  2.  Bubble,  effervesce. 
Anto.,  darken. 

Speak.  V.  Articulate,  converse,  dis- 
course, pronounce,  say,  talk,  tell,  utter.  Anto., 
silence. 

Speaking.  «.  i.  Elocution,  declamation 
orator>-.     2.  Discourse,  talk. 

Species,    w.    Class,  kind,  sort,  race. 

Specific,  adj  Purticular,special,definite. 
Anto.,  indefinite. 

Specimen.  «.  Model,  pattern,  sample, 
example.  '      * 

.Specious,  adj.  Colorable,  feasible,  ostens- 
ible,  plausible,  showv.      Anto.,  real, genuine. 

Spectator.  «.  Beholder,  bvslandcr.  ob- 
server. 

Speculation.  «.  Conjecture,  scheme, 
theory.  ^  *  * 

Speech,  n.  1.  Talk.  2.  Language,  dia- 
It-'Ct.      3.    Address,  discourse,  haranerue.  ora- 


Speechless,      adj.      Dumb,   mute,   silent. 

.Sjpeiid.  z\  Dissipate,  exhaust,  lay  out, 
expend,  squander,  waste,  consume.  Anto.^ 
save. 

Sphere.  «.  Circle,  globe,  orb.  Anto., 
cube. 

Spill,  -v.  Pour,  shed,  waste.  Anto.,  fill, 
gather. 

Spirit,  n.  i.  Ardor,  hreath,  courage, 
temper.     2.  Ghost, soul.     ^-Iw/o.,  mortal. 

Spirited,  adj.  Activ?,  animated,  ardent, 
lively,  vivacious.     Anto.,  stupid. 

Spiritless,  adj.  1.  Dull,  cold,  apathetic, 
feeble,  soulless.  2.  Dejected,  downcast.  3. 
Stupid,  heavy,  prosv,  insipid.    Anto.,  spirited. 

Spirits,  n.  Animation,  courage,  life,  vi- 
vacity.    Anto.,  dullness. 

Spiritual,  adj.  Ecclesiastical,  imma- 
terial, incorporeal,  unearthly,  heavenly. 
Anto,,  worldly,  terrestrial. 

Spite.  H.  Grudge,  malice,  malignity, 
malevolence,  pique,  rancor.  Anto.,  forgive- 
ness. 

Spite.  V.  Anger,  vex,  thwart.  Anto., 
pardon,  please. 

Splendid,  adt.  1.  Showy,  sumptuous, 
gorgeous,  magnificent,  superb.  2.  Beaming, 
radiant,  flowing,  effulgent,  brilliant.  3.  No- 
ble, heroic.  4.  Glorious,  eminent.  Anto., 
mean,  dull,  low. 

Splendor,  n.  Brightness,  brilliancy,  lus- 
tre, magnificence,  pomp,  pageantry.  Anto., 
dullness,  poverty. 

Splenetic,  adj.  i.  Fretful,  peevish.  2. 
Gloomy,  morose,  sullen.     Anto.,  amicable. 

Sport,  «.  I.  Amusement,  game,  pastime, 
play.    2.  Diversion,  recreation.    Anto.,\voT\i.. 

Spotless,  adj.  i.  Blameless,  faultless, 
stainless.  2.  Unblemished,  unspotted.  3. 
Innocent.      Anto.,  stained. 

Spread.  2'.  i.  Circulate,  disseminate, 
distribute,  scatter.  2.  Disperse,  dispense.  3. 
Propag^ate,  diffuse.     Anto.,  collect. 

Spring.  z\  1.  Emanate,  flow,  proceed, 
issue.     2.  Arise,  start,  leap. 

Sprinkle,     v.     Bedew,  scatter,  besprinkle. 

Sprout,     z-.     Bud,  germinate,  shoot  out. 

Squander,  t/.  Expend,  spend,  lose,  lavish, 
dissipate,  waste.     Anto.,G^rr\,  husband. 

Stability,  //.  Firmness,  steadiness,  fixed- 
ness. Anto.,  instability,  unstablcness,  incon- 
stancy, fickleness. 

Stain.  7'.  I.  Foul,  soil,  sully,  tarnish, 
blot,  spot.     2.  Color,  tinge.     Anto.,  clean. 

Stain,  n.  i.  Color,  discolor.  2.  Dye, 
tinge.     3.  Flaw,  speck,  spot,  blemish,  blot. 

Stale,  adj.  i.  Old,  faded.  2.  Common, 
trite.  3.  Vapid,  flat,  musty,  insipid,  Anto., 
new,  fresh. 

Stammer,    v.    Falter,  hesitate,  stutter. 

Stamp,     w.     Print,  mark,  impression. 

Standard.     «.     Criterion,  rule,  test. 

Standard,  adj.  i.  Legal,  usual,  ap- 
proved.    2.  Banner.     Anto.,  unusual. 

State,  n.  Condition,  position,  situation, 
predicament,  plight. 

Station,  n.  Post,  place,  position,  situ- 
ation. 

Stay.  v.  I.  Prop,  support.  2.  Abide, 
continue,  remain,  3.  Delay,  hinder,  stop.  4. 
Support. 

Steadfast,  adj.  Firm,  constant,  resolute. 
Aftto.,  shaky. 

Steal.  7'.  I.  Pilfer,  purloin,  poach,  em- 
bezzle.    2.  AVin,  gain,  alliirL-,     Anto.,  los^e. 

Stench.  n.  Hud  smtjll,  stink.  Anto., 
fragrance,  perfume. 

Sterling,  adj.  Real,  genuine,  true,  pure. 
Anto.,  false,  coimterfeit. 

Sterility,  n.  Barrenness,  unfruitfulness, 
ar'dity.     Anto.,  fruilfulness. 

Stern,  adj.  Austere,  rigid,  rigorous,  se- 
vere, strict.    Anto.,  mild. 

Sticking,  adj.  Adherent,  adhesive,  ten- 
acious. 

StilS.  «.  I.  Allay,  appease,  assuage,  2. 
Calm,  lull,  quiet,  silence,  pacify.  Anto.,  en- 
rage, move,  disturb. 

Stimulate,  v.  Animate,  excite,  incite, 
arouse,  kindle,  fire.     Anto.,  depress. 

Stingj'.  adj.  Close,  mean,  miserly,  nig- 
gardly, penurious,  sordid.       Anto.,  generous. 

.Stock.  ;;.  I.  Accumulation,  fund,  hoard, 
provisions,  store,  supply.     2.  Cattle. 


Stoic,    n 

curean. 

Stoop. 
Anto.,  strai 

Stop. 


Follower  of  Zeno.     Anto.,  epi- 
condescend,    submit, 
intermission,  rest. 


".      Bend, 
hten. 

Cessation, 
Anto.,  continuance. 

Stop.  Z-.  Check, hinder,  impede.  Anto.,  aid. 

Stormy,  adj.  1.  Gusty,  squally,  tem- 
pestuous, boisterous.  2,  Rough,  passionate. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Story,  n.  Anecdote,  incident,  memoir, 
tale. 

Stout,     adj.     See  Strong,  Robust. 

Strait,  adj.  1.  Close,  narrow.  2.  Strict. 
Anto.,  wide,  loose. 

Strange,  Adj.  Curious,  eccentric,  odd, sin- 
gular, surprising,  wonderful,  foreign,  unusu- 
al.    Anto.,  usual. 

Stratagem.  n.  Device,  artifice,  ruse, 
dodge,  trick.     Anto.,  simplicity. 

Strength.  «.  i.  Authority.  2.  Force, 
might,  power,  potencv,     ^-l«/o.,  weakness. 

Strenuously,  adv.  Ardently,  zealously, 
earnestly,  vigorously.    ^«^u.,  weakly,  feebly. 

Strict',  adj.  ^Vccurate,  exact,  nice,  par- 
ticular, precise,  rigorous,  severe, stern.  Anto., 
lenient. 

Stricture.  w.  Animadversion,  censure, 
contraction,  criticism.    ^«/().,cominendaticm, 

Strife,  n.  Contention,  contest,  dissension, 
discord.     Auto.,  peace. 

Strong,  adj.  i.  Efficient,  po\yerful,  po- 
tent, mighty.  2.  Athletic,  stalwart,  robust, 
stout.  3.  F'orcible,  cogent.  4.  Tough,  tena- 
cious.    Anto.,  feeble,  weak. 

Structure,  n.  i.  Make,  construction, 
texti»re.     2.   Building,  pile,  edifice. 

Stubborn,  adj.  Wilful,  obstinate,  mulish, 
perverse,  obdurate,  cantankerous.  Anto., 
docile. 

Stupid,  adj.  i.  Sleepy,  drowsy,  torpid. 
2,  Flat,  heavy,  insipid,  humdrum.  3.  Dull, 
obtuse,  foolish,  witless,  daft.     Anto.,  shrev.d. 

Style,  fi.  Manner,  mode,  phraseology, 
diction. 

Style,  z'.  Characterize,  designate,  de- 
nominate, entitle,  name. 

Subdue.  z\  I.  Defeat,  conquer,  van- 
quish, overwhelm.  2.  Subject,  control.  Anto., 
submit. 

Subject,  adj.  Exposed,  liable,  subser- 
vient.    .-Ih^u,, shielded,  secured. 

Subject.    «.    Object,  matter,  material. 

Subject.     V.     Subdue,  subjugate. 

Sublime,  adj.  Elevated,  exalted,  grand, 
great,  lofty,  majestic,  high.  Anto.,  me:in, 
low,  base. 

SubmissiTC.  adj.  Compliant,  obedient, 
humble,  yielding.     Anto.,  rebellious. 

Submission.  «.  i.  Compliance,  obedi- 
ence, meekness,  humility.  2.  Forbearance, 
endurance.     Anto.,  revolt. 

Subordinate.  «.  Inferior,  dependent. 
Anto.,  superior. 

Suborn,  v.  Forswear,  perjure.  Anto., 
verify. 

Subsequ*^nt.  adj.  i.  After,  following. 
2.  Posterior,  consequent.      Anto.,   preceding. 

Subservient,  adj.  i.  Inferior,  subordin- 
ate.    2.  Subject.     -'iM^tJ.,  superior. 

Subshle.  -v.  i.  Abate,  sink.  2.  Intermit. 
Auto.,  rise. 

Subsistence,     n.    See  Snstenanct-. 

Substantial,  adj.  i.  Responsible.  2. 
Solid,  stout,  strong.     Anto..  unstable. 

Substantiate.  ;•.  Prove,  establish,  cor- 
roborate, verify.     Anto.,  disprove. 

Substitute.'  v.  Change,  exchange.  Anto., 
retain. 

Subterfuge,  n.  i.  Evasion,  shift.  2. 
Quirk,  trick. 

Subtile,  adj.  i.  Fine,  delicate,  nice.  2. 
Thin,  rare,  ethereal.     Anto.,  coarse,  rough. 

Subtle,  adj.  I.  Keen,  sa^iacious,  pro- 
found. 2.  Artful,  sly,  astute,  crafty.  Anto., 
1.  Dull.     2.  Open. 

Subtract,  v.  Deduct,  withdraw.  Anto., 
add. 

Subvert,  r.  1.  Invert,  reverse.  2,  Over- 
turn, overthrow.     Anto.,  maintain,  build. 

Successful,  adj.  Fortunate,  lucky,  pros- 
perous.    Anto.,  unsuccessful. 

SuccesNion.  n.  Order,  scries.  Anto., 
disorder. 


^ 


T.    Choke,  smother,  stifle. 

ti((/.      I.    Adequate,    enough. 

Aiiio.t  want. 
M.     I.  Aid,  voice.     2.  Vote. 
'.    Alhide,  hint,  insinuate,  in- 

Hint,   allusion,  intima- 


Sueoinct,  adj.  Brief,  concise,  terse,  com- 
pact.    Anlo.,  verbose. 

Succor.  V.  Aid,  help,  assist,  relieve. 
Auto.,  injure,  harry,  mar. 

.Sii<l(l«>ii.  adj.  Hasty,  unanticipated,  un- 
cxpi-cted,  unlooked-for.     ylM/«.,  slow. 

fSiiffer,  V.  1.  Allow,  permit,  tolerate,  z. 
J-liuUire,  hear. 

.Suffocate. 

Stitticicnt. 
i.  Competent. 

.Siiffraj^c.     «. 

SuBK«*st.     z'. 
tiinalu. 

Mtif^^cKtioii. 
tion,  insinuation. 

Suitable,  adj'.  i.  Agreeable,  becoming. 
2.  Apt,  fit,  expedient.     Auto.,  unfit. 

Suitor.  H.  I.  Lover,  w^ocr.  2.  Peti- 
ti<»ner. 

Summary,  «.  Abstract,  compendium, 
digest,  synopsis,  epitome. 

SumuK-n.  V,  Bid,  call,  cite,  invite.  Anto., 
send. 

Sundry,  adj.  i.  Different,  diverse.  2. 
Several,  various.     Auto.,  single. 

Su|»€*rflcial.  adj'.  I'Hmsy,  shallow,  slight. 
Anto.,  thorough. 

Supersede,  v.  i.  Supplant,  displace. 
2.  Annul,  suspend. 

Supplicate.  z\  Ask,  beg,  beseech,  en- 
treat, implore,  solicit.     Anto.,  command. 

Support.  i>.  Assist,  cherish,  defend,  en- 
dure, encourage,  favor,  forward,  maintain, 
nurture,  patronize,  protect,  prop,  sustain, 
stay,  second,  upliold.     Anto.,  destroy,  injure. 

Suppose.  V.  Consider,  imagine,  appre- 
hend, presume,  think,  believe. 

Supreme,  adj.  Paramount,  first,  prin- 
cipal, chief,  highest,  greatest.  Anto.y  sec- 
ondary. 

Sure.  adj'.  Certain,  confident,  infallible. 
Anto.,  uncertain. 

Surface.  //.  Outside,  superficies.  Anto.^ 
interior. 

Surly,  adj.  Morose,  touchy,  cross,  fret- 
ful, peevish,  cynical,  rude.    Anto.,  amiable. 

Surmise.  z\  Believe,  conjecture,  pre- 
sume, suppose,  suspect,  think.     Anto,,  doubt. 

Surmount.  x\  Conquer,  overcome,  rise 
above,  subdue,  vanquish.     Anto.,  yield. 

Surpass,  ;'.  Kxcel,  exceed,  outdo,  out- 
strip.    Anto.,  fall  short. 

Surprise,  n.  Admiration,  amazement,  ixs- 
tonishmcnt,  wonder.     Anto.,  habit,  use. 

Surrender.  %>.  Cede,  deliver,  give  up, 
resign,  yield.     Anto.,  take. 

Surround,  v.  Beset,  encircle,  encompass, 
environ,  enclose,  invest. 

Survey,     n.     Prospect,  retrospect,  review. 

Suspense,  n.  Doubt,  indetermination, 
hesitation.     Anto.,  certainty. 

Suspicion.  «,  Distrust,  jealousy.  Anto., 
trust. 

Sustain,     v.     Sre  Support. 

Sustenance,  n.  Living,  maintenance, 
livelihood,  subsistence,  support. 

Swarm,  n.  Crowd,  throng,  multitude, 
concourse.     Anto.,  few. 

Sweetheart,  n.  Admirer,  beau,  lover, 
wooer.     2.  Flame,  lady-love. 

Sweetness.  «.  i.  Beauty,  loveliness.  2. 
Agreeableness.  3.  Mildness,  gentleness, 
amiability.     Anto.,  bitterness,  sourness. 

Swiftness.  ».  i.  Celerity,  rapidity,  fleet- 
ness,  speed,  velocity.     Anto.,  slowness. 

Swiftly,  adv.  Speedily,  post-haste,  quick- 
Iv,  apace.     Anto.,  slowlv. 

Sycophant,     ft.     Toady,  fawner,  parasite. 

Symbol.     «.    Token,  sign,  figure,  emblem. 

Symmetry.  //.  Harmony,  proportion. 
Anto.,  inharmimv. 

Sympathy,     n.      i.    Pity,   kindness,   com- 

fiassion,  condolence,  commiseration,  fellow- 
eeling.  2.  Harmony,  aflinity,  correlation.  3. 
Agreement.  Anto.,  apathy,  mercilessness, 
cruelty. 

Symptom.  «.  Indication,  mark,  note, 
sign,  token. 

Synopsis.     7i.     See  Summary. 

System,  «.  Method,  order,  scheme.  Anto.^ 
confusion. 

Systematize,  Arrange,  order,  regulate, 
methodize,    Anto.,  disarrange. 


Table,  n.  1.  Hoard.  2.  Repast,  food, 
fare.     x.  List,  index,  catalogue, 

Tai'it,  iidj.  Implied,  silent,  inferred,  un- 
derstood.    Anto.,  spoken,  expressed. 

Taciturnity,  w.  Ucserve,  reticence,  close- 
ness.    Anto.,  loquacity. 

Tact.  «.  Adroitness,  skill,  quickness, 
judgment.     Anto.,  awkwardness,  gaucherie. 

Talent,  w.  Ability,  capability,  faculty, 
endowment,  gift. 

Talk.  n.  Chat,  communication,  confer- 
ence, colloquy,  conversation,  dialogue,  dis- 
course.    Anto.,  silence. 

Talk,  r-.  Chat,  converse,  discourse,  speak, 
state,  tell.     Anto.,  silence. 

Talkativeness,  n.  Loquacity,  garrulity. 
Anto.,  taciturnity. 

Tally.  7'.  Accord,  agree,  match,  com- 
port, harmonize. 

Tantalize,  v.  i.  Aggravate,  irritate,  pro- 
voke, tease,  torment.  2.  Taunt,  j4«/tf.,  please, 
harmonize,  gladden. 

Taste,  n.  i.  Discernment,  judgment,  per- 
ception.    2.  I-'Iavor.  relish,  savor. 

Tattler,  n.  Gossip,  prattler,  babbler, 
gadabout. 

Taunt.  V.  Deride,  mock,  ridicule,  jeer, 
flout.     Anto.,  praise,  commend. 

Tax.  ;/.  I.  Assessment,  custom,  duly,  toll, 
rate.     2.  Contribution,  tribute. 

Teacher.     ;/.     See  Schoolmaster. 

Tedious,  odj'.  Dilatory,  slow,  tiresome, 
tardy,  wearisome.     Anto.,  prompt. 

Tell.  I'.  Acquaint,  communicate,  dis- 
close, impart,  inform,  mention, make  known, 
report,  reveal,  talk.     Anto.,  listen. 

Temerity,  n.  Heedlessness,  rashness, 
precipitancy.     Anto.,  caution. 

Temper,     n.     Disposition,  temperament. 

2.  Humor,  mood.     3.  Frame. 
Temperate,    adj.    Abstinent,  abstemious, 

moderate,  sober.     Anto.,  immoderate. 

Tempest,  n.  i.  Storm,  gale,  squall,  hur- 
ricane, tornado.  2.  Tumult,  di'iturbance. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Tempt,  z>.  I.  Allure,  entice,  induce,  de- 
coy,  seduce,    inveigle.     2.   Incline,  provoke. 

3.  Test,  try,  prove. 

Temporal,  adj.  i.  Secular,  worldly.  2. 
Sublunary.     ,] /;/(>.. spiritual,  eternal. 

Temporary,  adj.  i.  Transient,  transi- 
torv.     2.  Kleeling.     .-l/z/o.,  permanent. 

Tendency,  n.  i.  Inclination,  propensity, 
proneness.  2.  Drift,  scope.  3.  Aim.  Anto., 
disinclination. 

Tender,  adj.  i.  Kind,  compassionate, 
mild,  lenient,  sympathetic.  2.  Delicate,  soft. 
3.  Womanly,  effeminate.  4.  Feeble,  infantile. 
5.  Pathetic.  6.  Sensitive,  Anto.,  tough,  cal- 
lous, brutal. 

Tenderness.  n.  Affection,  benignity, 
fondness,  humanity.     Anto.,  roughness. 

Tenet,  ;/.  Doctrine,  dogma,  opinion, 
position,  principle. 

Term.  ;/.  i.  Boundary,  limit.  2.  Condi- 
tion, stipulation.     3.  Expression,  word. 

Terminate,  t.  Complete,  finish,  end, 
close.     Anto.,  commence,  begin. 

Terrible,  adj.  Dreadful,  fearful,  fright- 
ful, terrific,  horrible,  shocking.  Anto.,  de- 
lightful. 

Territory.    «.    Country,  domain,  land. 

Terror.  //.  Alarm  apprehension,  conster- 
nation,  dread,  fear,  fright.    ^-Iw/o., confidence. 

Terse,  adj.  Compact,  concise,  jnthy, 
sententious.     Anto.,  verbose. 

Test.  n.  Criterion,  experiment,  tri-al,  ex- 
perience, proof,  standard. 

Testify,  v.  Declare,  prove,  signify,  wit- 
ness, affirm. 

Testimony,    n.    Evidence,  proof. 


graph.     2.  Topic,  subject,  theme.    ^.  Body. 

Thankful,  adj.  Grateful.  Anto.,  un- 
grateful. 

Theory,   n.    Speculation.    Anto.,  practice. 

Tlieref«>re.  adv.  Accordingly,  hence,  so, 
then,  consequentlv,  thence,  wherefore. 

Thif-k.     adj.     Dense,  close.     Anto.,  thin. 

Think,  z-.  Cogitate,  conceive,  consider, 
contemplate,  deliberate,  imagine, opine,  med- 
I    itate,  ponder,  surmise. 


Thirsty,  adj.  1.  Dry,  parched,  a.  Eager, 
longing,  craving,  greedv. 
Tlioii|;h.  ronj.  Although,  while. 
ThouKlit.  w.  Cogitation,  conception, 
conceit,  contemplation,  deliberation,  fancy, 
idea,  imairination,  meditation,  notion,  re- 
flection, supposition. 

Thoughtful.  adj.  Anxious,  attentive, 
careful,  circumspect,  considerate,  conlcin- 
plative,  deliberate,  discreet,  reflective,  solici- 
tous, warv.     Anto.,  thoughtless. 

Thoughtless,  adj.  Careless,  gay.  incon- 
siderate, foidish,  hast>',  indiscreet,  iinrcflec- 
tive.     Anto.,  thoughtful, 

Tlirive.  V.  1.  Succeed,  prosper.  2.  Im- 
prove, flourish,  grow,  advance.    Anto.,  decay. 

Throng.  «.  Multitude,  crowd,  hiwdc, 
host. 

Through.    Pri'P.     By,  with. 

Throw.  V.  Cast,  fling,  hurl,  toss.  Anto.. 
catch. 

Thwart,  v.  1.  Balk,  defeat,  oppose,  ob- 
struct, frustrate.  2.  Cross,  traverse.  Anto., 
aid. 

Time.  n.  Ago,  date,  duration,  epoch,  era, 
period,  season. 

Timely,  adi.  Prompt,  punctual,  oppor- 
tune, seasonable.     Anto.,  untimely. 

Timidity,  n.  i.  Bashfulness.  coyness, 
difiidence,  sheenishness.  2.  Timorousness, 
cowardice,  pusillanimity.     Anto.,  audacity. 

Tiny,  adj.  Small,  little,  puny,  diminutive. 
Anto.,  great,  large. 

Tired,  adj.  F.itigued,  harassed,  jaded, 
wearied.     Anto.,  buoyant,  eager. 

Tiresome.  adj.  Tedious,  wearisome, 
Anto.,  interesting. 

Title,  n.  I,  Name,  appellation,  designa- 
tion, cognomen.     2.  Right.     3.  Inscription. 

Toast,  n.  i.  Toasted  bread.  2.  Pledge, 
liealth.     3.  Sentiment. 

Token.    ;/.      Indication,  mark,  note,  sign, 
s\  niptom. 
"  Tolerate,      7-.      Admit,  allow,  suffer,  per- 
mit.    Anto..  prohibit,  decline. 

Tolerance,  n.  Toleration,  sufferance, 
endurance.     Anto.,  intolerance. 

Too.  adz:  1.  Over,  more  than  enough. 
2.  Also,  besides. 

Torment,  v.  i.  Tease,  plague,  provoke, 
worry,  harass,  tantalize.  2.  Distress,  agon- 
ize, torture,  rack.     Anto.,  appease. 

Tort»ire.     See  Torment. 

Tortuous,  adj.  Tormenting,  twisting, 
winding.     Anto.,  easv,  straight. 

Total.  adj.  Complete,  entire,  whole, 
gross.     Anto.,  part. 

Touch.     H.     Contact,  proof,  test,  feeling. 

Touching,  adj.  Tender,  moving,  p:i- 
thetic,  melting,  affecting.  Anto.,  ridiculous, 
prosv. 

Tough,  adj.  I.  Cohesive,  tenacious.  2, 
Hardv,  strong,  firm.  3.  Stubborn,  obdurate, 
refractory.     Anto.,  lender,  brittle. 

Tour.  «.  Circuit,  excursion,  ramble,  jaunt, 
roimd,  trip. 

Toy.  n.  Bubble,  trifle,  bagatelle.  3.  Play- 
thing, trinket,  gimcrack. 

Trace,  v.  i.  Deduce,  derive.  2.  Sketch, 
follow. 

Trace,    w.    Mark,  track,  vestige,  footstep. 

Trade,  n.  Avocation,  business,  calling, 
dealing,  employment,  occupation,  traflic. 

Traduce,  v.  i.  Calumniate,  vilify,  de- 
fame, decry,  degrade,  depreciate,  detract, 
disparage.  2.  Censure,  condemn,  Anto,, 
eulogize. 

Tranquility,  n.  Calmness,  quiet,  re- 
pose, peace,  placidity,  sercneity.  Anto., 
turmoil,  tumult. 

Transact,  v.  Conduct,  negotiate,  man- 
age. 

Transcend. 


V,     Pass,  excel,  exceed,  sur- 

P.    Fleeting,  short,  moment- 
ary.   Anto.,  permanent. 


pass,  out -do. 
Transient. 


Transparent,  attj  Clear,  pellucid  per- 
vious, translucent,  transpicuous,  AtUo.y 
opaque. 

Transpire.  7-.  1.  Occur,  happen.  2. 
ccunc  out.  be  disclosed.    3.  Exhale,  evaporate, 

Transport,  «.  1.  Carriage,  conveyance, 
transportation.  2.  Ecstacy,  rapture,  3. 
Rage.     Anlo.t  depression,  melancholy. 


/• 


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■yg — ->- 

I      So 


J- . 


~A 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Traveller,  h.  Tourist,  passenger,  itiner- 
ant, vova(jcr,  pilgrim. 

Treacherous,  adj.  Faithless,  perfidious, 
insidious,  false.     ^«/(?.,  faithful. 

Treachery.  «.  Treason,  perfidy,  disloy- 
alty, perfididusness.     Af:io.,  loyalty. 

Treasonable,  adj.  Traitorous,  treach- 
erous.    Atiio.y  loyal. 

Treat,     zk     Kntertain,  negotiate,  feast. 
Tremendous.       adj.      Dreadful,    terrible, 
horrible,  frightful,    alarming,  awful,    appal- 
ling.    yl«^(7.,  small,  mean. 

Trepidation.  «.  Agitation,  emotion, 
tremor,  trembling.     Auto,,  calm. 

Trespass.  v.  i.  Offend,  transgress,  sin. 
2.    Intrude,  infringe,  encroach. 

Trial..  ;/.  i.  Attempt,  effort,  endeavor,  ex- 
periment, examination,  proof,  test.  2.  Temp  - 
tation. 

Tribimal.  /;.  i.  Court,  bar,  judicatory. 
2.  Bench. 

Trick.       V.      Ai^tifice,    cheat,    deception, 
fraud,  finet^sr,  imposture,  sleight,  stratagem. 
Trifling,      adj.      Futile,  frivolous,   incon- 
siderable, light,  petty,  unimportant.     Anto.^ 
important. 

Triiu.  V.  1.  Lop,  clip,  shear.  2.  Ar- 
range, adjust.  3.  Deck,  decorate,  adorn, 
garnish,  ornament,  embellish.  Anto.^  1. 
Increase,  add.     2.  Disarrange. 

Trip.     w.     Excursion,  jaunt,  tour,  ramble. 
Triumphant,     adj.     Victorious,  success- 
ful, conquering,     Anto.^  subdued. 

Troth.  «.  1.  I-'aith,  fidelity,  belief.  2. 
Truth.    Auto.^  falsehood,  lie. 

Trouble,  n.  Adversity,  affliction,  anx- 
iety, distress,  sorrow,  vexation.  Anto,^  hap- 
piness. 

Trouble,    v.     Disturb,  "rieve. 
Troublesome.      odj.     Annoving.  disturb- 
ing, harassing,    importunate,    frksome,  per- 
plexing, teasing.     Aiito.^  pleasant. 

True.  adj.  Honest,  plain,  upright,  sin- 
cere.    Anlo.,  treacherous. 

Truee.  n.  i.  Cessation,  intermission.  2. 
Armistice.     Auto.,  continuance. 

Trust,     ti.    Belief,  credit,  confidence,  faith, 
hope.     A/tto.y  suspicion. 
Trustee,    n.    Agent,  depositary,  fiduciary. 
Truth,     n.     Faithfulness,  fidelity,  honesty, 
veracity.    Anto.,  falsehood. 

Try.    -v.    Attempt,  endeavor,  essay,  test, 
examine. 
Tug.     v.     Hale,  haul,  pluck,  pull. 
Tuition,  ;;.    Schooling,  instruction,  teach- 
ing, education,     Anto.,  ignorance. 

Tumble,  v.  Drop,  fall,  rumple,  sink, 
turn  over.     Auto.,  rise. 

Tune.  w.  i.  Air,  strain,  melody.  2.  Con- 
cord, harmony. 

Tiu'bid.  'adj.  Roily,  unsettled,  thick, 
muddv,  foul.     Atito.,  clear. 

Turbulent,  adj.  Mutinous,  riotous,  se- 
ditious, tumultuous,  violent.     Anto.,  quiet. 

Turmoil.  «.  Disturbance,  uproar,  com- 
motion, tumult.     Auto.,  peace. 

Turn.  ;/.  Rent,  cast,  gyration,  meander, 
Anto.,  disinclination. 

Turn.     V.     Bend,   circulate,    contort,   dis- 
tort, gyrate,  revolve,  twist,  wind,  wheel,  whirl. 
Anto.,  .straighten,  slill,  quiet. 
Turncoat.     //.     See  Jii-m-gade. 
Turpitude.      «.      Wickedness,    baseness, 
depravity,  vikness.     Auto.,  goodness. 

Tutor,  ti.  Instructor,  governess,  gover- 
nante. 

Twaddle,    n.    Stuff,  nonsense,  tattle,  gos- 
sip, haldcrthi.sh.  moonshine.    Anto.,  sense, 
TwiliKlit.    //.     Dusk,    i*!;//*).,  daylight. 
Twine,    n.     Kncircic,  embrace,  entwine, 
Auto.,  untwine. 
Twinge.    7'.    Pinch,  pull,  twitch,  tweak. 
Twinge.    «.    Pang,  grin,  twitch,  spasm. 
Twit.    7'.    Taunt,  biame',  reproach.   Attio., 
commend. 

Type.  «.  I.  Printing  character.  2.  Kind, 
form,  sort.  3.  Kxemplar,  original,  model.  4. 
Mark,  symbol,  sign,  token,  emblem, 

TjTO.  «.  Beginner,  learner,  novice.  Anto,, 
licentiate, 

u 

Vglinefs.  «.  Homeliness,  plainness.  2. 
Hideousness,  frightfulncss.     Anto.,  beauty. 

\^ ^,= 


Ugly.  adj.  1.  Plain,  homely,  ordinary, 
unsightly.  2.  Horrid,  hideous,  shucking. 
Auto.,  pretty. 

Ultimate,  adj.  Final,  last,  eventual,  ex- 
treme,    Anto.,  first. 

Umpii-e.  «,  Judge,  referee,  arbitrator, 
arbiter. 

Unacceptable,  adj.  Unwelcome,  dis- 
pleasing, unpalatable.       Auto.,  acceptable. 

Unadorned,  adj.  Undecorated,  ungar- 
nished,  not  embellished,  not  bedecked.  Anto., 
ornate. 

Unbecoming,    adj.     Improper,  unsuita- 
ble, indecorous,  unseemly.    Auto.,  becoming. 
Unbelief,     n.     Disbelief,  infidelity,  skep- 
ticism, incredulity,  distrust.     Auto.,  belief. 

Unblemished',  adj.  Pure,  clean,  spot- 
less, sinless,  guileless,  immaculate.  Auto., 
blemished. 

Unbounded,  adj.  Boundless,  illimitable, 
infinite,  interminable,  unlimited.  Anto.,  lim- 
ited. 

Unceasingly,  adv.  Always,  constantly, 
continually,  ever,  perpetually,  Anto.,  inter- 
mittently. 

Uncertain,  adj.  Doubtful,  precarious, 
dubious,  equivocal.     Auto,  y  certain. 

Unchangeable,  adj.  Immutable,  un- 
alterable.    A?ito.,  fickle. 

Uncivil,  n.  Impolite,  ungracious,  un- 
courteous,  rude.     Anto.,  polite. 

Uncommon,  adj.  Choice ,  unfrequent , 
rare ,  scarce  ,  singular ,  unique.  Auto. ,  usual. 
Uncongenial,  adj.  i.  Unsuited .  disa- 
greeable. 2.  Dissimilar.  Auio. ,  congenial. 
Unconcerned,  adj.  Cool,  unaffected, in- 
different, careless,  apathetic,  nonchalant. 
Auto.,  concerned,  excited,  vexed. 

Uncover,  v.  1.  Discover,  reveal,  dis- 
close.    2.  Strip,  lav  bare.     -4?//<7.,  conceal. 

Undaunted,  adj.  Fearless,  brave,  bold, 
manful,  resolute,  intrepid.     Anto.,  weak. 

Undeniable,  adj.  Evident,  obvious,  in- 
disputable, incontrovertible,  irrefragiblu. 
Auto.,  disputable. 

Under.'  p^-ep.  Below,  beneath,  inferior, 
lower,  subjacent,  subject. 

Understanding,  h.  i.  Mind,  intellect, 
reason,  sense.  2.  Notion,  idea,  judgment, 
knowledge.     ,^.  Agreement. 

Undeterminetf.  adj.  Doubtful,  fluctu- 
ating, hesitating,  irresolute,  unsteady,  vacil- 
lating, wavering.     Anto.,  resolute. 

Unfaitliful.  adj.  False,  treacherous, 
faithless,  recreant,  perfidious,  dishonest,  dis- 
loval.     Auto.,  faithful. 

Unfit,  adj.  1.  Inapt,  inappropriate,  un- 
suitable. 2.  Incapable,  unqualified.  Anto., 
competent,  convenient. 

Unfold,    2:     Develop,  display,  open,  di- 
vulge, expand,  reveal,  unravel.     Auto.,  hide. 
ifnguarded.     adj.     i.  Thoughtless,  care- 
less.    2.     Undefended,    naked,    unprotected. 
Anto.,  guarded. 

Ungrateful,  adj.  Unpleasing,  thankless. 
Auto.,  thankful. 

Unhandy,  adj.  1.  Inconvenient.  2.  Clum- 
sy, bungling,  awkward,  maladroit.  Anto., 
skilful. 

Unhappy,  adj.  1.  Afflicted,  distressed, 
wretched,  miseranle.  2.  Disastrous,  hard, 
severe.     Auto.,  happv. 

Unhealthy,  adj.  'Diseased,  sickly,  infirm, 
invalid.     Anto.,  healthy. 

Uniform,  adj.  1.  Regular,  unvan-ing, 
alike,  undtviating.  2.  Consonant.  -4«/o.,  ir- 
regular. 

Unkind,  adj.  Harsh,  unamiable,  un« 
friendlv,  cruel.     Anto.,  kind. 

Unimportant,  adj.  Inconsiderable,  im- 
material, insignificant,  trifling,  petty,  trivial. 
Auto.,  weighty. 

Unison,  w.  Accordance,  agreement,  con- 
cord, harmony,  melody.    Anto.,  discord. 

Unlawful,  adj.  Illegal,  unlicensed,  illicit. 
Auto.,  legal,  lawful. 

Unlearned,  adj.  Ignorant,  illiterate,  un- 
educated, unlettered.     Auto.,  learned. 

Unlike,  adj.  Different,  dissimilar,  dis- 
tinct.    Anto.,  similar. 

Unlimited,  adj.  Boundless,  illimitahlu, 
infinite,  unbounded.     Auto.,  limited. 

Unmerciful,  adj.  Callous,  cruel,  hard- 
hearted,  merciless,  severe.    Anto.,  merciful. 


Unquestionable,    adj.    Indisputable,  un- 
deniable, certain,  obvious,  incontestable,  in- 
dubitable,  irrefragible.     Auto.,  questionable. 
Unravel,    v.    Develop,  disentangle,  extri- 
cate, unfold.     Auto.,  tangle. 

Unreal,  adj.  Shadowy,  imaginary,  in- 
substantial, visionarv,  ghostly,  spectral. 

Unrelenting,  adj.  Unpi'tying,  relentless, 
rigorous,  inexorable,  harsh,  cruel,  merciless. 
Auto.,  tender. 

Unruly,  adj.  Ungovernable,  mutinous, 
seditious,  insubordinate,  turbulent,  Anto.^ 
obedient. 

Unseen.  adj.  Invisible,  undiscovered, 
hidden.     Auto.,  visible. 

Unsettled,  adj.  i.  Vacillating,  uncer- 
tain, unsteady,  wavering,  restless.  2.  Turbid. 
3.  Undetermined.     Anto.,  resolute. 

Unspeakable,  adj.  Unutterable,  inex- 
pressible, ineffable. 

Unskilful,  adj.  Ignorant,  wanting  art 
or  knowledge.     Anto.,sk\Uu\. 

Unsocial,  adj.  Unsociable,  unkind.  An- 
to., sociable. 

Unstable,  adj.  1.  Fickle,  inconstant,  mut- 
able,    vacillating.      2.  Fluctuating. 

Untimely,  adj.  Premature,  inopportune, 
unseasonable.     Auto.,  timely. 

Unsuccessful.  adj.  Unfortunate,  un- 
lucky.   Auto.,  successful. 

Untwine,     v.     Untwist,  unwind. 
Unwearied,    adj.    Indefatigable,  restless, 
fresh.     Auto.,  tired.  , 

Unwilling,  adj.  Reluctant,  loath,  indis- 
posed, disinclined.     Auto.,  willing. 

Upbraid,  v.  Blame,  censure,  reprove, 
condemn,    stigmatize,  taunt. 

Upright,  adj.  1.  Erect.  2.  Honest,  bold. 
Auto.,  prone. 

Uproar,  n.  Commotion, hubbub,  disturb- 
ance, clamor,  tumult.     Anto.,  calm. 

Urbanity,  ?/.  Civility,  courtesy,  polite- 
ness, suavity.     Auto.,  incivility. 

Urge.  V.  I.  Instigate,  incite,  stimulate, 
spur.  2.  Solicit,  entreat.  3.  Impel,  push, 
drive.     Auto.,  hinder. 

Urgent,    adj.     Importunate,  pressmg,  co- 
gent.    Auto.,  unimportant. 
'    Usage,    u.     I.    Habit,    practice,    custom. 
2.  Treatment. 

Use.  V.  I.  Employ.  2.  Consume,  exhaust, 
expend.  3.  Exercise,'  practice.  4.  Accustom, 
inure.     Auto.,  abuse. 

Useful,  adj.  Helpful,  serviceable,  good, 
convenient,  profitable.     Auto.,  futile. 

Usually,  adv.  Regularly,  ordinarily,  gen- 
erally, habitually,     Anto.,  seldom. 

Us'eless.     adj.     Fruitless,  ineffectual,  vain. 
Utility,    n.    Use,  service,  usefulness,  avail, 
benefit,  profit.     Auto.,  worthlessness. 

Utterly,  adv.  Wholly,  completely,  fully, 
totally.     Auto.,  partlv. 

Uttermost,    adj.     i.  Utmost,  greatest.   2. 
Extreme,  farthest.     Auto.,  nearest,  next. 
Unusual,     adj.     Rare,  uncommon. 
Unwelcome,    adj.     i.    Unacceptable.    2. 
Displeasing.    Auto.,  welcome. 


Vacant,  adj.  i.  Empty,  unfilled,  void. 
2.  Thoughtless.     ^Ih/o.,  ^Med, 

Vacancy,  u.  1.  Chasm.  2.  Emptiness, 
vacuity.     Anto.,  fulness,  plethora. 

Vacate,  v.  1.  .Make  empty,  void,  annul. 
2.  Leave.     Auto.,  occupy.  , 

Vague,  adj.  Indefinite,  uncertain,  dim, 
doubtful,  obscure.     Anto.,  definite. 

Vain.  adj.  i.  Inflated,  conceited,  over- 
WL-ening,  ostentatious.  2.  Useless,  fruitless. 
Auto.,  modest.  ,  ,  ,, 

Valediction,  n.  Taking  leave,  farewell. 
Auto.,  welcome.  ,      .      ,  n; 

Valid,  adj.  Sound.  ]ust,  logical,  suth- 
cient.  grave.     Anto.,  invalid. 

A'aluable,  adj.  Costly,  precious,  worthy, 
estimable,      .'l?;^!*.,  worthless. 

A'alue.  n.  Account,  appreciation,  esti- 
mation, price,  rate,  worth. 

Value,  V.  Appraise,  assess,  calculate, 
appreciate,  compute,  esteem,  estimate,  rugaid, 

respect.  .  .  , 

vanity,  n.  Arrogance,  conceit,  pride, 
haughtiness.    Anto.,  modesty,  humility. 


KT 


SYNONYMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


8l 


/ 


Yanqnish.  v.  Beat,  overcome,  quell, 
conquer,  subdue,  confuse,  defeat,  subjugate. 
Anio.,  yield. 

A'apld.  adj.  i.  Insipid,  flat,  spiritless.  2. 
Dull,  tame,  prosy.    Anlo.,  spirited. 

Variable,  adj.  Changeable,  capricious, 
fickle,  unsteady,  versatile,  wavering.  Auto., 
unchangeable. 

Variance.  «.  Discord,  strife,  discussion. 
Anto.,  unison. 

Variation.  «.  i.  Difference,  deviation, 
diversity.  2.  Change,  mutation.  Anto.,  per- 
manence. 

Variety.  «.  i.  Difference,  diversity.  2. 
Multiplicity.     Auto.,  simplicity. 

Various,     adj,     i.  Ditferent,  several,  sun- 
dry, many.     2.  Diversified.     Anto.,  simple. 
Veer.     v.     Turn,  shift,  change  course. 
Vegetate,    v.     Spring,  grow,  shoot,  ger- 
minate. 

Vehement,  adj.  i.  Passionate,  violent, 
furious.  2.  Earnest,  fervid.  3.  Forcible, 
strong.     Anto.,  gentle. 

Veroeity.  n.  Speed,  rapidity,  swiftness, 
fleetness.    Anto.,  sloth. 

Venerate,  v.  Honor,  respect,  revere, 
adore.     Anto.,  despise. 

Veracity,  «.  Candor,  truthfulness,  hon- 
esty, ingenuousness.     Anto.,  mendacity. 

Verbal,  adj.  i.  Literal.  2.  Unwritten, 
oral,  spoken,  parole.     Anto.,  written. 

Veroose,  adj\  Diffuse,  wordy,  \vindy, 
prolix.     Anto.,  succinct,  terse,  concise. 

Vestige,     n.     Mark,  trace,  track,  footstep. 
Vexation.     «.    i.  Annoyance,  trouble,  tor- 
ment.    2.  Displeasure.     Anto.,  pleasure. 

Vice,  n.  Wickedness,  crime,  sin,  moral 
ill.     Anto.,  virtue. 

Vicinity,  n.  1.  Neighborhood,  z.  Prox- 
imity, nearness. 

View,  «.  I.  Scene,  vista,  prospect.  2. 
Picture,  sketch.  3.  Sight,  inspection.  4, 
Opinion. 

Vigilant,  adj.  Watchful,  circumspect. 
Anto.,  licedless. 

A'igorous.  adj'.  i.  Strong,  energetic.  2. 
Healthy,  sound.  3.  Racy,  pointed.  Anto.t 
weak. 

Violent,  adj'.  i.  Fierce,  hot.  2.  Vehe- 
ment, boisterous,  furious,  impetuous,  turbu- 
lent   3.  Sharp,    intense.     Anto.,  gentle. 

Vile.  adj.  1.  Wicked,  knavish.  2.  Low, 
base,  mean,  foul.     Anto.,  noble,  lofty. 

Vindicate,  v.  Clear,  defend,  protect, 
justify.     Anto.,  implicate,  criminate. 

Virtue,  n.  1.  Goodness,  integrity,  worth. 
2.  Power,  efficacy.     Anto.,  vice. 

Virtuous,  adj'.  1.  Pure,  chaste.  2.  Good, 
righteous,  exemplary.     Anto.,  bad. 

V  isible.     adj.     i .    Patent,    apparent,    evi - 

dent,  obvious.    2.  Perceptible.  Anto., unseen. 

Visionary,     adj'.     Enthusiastic,  fantastic, 

fanatical,       imaginary,      Anto.,      cautious, 

sensible. 

Visitation,  n.  1.  AfHiction,  trouble,  dis- 
pensation,    2.  Inspection, 

Vital,  adj.  Necessary,  essential,  indis- 
pensable.    Anto.,  unnecessary. 

Vitiate.  ?'.  Contaminate,  pollute,  defile, 
infect,  sophisticate,  taint.     Anto.,  cleanse. 

Vivid,     adj'.     Active,  bright,  clear,   livelv, 
lucid,  quick,  sprightly,  striking.     Anto.,  dufl. 
Volatility,    n.    Kllghliness,  giddiness,  lev- 
ity, lightness,   liveliness.     Anto,,   steadiness. 
Voluptuous,     adj.      Sensual,     epicurean, 
luxurious,    Anio.,  stoical,  harsh. 

Voluptuary.  //.  Epicure,  sensualist. 
Anto.,  ascetic. 

Vouch,  v.  I.  Attest,  warrant,  avouch. 
2.  Back,  support.     Anto.,  deny. 

Vulgarity,  v.  Coarseness,  grossness, 
meanness,  rudeness,  vilencss.  Anto,,  refine- 
ment. 

w 

Wag,  n.  Humorist,  joker,  jester,  wit, 
Anto.,  dullard,  butt. 

Wages,  n.,pl.  Pay,  salary,  hire,  com- 
pensation, stipend,  earnings. 

Wakeful,  adj.  Sleepless,  vigilant,  watch- 
ful, wary.     Anto.,  drowsy. 

Walk.    «.    Carriage,  gait,  path. 

Walk.    V,    Perambulate. 


Wander,    v.     i.    Stray,  swerve,    digress, 
deviate,   2.  Stroll,  ramble,  roam,    Anto.yXvxn. 
Want.   w.    I.  Need.    2,  Poverti,-,  indigence, 
3.  Lack,  dearth,  scarcity,     Anto.,  plenty. 

Wares,  n.  Commodities,  goods,  mer- 
chandise. 

Wariness.  «.  Care,  caution,  circumspec- 
tion, forethought,  prudence.  Anto.,  heed- 
lessness. 

Warlike,  adj.  1.  Hostile,  mimical,  2. 
Military,  bellicose,     Anto.,  peaceful. 

Warm,  adj,  i.  Genial,  pleasant,  sunny. 
2.  Not  cold.  3.  Fervent,  4.  Excited.  Anto., 
cool. 

Warmth,  «.  i.  Glow.  2.  Zeal,  vehe- 
mence, ardor,  fervor.     --Iw/o.,  coolness. 

Warning,  n.  i.  Monition,  admonition, 
2.  Notice,     3.  Caution. 

Wary.  adj.  Vigilant,  cautious,  discreet, 
guarded.     Anto.,  heedless. 

AVaste.  n.  1.  Loss,  consumption.  2. 
Refuse.  3.  Pillage,  ruin,  destruction,  devas- 
tation,    Anto.,  replenishment,  frugality. 

Wasteful,  adj.  i.  Destructive.  2.  Pro- 
fuse, lavish,  extravagant.     Anto.,  frugal. 

AVatchful.  adj.  Vigilant,  careful,  war>-, 
circumspect,  alert.     Anto.,  careless. 

Wave,  «.  Ripple,  undulation,  swell, 
surge,  billow,  breaker. 

Waver,  i',  i.  Fluctuate,  vacillate.  2. 
Flicker,  wave.     Anto.,  steadfast. 

Way.  «.  1.  Path,  route,  course,  road.  2. 
Mode,  method. 

Waj-^vard.  adj.  Forward,  per\'erse,  ob- 
stinate, willful,  headstrong,  stubborn.  Anto., 
docile.  .  ,  ,  . 

Weak.  adj.  i.  Feeble,  languid,  weakly. 
2.  Frail,  sickly,     ^w^tf.,  strong. 

Weaken,  v.  Debilitate,  unnerve,  enfee- 
ble.    2.  Lower,  reduce.     Anto.,  invigorate. 

Weakness,  n.  Debility,  effeminacy.  An- 
to., strength. 

Wealth,  H.  Abundance,  fortune,  atflu- 
ence,  riches,  opulence.    .-Iw/c,  poverty. 

Weariness.  //.  Exhaustiim,  languor, 
lassitude,  fatigue.     Anto.,  buoyancy,  vigor. 

Weai-y.  adj.  Annoy,  fatigue,  harass, 
jade,  subdue,  tire,  vex.'  Anto.,  fresh,  un- 
wearied. , 

Wedding.  «.  Bridal,  espousal,  mar- 
riage, nuptials.    Anto.,  divorce. 

Wedlock,    n.    Marriage,  matrimony. 
Wee.   adj.   Small,  little,  diminutive,  pigmy, 
tinv,     Anto.,  large. 

Weight,  w,  I.  Gravity,  ponderosity.  2. 
Burden,  load,  3,  Influence,  importance.  An- 
to., lightness. 

Weighty,  adj.  Momentous,  important. 
Anto  ,  unimportant,  light,  trifling. 

Welcome,  adj.  i.  Pleasing,  acceptable, 
agreeable,  gratitying.  2.  Admitted  with 
pleasure.     Anto.,  unwelcome. 

Welfare,  n.  Weal,  well-being,  success, 
prosperity.     Anto.,  failure,  poverty. 

Whet.  V.  I.  Stimulate,  quicken,  excite, 
arouse,  kindle.     2.  Sharpen.     Anto.,  dull. 

Wliimsical.  adj.  Capricious,  fantastic, 
fanciful.     Anto.,  commonplace. 

Whiten,     v.    Bleach,  fade,  blanch.  Anto., 
blacken. 
Whole,    adj.   All,  sum,  total,  ^«/o.,part. 
Wicked,     adj.     I.   Had,  ill,  evil, inrquitous. 
2.  Sinful,  vicious,  impious.     Anto.,  virtuous. 
Willingly,     adj.      Spontaneously,   volun- 
tarily, readily.     Anto.,  unwillingly. 

Wily.  adj.  Crafty,  artful,  sly,  cunning, 
insidious,  subtle,  snaky.     Anto.,  ingenuous. 

Win,     V.     I.    Gain,' get,    obtain,    acquire, 
earn,  achieve,     2.  Gain  over.     Anto.,  lose. 
Wince,     v.     Shrink,  flinch,  startle. 
Winding,     adj.     Meandering,  serpentine, 
flexuou.s.  sinuous.     Anto.,  straight. 

Windy,  adj.  Breezy,  stormy,  gusty, tem- 
pestuous, blustering,     Anto.,  calm. 

Wisdom.  H.  I.  Sagacity,  sense,  judg- 
ment. 2.  Learning^,  knowledge,  3.  Reason- 
ableness.    Anto.,  ignorance. 

Wise.  adj.  i.  Sage,  sensible,  judicious. 
2.  Erudite.  3.  Sly,  subtle,  knowing.  Anto., 
ignorant. 

AVit.    «.    Burlesque,  contrivance,  humor, 
irony,  ingenuity,  stratagem.      Anto,^  dulness. 
With,    prep.     By,  through. 


Withdraw.  7'.  i.  Recant,  disavow,  2, 
Remove,  3.  Disengage,  wean,  go  back,  re- 
cede, retire,  retreat,  retrograde,  take  back, 
Anto.,  I.  ICndorsc,  come  for\vard. 

Withhold.     V.      I.   Retain,    2.  Restrain. 
Anto.,  release. 
Withstand,    t.    Oppose,  thwart,    resist. 
Witness,     «.     Deponent,   evidence,   testi- 
mony. 

WiJnder.  n.  i.  Marvel,  prodigy,  miracle. 
2,  Surprise,  amazement.  3.  Curiosity,  Anto.^ 
commonplace. 

WonderfuL  adf.  Admirable,  astonish- 
ing, curious,  marvellous, strange,  surprising. 
Anto.,  usual,  customary. 

AViJOd.  H,  1,  Copse,  grove,  forest,  2. 
Timber. 

Word.     n.     Expression,  promise,  term. 

Worker,  n.  i.  Performer.  2.  Operative, 
laborer,  workman,  artificer.     Anto.,  idler. 

Worship.  «.  Adore,  honor,  revere.  Auto., 
execrate. 

Worth,  n.  Desert,  excellence,  merit, 
price,  rate,  value.     Anto.,  wtirihlessness. 

Worthless,  adj.  Valueless,  degraded. 
Anto.,  valuable. 

Worthy,  adj.  i.  Good,  excellent,  estim- 
able, virtuous.  2,  Desen-'ing.  Anto.^  un- 
worthy. 

Wretched,  adj.  1.  Poor,  bad,  vile,  piti- 
ful. 2.  Cahimitous.  3.  Forlorn,  unhappy, 
miserable.     Anto.,  happy. 

Written,  adj.  Penned,  inscribed,  tran- 
scribed.    Auto.,  verbal. 

Writer,  ;/.  \.  Author.  2,  Scribe,  clerk. 
Secretary,  amanuensis.     3.  Penman, 

Wroiig.  7'.  Maltreat,  injure,  abuse,  op- 
press,    Anto.,  right. 

Wrong,  adf.  I'ntrue,  faulty,  not  fit,  un- 
suitable, unjust.     .4;;/o.,  right. 

Wrong.  ;/,  Injustice,  error,  injur\*. 
Anto.,  rifjht,  justice. 

Wrongly.'    adv.     Erroneously. 

Wrought.     T.    Done,  performed,  effected. 

AVry.  adj.  Crooked,  askew,  distorted, 
twisted.    Ante,  straight. 


Xeres,     «.    Sherry. 

Xiphoid,     adj.     Swordlike,  ensiform. 

Xylography.    «.    Wood-engraving. 


Yearly,    adj.    Annually,  per  annum. 

Yeoman,  n.  Farmer,'  freeholder,  com- 
moner.    Anto.,  gentleman. 

Yet.  conj.  or  adv.  But.  however,  never- 
theless, notwithstanding,  still,  hitherto,  fur- 
ther, besides. 

Yield.  7'.  Allow,  cede,  communicate, 
comply,  conform,  concede,  give,  produce, 
permit,  resign,  surrender.     Avlo.,  lake. 

Yield,     n.    Crop,  product. 

Yielding,  adj.  Compliant,  su  missive, 
facile,  unresisting,  accommodating.  Anto., 
stubborn. 

Yoke.  //.  T,  Link,  chain,  tic,  bond.  2. 
Servitude,  dependence,  bondage,  subjection, 
thraldom. 

Yoke.  7'.  Associate,  join,  link,  couple, 
conjoin.     Anto.,  sever. 

Youth.  «.  I.  Lad,  boy,  stripling.  2, 
Young  men,  young  women.  3.  juniority, 
minority,  juvenility,  adolescetice.  Anto.,  age. 


Zany.  adj.  Clown,  buffoon,  harlequin. 
Punch,  fool. 

Zeal.  «.  Earnestness,  fervor,  cordiality, 
ardor,  passion. 

Zealot.  «,  Enthusiast,  bigot,  fanatic, 
vibionarv. 

Zealous,  adj.  Earnest,  fen,id,  glowing, 
burnini;.  passionate,     Anto.,  lukewarm. 

Zenith.  //,  Top.  apex,  summit, pinnacle, 
climax,     Anto.,  nadir.  . 

Zephyr.  «.  1.  Breeze.  2.  West  wind. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Zero.    n.    Cipher,  naught,  nothing. 

Zest.    «.      Flavor,    taste,    savor,    relish. 

Zone.    M.    I.  Girdle,  belt.    2.  Clime,  re- 


gion. 


kL 


\ 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


^^ 


A  Self-Instructor-2^ 

IN  THE 

■German  Language. 

BY  THE  NEW  SYSTEM  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING,  THE  SIMPLEST  METHOD  KNOWN. 


!^  TUDENTS  will  readily  con- 
cede that  of  all  foreign  lan- 
£rua<jes  the  one  which  best 
deserves  their  attention  is 
the  German.  The  influence 
of  the  Teuton  stock  on 
American  civilization  and 
5  commerce  is  all-important,  and  as 
:*''■'=)'  each  year  continues  to  bring  thou- 
^^'^  sands  of  German  immigrants  to  our 
shores,  it  will  be  more  and  more 
felt.  A  practical  illustration  of 
this  fact  is  shown  in  the  cry  for 
"  German  in  the  public  schools"  which 
is  heard  in  the  leading  cities  of  the 
country  at  the  present  day.  Eventu- 
ally a  knowledge  of  the  language  will 
become  so  essential  in  the  spheres  of  commer- 
cial and  professional  life  that  the  business  or 
professional  man  who  cannot  conduct  conversa- 
tion and  correspondence  in  German  will  find 
himself  at  a  decided  disadvantage  compared 
with  him  who  has  acquired  the  language.  Those 
who  wish  to  do  so  will  find  in  the  following  sys- 
tem of  self-tuition  a  means  of  grounding  them- 
selves so  thoroughly  in  the  principles  of  the  lan- 
guage that,  with  its  lessons  well  learned,  they 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  conversing  and  corre- 
sponding intelligibly  with  Germans  whom  they 
may  meet  in  the  way  of  business  or  social  con- 
verse. And,  having  accomplished  so  much,  all 
that  will  be  needed  to   gain   a   mastery  of  the 


language  is  careful  reading  of  the  standard 
works  of  German  literature,  which  in  time  will 
bring  fluency  of  both  written  and  spoken  expres- 
sion. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

The  German  alplialiet  consists  of  the   following  twenty-six 
letters : 


2J2 

Ss 

ss 

c  < 

K  < 

c  < 

Z  J 

b 

u 

u 

A 

?l  a 

ah 

as  a  in  f>nrt. 

B 

S  1' 

bay 

as  in  Engflish. 

C 

L5  c 

tsay 

as  c  in  Trt/^  if  before  a,  o,  u  oi   a  consonant,  or 

when  final. 

D 

CDi. 

(lay 

as  in  EnEflish. 

E 

(S  e 

i  as  a  in  tame  when  long". 

i  as  (?  in  bf//when  short. 

K 

r«f 

ef 

as  in  Kng-lish, 

(; 

(«  3 

l<ay 

aS/rin  aro. 

11 

»  h 

hall 

hkf  //  in  /torse. 

1 

;■!  i 

e 

as  /in  s/L 

1 

'.1  I 

yot 

nsj'  mj-ear. 

K 

it  f 

kah 

L 

V  1 

l1 

M 

9j;  111 

cm 

N 

o 

9i  11 

eii 
o 

as  in  English, 

V 

%i  p 

pay 

u 

V.  q 

kno 

K 

>1i  I- 

err 

S 

ei\ 

L'R 

as  .«■  in  sif. 

-r 

z  t 

tav 

as  in  ]Cng;lish, 

u 

U  u 

oo 

as  00  in  pooL 

V 

iiD 

fow 

us/in  Jet-/, 

\v 

SBm 

vay 

as  T'  in  Tary, 

X 

.t  j: 

iks 

as  X  in  Iwx. 

Y 

i  "* 

ypsilon 

as_y  in  system. 

Y. 

tsct 

as  is  in  sits. 

VOWELS. 

The  simple  vowels  are  a,  e,  I,  o,  u.  Their  sounds  are  cri/er  above. 

COMPOITNO    VOWKiS- 

a,  e^y  pronounced  like  a  in  hare. 

0,  *r,  prniiniiiicit.1  like  eu  in  the  French  word/tvi   or  ou  'in  touch. 

u,  «c,  pronounced  like  *■<■//,  or  the  u  in  the  French  word  sttr.  The  ac- 
curate sound  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  c,  can  only  be  learned  from 
a  German,  as  there  are  no  similar  sounds  in.  Kngiisri., 

au,  eiUf  is  pronounced  like  ow  in  now. 

cu,  etiy  is  like  oy  \njojf. 


\ 


71=^^ 


•*v 

o 

—                  Ci 

j- 

G\ 

\ 

^ 

)*'■ 

( 

THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

^ 

83 

1 

CONSONANTS. 

ENGLISH. 

r.EKMAX. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

The  ^,g,  has  never  the  soft  sound  as  '\n  gciihts^  but  is  cither  hard  as 

the  morning 

ter  "IRcTiioii 

dair  morgen 

iwgave^  or  has  the  guttural  sound  of  dj,  which  letter  is  sounded  like  the 

a  day 

CIII   III;! 

ine  tahg 

f// in  the  Scotch  word  ioch.     In  the  pronouncing  column,  the  ^and  ch 

the  midday 

tcr  ^Jtittaji 

dair  mittah^ 

will  he  printed  in  italics  whenever  they  should  have  the  guttural  sound. 

the  night 

bic  'Kadjt 

dee  nacht 

Sch  is  pronounced  like  sk  in  ship. 

the  moon 

tcr  'Koiit 

dair  mond 

the  sun 

tie  3oniic 

dee  sonnai 

THE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

a  star 

cin  3tei:u 

ine  shtaim 

Masculine.              Femhiine.                Neuter. 

the  light 

tiiiS  ?i*t 

das  lif//t 

tcr                            tie                            taS,  is  the  German  Article. 

a  year 

cin  3al)r 

ine  yahr 

dair                       dec                        das 

THK  HU5IAN   BODY. 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

The  arm 

tcr  3[rin 

dair  arm 

^fascHIine. 

r  eminiue. 

Xom.    cin  a«alcr,         a  father. 

Xom.     fine  2tatt,        a  town. 

the  heard 

tcr  i'art 

dair  hart 

Gen.     cincS  9?atcr5,   of  a  father. 

Gen.      cincr  >Etatt,      of  a   town. 

the  blood 

taj  iMut 

das  bloot 

Dat.      cinem  SSatcr,    to  a  father. 

Dat.      eincr  Statt,      to  u  town. 

the  hosom 

tcr  'i^ujcii 

dair  l\oosen 

Ace.     einen  3Jater,     a  father. 

Ace.      cine  Stabt,        a  town. 

the  hreast  (chest) 

tic  4*ruft 

dee  broost 

the  eve 

taj  JlUijc 

das  owgay 

Neuter. 

the  ear 

t,iS  Clir 

das  ore 

Xom.    ein  Sdjiff,           a  ship. 

a  chin 

cin  jlinn 

jnt*  km 

Gen.      cined  £d)iffe'S,    of  a  ship. 

the  eyebrows 

tic  '?(uc|cnbrauen 

dee  owgenbrowcn 

Dat.      eincm  Sdiiffe,     to  a  ship. 

the  elbows 

tcr  t^lbcgcn 

dair  clhogen 

Ace.      cin  £d>tff,           a  ship. 

the  fist 

tic  Jvauft 

dee  fowst 

COMBINATION  OF  ARTICLE  AND  NOUN. 

a  finger 

cin  Sinjct 

ine  fing-er 

the  fiesh 

tii8  Jlcifd) 

das  flyshe 

DECLENSIONS. 

the  foot 

tcr  rtiifi 

dair  fooss 

The  German  language  h.as  three  genders:  Masculine,  tor;  Feminine, 

the  hair 

ta^  .C-'iiar 

das  har 

tic;  Neuter,  ta6;  which  form  the  definite  Article. 

the  liand 

tic  .f^iiit 

dee  hahnd 

The   definite   article   is    declined    as   well  as   the    suhstantive,    and 

the  right  hand 

tic  rc*tc  fiant 

dee  rechtay  hahnd 

examples  are  here  given  : 

the  left  hand 

tic  linlc  ,<jaiib 

dee  linkay  hahnd 

Masculine. 

the  heart 

taS  Socrj 

das  hairz 

Singular. 

Plural. 

the  hip 

tie  COftc 

dee  hiftay 

Nom.    tcr  SDiami,       the  man. 

tie  Scanner,                  the  men. 

a  knee 

ein  fliiic 

ine  knee  {k pronounced') 

Gen.      beSaKanneS,    of  the  man. 

fcer  ajidiiner,                  ol  the  int-n. 

the  lip 

tic  I'ii've 

dee  lippay 

Dat.      tern  SDiannc,    to  the  man. 

ben  iUidiincrn,                to  the  men. 

the  neck 

let  9ia(fcn 

dair  nahcken 

Ace.      ten  3Jiann,        the  man. 

bic  SJinnncr,                   the  men. 

the  nose 

tic  3!afe 

dee  nahzay. 

Feminine. 

a  mouth 

cin  TOunt 

ine  moond 

Nom.    tic  5^*1"'      the  woman. 

tic  Jyviiuen,               the  women. 

THE  FAMILY. 

Gen.      tcr^rau,      of  the  woman. 

tcr  Sraucn,               of  the  women. 

The  father 

bet  SJatcr 

dair  fahter 

Dat.      tcr  grau,     to  the  woman. 

ten  gvaucn,               to  the  women. 

Ace.      tie  S"^""'      the  woman. 

tic  ^tauen.              the  women. 

the  grandfather 

bcr  Olroficatct 

dair  grossfahter 

" 

the  stepfather 

tcr  Slicfuatcr 

dair  shteeffahter 

Neuter. 

the  fiitherland 

ta^  llatcilojib 

das  fahtcrland 

Nom.     taS  %\tx'^,       the  horse. 

tie  ilfcvte,                   the  horses. 

the  mother 

tic  -Biiiltcr 

dee  mootter 

Gen.      beS  5JJferte8,    of  the  horse. 

tcr  *l!fcrtc,                  of  the  horses. 

a  brother 

cin  2?rutcr 

ine  brooder 

Dat.       tern  <Pfctbc,    to  the  horse. 

ten  *tfcrbcn,               to  the  horses. 

the  sister 

tie  Sdimcftct 

dee  sh wester 

Ace.      tad  I'fert,       tlie  horse. 

tie  'i^'fertc,                  the  horses. 

the  uncle 

tcr  Cntcl 

dair  onkel 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  ARTICLE  AND  NOUN. 

the  aunt 

tic  lantc 

dee  tahntay 

the  nephew 

tcr  Wcffe 

dair  neffay 

THE   EARTH. 

a  niece 

cine  9ii*tc 

ineay  nic/ztay 

ENGLISH.                                      GERMAN.                           PR  ON  UNCI  ATI  t>N. 

the  girl  (maiden) 

ta8  TOat*cn 

das  maidr//en 

The  earth                          tic  Cirte                             dee  airdai 

the  man 

bcr  Ilicinn 

dair  mahnn 

a  fire                                  ein  ^cuer                            ine  foyer 

the  young  man 

tcr  jnngc  OTanu 

dair  1,  oongay  mahnn 

the  water                          tad  ^HJa^fer                         das  vasser 

the  old  man 

bet  allc  Mann 

dair  altay  mahnn 

the  rainwater                   tad  OiecjcinciafTcr                das  ragenvasser 

the  wife  (woman) 

ba8  ajieib 

das  vybe 

the  stream                        tcr  Strom                          dair  shtrome 

a  bride 

cine  23r«iut 

ineay  browt 

the  sea                                 tie  SCC                                 dee  say 

the  widow 

tic  Sr-iltirc 

dee  vitvay 

the  weather                      tad  SettcT                         das  vetter 

the  widower 

tcr  2SiltiPcr 

dair  vitver 

the  summer  weather      tad  ©ommcncctter           das  summervetter 

the  guest 
the  neighbor 

tcr  CVift 

dair  gahst 

the  winter  weather          tad  SBintcrtPCttCt               das  vintervetter 

tcr  9iad'l)ar 

dair  nar//bar 

the  wind                              tCT  2Binb                              dairvinnd 

the  friend 

terjteuno 

dair  froint 

the  rain                                tcr  JHcgcn                             dair  ragen 

the  storm                          bct  ©tutm                         dair  shtoorm 

FOOD. 

the  hail                           tcr  §agel                          dair  hahgel 

The  beer 

ta«  iMcr 

d.as  beer 

the  frost                            bcr  ^rofl                             dairfrust 

the  glass 

taS  Pla« 

das  glahs 

the  summer                        ber  £ontmer                        dair  summer 

the  flask  (bottle) 

tic  S'lilfdlC 

dee  rtashay 

the  winter                           tcr  '©inter                           dair  vinter 

the  bread 

ta8  a?rok 

das  brote 

the  snow                           tcr  Sconce                         dairshnay 

fresh  bread 

frifdicS  iProk 

frishes  brote 

i 

the  ice                               tad  (Sid                               das  ice 

the  butter 

tie  Suiter 

dee  bootter 

1 

the  thunder                     ber  Tonncr                      dair  duuner 

fresh  butter 

frif*c  iButtet 

frishay  bootter 

Q 

/ 

\ 

5 

-r" 

'S                    ^ 

^      «/ 

V 

' 

the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
old 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 


ENGLISH. 

Cheese 

honey 

milk 

buttermilk 

oil 

fish 

flesh  (meat) 

wine 

wine 

punch 

nnn 

water 

salt 

pepper 

salad 

soup 

beefsteak 

pudding^ 

coffee 

tea 

chocolate 

lemonade 


The  house 

the  garden 

the  land 

the  market 

the  street 

the  church 

the  mail 

the  bank 

the  theater 

the  hospital 

the  coffee-house 

the  palace 

the  harbor 

the  field 

the  dale  (valley) 

the  wood  (forest) 

the  bush 

the  heath 

the  hill 

the  mill 

the  corn 

the  straw 


GEllMAN. 

tie  ^lildf 
lie  2?uttermil$ 
ta^  Cel 
ter  5ifc^ 
ta^  Jvlcifd) 
ter  SSein 
alter  23cin 
tcr  ^Jjuiifd) 
tcr  9ium 
ia%  aSaffer 
tag  Sali 
ter  'i*fe?fcr 
tcr  3alat 
tic  i£uppe 
ia$  25eef)'teaC 
ter  I'utttnci 
tcr  fiaffcc 
tcr  Ihei 
tic  (Sliclctatc 
tic  S^imonate 


PROXL'NCIATION. 

dair  caysay 
dair  honi^ 
dee  miich 
dee  boottermilrA 
das  eel 
dair  fish 
das  fly  she 
dair  vine 
alter  vine 
dair  poonch 
dair  room 
das  vasser 
das  saltz 
dair  pfeffer 
dair  salaht 
dee  sooppay 
das  beefsteak 
dair  poodding 
dair  kaffay 
dair  tay 

dee  chocolahday 
dee  limonahdav 


TOWN  AND   COUNTRY. 


fcaS  ."gang 
ter  Q^artcn 
tag  I'anb 
ter^JIarft 
tie  Strafte 
tie  .Qirc^e 
tic  ^oft 
tie  23ant 
taS  a:hcater 
tag  5;cfpital 
tag  fiaffeeljaug 
tcr  i^ilaft 
ter  ^?afcu 
tag  ^elt 
tag^Ehal 
ter  ©alt 
tcT  5Puid) 
tie  .Sjaite      • 
tet  ^ugel 
fcieanuMe 
tag  Stoxn 
tag  Stvot) 


das  house 
dair  garten 
das lahnd 
dair  markt 
dee  strahssay 
dee  kccrchay 
dee  pust 
dee  bank 
das  tayahter 
das  hospitahl 
das  kaffayhouse 
dair  palast 
dair  hahfen 
das  feld 
das  tahl 
dair  vald 
dair  boosh 
dec  hiday 
dair  heeugel 
dee  meeiiUay 
das  korn 
das  shtro 


TRADES  AND  PROFESSIONS. 


The  baker 

the  bookbinder 

the  book 

the  doctor 

the  hat 

the  hatter 

the  shoe 

the  shoemaker 

the  razor 

a  barber 

the  glass 

the  glazier 

the  nail 

the  saddle 

the  saddler 

the  mill 

the  miller 

the  master 

dancing 

the  dancing-master 

the  post 


tcr  9?ci[fer 

ter  23ucMHnber 

tag  ^^uAi 

tct  T^cftoi 

tcr  §ut 

tcr  .^lutmatbcr 

ter  3cl,mlj 

ter  ©rijuhniat^cr 

tag  9iafirmc[fct 

cin  SJarbiet 

tad  ma» 

lit  (SIdfer 

ter  ^lagel 

tet  Sattcl 

bet  eattlcr 

ble  OJtuftle 

fccr  ffiuUcT 

bcr  3Jteifter 

taiijcn 

bet  2;anjmciftcr 

blcqjDfl 


dair  backer 
dair  boQf/;bindcr 
das  hooch 
dair  doktor 
dair  hoot 
dair  hootmac/ver 
dair  shoe 
dair  shoemac/zer 
das  raseermesser 
ine  barbeer 
das  glahs 
dair  glaiser 
dair  nahgel 
dair  sattel 
dair  satller 
dee  mecullay 
dair  meeuller 
dair  miccter 
tanzen 

dair  tanzmicetcr 
dee  pust 


ENGLISH. 

the  postmaster 

to  ride 

the  riding-master 

the  school 

the  schoolmaster 

the  smith 

the  smithy 

the  nailsmith 

the  goldsmith 

tlie  coppersmith 

the  weaver 

the  king 

the  prince 

the  baron 

the  officer 

the  soldier 

the  pope 

the  archbishop 

the  bishop 


The  jacket 
the  shoe 
the  hat 
the  brush 
the  hairbrush 
the  frock  (coat) 
the  wool 
the  cravat 
the  purse 
the  cap 
the  rin:; 


The  hound  (dog) 

the  cat 

the  rat 

the  mouse 

the  swine   Cpig) 

the  hare 

the  roe 

the  ox 

the  cow 

the  calf 

the  sheep 

the  lamb 

the  fox 

the  wolf 

the  bear 

the  elephant 

the  camel 

the  swan 

the  falcon 

the  goose 

the  stork 

the  snipe 

the  raven 

the  lark 

the  crow 

the  nightingale 

the  cuckoo 

the  swallow 

the  finch 

the  sparrow 

the  fish 

the  carp 

the  herring 

the  eel 

the  frog 


GERMAN. 

bcr  T^ofimcifter 
tcitcn 

bet  9iittmci^cr 
tie  iS-d^ule 
tcr  Sduilincifiev 
tcr  Sdiniicb 
tic  Sdimicte 
ter  S'lagclidimicb 
ter  Q^cltfdiinicb 
bev  il'upfcrj'djmicb 
bcr  ffiebcv 
ber  fionig 
tcr  ^riiij 
ber  9?arcn 
bet  Cfficit't 
bet  Seltat 
ber  l^abft 
ber  (Sritifi^of 
ber  m\d)o\ 

CLOTHING. 

tic  3arfe 
ter  Sdiu^ 
tcr  i^ut 
tic  *PiJvfte 
tic  ijaarburfle 
ter  '^xad 
tic  ^C'oUe 
tie  Cratatte 
tie  ^bx\e 
tie  Sfappc 
ter  Ohng 


PRONVNCIATION. 

dair  postmiceter 
riten 

dair  rittmiceter 
dee  shoolay 
dair  shoolmiceter 
dair  shmit 
dee  shmeeday 
dair  nahgelshmit 
dair  goldshmit 
dair  koopfcrshmit 
dair  vaybcr 
dair  ka-nig 
dair  prints 
dair  bahrone 
dair  offeetseer 
dair  soldaht 
dair  pahbst 
dair  airtshishof 
dair  bishofe 


dee  yackay 
dair  slioe 
dair  hoot 
dee  bc'Liirstay 
dee  harbecurstay 
dair  frak 
dee  vol  lay 
dee  cravahtte 
dee  b(Ersay 
dee  kappay 
dair  ring 


!:asts,  birds, 

tcr  ^iinb 
tie  SlaljC 
tie  9iatte 
tieailaug 
tag  Sdiivetn 
ber  i^afe 
tag  3iefi 
ter  rdi^e 
tic  fiub 
tagflal& 
tag  Sd^aaf 
tag  ?amm 
ber  J^udjS 
bcr  Soil 
ter  ^ax 
ter  {^lepftant 
tag  Slamcol 
ter  3duran 
bcT^alfe 
tie  C^ang 
tcr  Stert^ 
bic  Sdinepfe 
ber  9? a be 
bic  ycrdic 
tie  Slralie 
tie  Oladiligall 
ber  SlurfuiJ 
bie  SdiiDalbe 
bcr  I^iiife 
bee  i^perling 
ber  ^ylid) 
tcr  ilarpfc 
bcr  A^aring 
tcr  ?IaI 
tcr  %xo\6) 


FISHES,  ETC. 

dair  hoond 
dee  kahtsay 
dee  rattay 
dee  mouse 
das  shvine 
dair  hahzay 
das  ray 
dair  ocksay 
due  koo 
das  kalb 
das  shahf 
das  lam 
dair  fooks 
dair  volf 
dair  ba-r 
dair  clefahnt 
das  cahmail 
dair  shvan 
dair  falkay 
dee  gahns 
dair  shtorrA 
dee  shnepfay 
dair  rahbay 
dee  lairrAay 
dee  krayav 
dee  nar/ftigal 
dair  kookook 
dee  shvalbay 
dair  finkay 
dair  spairling 
dair  fish 
dair  carpfay 
dair  hairing 
dair  ahl 
dair  frush 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


k. 


85 


ENGLISH. 

the  worm 
the  spider  - 
the  oyster 
the  crab 
the  flea 
the  fly 
the  bee 
the  wasp 
the  snu.il 


The  gold 
the  silver 
the  copi>er 
the  iron 
the  tin 
the  steel 
the  zinc 
the  bronze 
the  diamond 
the  pearl 
the  coral 
the  marble 
the  gypsum 
the  clay 
the  chalk 
the  coal 
the  earth 
the  sand 
the  stone 


The  ship 

the  boat 

the  ship-of-the-line 

the  fisherboat 

the  anchor 

the  deck 

the  flag- 

the  mast 

the  foremast 

the  sail 

the  strand 

the  rudder 

the  net 

the  Jading  (freight) 

the  freight 

the  coast 

the  cliff 

the  downs 

the  ground 

the  storm 

the  fleet 

the  frigate 


The  century 
the  year 
the  month 
the  week 
the  day 
the  hour 
half-an-hour 
the  minute 
the  second 
the  seasons 
spring 
summer 
autumn 


GERMAN. 

bcr  iBurm 
tie  Sptniie 
tie  ?Iuftcr 
tcr  flrcfcS 
tcr  5b>^ 
tie  Sliojie 
tic  2.Hcnc 
tic  SBcfpe 
tie  ©djnede 


PRONUNCIATION. 

dair  voorm 
dee  shpinnay 
dee  ouster 
dair  kreps 

dair  flo 
dv.e  fleegay 
dee  beenuy 
dee  vespay 
dee  shneckay 


MlNJiRALS  AND  METALS. 


tai  0Dlb 
ta6  Silbct 
ta3  ilupfct 
taS  (Sifcn 
baS  3inn 
bad  i^ta^l 
baS3int 
tic  ©ronjc 
tcr  Xiamant 
tic  ^pcrle 
tie  ffoialle 
ta§  Diarmot 
tor  O^ijvS 
tcr  Sichm 
tcrflalf 
tie  fictile 
tie  Srte 
bet  Sanb 
bet  ©tcin 


das  gnlt 
das  silbcr 
das  koopfer 
das  eisen 
das  tsin 
das  shtahl 
das  tsink 
dee  hronsay 
dair  deeainahnt 
dee  pairlay 
dee  cor:Ulay 
das  marmor 
dair  gyps 
dair  lame 
dair  calk 
dee  coalay 
dee  airday 
dair  sahnd 
dair  stine  ' 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPPING. 

das  shiff 


basednff 
bag  5Bpct 
ta3  ?inienf($iff 
tag  ^if^erboot 
tcr  Hnfer 
tag  Xcct 
tic  glaggc 
teraKaft 
tcr  ^Sortermafl 
taS  gegel 
tcr  Stranb 
bag  iWutcr 
tag  3?e^ 
tic  Satung 
tic  %xa6)t 
tie  Sth^e 
tic  Jllippe 
tic  Xunen 
bcr  ®runb 
bet  ©turm 
tie  ^lotte 
tic  Sre^attc 


das  boat 
das  leenyenshiff 
das  fisherboat 
dair  anker 
das  deck 
dee  fla'ggay 
dair  mast 
dair  fordermast 
das  saygel 
dair  shtrand 
das  rooder 
das  netz 
dee  lahdung 
dee  frar/rt 
dee  kistay 
dee  klippay 
dee  deeunen 
dair  groond 
dair  shtoorm 
dee  flottay 
dee  fregattay 


TIME  AND  SEASONS. 

bag  ^alirfiuiitcrt  das  yarhoondert 


bag  3ar)r 

betajionat 

tie  aSo(^e 

tcr  3:ag 

tie  Stunbe 

cine  ^albc  Stunbe 

ticSDJinutc 

tic  3efuntc 

tic  3al*rcgjclten 

^rOIiIing 

Scmmcr 

§crbfl 


das  3'ar 

dair  monat 

dee  voc//ay 

dairta^ 

dee  shtoonday 

inav  halbay  shtoonday 

dee  minoohtay 

dee  secoonday 

dee  y ares tsi ten 

f  reeling 

summer 

hairbst 


ENGLISH. 

winter 
January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

the  days  of  the  week 

Sunday 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

The  holiday 

Christmas 

Easter 

Whitsuntide 

the  morning 

noon 

the  afternoon 

the  evening 

the  night 

midnight 


The  bell 

the  knocker 

to  open 

tlie  servant 

the  staircase 

the  room 

the  drawing-room 

the  sitting-room 

the  dining-room 

the  slccping-room 

the  kitchen 

the  cellar 

the  window 

the  stove 

the  chimney 

the  looking  glass 

the  table 

the  chair 

the  arm-chair 

the  carpet 

the  chest  of  drawers 

the  sofa 

the  candlestick 

the  candle 

the  lamp 

the  wick 

the  oil 

to  light 

the  bed 

the  counterpane 

the  sheets 

the  pillow 

the  basin 

the  soap 

the  towel 


GERMAN. 

fflSintet 

3anuar 

gebruot 

Smdrj 

MptU 

3Kat 

3uni 
3uU 

Qluguft 

ecptcmbct 

Octotct 

^lovcmbcr 

Tcjembct 

tic  ©odjcntage 

Sun  11  tag 

9}iontag 

TiciiHag 

aJt  it  tired) 

2^cnucrpag 

Srcttag 
I  tSamfta.i 
{  3i.Minabcnb 

tcr  gciettag 

S[Bei^nad}tcn 

Cfletn 

^fingften 

bet  aJiotgcn 

3J;ittag 

tct  giadiinittag 

tcr  ?lbcnb 

tic  3iadjt 

Snittctnadjt 

THE  HOME. 

tic  GMocfe 
tcr  fllopfer 
cffncn 
tie  SDJagb 
tic  Ircppc 
tag  .Simmer 
tag  I'uljjimmct 
tag  ©cbiiiiiiinict 
tag  (Sfijimmct 
tag  Sdilafiimmct 
tic  iludjc 
ter  JlcUer 
tag  ^-enficr 
bet  £\c\\ 
ber  Slomin 
bet  epicgcl 
bet  Xifc^ 
bet  etuM 
bcr  ?InnftuM 
bet  -tcvpidi 
tic  flommotc 
tag  2DV(m 
tct  ?eu4itct 
tag  Cidjt 
bte  Campe 
bcr  Xoc^t 
bag  Ccl 
oujunbcii 
bag  a^tt 
ticiVtttcrfc 
tic  a?ctltuc^u'r 
tag  flovfliHcn 
bag  aSafdibecfcn 
bte  Seife 
bag  j^aubtiid} 


PRONUNCIATION. 

vintcr 
yanooar 

febrooar 

mayrts 

apreel 

my 

yoonce 

yoolec 

owgoost 

September 

October 

november 

daytsember 

dee  vocAentahgay 

sunta^ 

monetiu;' 

deenstao- 

niittvor/i 

donnersta^'" 

ireitah^ 

sahmstahrf' 

sunnahbend 

dair  firetOj^ 

vinaf/Hcn 

ohstem 

pfingp^ten 

dair  morgen 

mitta^^ 

dair  nar//mitta^ 

dair  abend 

dee  nac7/t 

mitternacAt 


dee  gluckay 
dair  klupfer 
cffnen 
dee  ma^ 
dee  treppay 
das  tsimmer 
das  pootstsimmer 
d;\s  vohntsimmer 
das  esstsimmer 
das  shlahftsimmer 
dee  keeuc/vay 
dair  keller 
das  fenster 
'dair  ohfen 
dair  kameen 
dair  shpeegel 
dair  tish 
dair  shtool 
dair  arnishtool 
dair  teppir/r 
dee  commohday 
das  sofa 
dair  loy(r//ter 
das  lir/tt 
dee  lampay 
dair  docAt 
das  a-l 
antsinden 
d;is  bet 

dec  betdeckay 
dee  betteecAcr 
das  kupfklsscn' 
das  vashbeckcn 
dee  si  fay 
das  handtoof/i 


A 


ENGLISH. 

warm  water 
cold  water 
hot  water 
to  wash 
the  comb 
to  comb 


GERMAN. 

falte^  ©offer 
hcmS  Saffer 
loafd^en 
tcr  fiamm 
Cam  me  II 


The  apple 
the  apple-tree 
the  pear 
the  pear-tree 
the  plum 
the  plum-tree 
the  cherry 
the  chestnut 
the  peach 
the  apricot 
the  orange 
the  lemon 
the  grape 
the  nut 
the  walnut 
the  currant 
the  goosehcrrv 
the  r;ispberry 
the  blackberry 
the  strawberry 
the  oak 
the  beech 
the  poplar 
the  lime 
tlie  ash 
the  fir 
the  willow 
tlie  rose 
the  pink 
the  tulip 
the  lily 
the  violet 
the  lilac 
the  lily  of  the  v 


alley 


The  clothes 

the  coat 

the  trowsers 

tlie  pocket 

the  buttons 

the  dressing-gdwn 

the  slipj>crs 

the  drawers 

tliu  stockings 

the  shirt 

the  braces 

the  waistcoat 

the  boot 

the  boot -jack 

the  cap 

the  gloves 

the  handkerchief 

the  watch 

the  umbrella 

the  ptirsu 

the  brush 

the  comb 

the  npron 

the  fan 

the  dress 


FRUITS,   TREES  AND 

in  Jlpfel 

bcr  3IvfeI&Qum 

tie  95irne 

tcr  iMviibaum 

tie  'llflauiiie 

ter  '!l>naumenbaum 

tie  fiirfd'e 

tic  iliiftaiiie 

tcr  "lifirud; 

tie  3Iprtccfe 

tie  Ulpfelfinc 

tie  C^itrone 

tie  aSeintraube 

tie  9iUB 

tie  aSaUiuifj 

lie  l^ciianiu^lieeve 

tie  BtaclH'Ibeeve 

tie  i'tiinbccre 
tie  'iPrombcere 

tic  Prtbecrc 

tie  (yidie 

tic  ^i^udie 

tic  l^vippel 

tic  I'lnte 

tie  6i*e 

tie  Jaime 

tic  aSette 

tie  Siofe 

tie  gjclfe 

tie  2ulpe 

tie  Silie 

fca5  9Jeil*cn 

ter  Jlietcr 

ta^  2)iaibliimdieH 

THE    TOILET. 

ticiUcitcr 
tcr  'Hlod 
tic  ^lofen 
.  tie  2a^A}e  ■ 
tieflnopfe 
tcr  5d)IafrDif 
tie  'iiaiitcffcln 
tie  Uiitcibofcn 
tie  Striimpfe 
ta^  .-pcinb 
tie^iofentroger 
ticaDcfie 
tcr  (cticfcl 
tcr  2licfcl!ncd?t 
tie  ajtijtc 
tie  ^-^odtidiulic 
ta-5  2afdiciitud) 
tic  Ubr 

tcr  i)fc;icnf*irin 
tie  9?erfc 
tie  a^urftc 
tcr  fl  a  mm 
tic  Sd^iirjc 
ter  rt.idicr 
ta^fllcib 


PRONUNCIATION. 

varmes  vasser 
kaltes  vasser 
hyses  vasser 
vashen 
dair  kamin 
kemnien 

FLOWERS. 

dair  apfel 

dair  apfelbowm 

dee  beernay 

dair  beernbowm 

dee  pflowmav 

dair  pflowinenbowni 

dee  kcershav 

de^'  kastanyav 

dair  pfeersif// 

dee  apreecohsay 

dee  apfelseenav 

dee  tsitronav 

dee  vinetrowbay 

dee  nooss 

dee  vallnooss 

dee  yohanisbairay 

dee  shtac/zelbairay 

dec  himbairay 

dee  brombairay 

dee  airdbairay 

dee  ir//ay 

dee  boocAay 

dee  pappel 

dee  lindav 

dee  csbay 

dee  tannay 

dee  viday 

dee  rosay 

dee  nelkay 

dec  toolpay 

dee  leeleay 

das  filefAen 

dair  fleeder 

das  mybleumchen 

dee  klider 

dair  ruck 

dee  hozen 

dee  tashay 

dee  kncepfay 

dair  shlahfruck 

dee  pantuffeln 

dee  oonterhosen 

dee  strceumpfay 

das  hemt 

dee  hosentrayger 

dec  vestay 

dair  shteefel 

dair  shteefelknec/zt 

dee  milsay 

dee  bandshooay 

das  tashentoor/; 

dee  oor 

dair  raygtnsheernj 

dee  bcLTsay 

dee  hirstay 

dair  kainrn 

dee  sheeurtsay 

dair  fcc//er 

das  klite 


ENGLISH. 

the  petticoat 

the  stays 

the  veil 

the  powder 

the  soap 

the  tooth-powder 

The  voyage 
the  traveller 
the  road 
the  railroad 
the  station 
the  train 
the  engine 
the  carriage 
the  wagon 
the  departure 
the  arrival 
the  pass -port 
the  inn  (hotel) 
the  landlord 
the  waiter 
the  bill 

the  interpreter 
the  luggage 
the  trunk 
the  carpetbag 


The  paper 

the  writing-paper 

the  writing 

the  sheet 

the  pen 

the  steel-pen 

the  penknife 

the  inkstand 

the  ink 

the  pencil 

tlic  scissors 

the  date 

the  direction 

the  mail 

the  seal 

the  sealing-wax 

the  wafer 

the  ruler 

the  letter 

tlie  note 


The  country 

the  native  land 

the  state 

the  empire 

the  kingdom 

Kurope 

the  European 

An;  erica 

tlie  American 

Asia 

Africa 

the  Kast  Indies 

the  West  Indies 

the  I'nited  States 

IJrazil 

K  light  nd 

the  linglishman 


GERMAN. 

ter  UntcniMf 
ba^  3d)tiiiiieib 
bcr  ©djlcier 
baS  $utet 
tie  Scife 
ba^  3o^npuIyer 

TRAVEL; 

bie  S)icife 
bet  Oicifcntc 
tie  ^antflra&e 
tic  Gifenbabn 
bie  >£tation 
ter  3ug 
tie  SRaf^ine 
bie  Jtutfdje 
ter  aSagcn 
tie  ?lbrctfe 
tie  ?Infunft 
tcr  %n% 
ter  G^aftfiof 
tcr  aSirt^ 
tcr  Jiicllucr 
tie  Oicdinung 
tcr  Tolmetfdjer 
ta§  OVparf 
bcr  Siofjex 
ter  Oieifefarf 

AT  THE  WRITING- 

ta-S  'il>apier 

ta5  Sc^veibpapier 

tic  Sd^rift 

ter  55ov3eii 

tie  ivetcr 

bie  Stablfcter 

bav^  Jyctcrmeffer 

ta^  3:intenfafe 

tic  3:iiite 

tcr  aneiftift 

tic  Sdieere 

tcr  Tatiim 

tic  aitvcffe 

tie  l*efl 

bad  ^Ictf^aft 

ter  SicgcUad 

bie  Cblate 

ta5  i^incal 

bcr  *5rief 

taSSiUet 


PRONUNCIATION. 

dair  oonterruck 
der  shneerlipe 
dair  shiire 
das  pooder 
dee  sifav 
das  tsahnpoolfer 


dee  rizay 
dairrizendav 
dee  lahndshtrahsay 
dee  isenbahn 
dee  stahtzione 
dair  tsoo^ 
dee  masheenay 
dee  kootshay 
dair  vahgen 
dee  abrizay 
dee  ankoonft 
dair  pass 
dair  gasthof 
dair  veert 
dair  kclner 
dee  rer//noong 
dair  duUmetsher 
das  gepcck 
dair  cuffer 
dair  rizaysack 

DESK. 

das  [japeer 
das  shribupapeer 
dee  shrift 
dair  bngen 
dee  fayder 
dee  stahlfayder 
das  faydermesser 
das  tintenfass 
dee  tintay 
dairblystift 
dee  shayray 
der  dahtoom 
dee  ahdressay 
dec  pust 
das  petshaft 
dair  seegellac 
dee  ohlahtay 
das  leenayahl 
dair  hrcef 
das  bilyet 


LANDS  AND 

ba§  ?anb 

baei  ajiatcTlanb 

bcr  Staat 

ba-^  Sic  id) 

bat^  .QomflTcid) 

C^urppa 

bcr  Puropaer 

aimcnia 

bet  aimcriEancr 

aifieii 

aifnra 

Ciftinbti'ii 

^IGcftiiiticn 

bie  vcrciiuvjtcn 

•i^vafilicu 

(5iifllaiib 

ter  Pnglcintcr 


PEOPLES. 

das lahnd 
das  fahterlahnd 
dair  shtaht 
das  rir//e 
d;is  kruntgric/ie 
oiropa 

dair  oiropayer 
amayricah 
dair  amajTikahoer 
azien 
afrika 
ostindien 
vestindien 
Ztaatcn    dee  vcrini^ten  stahtcn 
brahzcclien 
englahnd 
dair  Englender 


i 


/• 


^ 


^        al' 


M\ 


^a( 

_^ ^ 

■     ^ 

{? 

\ 

/ 

|0 

1 

THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

f 

87 

» 

ENGLISH.                                 GERMAN.                        PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Ireland                              Jtlanl)                               eerlahnd 

rich 

iei4 

ric//e                                          1 

the  Irishmiin                      ter  ^^lonCet                        der  ecrlcnder 

cold 

talt 

kalt 

Scotland                            8t^cltlanb                          shutlahnd 

warm 

icatm 

varm 

the  Scotchman                  fcCT  (E6cttC                          dair  shuttay 

long 

long 

lahng 

France                              Jrontreiift                           frankrif/;e 

high 

fiod) 

hoacA 

the  Frenchman                 bcr  graniofe                        dair  frantsosay 

full 

PcO 

foil 

Germany                           Tcutfdilanb                       doytslilahnd 

cool 

Iul>I 

keel 

the  German                        let  XfUtft^e                        dair  doytshay 

near 

na^e 

nail 

Holland                            iTjoUanb                              hiilLilind 

hard 

(art 

hart 

the  Dutchman                 tct  i^oUantet                     dair  hullender 

light 

leid)l 

lyc/it 

Austria                                 Ocflettcit^                            eceterri<r/ie 

wild 

iDilb 

villd 

the  Austrian                     bcr  Sjefterrci(!^cr                 dair  cceterrii://er 

fat 

fett 

fet 

Prussia                                ^Tcujicn                                 proyssen 

fine 

fein 

fine 

the  Prussian                     bcr  iitcujc                          dair  proyssay 

mild 

railb 

milld 

Russia                               3iu(ilanb                              roossland 

deep 

lief 

teef 

the  Russian                     bet  3iu(fe                          dair  roossay 

fresh 

ftif* 

frish 

Sweden                            gliireeben                         shvayden 

ripe 

teif 

rife 

the  Swede                       bet  edjirebe                      dair  shvayday 

unripe 

untetf 

oonnfc 

Denmark                           CCancmatt                          danemark 

bitter 

btltet 

bitter 

the  Dane                             ber  Tane                              dair  daynay 

small 

fd^mal 

shmahl 

Switzerland                        bie  SdllCCiB                          dee  shvyts 

wide 

itcit 

vite 

the  Swiss                         bcr  Sdirociftet                   dair  shvytscr 

open 

off  en 

uffen 

Italy                                      gialtcn                                  eetalyen 

loud 

laut 

lout 

the  Italian                         ber  ^lalicner                      dair  cctaleeayner 

right 

tedit 

recAt 

Spain                                    (Spanicn                               shpanycn 

wise 

neife 

visay 

the  Spaniard                    ber  Spaniel                       dair  shpaneeyare 

blind 

blinb 

blinnd 

Greece                             CUicdjcntanb                     grcec/;enlahnd 

unwell 

unipc^l 

oonvole 

the  Greek                          bet  Piicdie                         dcir  greec/zay 

hot 

%i\.% 

hice 

Turkey                                 bic  2utfei                             dee  tecrki 

thick 

Mi 

dick 

the  Turk                           bet  Xuttc                            dair  teerkay 

neat 

nett 

net 

the  Jew                             bet  3ube                             dair  yooday 

thin 

burnt 

din 

the  Persian                       bcr  lU'tfier                          dair  pcrzier 

broad 

bteit 

britc 

round 

runb 

roond 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

false 

falW 

fahlsh 

The  German  adjective  is  placed  before  the  substantive. 

sour 

fauec 

sour 

With  the  definite  article  it  takes  the  termination   in  e;  with  the  in- 

hollow 

6oI,l 

hole 

definite  article  or  without  the   article,  it  takes  the  termination  of  its 

sharp 

(djatf 

sharf 

gender;  as: 

flat 

flu* 

flaf/i 

Bet  gutc   Satcr,  the  good  father;  gulet  Sater,  good  father;  ein  gutct 

small 

ficin 

klino 

SSater,  a  good  father. 

narrow 

cngc 

engay 

QDic  gule  iKutlet,  the  good  mother ;  gute  33!uttet,  good  mother ;  etne  gate 

ajlutlcr,  a  good  mother. 
"EoS  gute  SJtiib,  the  good  child;  gulcS  Stnb,  good  child;  cin  gute8  Jtiiib, 

a  good  child. 

low 
beautiful 

nicMig 
(*on 

needri^ 
schcen 

handsome 

ugly 

bifiliif) 

hibsch 
hessIicA 

bad 

fdUcdil 

shlecAt 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTn'ES. 

easy 

reid)t 

leiWit 

The  comparative  of  a  German  adjective  is  formed  by  adding  er  to 

heavy 

fdjrcet 

shvair 

the  positive,  the  superlati\e  by  adding  ftc;  as: 

soft 

ipcidj 

vycAe 

Sllcin,  little  —  llcincr,  smaller  —  (Icinrte,  smallest. 

true 

tta^t 

vahr 

Oicid',  rich  —  tciciicr,  richer  —  rcidific,  richest. 

short 

turj 

koorts 

The  "  than''  following  the  comparative  is  translated  by  „aU". 

far 

n;eU 

vite 

Gr  tft  llcillet  ali  id) ;  he  is  smaller  than  I. 

sweet 

fu6 

secss 

hollow 

I)Ol)I 

hole 

VOCABULARY  OF  ADJECTn-ES. 

blunt 

fiumpf 

shtoompf 

White                                ItCiJ                                    vice 

delicious 

leftlid) 

kffistlir/i 

red                                      lolj                                     rote 

disagreeable 

unangenebm 

oonahngenaym 

blue                                 ilau                                  blou 

honest 

ebtlic^ 

ayrlif// 

brown                              braun                               brown 

polite 

I)i;>flid) 

hoeflicA 

gray                                    grau                                    grou 

obliging 

gefiUig 

gefelli/ 

green                                  gtitn                                    green 

kind 

gutig 

geeti^ 

yellow                                  geli)                                        gelb 

prudent 

Hug 

kloog- 

orange                                  Ptangc                                   orahn^ 

stupid 

tunim 

doomm 

purple                                  puipur                                  poorpoor 

ridiculous 

Lid^crltd) 

lefAerli^A 

violet                                  Piolctl                                 veeolet 

reasonabl . 

I'crnunflig 

fcrninfti^ 

old                                      alt                                       ahlt 

happy 

gltidlid) 

ghcklicA 

young                                Jung                                    yoong 

unh:ippy 

ungliicllie^ 

oonglicklic-A 

new                                  neu                                   noi 

glad 

frol) 

fro 

4 

great                                  grofe                                    gross 

satisfied 

jufrieben 

tsoofreeden 

k 

good                                gut                                   goot 

active 

tbatig 

taiti^ 

1 

-■J 

/ 

\ 

- 

■*" 

-■ 

-•           a 

T*" 

\ 

*^ 

-5        ^ 

^           <^ 

i_^ 

s 

\ 

/ 

s> 

1 

88 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 

) 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

proud 

flolj 

shtults 

a  million 

eine  ^Jitllicn 

inay  milleeone 

rude 

Sroli 

grope 

one     thousand 

eight  ein  taufcnb  adjt  ^unbert  ine  towsend  ac/it  hoon-        | 

bold 

(Qfin 

keen 

hundred    and 

fifty-      neununcfunfiig 

dert  noyn  oond  finf- 

strong 

flart 

shtark 

nine. 

tsig 

weak 

t*rcad) 

shvach 

attentive 

aufracrtfara 

owfmerksahm 

THE   ORDINAL  NUlttBERS. 

clever 
sick 

gefdjictt 

geshickt 

the  first 

ber  erfie 

dair  ayrstay 

[rant 

krahnk 

the  second 

berjireite 

dair  tsvitay 

pale 

blaj 

blahss 

the  third 

ber  britte 

dair  drittay 

healthy 

gelunb 

gezoond 

the  fourth 

ber  Dicrte 

dair  feertay 

poor 

arm 

arm 

the  fifth 

bet  fun^te 

dair  finftay 

empty 
light 
dark 
dry 

ker 

lair 

the  sixth 

bcT  fed^gfie 

dair  sextag 

flElI 

hell 

the  seventh 

ber  fiebentc 

dair  seebentay 

buntel 

doonkel 

the  eighth 

ber  Qd)te 

dair  ac/rtay 

troien 

trocken 

the  ninth 

ber  neunte 

dair  noyntay 

wet 
dirty 

nag 

nahss 

the  tenth 

ber  je£)nte 

dair  tsanetay 

fd^mu^ig 

shmootsi^ 

the  eleventh 

ber  elfte 

dair  elftay 

cheap 
clean 
tired 

billig 

billi^^ 

the  twelfth 

ter  jtrclfte 

dair  tsvelftay 

tein 

rine 

the  thirteenth 

ber  breijeftnte 

dair  drj-tsanetay 

miibe 

meeday 

the  fourteenth 

ber  Pierje&nte 

dair  fecrtsanetay 

angry 

tofe 

bees  ay 

the  fifteenth 

ber  funfjelinte 

dair  finftsanetay 

merry 

lutlig 

loosti^ 

the  sixteenth 

ber  fedj^jefintc 

dairscf/^tsanetay 

CARDINAL  NUMBERS. 

the  seventeenth 

ber  Hebenje&nte 

dair  scebentsanetay 

One 

two 

three 

four 

etn,  einS 

ine, ines 

the  eighteenth 
the  nineteenth 

ber  aditjefinte 
ber  neuHjelinte 

dair  arZ/tsanetay 
dair  noyntsanetay 

trei 
Bier 

tsvi 

dri 

feer 

the  twentieth 
the  twenty-first 

ber  jroanjigfte 

ber  einunbjtpanjigfte 

dair  tsvanzi^tay 

dair  ineoondtsvantsig- 

five 
six 

seven 
eight 

finf 

fieten 
ttiit 

finf 

sex 

seeben 

ac/it 

twenty-second 
the  twenty-third 

ter  jroeiunbsicanjigfte 
ber  breiunbjnjanjigpe 

stay 
dair  tsvioondtsvantsi^- 

stay 
dair    drioondtsvantsi^- 

stay 

nine 

tt-n 

eleven 

twelve 

thirteen 

fourteen 

lifteen 

sixteen 

seventeen 

eighteen 

neun 

jebn 

elf 

jreilf 

treijebn 

tter)el)n 

fiinfjefin 

fecbejebn 

fiebenjcl^n 

noyn 

the  thirtieth 

ber  brei^igite 

dair  drysij^tay 

tsane 

elf 

Uvelf 

drytsane 

feertsane 

finftsane 

sextsane 

seebentsane 

the  thirty-first 

ber  cinunbtret&igfte 

dair  ineoonddrysi^tay 

the  thirty-second 

ber  jtueiunbbrei&igfte 

dair  tsvioonddrj-si^tay 

the  fortieth 
the  fiftieth 
the  sixtieth 
the  seventieth 
the  eightieth 
the  ninetieth 

ber  cierjtgfte 
ber  ^unf5igfic 
bet  fediSjigiie 
ber  fiebenjigfte 
bet  acbtjtgfte 
bet  neunuafte 

dair  feertsi^tay 
dair  finftsi^tay 
dairsecZ/tsi^tay 
dair  secbcntsi^tay 
dair  acitsi^tay 
dair  noyntsi^tay 
dair  hoonderstay 

adiljebn 

acZ/ttsane 

the  one  hundredth          ter  buntertjle 

nineteen 

twenty 

neunjetm 

noyntsane 

the   one   hundred 

and  bet  ljunbettunbetfte 

dair  hoondertoondayr- 

jwanjig 

tsvantzi^ 

first 

stay 

twenty -one 

einuntjreanjij 

incoondtsvantzi^ 

the  two  hundredll 

ber  sroeifiunbcrtfte 

dairtsvihoondertstay 

twenty-two 

jreeiuntjipaniig 

zvioondtsvantzi^ 

the  three  hundredth        ter  bvciliuntertfte 

dairdrihoondertstay 

twenty-three 
thirty 

treiuntjroanjig 
tretjiig 

dryoondtsvantzi^ 
drysi^ 

the  one  thousandth        ter  tauyentfte 

dair  towsendstay 

forty 

tietjig 

feertzi^ 

COLLECTIVE  NUMBERS. 

fifty 

funfaig 

finftzio- 

A  pair 

ein  ^aar 

ine  pahr 

sixty 

fectiSjig 

sec/itz'i^ 

a  dozen 

ein  Tu^enb 

ine  dootsend 

seventy 

eighty 
ninety 

fiebenjtg 

seebenzi^ 

a  score 

Sitjanjig 

tsvantsi^ 

acbljig 

ac//tzi^ 

firstly 

erften^ 

ay  rs  tens 

ncuniig 

noyntzi^ 

secondly 

jweitenS 

tsvitens 

one  hundred 

buntert 

hoondert 

thirdly 

btittenS 

driltens 

one  hundred  and  one 

[)unlcrt  unt  ein8 

hoondertoond  ines 

the  first  time 

ba^  erftc  0)?al 

das  ayrstay  mal 

one  hundred  and  two 

Ijuntcrt  uiit  jirei 

hoondert  oond  tsvi 

the  second  time 

ba^  jireite  aJIal 

das  tsvitay  mal 

two  hundred 

jrcei  Ininbert 

tsvi  hoondert 

once 

cinmal 

inemal 

three  hundred 

tret  bunCcrt 

dry  hoondert 

twice 

jipeimal 

tsvimal 

four  hundred 

wier  luintect 

feer  hoondert 

thrice 

btcimal 

drymal 

five  hundred 

(iinf  bunbtrt 

finf  hoondert 

single 

cinfacft 

inefair^ 

six  hundred 

fo*«  fiuntctt 

sex  hoondert 

double 

bcppelt 

duppelt 

seven  hundred 

ficbcn  hunbctt 

seeben  hoondert 

threefold 

brcifa* 

dryfacA 

eight  hundred 

adit  I)unlcit 

ar//t  hoondert 

fourfold 

ticrfadj 

feerfacrA 

nine  hundred 

neun  liunteit 

noyn  hoondert 

one  sort 

einetlet 

inerlye 

one  thousand 
two  thou,;iiul 

taiifenb 

towsend 

two  sorts 

jroeictlei 

tsvierlyc 

jUH'i  tauienb 

tsvi  towsend 

three  sorts 

bteterici 

drierlye 

J 

three  thnusaml 

Irtt  taufcnb 

dry  towsend 

four  sorts 

tieterlei 

feererlye 

\ 

ti-n  tliousand 

5tbn  toufenl) 

tsane  towsend 

ten  sorts 

jefinetlci 

tsanerlye 

,  0 

/ 

\ 

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ti               *~ 

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G 

1 

-- 

\ 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 

,                                                89 

0  ' 

1 

PRONOUNS. 

INDICATIVE. 

SUBJtNCTIVE. 

Second  Future.                                                          \  \ 

I                               ii* 

mine                             mcin 

I  shall  have  had. 

If  I  shall  have  had. 

thou                                  2)u 

thine                               Xeill 

14  roeite  geljabi  Ijaben 

id)  recttc  gebabt  ^aben 

he                                     er 

his                                fein 

Xu  itirit  gcbabl  baben 

Xu  roettefl  gebabl  baben 

she                                    fi? 

her                                  l^t 

er  reirb  gebabl  ^aben 

er  reerte  gct)abl  I)aben 

we                                    toit 

ours                              unfet 

irtr  irerben  gebabt  I)aben 

irir  rectten  gebabt  baben 

you                                   36t 

yours                            (Suer 

3bt  werbct  gcbobl  baben 

3bt  reerbel  gebabl  babcn 

they                                     fie 

theirs                              i^t 

fie  luerben  gebabt  ^aben 

fie  reeiben  ge^bt  ^aben 

who,  which                 weli^et 

FIKST  CONDITIONAL. 

SECOND   CONDITIONAL. 

this                                   ttcfcr 

that                                  jcneT 

who                              iver 

I  should  have. 

I  should  have  had. 

such                                 foltfjcr 

each,  every  one            Jeter 

icb  reiitte  baben 

id)  reutbe  gebabl  baben 

somebody                        jemanb 

nobody                         niemaiib 

Tu  H'lirtefl  babcn 

Xu  reiitteft  gel)abt  baben 

er  ipiirCe  baben 

er  reiirte  gebabt  baben 

The  polite  form  of  address  in  German  is  to  use  the  pronoun  2ic,  in- 
stead of  Xu,  in  the  second  person  singular.     In  that  sense  £ie  is  writ- 

ipir mOrten  ^aben 
3br  reurbcl  babcn 

,        reir  reurten  gebabl  ^aben 
3bt  iriirlet  gebabl  I)aben 

ten  with  a  capital  letter. 

fie  loutben  f)abcn 

fie  reuttcn  gebabt  ^aben 

THE  VERB. 

IMPF.RATIVE.                                                                              1 

Before  studying  the  regular  verbs  the  student  must  learn  by 

babe,                         have 

1       babcn  reir,              let  us  have 

heart  the  auxiliary  verbs,  whose  conjugations  are  as  follows : 

^abc  ct,                     let  him  have              ^labt  (3f)r),            have  ye                 j 

baben  fie,                let  them  have        1 

AUXILIARY  VEKBS. 

§aben  —  to  have. 

Eein  —  to  be. 

INFINITIVE. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present,        ^abcn,  to  have 

Present. 

ein,  to  be. 

Perfect.        gel)abl  liabcn,  to  have  had. 

Perfect.         5 
Future.          \ 

ereefen  fein,  to  have  been. 

Future.         I)abcn  wcrben,  to  be  about  to  have. 

ein  rcerten,  to  be  about  to  be. 

Participles:     Prcseut.     I)abcnt,  having. 
Perfect,     gefjabt,  had. 

Participles : 

Present,    feienb,  being. 
Perfect,     geracfen,  been. 

INDICATIVE.                                                    SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 

i(^  ^^\)t,                          I  have 

i(J)  if^i^ii,               I  may  have 

id)  bin,                         I  am 
Xu  bift,                       thou  art 

id)  fei                  I  may  be 

Du  I)a(i,                          thou  hast 

Xu  babeft,            thou  mayst  have 

Xu  feifi,             thoumayestbe 

cr  &at,                            he  has 

er  (tabe,                  he  may  have 

er  ill,                           he  is 

et  fcl,                   he  is 

tpir  Ijaben,                     we  have 

(Tit  ^aben,           we  may  have 

rcir  finb,                      we  are 

Bit  feien,            we  may  be 

3^r  ^abt,                      you  have 

3bt  babet,           you  may  have 

^br  feib,                      you  are 

3I)t  feiet,            you  may  be 

(ie  ^aben,                      they  have 

fie  I)aben,             they  may  have 

fie  fmt,                        they  are 

fie  feien,              they  may  be 

Imperfect. 

Imperfect. 

i«  ^atte,                       I  had 

id)  bdtle,         1  might  have 

icb  rcar,                        I  w*as 

id)  rcdtc,            I  might  be 

Xu  battefi,                   thou  hadst 

lu  batleft,      thou  mightest  have 

Xu  rcarft,                    thou  wert 

Xu  redteft;         thou  mightest  be 

et  f)aite,                       he  had 

er  fiallc,            he  might  have 

et  rear,                         he  was 

et  redre,              he  might  he 

trir  Ijattcn,                   we  had 

irit  ballen,      we  might  have 

mir  niaten,                  we  were 

reir  redtcn,         we  might  be 

3br  battel,                   you  had 

3br  ballet,       you  might  have 

3br  ttiaret,                   you  were 

3^t  redtcl,          you  might  be 

fie  Ijalten,                     they  had 

fie  I;atten,         they  might  have 

fie  reaten,                     they  were 

fie  redten,           they  might  be 

Perfect. 

Perfect. 

I  have  had. 

I  may  have  had. 

I  have  been. 

I  may  have  been. 

t(^  ^o.^i  gebabt 

t(S  Ijabe  gebabt 

(^  bin  geircfen 

iil  fei  gereefcn 

"Eu  f)a(l  gebabt 

■Du  babefl  gel)obt 

Xu  bift  gercefen 

Xu  feifi  gereefcn 

et  fiat  gebabt 

er  \^^^t  gebabt 

et  ifi  gcreefen 

et  fei  gereefen 

tcit  ^abcn  gebabt 

lutr  f^aben  gebabt 

irir  finb  gereefen 

reit  fcicn  gereefcn 

3f)t  f)abt  ge()abt 

3Iir  babet  getjabt 

3br  feib  gerecfcn 

31)t  feiet  gereefcn 

fie  ^aben  gel^abt 

fie  baben  get)abt 

fie  fmb  geicefcn 

fie  feien  gereefcn 

Pluperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

1  had  had. 

I  might  have  had. 

I  had  been. 

I  might  have  been. 

i(i)  ^attc  gefiabt 

id)  f)dlle  gebabt 

id)  rear  geitefen 

id)  redrc  gereefcn 

Tu  fjattcft  gebabt 

Tu  battefl  gel)abl 

Xu  reatft  gereefen 

Xu  redteft  gereefen 

er  batte  gebabt 

er  bdtle  gebabt 

er  rear  gcreefen 

cr  redrc  gereefcn 

irtr  tjatten  gebabt 

iric  l)dllen  gebabt 

rcir  ipatcn  gereefcu 

reir  redren  gereefcn 

abr  battel  gebabt 

3f)t  f)allet  gebabt 

3bt  rcarel  geu'cfen 

3bt  redtcl  gereefcn 

fie  fallen  gebabt 

fie  fallen  gebabt 

fie  icaten  gereefcn 

fic  redten  gereefen 

First  Future. 

First  Future. 

I  shall  have. 

If  I  shall  have. 

I  shall  be. 

If  I  shall  be. 

i(fe  ipcrfcc  ^aben 

id)  irerte  babcn 

id)  rocrbe  fein 

id)  reerte  fein 

Tu  reitfl  ^aben 

Xu  tbctbefl  baben 

Xu  reirft  fein 

Xu  recrteit  fein 

er  icirb  ^abcn 

er  rcerte  baben 

er  reiib  fein 

ct  reette  fein 

loir  tocrbeii  ^aben 

rctr  irerten  baben 

reir  werben  fein 

reit  reetben  fetn 

) 

35r  wetbet  babcn 

3^1:  reettet  f)aben 

3^r  wcrbet  fein 

31)t  reetCct  fein 

1 

fie  merbcn  ^aben 

fie  reetten  l)aben 

fie  reevten  fein 

fic  roctCen  fein 

Q 

/ 

\ 

q 

^           c 

j  V 

V 

■o              " 

•«y 


\ 


90 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


Sfcor/d  Future. 

I  shall  have  bten. 

If  I  shall  have  been. 

i(^  reertc  gcnjcfen  fciii 

idi  ircrte  gcnjefen  fciu 

Tn  tririt  gcitcfcn  fein 

Tu  iDcrfceft  gcreefen  fein 

ct  icirb  gciDCfcn  fein 

cr  ipcrte  gercefcn  fein 

irir  ircrbcn  gea'cfcn  fein 

u*ir  n*erten  geroefcn  fein 

31)r  irertet  geircfen  fcin 

!^i[)r  reertet  gcrcefcn  fein 

fie  racrfccn  geiucien  fcin 

fic  rccrben  gercefen  fein 

FIRST    CONDITIONAL.                                      SECOND    CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  be. 

I  should  have  been. 

icfc  irurtc  fein 

i(^  iDurte  geirefen  fein 

Xu  rourtcft  fein 

Xn  roiirtcft  geiuefen  fein 

er  XQvxXt  fein 

er  ipiirte  geirefen  fein 

icir  iriirtcu  fein 

ILUV  triirten  geirefen  fein 

3br  ffiurtet  fein 

%\:)X  rourtet  geirefen  fein 

fie  ttJurten  fein 

fie  rcurtcn  getcefen  fein 

IMPERATIVE. 

fei             be 

feieu  luit           let  us  be 

fci  er          lirt  him  be. 

feit  5^r            be  ye 

feicn  fie             let  them  be 

SBetten — to  become. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present,     irettcn,  to  become. 

Perfect,      gcu'crteii,  gcreotbcn  fein,  to  have  become. 
Future.      U'Crten  icertcn,  to  be  about  to  become. 
Participles:     Present,     reertent,  becoming. 
Perfect.      geraotCeu,  become. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


i*  werte 
Xu  loirfl 
cr  wirb 
ivir  iperbcn 
^l)t  ircrbet 
fic  ipcrben 


id)  irurbc 
Xu  irurtcfl 
cr  iturte 
ivir  ipurtcn 
yc)\  ipurtet 
{ie  rourbcn 


I  become 
thou  bccomcst 
he  becomes 
\vc  become 
you  become 
they  become 


id)  n^erfce        I  may  become 
Xu  n'^crteft  thou  mayest become 
er  iverbe         he  may  become 
loir  werbcn   we  may  become 
^jlir  njerfcet    you  may  become 
fie  IPerben      they  may  become 


Imperfect. 

I  became  id)  reurbe       I  might  become 

thou  bccamcst  Xn  un'ivbeft  thoumightcstbecome 

he  became  cr  iriirbe       he  might  become 

we  became  rcir  iriirben  we  might  become 

you  became  %\sx  irQrtet  you  miglit  become 

they  became  fic  njurbcn    they  might  become 


Perfect. 


I  have  become, 
t^  bin  geipprbcn 
Xu  &ift  gciporbcn 
er  ift  gemorben 
ipir  fiiib  geircrbcn 
3f)r  fcib  genuTtcu 
fie  finb  geiporbcn 

I  liad  become, 
idi  irat  gciporben 
Xu  u^arft  giMPDrten 
er  war  geicorbcn 
n?ir  trarcn  gcirorben 
3^riraret  gcivortcn 
fie  icaron  gciporbcn 

I  shall  become, 
id)  irertc  wcrbcn 
Xu  n?it^  wcrbcn 
cr  loirb  trerben 


Pluperfect. 


First  Future, 


I  may  have  become, 
id)  fei  geiDorten 
Xu  feift  getvorben 
er  fei  gcircrben 
v>\x  feien  geirorten 
3fer  fetet  geircrbcn 
fie  feicn  geivorben 

I  might  have  become, 
id)  iparc  iKivotbcn 
Xu  wnrcft  gciDotben 
et  ware  geirorben 
wtr  iiMren  geipcrben 
3^t  tuniet  gcipcrtcn 
fie  wciren  geworben 

If  I  shall  become, 
ic^  wcrbe  wctben 
Xu  werbeft  rcerbcn 
cr  roerbe  werben 


wir  njcrben  lucrbcii 
3[)r  werbet  tpcrben 
fie  iPcrbcn  tnerben 

I  shall  have  become, 
id)  recrte  gctpcrben  fein 
Xu  irivft  geicovbcn  fein 
cr  mirb  gciuorben  fein 
irir  iperbcn  geircrbcn  fein 
3I)r  iDcrfcet  geiuorben  fein 
fic  rcerbcn  gemorben  fein 

FIRST    CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  become, 
id)  roiirbe  rcerbcn 
Xu  iDurbcft  rcerben 
cr  rciivte  irerben 
rcir  rcurben  rcerbcn 
3fir  rcurbet  rccrben 
fie  rcurben  irerben 


Second  Future. 


rcir  rcexben  rcerbcn 
3^rrcetbet  rccrben 
fie  rccrben  rcerbcn 

If  I  shall  have  become, 
i^  rcerbe  gercorben  fein 

Xu  rccrbeft  gercorben  fein 
er  rcerbe  gerccvbcn  fein 
rctr  rcerbcn  gercorben  fciu 
5I)r  rccrbet  gerccrbcn  fein 
fic  rcerbcn  gercorben  fein 

SECOND    CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  have  become, 
ii^  rciivbe  gercorben  fein 
Xu  iriirbeft  gercorben  fein 
cr  rciirte  gercorben  fein 
rcir  rciirben  gercorben  fetn 
%\}X  rciirbct  gercorben  fein 
fie  rcurben  gercorben  ftin 


IMPERATIVE. 


rcerbe  C  — "J   become  thou 
rcerbe  er         let  him  become 


rccrben  rcir 
rcerbet  %\)x 
rcerbcn  fie 


let  us  become 

become  yc 

let  them  become 


DJtogen — to  may,  to  like. 


INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


I  may. 
id)  mag 
Xu  luagft 
er  mag 
rcir  niogcn 
3t)r  mogt 
fie  mogen 
id)  morfitc 
id)  babe  gcmorfit 
Pluperfect.  i(^  fiattc  geinod)t 
1st  Future,  id)  rcerbe  mogen 
2d  Future,   idi  rcerbe  gemod)t  &abcn 
First  Conditional. 
Second  Conditional,    id)  ivurbe  gcmodit  ^a6en. 

3J>oUen — to  be  willing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Imperfect. 
Perfect. 


I  mavt 

id)  moge 

Xu  mogeft 

er  inoge 

rcir  mogen 

31ir  moget 

fie  mogen 
l(^  moditc 
\^  ^abe  gemcc^it 
it^  r^attc  gcmoc^t 
i(^  rcerbe  mogen 
id)  rcerbe  geiuD(^t  ^ubvK 

ii^  rcurbe  mogen* 


INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


I  am  willing. 

id)  rciU 

Xu  rciUft 

er  rciU 

rcir  rcoUcn 

3^r  rcoUet 

fic  rcoUen 
Imperfect,     id)  U' elite 
perfect.       id)  luibe  gercoUt 
Pluperfect,  idi  hattc  gercoUt 
jst  Future,  td)  rcerbe  rcoUcn 
zd  Future,  id)  rcerbe  gcrcoUt  f)a6en 
First  Conditional. 


I  may  be  willing 

l(^  rcolle 

Xu  rcoUcft 

er  rcoUe 

rcir  rccUen 

:jln"  rccUet 

fie  rcelleu 
ic^  loodtc 
id)  babe  gercoUt 
id)  batte  gcrcoUt 
id)  rcerbe  rcoUeii 
i*  rcerbe  gercoUt  ^abea 

i£^  rcurbe  rcoUcn. 


Second  Conditional.    i(^  rciirbe  gcrcoUi  babcu. 
©oUcn— to  be  obliged:  I  shall,  I  ought. 


INDICATIVE. 
I  sl.all. 

/' 

rest 

nt. 

SL'BJUNC1I>"1£ 

I  shall. 

i*   (3tt 

TufcUfl 

i((  fcUe 
Tu  foUcfl 

A 


, 

^ 

0 

^              Q' 

i- 

G 

\ 

y 

i3 

' 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE.                                        >»                                              9 1 

i 

cr  foU                                                  cr  folic 

Saffcii— to  let. 

Kir  foffen 

tctr  foQen 

INDICATIVE.                                                       Sf  BTUNCTXVK. 

3fir  fcUct 

S^tJcHet 

/'resell!. 

fie  fcUeii 

fic  {oUen 

I  let. 

1  may  be  let. 

Impnffct.     t*  (ctrtc                                               id)  foDle 

id)  laffe 

Kit  laffe 

P.rjWt.       idi  ftabc  iieft'flt 

id)  habc  jiofcllt 

Tu  laffefl 

Tu  laffeft 

Plup.rj\ct.  i*  hatte  iicfoUt 

t*  hallo  jcioUl 

cr  1561 

tx  Ia6t 

1st  Future,  let  ipcrte  foUen 

id)  uhtCc  fcUoii 

luir  laffen 

tcir  laffen 

2ii  Future,   tc^  merfce  gcfoUt  fiaben 

id)  wcrCc  acioUt  bateit 

36t  laffct 

3«rlaffct 

fic  laffen 

fie  laffen 

//>.?/  Conditional.       idi  im'irte  foQcn. 

1 

Second  Conditional,     i*  luiirtc  acfoUt  liabcn. 

linper/ect.     id)  lief) 
Perfect.       i4  Iiiibe  gelaffcn 

i*  Iie6c 

id)  l)abe  gelaffcn 

SlLMincn— tu  he  ublc. 

I'liifeifecl.  id)  batte  gelaffcn 
tst  Future,  id)  irerbe  laffen 

id)  ^dttc  gelaffcn 
i4  wcrbc  laffen 

INDICATIVE.                                                              SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

2d  Future,  id)  lyerbegclaffen  ^alJciT 

id)  ifcrbe  gelaffen  ?alien 

I  am  able,  I  can.                                         I  mav  be  able. 

/■(>.«<  Conditional.       id)  toiirbe  laffen. 

Second  Conditional.    '\if  itiirbe  gelaffcn  iabcn. 

iii)  lann 

id)  (6nnc 

'Tu  faiinfl 

lu  (ornicjl 

IMPERATIVE. 

er  tann 

cr  fonnc 

Ia6  Uu 

laffen  ti>lt 

ipir  Icnnen 

iDir  tfnncn 

lagei 

laffet  3^t 

3fit  fcnnct 

3I)r  iDiinct 

laffen  fie 

fie  (unnert 

fie  (enucn 

1 

Imperfect,     icft  fonntc 

ii^  lonnte 

THE  REGULAR  A'ERB. 

Perject.        id?  ^labc  gctonnt 

i^  iliii  geConnt 

The  rule  for  the  formation  of  the  regular  verb  is  verj- simple.     It 

Pluperfect,  tc^  Ijattc  gclcnnt 

ic^  ^jltc  getonnt 

runs  :  The  present  tense  is  formed  by  dropping  the  n  of  the  intinitive  ; 

1st  Future,  id)  ircrbc  fenncn 

ic^  ircrbe  Eonncn 

the  imperfect  by  dropping  the  f.nal  e  of  the  present  and  adding  te ;  the 

^(/ Future,   i^  ipcrle gelonnl  fia&cn 

tc^  irerbe  gefonnl  %iiit 

past  participle  by  dropping  the  final  C  of  the  imperfect  and  prefixing 

/"/r.-.-/  Conditional.        idj  tfuttc  Ecnnen. 

ge.    For  example;    Infinitive,  leben,  to  live;  present,  tt^  lebe,  I  live; 

Second  Conditional,    id)  lourbc  gcfonnt  Ija&en. 

unperfect,  id)  Icbtc,  I  lived;  past  participle,  gelcbt,  lived. 
Active  Voice. 

Turfcn— to  be  allowed,  to  dare. 

Scben — to  live. 

INDICATIVE.                                                       SUBJUNCTIVE. 

INFINITIVE. 

/'/'^St-W/. 

I  am  allowed.                                           I  mav  be  allowed. 

Present,    lebcn,  to  live. 

Perfect,     gelebt  \j!xiz'a.,  to  have  lived. 

id)  tatf 

id)  turfe 

Future.      leben  werten,  to  be  about  to  live. 

Tu  barffi 

Tu  tiirfi'il 

Participles:     Present.     lct)Cllb,  living. 

cr  barf 

cr  tiirfe 

Perfect,      gelebt,  lived. 

tuir  tutfcn 

IDir  turicn 

3hr  turfct 

3I)r  turfct 

INDICATIVE.                                                        SIBJLNCTIVE. 
Present. 

fie  burfen 

fie  biirfcn 

.          , 

id)  Icbc                        I  live 

Id)  Icbc            I  may  l)ve 

Imperfect.     {^  turfiC 

id)  biirfte 

T'u  lebft                     thou  livcst 

Tu  lebcfl        thou  mayest  live 

Perfect.        id)  ()abc  ^cturft 

i^  I>abc  geburft 

cr  lett                             he  lives 

er  Icbc             he  may  live 

Pluperfect.  \6)  Iiollc  gcburft 

id)  fiolte  geburft 

uur  leben                    we  live 

U'ir  leben        we  may  live 

/.'.7  Future,  ic^  irotte  burden 

id)  irerbc  burfcn 

3br  lebt                      you  live 

3I)tlcbet         you  n)ay  live 

zd  Future,  ic^  trerbc  gcturft  ftafccn 

id)  tterbe  gcturft  fiatei 

fie  lebeil                      they  live 

fic  leben          they  may  live 

^/V.?/  Conditional.       ic^  iDurbc  burfcn. 

Imperfect. 

Second  Conditional,    i&t  »utbe  geburft  Ijabcn. 

i*  Icbtc                        I  lived 

td)  ICbte         I  m)ght  live 

aJiuffen— to  be  obliged. 

Tu  Icbtefl                 thou  livedst 
.  ct  Icbtc                         he  lived 

Tu  Icbtefi    thou  mightest  live 
cr  Icbtc          he  might  live 

1                                       INDICATIVE.                                                             SUBJUNCTIVE. 

trir  Icbtcn                 we  lived 

irir  Icbtcn    we  might  live 

/*/-«■.?(■«/. 

3fir  lebtct                 you  lived 

3br  lobtct    you  might  live 

I  am  obliged,  I  must. 

I  may  be  obliged. 

(ic  lebtcil                     tliey  lived 

fie  Icbtcn      they  might  live 

i(B  niu^ 

i*  miiffe 

11  u  iiiufet 

lu  muffcfl 

Perfect. 

cr  iiuifi 

cr  miiffe 

I  have  lived. 

I  may  have  lived. 

ivit  muffen 

ivir  inuffeu 

id)  babe  gelebt 

Id)  ^ix\!t  gelebt 

3bT  muftt 

31)r  niiiffct 

Tu  baft  gelebt 

Tu  babeft  gelebt 

fie  inuffeii 

fic  miiffcn 

ct  bat  gelebt 

er  babe  gelebt 

Imperfect,     i^  inu^e 
Perfect.  %    id)  bate  gemu^t 
Pluperfect,  iiji  I)atte  geniuftt 

i*  mUftc 

id)  lialjc  gemufet 

id)  liStlc  gcmuft 

irir  baben  gelebt 
3bt  l)abt  gelebt 
fic  l)aben  gelebt 

Ivir  babcn  gelebt 
3bt  babet  gelebt 
fic  ^aben  gelebt 

1st  Future,  id)  itcrte  muffcit 

idi  U'crbe  iniiffen 

Pluperfect. 

^t/  Future,   i^  iperbe  gcmupt  ^abcn 

id)  iperbc  gcmuftt  ^a&cn 

I  had  lived. 

I  might  have  lived. 

( 

/VW/  Conditional.       i(^  luuvbe  niiiffon. 

id)  batte  gelebt 

i(b  batte  gelebt 

1 

Second  Conditional,    i*  ivurCc  ijcmuiit  babfn. 

Tu  batteft  gelebt 

Tu  battcfi  gelebt 

, 

^ 

vl 

t 

i^ ^" 

-» 5. 

^ 

'  ' 

, 

*, 

o     ,  _    ^^ 

^          0 

yt 

1 

i 

92 

THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

/ 

T^ 

1 

t 

et  ^attc  gelftt 

er  fiatte  gclc&t 

to  believe 

fllauben 

glcwben 

trir  fatten  jtlttt 

tinr  ptteit  gclebt 

to  know 

iciffcn 

Vissea 

3fir  battel  gclcH 

3Br  ^attet  gelc&t 

to  write 

fdireiben 

shriben 

fie  (latten  jclctt 

fie  Batten  gelebt 

to  read 

lefen 

layzen 

J^/rs/  Future* 

to  pronounce 
to  translate 

au^fpredjen 
uberfc^en 

owsshprecAen 
eebersetsen 

I  shall  live. 

If  I  shall  live. 

to  recollect 

Xx&j  erinnern 

^\ch  erinnern 

i*  ircrtc  Icl'cn 

ii^  roerte  Ic&en 

to  forget 

tergeffen 

fairgessen 

Xu  nnvjilcben 

Tu  irertcft  Icbeu 

to  pr'omise 

terfprecfien 

fairshprecAen 

et  witb  lebeu 

er  ipcrte  leben 

to  expect 

eriparten 

airvarten 

uut  loctben  Icben 

irir  lyerteii  Icbeu 

to  converse 

uuter^alten 

oonterhalten 

3bt  ii'ettctlcbfii 

3^r  icertet  Ict'cn 

to  express 

au^trucfcn 

owsdricken 

fie  iretten  lebcn 

fie  loerteit  teben 

to  explain 

er  flare  IT 

airklayren 

Second  Future. 

to  tell 

fag  en 

saagcn 

I  shall  ha\c  lived. 

If  I  shall  have  lived. 

to  call 

to  weep 

to  recommend 

Tufen 
ifeincn 

roofen 
vincn 

ic^  irettc  gelcbt  babcii 

ic^  irerte  gelcbt  iia&en 

einpfcMen 

empfaylen 

®u  IDitft  jclcl't  tuil'cn 

Tu  u^ertcft  gclett  Iiabcn 

to  receive 

cmpfaiigcn 

empfangen 

et  luiit  gclfl't  Iiateii 

cc  ii'crte  i3clcbt  ^atcn 

to  send 

fdiitten 

shicken 

Irii  ttetteii  gtlcbt  Iiaben 

ivir  ivcvtcii  gele&t  fuibcn 

to  buy 

faufeti 

kowfen 

3bt  weitet  gclctt  babeii 

3f)r  ivcrtct  cjelebt  I>aL>cu 

to  pay 

bejaMen 
beftellen 

betsahlen 

fie  Irciten  gelebt  ^abcii 

'              [ie  reerfcen  gclebt  ^abcn 

to  order 

beshtellen 

FIRST   CONr»lTION.\L. 

SECOND    CONDITIONAL, 

to  furnish 

liefern 

leefern 

I  should  live. 

I  should  have  lived. 

to  sell 

tertaufen 

fairkowfen 

i(^  triitbe  Icbcii 

i^  njurfce  gele&t  baten 

to  reply 

ontn?orten 

anlvorten 

Xu  itatbcft  Icben 

Tu  ivurteft  gelebt  I^abeu 

et  ii'utte  Icbcn 

er  luurbe  gelebt  ho^izxi 

ADVERBS. 

ttit  itQitcn  U'ben 

trir  ipurten  gelebt  ^abeti 

• 

3fit  itiirtet  Icbcii 

3hr  ipurtet  gelebt  ^^xhi'o. 

Yes 

Ha 

yah 

pe  irutten  lebcii 

fie  iDurten  gelebt  ^aben 

\  jairo^l 

yahvole 

indeed 

fnbera:^at 

in  dair  taht 

IMPER 
tcte  (Tu)          live  (thou) 

ATIVE. 

leben  luir              let  us  live 

truly 

rcabrltc^ 
geuu§ 

fid)erlic^ 

vaarlicA 

lebe  et               let  him  live 

lebet  (3I;r)            live  (ye) 

certainly 
surely 

gcviss 
sich^xWck 

leben  fie                 let  them  live 

only 

nur 

noor 

VOCABULAK^ 

r  OF  VERBS. 

some 
nothing 

nic^tS 

etvas 
nic/fts 

To  eat                             effcn 

essen 

much 

riel 

feel 

to  drink                           ttinten 

trinken 

quite 

ganjlic^ 

gentzlic^ 

to  dream                           trauincn 

troy  111  en 

very 

fe^t 

sare 

to  wash                           iraiiben 

v  ash  en 

so 

fo 

so 

to  comb                           laramen 

kcmiiien 

thus 

alfo 

also 

to  go                                getjen 

gay  en 

how 

xaXt 

vee 

to  speak                          fpretben 

shprec/^ea 

no 

neitt 

nine 

to  laugh                          lac^en 

la<r//en 

not 

nii^t 

xAcht 

to  think                           tenfen 

denken 

but 

nur 

noor 

to  learn                              lejncn 

lairncn 

enough 

flcnug 

genoo^ 

to  bathe                           babeit 

bahden 

scarcely 

lautn 

kowm 

to  break                            Steven 

brecZ/en 

all 

S^nj 

gants 

to  bite                           beijen 

bisen 

almost 

bcina^e 

bynahe 

to  fost                          (often 

custen 

here 

^ier 

heer 

to  hear                              ^oten 

hcEren 

there 

ba 

da 

to  help                             jelfen 

helfen 

where 

tt>0 

vo 

to  give                           gcben 

gayben 

in 

herein 

herine 

to  make                             Ktflt^cn 

mac/icn 

out 

^erauS 

herows 

to  do                                t^un 

toon 

then 

benn 

den 

to  ride                             teiten 

riten 

now 

W- 

yetst 

to  s;iy                              fogen 

sahgen 

soon 

(alb 

bald 

to  send                         fenten 

senden 

till 

%\& 

bis 

to  seek                           fudien 

soocAen 

seldom 

felten 

selten 

to  breakfast                       ftiibftuieil 

freeshticken 

since 

fcit 

site 

iodine                             fpeifeti 

shpeyzen 

ever 

immet 

immer 

to  sup                              ju  Slbenb  cffe 

«                    tsoo  ahbend  essen 

never 

nie 

nee 

to  arrive                            onfcmmfii 

ankummcn 

oft 

oft 

uft 

to  depart                         obteifeii 

abrizcn 

already 

f(^on 

schone 

to  meet                           Iteifcn 

trcffen 

to-day 

^eute 

hoytay 

lo  be  tired                       miibe  fein 

niecude  seyn 

yesterday 

gefiern 

gestern 

10  be  sleepy                     fdliftig  fcin 

shlayfritfseyn 

late 

fp5t 

shpate 

i 

to  excuse                        enlfi^ulbtgen 

trnlshooldigen 

why? 

itarum? 

varoom  ? 

1 

lo  understand                 rerfie^en 

fairshtayen 

because 

treil 

vile 

•t 

.: ^r~ 

^ 

'r 

ENGLISH. 


if 

perhaps 


Above 
about 
after 

ag-ainst 

before 

of 

over 

since 

for 

from 

in 

near 

under 

up 

with 


And 

but 

also 

even 

or 

nor 

yet 

because 

that 

therefore 


GERMAN. 

PRONl 

nenn 

vcn 

titUtiiit 

fcellyf//t 

PREPOSITIONS. 

u&ft 

eciiber 

um 

oom 

vai) 

nacA 

gtgcn 

gaygen 

cot 

fore 

t?DU 

fun 

ubet 

ecuber 

feit 

site 

fut 

fccur 

bon 

fun 

in 

in 

na{ie 

nahay 

untcr 

oonter 

auf 

owf 

mit 

mit 

CONJUNCTIONS 

unb 

oont 

abei 

ahber 

au(^ 

ouc/i 

(ogat 

sogar 

ctct 

oder 

noil 

nu  c/i 

ici) 

<Xuc/t 

rceil 

vile 

iai 

das 

taller 

dahair 

PRONIN'CIATION. 


PHRASES  OF  AFFIRMATION. 


ENGLISH. 

It  is  true. 

It  is  so. 

I  believe  it. 

I  think  sOy 

I  say  yes. 

I  say  it  is. 

I  am  certain. 

I  am  certain  of  it. 

You  are  right. 

You  arc  quite  right. 

I  know  it. 

I  know  it  well. 

I  know  him. 

I  know  it  positively. 

I  promise  it. 

I  promise  it  to  you. 

I  give  it. 

I  give  it  to  you. 

I  will  give  it  to  you. 

You  are  wrong. 

He  is  wrong. 

I  believe  him. 


GERMAN. 

eS  tfi  irahr. 

63  ifl  fo. 

3c^  glau&e  eS. 

3ci)  benle  e§. 

3c^  fage  \a. 

3c^  fage  e5  ift. 

3c^  bin  gciPiB. 

3^  bin  tcffen  aeiinfi. 

Sic  bai'cn  Oic*t. 

Sie  ^aben  ganj  iHed^t. 

3dj  reei^  e§. 

3d)  tpet&  c^  geuau. 

3d)  lennc  ibii. 

3c^  treiy  ei  fidjcr. 

3)^  Derfctedie  eS. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Es  ist  var. 

£s  ist  so. 

Ich  glowbay  cs. 

Ic/i  dcnk.ay  es. 

Ic/i  sahgay  yah. 

Ich  sahgay  es  ist. 

IcA  bin  gayviss. 

Ic/i  bin  dessen  gayviss. 

See  haabcn  rec//t. 

See  haabengantxrec//t. 

Ic/i  vice  es. 

Ich  vice  es  genow. 

Ic/i  kenne  cen. 

Ic/t  vice  es  sir//cr. 

Ic/t  vershprec/ray  cs. 
3ct  »€tfpre*e  e3  3^ncii.  Ich    vcrshprecAay    es 

eencn. 
3ii  gcbc  e^.  Ic/t  gaybay  es. 

3^  gcbc  c5  36ncn.  IrA  gaybay  cs  cenen. 

3cf)  n?iU  ci  3^"^"^  gebcn.  Ir// villes  cenen gayben. 


ell. 


k  cry  w 


No. 

I  say  no. 


Sie  Iiabcn  Unrcd)t. 

(5t  Ijat  Unrcdn. 

3d)  glau&e  ifjm. 
J  <£eftr  xoobU 
)  ©c^t  gut. 


Sec  haabcn  oonre<r/ft. 
Air  hat  oonrccAt. 
Ic/t  glowbay  ecm. 
Sare  vole. 
Sare  goot. 


PHRASES  OF  NEGATION. 

9?ein.  Nine. 

3^  fagc  nein.  Ic/t  saagay  nine. 


ENGLISH. 

I  say  it  is  not. 

It  is  not  so. 

It  is  not  true. 

I  say  nothing. 

He  is  not  here. 

I  have  it  not. 

He  has  it  not. 

We  have  it  not. 

You  have  it  not. 

He  said  no. 

Has  he  said  no? 

Has  he  said  nothing? 

I  have  not  heard  it. 

You  are  quite  wrong. 


34  fage  e3  ifl  ni(^t. 
(S8  ifl  nm  fo. 
C8  ifl  nidjt  tua^r. 
3(1^  fagc  nic^td. 
(St  tfl  nidjt  ^ier. 
3*  ftabc  €8  nidit. 
fir  ^at  eS  nictit. 
Wix  ffaben  eS  ni(^t. 
3f)r  ^abt  e8  nic^t. 
Gr  fagte  ncin. 
Spat  er  noin  gcfagt  ? 
^at  er  nid)t3  gefagt  ? 
3c^  f)abe  c8  nidjt  ge^ort 

Sie  babcn  turcbauS  Un: 


PRONUNCIATION. 

IrA  saagay  es  ist  nirAt. 
Ks  ist  ni^At  so. 
Es  istnir/zt  var. 
IfA  saagay  nicAts. 
Air  ist  nicAt  heer. 
IrA  haabay  es  nicAt. 
Air  hat  es  nirAt. 
Veer  haabcn  es  nlrAt. 
Eer  haabt  cs  nirAt. 
Air  saHj^tay  nine. 
Hat  air  nine  gesaa^? 
Hat  air  nirAts  gcsaa^^? 
IrA  haabay  cs  nirAt  ge- 

ho-rt. 
See  haabcn  doorr/'ouse 

GonrerAt. 


PHRASES  OF  INTERROGATION. 


^vho  ? 

Who  was  it? 
What  is  it? 
Who  is  it? 
Did  you  say  it? 
What  arc  you  doing? 
What  is  he  doing? 
Tell  me. 
Will  you  tell  me? 

How  are  you? 

How  is  he? 

What  for? 

Why? 

Why  do  you  ask? 

Wliy  shall  I  go? 

What  do  you  say? 

Do  you  hear? 

I  don't  speak  to  you. 


53er  ? 

aSct  ivat  e5  ? 
ffiaS  Ifl  c8  ? 
SECT  ifl  €3  ? 
©aglcn  3ie  eS  ? 
Sa8  t^un  Sic? 
33a8  ttmt  er  ? 
Sagen  Sie  iiiir. 
2BoUen  £ie  mir  fagcn  ? 

aOBie  gc^l'8  ? 
aSie  ge^t'8  i^m  ? 
SlSofiir  ? 
ffiatum  ? 

aSarum  fragten  BU  ? 
alarum  fcU  id)  gc^en  ? 
2Ba8  fagcu  Zic  ? 
ipoccn  3ie  ? 


Vair? 

Vair  var  es? 

Vas  ist  cs  ? 

Vair  ist  es? 

SaasOten  see  es? 

Vas  toon  see? 

Vas  toot  air? 

Saagen  see  meer. 

VoUen    see  meer  saa* 

gen? 
Vee  gates? 
Vee  gates  eem? 
Vofeer? 
Varoom? 

Varoom  fraagen  see? 
Varoom  suU  irAgayen? 
Vas  saagen  see? 
Hccrdn  Sec? 


Do  you  understand? 
Listen! 
Come  here. 
What  is  that? 
Answer. 

Why  don't    you     ai 
swer? 


3d)    fpredjc  mit  3bncn  IrAshprecAay  mit  eenen 

nidil. 
ajerfleben  £ie  ? 
§orcn  Sic  I 
Stommen  £ie  ^ict^cr. 
^a^  ifl  baS  ? 
SIntn>orten  Sic. 


nirAt. 

Fershtayen  see? 
Hfcron  see ! 
Kummcn  see  heerhair. 
Vas  ist  das? 
Antvorten  see. 
JBarum   antreorten  etc  Varoom  antvorten  see 
nicl)t  ?  nirAt? 

What  do  you  mean  by  2Ba8  mcincn  Sie  fcamtt  ?  Vas  minen  see  damit? 

that? 
You  speak  German,  I  3(^  eermut^e  £ic  fpte^  IrA      fermootay     see 

suppose?  *eii  O^eutfd).  shprerAcn  doytsh. 

Very  little,  sir.  Scbc  rocnig,  mcin  S^exx.  Sair  vani^,  mine  hair. 

Do  vou  know  Mr.  H.?  flcnncn  Sic  §crrn  S5.  ?  Kennen  see  haimha? 
I  know  him  by  sight.  3d)  Icnnc  ibn  ron  an=  IrA  kcnnay  een  fun  an- 
fefien.  sane. 

3d)  Icnnc  ibn  bci  5ia;     IrA  kennay  cen  by  nah- 

men.  men. 

Or  ifl  mir  wcU  bcfannt.  Air  ist  meer  vole  bay- 
kant. 
What  do  you  call  that?  2Bic  ncnncn  Sic  fcaS  ?     Vee  ncnnen  see  das? 
What  is  that  in  Gcr-  3Bic      ^ci&t      ba8      a«f  Vee     histe      das    owf 


I  know  him  by  name. 
I  know  him  well. 


man?  a:cutfd)  ? 

Wh.it  does  that  mean?  23a3  ttci&t  ta8  ? 

Why  do  you  speak  ?  2Banim  fprcdjcn 
Why  arc  you  silent? 
Why  did  you  go? 

Is  it  ready?  3ftfMertig  ? 

Have  you  heard?  j^abcn  £ic  gcbert  ? 

Do  you  hear?  §6tcn  Sic  ? 


doytsh? 

Vas  histe  das? 

Varoom  shprcrAen  sec? 
aBarun  fdjnjcigcn  2ie  ?  Varoom  shvigen  sec? 
aSaruni  gingcn  £ic  ?        Varoom  gingen  see? 


Ist  es  fairti:^/ 
Haabcn  see  gehtrrt? 
Hocren  see? 


K- 


94 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


k 


ENGLISH.  GERMAN. 

Where  is  she?  SBo  {^  ^le  ? 

Where  are  you?  23o  fiitb  £ie  ? 

Where  are  you  going?  2Bo  geljen  Sie  ^in  ? 
Where  do  you  come  5!Bo  fommcn  ©ie  her  ? 
from? 


M'here  were  you? 
What? 

Wliat  is  that? 
What  o'clock  is  it? 
What  have  you? 
What  do  you  say? 
What  do  you  want? 
What  will  you  do? 


aSo  waxen  Sic  ? 

a2a§? 

3Saa  ift  fcaS  ? 

^vic  ticl  U^r  ift  e%  ? 

aSag  b^&cn  3ie  ? 

23ae;  faficn  £ic  ? 

SSai^  iPoUen  £ie  ? 

©aiS  iPoUen  Sie  t^un  ? 


PRONUNCIATION*. 

Vo  ist  see  ? 

Vo  sind  see? 

Vo  gayen  see  hin? 

Vo  kummen  see  hair? 

Vo  varen  see? 
Vas? 

Vas  ist  das? 
Veefeel  oor  ist  es? 
Vas  haaben  see? 
^'as  saagen  see? 
Vas  vuUen  see? 
Vas  vuUen  see  toon  ? 


PHRASES  OF  COM3IAND. 


Come  away! 
Come  here! 
Go  there! 
Come  back  I 
Go  on  ! 
Sit  down ! 
Standstill! 
Wait! 

\Vait  for  me  I 
^Vait  a  little! 
Make  haste ! 
Re  quick! 
Follow  me! 
Tell  him! 
Call  him! 
Speak! 
Eat! 
Drink! 
Hear! 
Hear  me ! 
Look  at  met 
Begin ! 
Continue  I 
Stop ! 
Tell  me ! 
Tell  it  to  him  ! 
Speak  to  him ! 
Be  quiet! 
Go! 

Go  to  him ! 
Go  to  bed  I 
Fetch  it! 
Bring  it! 
Bring  it  to  me! 
LL-titbe! 


flcmmen  Sic  fert ! 
Slcmmcn  Sie  bicrhcr. 
(>\elien  2ie  tcrilnn! 
^cmmen  Sic  jurucf! 
©elicn  Sic  treitcr  1 
Sc^en  Sic  fi* ! 
Stcbcn  Sie  ftiU! 
SSarten  Sic! 
2Barten  Sie  auf  niidi ! 
23artcn  Sic  ein  lueni^! 
3Jiadicn  Sie  fcbnell! 
Seeilen  Sic  fi* ! 
golden  Sie  mir! 
Sagen  Sie  iftm! 
iRuten  Sie  i^itl 
Sprcc^cn  ©iel 
(Sffen  Sie  I 
Xriittcn  Sie  I 
jjcren  Sie  I 
Ss'cxen  Sie  mic^I 
Se&cn  Sie  intd)  an! 
gangcn  Sic  an! 
gafiren  Sie  fort! 

Sa^cn  Sie  mir! 
Sagen  Sie  c3  ibm! 


Kummen  see  fort! 
Kummen  see  heerhair! 
Gayen  see  dort-hin  I 
Kummen  see  tsoorick ! 
Gayen  see  viter! 
Setsen  see  sic/// 
Shtayen  see  shtill ! 
Varten  see ! 
Varten  see  owf  mic/t! 
Varten  see  ine  vayni^/ 
MacAen  see  shnel ! 
Bay-ilen  see  sic/i! 
Fulgen  see  meer ! 
Saagen  see  cem ! 
Roofen  see  een ! 
ShprecAen  see ! 
Essen  see ! 
Trinken  see! 
Hceren  see ! 
H(Eren  see  mich! 
Sayen  see  mic//  an  ! 
Fangen  see  an ! 
Faaren  see  fort! 
Halt! 

Saa^n  see  meer! 
Saagen  see  es  eem  ! 


Sprec^en  Sie  mit  tijm!    Shprec//en  seemiteem! 


Scion  Sie  ruhig! 
©cljcn  Sic! 
0c^cn  Sie  ju  ibm! 
(?e^cn  Sie  ju  luetic! 
J^-'cIcn  Sie  c^I 
5?ringcn  Sic  c3I 
a?Tingcn  Sie  eS  mirl 
Slaffen  Sie  eS  feinl 


Syen  see  rooi^^/ 
Gayen  see ! 
Gayen  see  tsoo  eem  ! 
Gayen  see  tsoo  bettay  ! 
Holen  see  es! 
Bringen  see  es! 
Bringen  see  es  meer! 
Lassen  see  es  sine  I 


E\Ti:RY-DAY  UTTERANCES. 


Saagen  see  meer. 
Geeti^t— gay  fell  i^t. 
Haaben  see  dee  geetav. 
Yah,  mine  hair. 
Yah,  madam. 
Nine,  mine  hair. 
Nine,  madam. 
Nine,  mine  frovUne. 


Tell  me!  Sagen  ©Ic  mir. 

H  you  please.  ©utigfi— gcfdlligll. 

Have  the  goodness.        Jgaben  Sie  tie  ©ute. 

Yes,  sir,  3a,  mcin  ^■'crr. 

Yes,  madam.  ^a,  3J(abam. 

No,  sir.  gjein,  mcin  y;tcrr. 

No,  madam.  yicin,  3Jiatam. 

No,  miss.  92ein,  mcin  Jraulein. 

Do  you  speak  German  Sprcrfien    Sie     Tcutfcb  ShprccAen    see    doytsh 

or  French?  ctcr  Jranjon^t^  ?  oder  frantstesish? 

I  do  not  speak  Get-  3*  fptec^ienit^t  licutfc^.  Ic//     shprecAe      nic//t 

man.  doytsh. 

I  understand  it,  but  do  ^dj  ecrfictic  c8,  a&ct  id)  Ic//  ferslUayayes,  aaber 

not  speak  it.  fprcctc  eS  nt*t.  ic//  shprecAe  es  nicAt. 

I  speak  English.  ^rfi  fprec^e  CSnglif*.  Ic//  shprec//e  english. 

I  speak  French  a  little.  3(^    fpredje    ein    roenig  IcA  shprec//c  ine  vayni^ 
^Tanjofif^*  frantscesish. 


ENGLISH.  GERMAN.  PRONUNCIATION. 

Do  you  understand?      2Jerflel)en  Sic  ?  Fershtayen  see? 

Can  you  understand?    Sonnen  Sie  ter^e^en  ?    Kcennen  see  ferstayen! 

Speak  slower,  Spredien  Sic  langlamer.  Shprcc//en     see    lang- 

samer. 
You  speak  too  fast."       Sie  fpTe(^en  ju  fc^neU.     See     shprecAen      tsoo 

shnell. 
Give  mc  some  bread,     ©cbcn  Sic  mir  33rot.       Gaybcn  see  meer  brote. 
Give  me  something  to  ®eben    Sie    mil   (Streak  Gayben  see  meer  etvas 

eat.  jU  cRen.  tsoo  essen. 

Something  to  drink.       ©trcoS  ju  trinlen.  Etvas  tsoo  trinken. 

Bring  me  some  coffee,  ©ringen  Sie  mit  Saffee,  Bringen  see  meerkaaf- 

fay. 
I  thank  you.  ^i)  banfe  36nen. 

Good  morning.  Outcn  DKorgcn. 

Good  day.  ©uten  lag. 

How  do  you  do?  ©ie  gefjt'S  ? 

How  are  you?  SBie  befinten  Sic  H*  ? 

Very  well.  Se^t  TOOOI. 

I  am  very  well.  ^i}     befintc    mitt 

VDohU 
Pretty  well.  3*emlid)  KchU 

Tolerably.  So  jiemltd). 

How  is  your  father?      25ie    bcfinbet    fic^ 
§crr  23atet  ? 


Ic//  daankay  eenen, 

Gooten  morgen. 

Gooten  taa,^. 

Vee  gates? 

Vee  ba'yfinden  see  sic//? 

Sair  vole, 
fcbt  Ic/t  bayfinday  mic//  sair 
vole. 

Tseemlic//  vole. 

So  tseemlic//. 
3I)r  Vee  bayfindet  sic//  eer 
hair  faater? 


How  is  your  mother?    S5ie    befintet  fidj    3^^^  Vecbayfindctsic//eeray 


^rau  gOIutter  ? 
3c^  bin  nit^t  recbl. 
3dj  bin  unwcM, 
©te  i[t  Erant. 
6r  i^fe&r  tranf. 
Sie  ^at  fii$  erfdltet. 
3d)  ftabc  ^obnroe^. 
3d?  mu^  gcben. 
(S§  ift  3eit  3U  gcbcn. 
Ccben  Sic  njofil. 
SIbieu. 
good  3^  TCunfdiC  3bnen  cincn  Ic//  vinshay  eenen  inen 

gutcn  3Jiotgen.  gooten  morgen. 

@uten  9lbent.  Gooten  ahbend. 

@ute  JNacbt.  Gootay  nac//t. 

I  wish  you  good  night.  3<^  roiinfdje  3^"^"  gute  Ic//  vinshay  eenen  goo- 

92a(f)t,  tay  nac/zt, 

at  SKcinc     (Smpfc^Iungen    Minay  empfayloongen 

ten  3brigen.  den  eerl^en. 


I  am  not  well. 

I  am  unwell. 

She  is  ill. 

He  is  very  ill. 

She  has  a  cold. 

I  have  a  toothache. 

I  must  go. 

It  IS  time  to  go. 

Farewell. 

Good-by. 

I    wish    you 

morning. 
Good  evening, 
Good  night 


My     compliments 
home. 


frow  mootter? 
Ic//  bin  nic/zt  vole. 
Ic//  bin  oonvole. 
See  ist  krank. 
Air  ist  sair  krank. 
See  hat  sic//  airkeltet. ' 
Ic//  haabay  tsahnvay. 
Ic//  mooss  gayen. 
Es  ist  tsite  tsoo  gayen. 
Layben  see  vole. 
Adyce. 


There  is  a  knock. 
It  is  Mr.  A. 
It  is  Mrs.  B. 


A  3IORNING  CALL. 

e§  fiopft. 

es  ifi  §ert  31. 
Gd  ifl  JJrau  39. 


Es  klupft. 
Es  ist  hair  ah. 
Es  ist  frow  bay. 


:  am  glad  to  see  you.    3<^  freue   mii^   Ste    ju  Ic/f  froyay  mic// see  tsoo 


feben. 
5Pittc  ieljen  Sie  r>*. 
SaS  gibfS  9?euc8  ? 
©ute  gtadjTit^Icn. 
©laubcn  Ste  e>S  ? 
[ein 


sayen. 
Bittay  setsen  see  sic*. 
Vas  geepts  noyes? 
Gootay  nac//ric//ten. 
Glowben  see  es? 
^Bert  Ic//  glowbay  kine  vort 
bapcn.  daafun.  [so. 

3c&  tcnfe  (glaube)  ic.       Ic/i    dcnkay  (glowbay) 
3^  benfe  nid»t.  Ic//  denkay  nic/zt. 

2Ber  bo*  «^  3f»ncn  9C=  Vair  hat  es  eenen  ge- 

fagt  ?  saa^t? 

($3  ifl  ttja^r.  Es  ist  var. 

3(^  bejwciffe  c8.  Ich  baytsviflay  es. 

Have  you  heard  from  .§abcn   Sic   »Dn    ijaufc  Haaben   see  fun  how- 
home?  gebcrt  ?  say  gayhccrt? 
The  postman  brought  Tcr  iBricftragcr  bratbte  Dair    breeftraygcr 
mc  a  letter  to-day.          mir  ^cutc  cinen  ©Ticf.      brar//tay  meer  hoytay 

inen  brecf. 
Sad  news.  St%lcd)te  92ac^tid)tcn.        Shlec//tay  nacAric//ten. 


Pray  be  seated. 

What  news  is  there? 

Good  news. 

Do  vou  believe  it? 

I  don't  believe  a  word  3^    glaube 

of  it. 
I  think  so. 
I  think  not. 
^^'ho  told  you? 

It  is  true. 
I  doubt  it. 


L^ 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


95 


ENGLISH.  GERMAN. 

Will  you  dinuwith  us?  aBoHen    ©te    mil    »n3 

fvcifen? 
Xo,  thnnk.  you.  3ictn,  id)  tanfe  31>nen. 

I  cannot  slay.  3*  lann  luclit  blei&en. 

Vou    are    in    a   g^reat  Sic  fiiib  in  grcper  tSilc. 

huiT)'. 
I  li:ivc  a  great  deal  to  Oflj  babe  tiel  ju  tbun. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

VuUen   see    mit    cons 

shpisen? 
Ninc,ic/f  daankeecncn. 
Ic/i  kann  xuc//i  blybcn. 
See  sind  in  grosser  ilay. 


Ic/i    haabay 
toon. 


feci       t'lOO 


PLEASURE  AND  REGRET. 

What!  SBaSI  Vas  1 

Is  it  possible  !  3ft  cS  mSglidi !  1st  es  mceglif/r  / 

Can  it  be !  jliinu  eS  fcln !  Kan  es  sine ! 

How  can   U  be  posst-  9Sie  fann  ed  mcjUc^  fein !  Vee   kan    cs  mceoWc/i 

ble!  sine! 

Who  would   h 

lieved  it  I 
Indeed ! 

It  is  impossible  ! 
That  cannot  be! 
I  am  astonished  at  it 


he-  33eT  wurfcc  ta^' geglaubt  Vair  veerday  das   ^e- 


Vou  surprise  me! 
It  it  incredible  I 
I  am  very  sorry. 
What  a  pity! 
It  is  a  great  pity. 
It  is  a  sad  thing. 


It  is  a  great 

I  am  glad  of  it, 


ba&en! 
2DirfUd5 ! 
C^5  ift  unmpvilid) ! 
(55  Uv.xn  iiidH  fcin! 
3(&   rcuntere  midj  tar 

iibcr ! 
£ie  ubcrrafd)€n  niit^ ! 
C-3  ifi  un^Iaublidj! 
G3  tijut  mtr  fchr  leib. 
aSie  fc^ate! 
es  iflfefjr  fcfcabc. 
m    i(i     eine 

Sai^e. 
sfortune.  (y$  ift  eiu   gre^eS  Un 

glud ! 
Sc^  Iteue  mic^  tatu&er. 


I  am  glad. 

It  givL'S  me  pleasure. 

It  gives  me  great  joy. 

I  am  happy. 
How  happy  I  am  ! 
I  wish  you  joy. 

I  congratulate  you. 


m  iflmirlieb. 

(58  madjt  tnir  apergnii 

gen. 
GS    mad)t    mir 

greutc. 


glowpt  haaben  ! 
VecrklicA.' 
Es  ist  otmma-iAic/t  f 
Ks  kan  nicAt  sine  ! 
I  c/t    voonderay    mir// 

daareeber. 
See  eeberrashen  mic//. 
Es  ist  oonglowblif//  / 
Es  toot  meer  sair  lite. 
Vee  shahday ! 
Es  ist  sair  shahday. 
traurigc  Es    ist  inay  trowrigay 

sacAay. 
Es  ist  ine  grosses  oon- 

glick. 
Ic/i    froyay    inir/r    dar- 

eeber. 
Es  ist  meer  lecb. 
Es  mac/ztmecrfergnce- 

gen. 
grofee  Es  mar//t  meer  grossay 

frovdav. 


I  am  angrv. 
lie  is  angry. 
Don't  be  angr%'. 


You  are  wrong. 

You  are  right. 

\\'hv  don't  you  do  it? 

Re  quiet  1 
What  a  shame ! 
How  could  you  do  it? 

I  am  ashamed  of  you 


3rf?  bin  gtudlicft.  Ic/i  bin  gleeklir//. 

Sic  gludli^  ii$  bin  !        Vee  glceklic//  ic/t  bin  ! 
3c^      iPiinfdje     31>"cu  IcA       vinshay       eenen 

©lurf.  glick. 

3^  grotulire  3^"^"'        I^^'     gratooleeray 
cenen. 

ANGER  AND  BLAME. 

Ir/r  bin  air^rlir//. 
Air  ist  airgerlir//. 
Sven  see  nic/tt  airgcr- 

lirA. 
See  haaben  oonrer/ft. 


3di  bin  atgerlid). 
C?r  ift  avgcvlicij. 
©etcn  Sie  nidjt  argcT 

licfe. 
Sie  \)aUn  Unredjt. 
Sic  ftabcn  3iccl)t. 
9Earum    tbun    £ic 

nidit? 
Scicn  Sie  tubig ! 
©cld)e  e^aitbe! 
2Sie    Eonnteu    Ste 

tbun? 
3d)  f(^>dme  inidj  '^f^xex 


See  haaben  rcf//t. 

C5  \'aroom    toon    sec     es 
nic//t? 
Syen  see  roor^/ 
Velr//ay  shanday ! 

e5  \'eekunten  see  es  toon? 


Vou  are  very  much  to  Sic  r>nb  fc^r  jii  tabeln. 
blame. 


Be  patient! 
I  will  improve. 


Oebulbcn  ©ie  ©i^! 
3c^  ipevbc  mi^  benetii. 

AGE. 


1  c  h    s  h  a  m  a  V     m  i  <r  // 

eerer ! 
See  sind  sair  tsoo  taa- 

deln. 
GaydooUU-n  sec  sic/// 
Ic/t   vairday   tr.ic/i   bes- 

sern. 


How  old  are  you?  2Bic  olt  finb  £ie  ?  Vee  altsind  sec? 

I  am  twenty  years  old.  3i^  ^'in  J>i>anjig  ^a^xi  Ic/r  bin  tsvaantsi^  yah- 
alt.  ray  alt. 


ENGLISH.  GERMAN. 

I  shall  soon  be  thirty.   3<^  wetbc  balb  bret^ig 

fetn. 
He  looks  older.  (St  ftcbt  alter  auS. 

She  is  younger.  SiC  ift  jiingcr. 

She  cannot   be   so  3ie  tami  nicbt  fo  jiing 

young.  fein. 

He  must  be  older.  CSt  mu&  alter  fein. 

I   did  not   think    you  ^^    glaubtc    nid>t     ta^ 

were  so  old.  Zxc  fo  alt  fetcn. 

He  is  at  least  sixty.        t5r  ift  locnigftcnS  fct^d; 

Jig- 
How    old    is    your  2Gie  alt  ill  35t  SSater  ? 

father? 
He  is  nearly  eighty.       C^r  ift  beinabe  aditjig. 
Is  he  so  old?  3ft  er  fo  all? 

A  great  age.  (5in  bcbcs  Sllter. 

He  begins  to  grow  old.  Gr  fangt  an  alt  ju  irer: 

ben. 
How  old  isyoursister?  9Bic  alt  ifl  3^^^  Sd:n?e  = 

ftcr? 
Shu  is  fifteen.  3ie  ift  fiinfjcbn. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Ich  vairday  bald  Urysi^ 

sine. 
Air  seet  cUer  owse. 
Sec  ist  yingcr. 
Sec  kann  nic//tsoyoong 

sine. 
Air  moos  eltcr  sine. 
Ich  glowptay  nir//t  da-, 

see  so  alt  syen. 
Air  ist  vani^tens  ser/r- 

tsig. 
Vee  alt  ist  cer  fahtcr? 

Air  istbynahay  ar//t-si^^ 

Ist  air  so  all? 

Ine  hohes  alter. 

Air  fe'ngt   an    alt    tsoo 

vairden. 
Vee  alt  ist  teray  slivt";- 

ter? 
See  ist  finftsain. 


^\n  e.arly  morning. 
It  is  a  fine  morning. 

M'liat  o'clock  is  it? 
It  is  nearly  eight. 

Light  the  fire. 


A  MORNING  CHAT. 

(^iu  fviibev  SJicrgen.  Ine  freer  morgen. 

t?S  ift  cin  ft^CMier  3Jtor=  Es  ist  ine  shctncr  mor- 
gen. gen- 
'Ba^  ift  tie  lUn  ?              Vas  ist  dee  oor? 
L^S  ift  beinabe  ad^t  Ubr.    Ks    ist    bynahay    ar//t 

oor. 
^I'lnben   Sic  ba3  J^cucr  Tsinden   see  das  foyer 


I  am  going  to  get  up.     3*  null  aufftel)en.  Ic/i  vill  owfshtayen. 

Get     me     some     hot  iHingen  Sic  mir  etira^  Bringen  see  meer  etvas 

water.  bci&cS  2Baffcr.  hises  vasser. 

Some  dinking-water.    (5tiva6  Ivinfivaffer.  Etvas  trinkv:isser. 

Make  haste.  9Jiadicn  3ie  fduiell.  MacAcn  see  shncll. 

There  is  no  towel.  iS^  ift  fcin  Jg'anttud)  ta.    Es  ist  kine  haandtoor// 

dah. 
Bring  me  some  soap.    iHingen  Sic  mir  Scife.   Bringen  see  mecrsifay. 
I  want  to  wash  myself.  3*     iviinfdic    midj     jn  Ir/i  vinshay  micA  tsoo 

wnfd^en.  vashen. 

How  have  you  slept?     SBic  baben  Sie  gcfd)la.  Vee    haaben    see    gc- 

fcn  ?  shlaafen^ 

Did  you  sleep  well?       i^aben   Sic  gut  gefd>la-  Haaben    see    goot  ge- 

fcn?  shiaafcn? 

Very  well,  thank  you.    8ebr  gut,  t*  bante  3^=  Sair    goot,  if//    dankay 

nen.  eenen. 

Not  very  well.  3!idit  febr  gut.  NicAt  sair  goot. 

I  could  not  sleep.  3di  lonntc  uidit  fd^Iafen.  Ic/t  kuntay  nicAt  shlaa- 

fen. 
I    was    so    tired    from  3rf)  war  fo  mube  ton  bet  Ir// var  so  mceday  fun 
travelling.  3ifife.  dair  risay. 

AT  THE  BREAKFAST  TABLE. 

Breakfast  is  readv.         ^q8  ^tu^flud  ift  fctttg.   Das  freeshtick  ist  fair 

Come  to  breakfast.  floninien  2io  jum  grub-  Kummen  see  tsoom 
fturf.  freeshtick. 

Let  us  breakfast.  ^affen    Sie    un§    frub:  Lassen  see  cons  free- 

fiuden.  shticken. 

Does  the  water  boil?     flDdjt  bacl  Soffct?  Ku<r//t  das  vasser? 

Is  the  tea  made?  3)t  ter  Ibcc  fcrtig?  1st  dair  tay  fairti«^^ 

Give  me  a  cup  of  tea.  &eben  Sie  mir  cine  Gayben  see  meer  inay 
aaffeabcc.  tassay  tay. 

A  cup  of  coffee.  Oinc  Ctaffe  «affce.  Inay  tassay  kaffay. 

A  roll.  Oin  9J?iId;5rob.  Ine  milt//brote. 

Do  you  drink  tea  or  2rintcn  Sic  Ibee  ober  Trinken  see  tay  oder 
coffee?  fiaffee? 


kaffav? 


V 


e i.^ 


K" 


96 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


"71 


ENGLISH. 

Will  you  take  an  egg? 

These  eggs  are  hard. 
Give  me  the  salt. 

Pass  me  the  butter. 

Bring  some  more  but- 
ter. 
Give  me  a  spoon. 

Is    the    coffee    strong 

enough? 
We  want  more  cups. 

Take  some  more  su- 
gar. 

Cold  meat. 

The  table-cloth. 

The  sugar-basin. 

Chocolate. 

A  knife. 

A  fork. 

The  knife  is  blunt. 

We  have  done  break- 
fast. 

You  can  take  away 
the  things. 


Have  you  ordered  din- 
ner? 
I  will  order  dinner. 

Show  me    the    bill   of 

fare. 
Waiter. 
What    soup    will    you 

have? 
Rice-soup. 
Have  you   any   roast 

beef? 
We  have  verj-fine  fish. 

Trout. 
Fried  pike. 
Roast  mutton. 
What  wine  will   you 

have? 
Let  us  see. 
Here  is  the  ^vine  list. 

What  time  will  you 
dine? 

We  shall  dine  at  six 
o'clock. 

Be  punctual. 

Help  yourself. 

It  is  excellent. 

I  like  German  cook- 
ery. 

I  do  not  like  foreign 
cookery. 

Do  you  take  pepper? 
No,  thank  you. 
Yes,  if  you  please. 
Give  me  the  mustard. 


GERAtAN.  PRONUNCIATION. 

SEoUen  £ie  ein  (Jt  cffcn?  Vullen  see  ine  eye  es- 

sen? 
'X'icfe  6ier  finb  ^arl.        Deesay  eyer  sint  hart. 
®c&cn     2ie    mir     taS  Gayben    see  meer  das 

£alj.  salts. 

Oicic^eu     (Sic     mir    tic  Ryc//cn  see    meer    dee 

Slitter.  bootter. 

ffltingen  Sle  mir  etrcoS  Bringen  see  meer  et\-as 

mebr  5Pulter.  mair  bootter, 

@e6en    £ic    mir    einen  Gayben  see  meer  inen 

fioffel.  iceffel. 

Oft  ter  ilaffee  flarf  gcs  1st  dair  kaffay  shtaark 

nug  ?  gaynooo-? 

S!Bir  btaudien  mcBrSoi";  Veer    browcZ/en     mair 

fen,  tassen. 

92e^men  Sie  noi^  etiraS  Xaymen  see  nuc/i  etvas 

3urfer,  tsoocker. 

JlalteS  Jleif*.  Kaaltes  ilyshe. 

Sag  a:if(^tuctf.  Das  tishtooc/^. 

'Zie  !^ndexhui}U*  lyee  tsookerbiksay. 

Gfiofclate.  Chocolahday. 

Gin  ajieffer.  Ine  messer. 

(Sine  G^abel.  Inay  gahbel. 

Xa^  ^icffcr  ill  ftumpf.   Das  messer  istshtoompf. 
Sir  finb  mit  tcm  Jriifi:  Veer   sind    mit     dame 

Pii(f  fertig.  freeshtick  fairti^. 

Sie  fcnnen  bie  Sadden  See    kcennen    dee   sa- 

fortnebmen.  rAen  fortnaymen. 

DINNER. 

§aben  Sic  fcaSe(fen&Ci 

fteUt  ? 
3dj    wcrte    ta§    Tiner 

beftellen. 
^eiijen     Sic    mir    bie 

Spcifcfiirte. 
Jleilner. 
aSaa  fur  Suppe  wiin; 

fd?cn  Sie  ? 
iKci^fuppc. 
§a6cn      Sie     9?inber= 

tratcn  ? 
aEtr   ^aben   fcbr  guten 

gif*. 
gorcUcn. 
@cbratenc  .SjeAte. 
.^^aTiimclbratcii. 
2Da^  fiir  iSein  iDi4u|djen 

Sic? 
?affcu  ©Ic  feficn. 
i>icr  ifl  tie  aBcintarle. 


Um  reelrfie  3cit  reunfi^cn 

©ic  ju  fpcifcu  ? 
3Str    trcrtcn   um    fcc^S 

Ufjr  fpcifcn. 
Scicn  Ste  punfUt(^, 
iBctiencn  Sic  fidj. 
Gi  tft  tcrttcffli*. 
Xic  teutfti^c  Stu^e  gcs 

fdUt  mir. 
Tic  ouolanbiftftc  flfle^e 

ftfcmcrft  mir  ni($t. 

5Kcftmcn  Sic  ^feffct  ? 
5Kcin,  it^  tanlc. 
3a,  iif  &ittc. 
&then     Sie     mir    ben 
Scnf. 


Haaben  see   das  essen 

baystellt? 
Ic/i  vairday  das  deenay 

bayshtellen. 
Tsigen   see    meer    dee 

shpisaykartay. 
Kelner. 
Vas  feer  sooppay  vin- 

shen  see? 
Ricesooppay. 
Haaben      see     rinder- 

braaten? 
Veer  haaben  sair  goo- 
ten  fish. 
Forellen. 

Gebraatenay  hec//tay, 
Hammelbraaten. 
Vas   feer  vine  vinshen 

see? 
Lassen  see  sayen. 
Heer  ist   dee  vinekar- 

tay. 
Oom  velfZ/ay  tsite  vin- 
shen sectsooshpisen? 
Veer  vajrden   oom   sex 

Qor  shpisen. 
Sycn  see  pinktlicA. 
Baydcenen  see  sic//. 
Es  ist  foretrefflicA. 
Dee  doytshay  keec/tay 

gefellt  meer. 
Dee  owslcndishay  kee- 

c/iay    shmcckt    meer 

nif//t. 
Naymen  see  pfeffer? 
Nine,  icA  dankay. 
Yah,  ic/t  bittay, 
Gayben  see  meer  dane 

senf. 


ENGLISH. 

Change  the  plates. 
I  want  a  spoon. 
Are  you  hungry? 
Not  very. 
I  am  hungry. 
Vou  do  not  eat. 
I  am  very  thirsty. 
I  am  dying  of  thirst. 
Take  a  glass  of  wine. 

Give  me  something  to 

drink. 
I  want  some  beer. 


GERMAN, 

SBci^feln  Sie  bie  XcUcr, 
3^  wiinft^e  eincnSoftC 
Sinb  Sie  fmngtt^  " 
^iiilt  fcftr. 
3*  bin  ^ungrtg. 
Sic  effen  ntdjt. 
3c^  bin  febr  turf.ig. 
3d?  ftcrbc  vox  SJuril. 
SKe^men  Sie   ein  @Ia8 

y[!?ein. 
©ebeit    Sie   mir   etn?a5 

JU  trtnfen. 
3c^  njunfc^e  Sicr. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Vecksein  see  dee  teller. 

Ic/i  vinshay  inen  ItEffel. 

Sind  see  hoongri^^ 

Nic/H  sair. 

Ich  bin  hoongrj^^ 

See  essen  nir/;t. 

Ic/t  bin  sair  doorsti^. 

Ic/i  stairbay  for  doorst. 

Naymen  see  ine  glaas 

vine. 
Gayben  see  meer  etvas 

tsoo  trinken. 
Ic/i  vinshay  beer. 


TALK  AT  THE  TEA  T.4_BLE, 


Tea  is  quite  ready. 

They  are  waiting  for 

you. 
I  am  coming. 
Bring  a  saucer. 

Pour  out  the  tea. 

The  tea  is  very  strong. 

It  is  very  weak. 

A  slice  of  bread   and 

butter. 
Hand  the  plate. 

Will    you    take    some 

cake? 
A  small  piece. 
Make  more  toast. 
Make  haste. 
This  is  good  tea. 
The  tea-tray. 
A  set  of  tea-things. 
Have  you  finished? 
Take  another  cup. 

Brown  bread. 

White  bread. 
Stale  bread. 
New  bread. 


It  is  late. 

What  o'clock  is  it? 

It  is  still  early. 

Are  you  tired? 

Not  at  all. 

Not  much. 

It  is  onlv  ten. 

It  is  time  to  go  to  bed, 

It  is  a  fine  evening. 

It  is  moonlight. 
Is  my  room  ready? 

Sheets. 
A  blanket. 

Good -night. 
Are  you  sleepy? 


Xev  Ifiec  ifi  ganj  fertig. 

i^an  rcartet  auf  Sie. 

31$  lomme. 

SBringen  Sie  eine  Unter: 

taffe, 
©djenfen  Sie  ten  Xbee 

ein. 
Xer  2bec  ifl  fcbr  ftarf. 
Sr  ift  fefir  f^rea^. 
gin    Stucfc^en   33utter: 

brcb, 
©eben  Sie  mirbenSel: 

ler. 
3Bunf($en  Sie  ffu*en  ? 

(5in  Stiidd)eii. 
JKeficn  Sie  meftr  ^rob. 
3Kadien  Sic  fd)nea. 
^icS  ifi  guter  Xtice, 
Xcr  iUafentirteller. 
2^a3  Ibceferpice. 
Sinb  Sie  fertig  ? 
Siebmen  Sie  not^    eine 

3:affe. 
S(^trarie3  9?rcb. 
3BciBc^  2?rpb. 
writes  Srcb, 
^rifdjed  fflrob. 

BED  TI>IE, 

(5S  ifl  fpat, 

^ci3  ifl  bie  Ufir  ? 

153  ifl  no(^  fru^. 

Sinb  Sie  miibe  f 

@ar  nic^t. 

gjic^t  fe^r. 

(5S  ifl  erfi  jebn. 

m  ifl  3t\t  3u  5Petl  ju 

gebcn. 
(53  ifl  einfd^onetSIbenb. 

(S§  ifl  OTcnbf*ein. 

3fl  mcin  ^inirnet  fertig? 

iric  ?«fcn. 

eine  luoUene  5Settbc(Ic. 

©utc  "Slaift. 

Sinb  Sic  f*Iafrlg  ? 


Dair  tay  ist  gants  fair- 

ti^. 
Man  vaartet  owf  see. 

Ic/t  kummay. 
Bringen  sec  inay  oon- 

tertassay, 
Shcnken   see   dane  tay 

ine. 
Dair  tay  ist  sair  shiark. 
Air  ist  sair  shvac//. 
Ine  shtickc/zen  bootter- 

brote. 
Gayben  see  meer  dane 

teller. 
Vinshen  see  koocAen  ? 

Ine  shtickcAen. 
Rcesten  see  mairbrote. 
Ma<r/;en  see  shncU, 
Decs  ist  gootcr  tay. 
Dair  prayscnlcerteller. 
Das  taysairvecce. 
Sind  see  fairtio-^ 
Naymen  see  nuch  inay 

tassay. 
Shvaartses  hrote. 
Vices  brote. 
Altcs  brote. 
Frishes  brote. 


Es  ist  shpate. 

Vas  ist  dee  oor? 

Es  ist  nuc/t  free. 

Sind  see  meeday? 

Gar  nicAt. 

Ni<:/;t  sair. 

Es  ist  airst  tsane. 

Es  is  tsite  tsoo  bett  tsoo 

gayen. 
Es  ist  ine  shccnerah- 

bend. 
Es  is  mohndshine. 
Ist  mine  tsimmcr  fair- 

tiffr 

Dee  laakcn. 

Inay      vullenay      bett* 

deck  ay. 
Gootay  narAt. 
Sind  see  shlayfri^f 


kl. 


A^ 

0             ». 

- 

_^*- 

^^ 

-. 

/ 

0 

\ 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE.                                      ^ 

97 

' 

THE  HOUR  OF  THK  DAY. 

KNGLISH.                                 GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION'. 

ENGLISH.                                  GERMAN.                        PRONUNCIATION. 

He  lives  in  this  house.  (5t    tppfint      In     tlcfcm 

Air  vohnt    in    deescm 

Wh:it  o'clock  is  it?       3Ba«  1(1  tic  Ufir  ?              V.as  ist  dee  oor? 
My  watch  has  stopped.  'U'cinc  Itljl  ficl)t.               Minay  oor  shtate. 
It  docs  not  g-o.               SiescHniiit.                 See  gayt  ni<7;t. 
I  forgot  to  wind  it  up.  ^^i)    vetgap   fic    oufiu;  lirk  vairgaass  see  owf- 

Ji)auie. 
Whore?                             <!Eo  ? 

howsay. 

Vo?                                           ] 

On  the  first  floor.           3ni  erflcn  Stcif. 

I  in  airstcn  slituck. 

I  know  him.                   Jcfe  Icnnc  if>n. 
Intimately.                      (Vcnan. 

\ck  kennay  ccn. 
Gaynow. 

jicljcn.                                   tsootseen. 

^^y  watch  is  too  fast.    2)!cine  U^t  jcM  vex.         Minay  oor  gayt  fore. 

It  is  too  slow.                  eio  (!CM  lia*.                    Sec  gayt  nac//. 

It  is  five  minutes  too  £ic  ifl  funf  SIRtnutcn  JU  See    ist   finf  minooten 

I    am    very    intimate  3d)  I'in  rait  ifiin  fefir  In: 
with  him.                            tint. 

\ch   bin    mit  eem    sair 
intccm. 

He  is  my  friend.             (Sr  ift  mcin  Jvteunt. 

Air  ist  mine  frotnd. 

slow.                                 f|)5t.                                    tsooshpate. 
It  goes  right.                  Sic  jcM  ti^tig.               See  g.ayt  ri<r/itiir. 
One  o'clock.                   (Jin  U^r.                           Inc  oor. 

I  have    known  him  a  3t^  IM&C  Ihn  langc  gc; 

\<'h  hanbay  ccn  laangay 

long  time.                       lannt. 
Where  does  he  live'       ^H-o  ivpf^nt  cr  ? 

gckant.                                  1 
"\'o  vobnt  air? 

Five  minutes  p.ist  two.  ^finfSOiinutennactijipci,  Finf    minooten     nac// 

He    lives    in      Broad  C!t  irelml  in  tcr  trcllen 

Air  Yobnt  in  dair  bry- 

tsvi. 

street,  No.  3.                   Stta^c,  Wunicro  tvei. 

ten   slitraassay   noo- 

A  quarter  past  three.     Pin  2?icrtcl  auf  vior.        Ine  feertel  owf  ft-er. 

incro  dry.          " 

Il.llf-past  four.                .ijilH'  funj.                            Ilaalh  finf. 

When  is  he  at  home?     iJBann  ifl  ct  JU  .ifoufc  ? 

Van  ist  air  tsoo  how- 
sav? 

A  qu.arter  to  five.            Trci  tic'rtet  auf  finf.        Dry  feertel  owf  finf. 

Just  six  o'clock.             6>cratc  fe*8  Ufir.             c;ayraaday  sex  oor. 

In  the  morning.             l^c8  9HcrgenS. 

Des  morgens. 

Twenty     minutes     to  ^rcaniij   aiiinulen    i-cr  Tsvaantsia-     minooten 

In  the  evening.              tc8  SfbentS. 

Dcs  abbcnds. 

seven.                                fic&cn,                                 fore  seeben. 

lie  lives  close  by.          Bt  n'ctmt  nahe  tci. 

Air  vohnt  nahay  by. 

It    has     just     struck  PS  fiat  cbfn  acf't  fiofiMas  Es  hat  ayben  ac/a  ge- 

Is  it  far?    ,                      3fi  ti  it>cit  ? 

1st  es  vitc? 

eight.                                    gen.                                        shlaagen. 

Can  you  direct  me  to  ffionncn    gic    mir    fcin 

Kcennen  see  meer  *;ine 

>roon.                              SDiiltag.                            Mittaao-. 

his  house?                       ,^au«  jcigcn  ? 

house  tsigen? 

Midnight.                       aKittcrnad't.                     MitternacAt. 

I  will  show  yon  where  3*  n>crte  ^Iincn  ?elgcn 
he  lives.                          n'p  cr  irctmt. 

\ch  vairday  eenen  tsi- 
jjen  vo  air  vohnt. 

THE  PROMENADE. 

That  is  the  market.         Xafl  ifl  tcr  ajjattl. 
This  is  the  street.            Tic8  ift  tie  Strapc. 

Das  ist  dair  markt. 
Decs  ist  dee  shtraassay. 

Shall  we  take  a  walk?  SBcIICn  reit  cincn  StOs  Vul  I  en' v  e  er   inen 

The  square.                     Tor  ISIal}. 

Dair  plats. 

Decs  ist  sine  house. 

jicrgang  macftcn  ?            shpaatseergang    ma- 
c/;cn  ? 

This  is  his  house.           Titi  ifl  fcin  ,rjau«. 

Here  he  lives.                  JJict  reotnit  cr. 

Ilfcr  volint  air. 

Yes,  let  us  walk.            ^<x,  iDlt  tPDlIen   au§gc;  Yah,  veer  vuUen  ows- 

^en.                                  gavcn. 

\\"here  shall  we  go?       3Bo   tPDlIen   n^tr  lungc;  \'o   vuUen    veer    hin* 

THE  TALK  OF  TRAA-EL. 

ben  ?                                gayen? 
On  the  high  road.          Muf  tic  Pfiauffce.               Owf  dee  shossay. 
There  is  a  good  deal  (5S  ift  tort  fcfit  fiautig.    Es  ist  dort  sairshtou- 

Are  you  going  to  Ger-  Wcticn  Sic  nad)  Teulfdi  = 
man}-?                               lant  ? 

Oayen  scenac^do^-tsh- 

land? 

of  dust.                                                                        h'i<r. 

I  intend  to  go  to  the  odi     gctcnte     an     ten 

Ich  gaydcnkay  an  den 

Into  the  fields.                  Jluf  M(  Sclter.                    Owf  dee  felder. 

Rhine.                             iHtiein  jn  gcl'cn. 

Rhine  t-soo  gayen. 

They  are  reaping.           mian  crntct.                         Man  airntct. 

When  do  you  think  of  'IBann  gctenfen  Sic  ju 

Van      gcdenkcn       see 

They  are  making  hay.  (58  i(l  §cilCtnlo.                  Es  ist  hoyairntay. 

going?                                 tcifcu  ? 

tsoo  risen? 

Whatapleasantscent!  iEa«fur  cin  augcncfimct  Vas    feer     inc      angc- 

How  long  shall   you  5i?ic  langc   U'crtcn   3ie 

Vce  lar^ay  vairden  sec 

G^ovudi !                               naymcr  gayrooc// .' 
Let  us    take    a   walk  SlJad'cn  ivir  cine fpromc;  M  ac/; e n    veer    inay 

stay?                                fid)  Quffialtcn  ? 

sir//  owflialtcn? 

About  a  montli.              llngcfafu"  eincn  llionat. 

Oniiijayfair  inen   nioh- 

into  the  town.                 note  in  tic  Statt.            prummenalid.ay       ic 

nat. 

dee  shtadt. 

I  set  out  tn-morrow.     3*  i'*-'ife  niprgcn  a&. 

\ch  risay  morgcn  ap. 

What  street  is  that?        SBaS   ift   ta3    fuc    cine  Vas  ist  d.as   feer   may 

Have   you    made    all  .(^latcn    Sic    ollc    3Iire 

llaaben  sec  allay  ccray 

etrafic  ?                            slitraassay? 

your  preparations?         'lU-rtcIirnngcn  getrcf: 

forkayrunpfen  gctnif- 

\\'hcrc  does  it  lead  to?  23o  fuf)rt  flc  fiin  ?             Vn  fcert  see  hin? 

fen  ? 

fcn? 

Handsome  shops.          Sdjcne  Eaten.                 Sliocnay  laden. 

Everything  is  ready.      MUcS  ift  fertig. 

AIlcs  ist  fairti^. 

Bad  pavement.                 Sd)lcdjtc5  ^^flaftcv.            Shlcc//tes  pflaster. 

I  shall  go  by  railway  ^dnt'crtc  niit  ter  ISifcn; 

\ch    vairday   mit    dajr 

Arc     these      Prussian   3inb     tie§      prCU&ifd'C  Sind   dees    proyssisliay 

to  Dover.                       bafui  nac^  ^ouet  fob: 

isenbahn  nac//  Dover 

soldiers?                         3oItaten  ?                       soldaaten? 

rcn. 

fahrcn. 

Where  is  King  street?  SJBoiftblc  fionigSflrafie  ?  Vo  ist  deckteni^traas- 

The  train  starts  in  ten  Ter  3»i!   flf^i'   tn   jcful 

Dair  tsoorf- gayt  in  tsanc 

say? 

minutes.                          aiitnutcn  a&. 

minooten  ab. 

Straight  before  yon.        ^^(?r  Ofi'tCH-                         Fore  eenen. 

I  w.ant  aticket  forCo-  3(^  iciinfdic    cln  Sittcl 

\ch  vinshay   ine  bilyct 

To  the  left  hand.            Sinter  §ant— lintS.          Linker  hand— links. 

logne.                              nac^  Seln. 

nnc//  Kcrln. 

To  the  right  hand.         iRedjtct  S'ant— tcc^tS.       Rcc/zter  hand— recAts. 

First-class.    ■                  tJvftc  Slaffe. 

Airstay  klassay. 

Is  the  village  far  from  3ft  t^^  Xorf  tteit  vcn  Ist  das   dorf   vi*e    fim 

The  express  train.          Ter  edjncHjng. 

Dairshncltsoo^. 

here?                                  ^icr  ?                                  here? 

The  ordinary  train.        Tet  gcTOijIinlid'C  3ug. 

Dair       gcvoehnlic/iay 

About  a  mile.                 llngcfdftr  cine  3)ieilc.        Oongayfareinaymilay. 

tsoog. 

A  good  hour.                 (5lnc  gutc  ^tuntc.           Itiaygootayshtoonday. 

Where    is    your   bag-  SBo  1ft  3^t  O'epnct  ? 

Vo  ist  ccr  gepcck? 

Hardly  a  mile.                  ffauni  einc  fflicilc.               Kowm  inay  milay. 

gage  ? 

H.ilf  a  mile.                      (Sine  t)aHie  HJieilc.               Inay  halbay  milay. 

Here  it  is.                       ,(jlct  Ifl  el. 

The  train  is  just  going  Tcr  Sua  li'irt  fugleld) 

Hecr  ist  es. 

Dair  tsoog   vcert   so* 

PERSONAL  INQUIRIES. 

to  start.                            obgc^cn. 

glitr//c  abgaycn. 

Do  you  know  Mr.  F.?  flcmcn  Sic  .^icrtn  ^.  ?    Kenncn  sec  hairn  F"? 

It   does   not   go  verj-  (S«  gc^t  nid^t  fc6i  t(^nen 

Es  gate  nic/it  sair  shncl. 

I    do  not  know   any-  ^tij  lenne  9iiemant  tic    t</t  kennay   ncemaand 

fast. 

i 

body  of  that  name.        fc8  9!amcn3.                     deeses  nahmens. 

Not  so  f.-ist  as  in  En-  5Ilcfit  fo   frfincO  aI8    In  Nic/;t  so  shnel  als  !n         | 

\ 

1 

Does  he  live  here?         ^Scfint  cr  ^icr  ?                Volint  air  here? 

gland.                              Ctnglant. 

England. 

U 

/ 

\ 

5 

■e 

a         "■ 

"•            C 

T* 

^\ 

G> 

^                 (Ti 

^ 

61 

\ 

/ 

e 

( 

98                                                                                      THE    GERMAN 

L.^NGUAGE. 

1 

ENGLISH.                                 GERMAX.                        PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH.                                 GERMAN.                        PRONUNCIATION. 

i        Here  is  a  Station.           Joicr  id  eine  Station.       Hcer  isinay  shtatsione. 

It  is  the  most  useful  68  ift  tie  nu^li^fle  unt  Es  ist  dee  nitslic/istay 

Do  we  stop  here?            Joaltcn  irit  Met  ail  ?          Ilalten  veer  heer  an? 

and  interesting  Ian-       tnteteffantefle  gptacbe       oont  interessantestay 

Thev  stop  at  every  sta- 2Kan  bait  auf  Jeter  2ta=  Man   helt   owf  yaydair 

guage  for  an  Ameri-      tie     cin     Slmctifanet      shpraar/jay    dee    ine 

t'on.                                      lion  an.                                shtatsione  an. 

can  to  learn.                    ietnen  tann.                       Amayrikahner     lair- 

It  is  a  long  journey.      (S*  lit  etne  lange  Metie.    Es     ist     inay     langay 

nen  kann. 

risay. 

THE  WEATHER  AND  THE   SEASONS. 

Ves.fromtento  tivelve  3a,  ton  jctn   Bi3   510 6 If  Yah,     fun     tsane     bis 

lionrs.                              Stunten.                          tsvelf  shtoonden. 
\'Lry  prettv- country.       £ehr  fdjone  ®Cgenb.          Sair  sh(Enay  gaygend. 

Spring  has  come.           let  Jtu^ling  ifi  ta.         Dair  freeling  ist  dab. 
Spring  begins  well.        33ec  gtiiljUng  fangt  gut  Dairfreelingfengtgoot 

Arrived  at  Last.                (9nMtc&  angefommen.        Endllr// angekummen. 
1         The  steamer.                     Xa^  Xampfboct.               Das  dampfboat. 

an.                                   an. 

It  is  rather  mild.              08  ifl  jiemlici)  gclinte.      Es  ist  tseemlirf  gelin- 

day. 

,         "When  do  you  start?       9Sann  ttehcn  5ie  ab  ?        Van  gaven  see  ab? 
1         With  the  tide.                   fflitt  tet  glutb.                    Mit  dair  floot. 

It  is  spring-r-eather.      08  ifi  gtublinggwetter.    Es  ist  freelingsvetter. 

The  trees  are  begin-  Tie  9?aume  -fdngcn   an  Dee  boymay  fangen  an 

Let  us  go  down  into  Caffen  2ie  unS  Stnab  in  Lassen  see  oons  hmab 

ningtohud.                       au8juf(blagen.                     owstsooshlaagen. 

the  cabin.                        tie  Sa jute  gcben.              in  dee  kahyeetay 

The  season  is  very  for- Tie  SafetcSjett  ifl    fcfit  Dee  yahrestsite  ist  sair 

gayen. 

ward.                                    totqetudt.                           forgayrickt. 

The  tide  is  strong.          'Xic  glulb  ifi  ftatf.            Dee  floot  ist  shtarlt. 

It  is  so  pleasant.             08  ift  fo  angenebm.           Es  ist  so  angenaym. 

The  sea  is  rough.            Tie  See  ifi  fturmifd*.       Dee  say  ist  shteermish. 

The  sun  is  so  warm.       Tie  Sonne  ift  fo  U'arm.  Deesunnay  istsovarm. 

Thewind  is  against  us,  Ter  2Sinb  ift  geiien  un^.  Dair   vind   ist  gaygen 

There  are  some  flow-  08  giebt  cinige  SBIuinen.  Es  geebt  inigay  bloo- 

oons. 

ers.                                                                                       men. 

So  much  the  worse.        Um  fo  f*Iimmcr.               Oom  so  shlimmer. 

Snowdrops.                     iSdjneeglcdcben.               ShnayglcEckc//en. 

1         AVe  shall  have  a  long  35ir   Iterten    cine  lange  Veer  vairden  inay  lan- 

Tulips.                                 2ulpen.                                 Toolpen. 

1            passage.                            Ucberfa^tt  baben.              gay  eeberfahrt   haa- 

Hyacinths.                         §t)acintben.                          Heeahtsinten. 

ben. 

Gather  some.                    fjliiden  Sie  trellbe.           Pflicken  see  velr/zay. 

I  feel  sea-sick.                Jd)  fflble  mi*  feefrant.    Ic/i   feelay    mic/i    say- 

As  many  as  you  please.  So  Diet  3bnen  beltebt.      So  feel  eenen  beleebt. 

krank. 

The    season    is    very  Tie  3al)te8ieit  ift  fc^t  Dee  yahrestsite  ist  sair 

The    sea    is      getting  ^o3  SKeet  Wirt  lubiijet.  Das  mair  veertrooiger. 

backward.     .                     jutiitf.                                    tsoorick. 

calmer. 

Summer  is  coming.        Tet  Sommer  fomnit.       Dair  summer  kumt. 

I  see  land.                          gdi  febe  ?ant.                     Ir/;  sayay  lant. 

It  is  becoming  warm.     08  tintb  warm.                    Es  vect  varm. 

It  is  the  harborof  Ost- (53    i|l    ter   S^afen    ncn  Es  ist  dair  haafen  fun 

It  is  too  warm.                 03  ift  3U  toarni.                  Es  ist  tsoo  varm. 

end.                                 Cflente.                           Ustenday. 

It  is  almost  hot.              08  ift  fafl  bcig.                  Es  ist  fast  bice. 

We  have  arrived.           tIDir  Tint  ongefominen.     Veer    sind    angckum- 

It  is  a  splendid  day.      08  ifi  ein  wunbetftbonct  Es  is  ine  voondershtE- 

*                                                                                                     men. 

Xag.                                 ner  tao: 
The  heat  is  great.            Tie  S}\%1  ifl  gtcS.              Dee  hitsay  ist  gross. 

DISCUSSING  THE  GER5IAN  LANGUAGE. 

The  heat  is  unbeara-  Tie^i^e  ijiunertraglicb.  Dee  hitsay  ist   ooner- 
ble.                                                                               tr.avi^ir//. 

Canyon  read  German?. <Jonnen  Eie -Tciltfcb  Ie=  Koennen     see      doytsh 

It  is  very  close.              08  ifl  febr  btiident.          Es  ist  saire  drickend. 

(en  ?                                   laysen? 

I  think  we  shall  have  3(^  glaube  irir  iperten  \ch  glowbay  veervair- 

.\  little.                           Pin  loenig.                        Ine  vani^. 

a  storm.                          einen  Sturm  fjaben.        den  inenshtoormhaa- 

I  read  itvery  well,  but  3*  Ie(e  eSganijut,  abet  Ic/;    laysay    es     giints 

hen. 

I  cannot  speaR  it.           i(b  (anit  e8  nidit  fprc;      goot,  aber  irA  kann 

The  clouds  arc  gather-  Tie  aEcIten  3te^en  fiib  Dee  vulken  tsee-ensi<-A 

(ben.                                    es  nic//t  shprecAen. 

ing.                                       jufammcn.                            tsoosammen. 

Do   you    speak    Ger.  gpteibcn  ®ie  Teutfdi  ?    Shprerfen  see  doytsh? 
man? 

I  hear  thunder.               3dj  ^ore  Tonner.              \ch  hceray  dunner. 

It  thunders  fearfully.    08  tonnett  fsbiedlicb.         Es  dunnert  shrecklirA. 

I  do  not  understand  it.  3*1  scrflc^e  c8  ni*t.          Irf  fershtayay  es  ni<r/;t. 

It  lightens.                       08  bliSt.                             Es  hlitst. 
How  it  rains !                    SSic  e8  regnet !                    Vee  es  rayonet. 

People  speak  so  fast.    TOan  ftritbl  fo  ftfinett.       Man  shpri<-//t  so  shnel. 

You  have  had  but  lit-  Sic    baben    nnr    itenig  See  haabennoorvavnio- 

The    sky    begins      to  Tet    §immel   flart    fi(b  Dair  himmel  klairt  sir// 

tle  practice.                     Itebung  gebatt.                eeboonggehaabt. 

clear.                                 fluf.                                     owf. 

Vcni  have  agood  pro-   Sie     baben     Hie     gilte  See  haabeninaygootav 

The  rain  ceases.             Tet  iRegen  ^ott  auf.        Dair  raygen  hoert  owf. 

nunciation.                       auSfvtaibe.                        owsshpraarfay. 

There  is  a  rainbow.        Ta  ifl  cin  Siegenbogcn.    Daistineraygenbogen. 

Your  sister  speaks  it  Jbrs    Scbireftet    furidit  Ecray  shvestcr  shpricit 

The  sun  breaks  out.       Tie  Sonne  bridjl  turcb.  D  ee    sunnay   brir/jt 

perfectly.                        e«  gelaufig.                      es  gcloyfio-. 

doorr/f. 

It  is   a   difficult  Ian-  08  ifl  einc  f(*reere  Spta=  Es    ist   inay   shvayray 

Summer  is  over.             Tet  Scmmct  ifl  rorfu  Dair  summer  ist  forec- 

Ruage.                               (be.                                      shpraac/zay. 

bet.                                     ber. 

You  will  learn  it  soon.  Sie  rcerbcn  cS  bait  Ier=  Sec    vairden    es    bald 

The  heat  is  past.            Tie  ^li^c  ifl  torbei.         Dee  hitsay  is  forbye. 

nen.                                  lairncn. 

The  leaves  are  begin-  Tie  Slattet  fangen  an  Dee  bleiter  fangen  an 

Where  do  they  speak  SJo  (ptidit  man  ta8  bcs  Vo   shpri<r/St   man   das 

ningtofall.                        objufaUen.                            abtsoofallen. 

the  best  German?           (le  Teutf*  ?                      best.ay  doytsh  ? 

The  days  are  still  fine.  Tie  Sage  fmb  noib  ((bon.  Dee  tahgay  sind  nnch 

In  the  North  of  Ger-  3n  MottbeulMIonb.         In  norddoytshland. 

sh(m. 

many. 

The  days  are  closing.    Tie  lage  nebraen  ab.      Dee  tahgay  naymen  ab. 

I  find  the  pronuncia-  3(b  fmbe  tie  BuStDradic  IrA    finday    dee    ows- 

Autumn  is  interesting  Tet  J&erbfl  ift  intctcffant  Dair  hairhst  ist  interes- 

lion  easy.                            leitbl.                                    shpraa<-/;,ay  lierAt. 

on  the  Rhine.                    am  9!bein.                            sant  am  Rhine. 

It  is  very  much    like  08    ifl    tent    Onglifibcn  Es  ist  daim  englishen 

It  is  the  time  of  the  08  ifl  tic  3eit  tet  3Beins  Es    ist    dee   tsite    dair        1 

English.                          febr  abnii*.                    sair  aMic/,. 

vintage.                               lefc.                                        vinelaysay. 

Yes,  the  German  Ian- 3a,    He  tfutf*e  Spta:  Yah,    dee    doytshay 

How  happy  the  peo-  iffiic  glii(fli(f)  tie  Scute  Vee  glicklicAdeeloj-tay 

guage  is  the  mother      *(  ifi  tie  ilButtet  bet      shpraacAay    ist    dee 

pie  are.                              finb.                                   sind. 

( 

of  the  English.              Onglifi^tn.                       moottcr  dair  en - 

We  must  soon  begin  Sit    mflffcn    bait    tie  Veer  missen  bald  dee 

k 

,                                                                                           glishen. 

fires.                                 Cefen  bci(}cn.                   crfen  hitesen. 

g 

/ 

*\ 

0 

V 

0 

"•           t' 

V*" 

THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


99 


ENGLISH. 

We  have  had  a  fire  al- 
ready. 
It  is  soon  dark. 
It  is  a  fine  night. 


gcuer  gchatt, 
(S8  ift  balb  fcuntcl. 
(S8  (fl  eiite  fd^one  'SlaM. 


Is  it  moonlight?  3fl  c8  3]?cnfrf(6cin  ? 

It  is  full  moon.  (56  ift  aUcUmoiit. 

New  moon.  SReumonb. 

Do  yoii  think  it  will  ©[Qubett  ©ie  ba§  c^  TC^j; 


rain  ? 
I  am  afraid  so. 
It  hails. 
It  rains. 

It  is  very  windy. 
It  is  winter. 


nen  wirb  ? 
3d)  bcfurdite  c8. 
m  liagelt. 
G^  regnet, 
C§  ifi  fchr  trtntig. 
{^>^  ifl  aSintcr. 


The  days  are  so  short.  Tie  lage  ftnb  jo  Tuvj. 


It  is  very  cold. 
There  is  a  cold  wind. 
It  is  bad  weatheff 
It  is  foggy. 
The  skv  is  overcast. 


m  ifi  fctir  fall. 

eg  gc^it  ein  falter  2Binb, 

m  ifi  fdilecfcted  abetter. 

t^§  ift  ncbelig. 

Ter  §immel  ift  betcrft. 


It  will  snow.  (58  ipivb  jd>neicn. 

It  freezes  very  hard.       (5d  jrictt  fiart. 

Can  you  skate?  flcnncn  ®ic  <£d)Iittf((ju^ 

laufcn  ? 
The  ice  does  not  bear.  ITaS  &i5  trngt  ni*t. 
The    ice    is    th  i  c  k  Tag  (Sig  ift  bicf  geniig. 

enough. 
It  is  healthy  weather.     (J8  if!  gefuntcS  ^Better. 


PRONUNCIATION, 

Veer  haabcn  shone  Ine 

foyer  gthaalit. 
Ks  istbald  dnonkcl. 
Ks     ist    inay     shtcnay 

naf//t. 
Ist  cs  mohnL-ihine? 
Es  ist  fulmohnt. 
Novmohnt. 
Glowhcn    see    das     ts 

raj^nien  vctrt? 
Ic/i  befeerc/ztay  es. 
Es  hahgelt. 
Es  ray^et. 
Es  ist  sair  vindi^''. 
Es  ist  vinter. 
Dee     tahgay     sind    so 

koorts. 
Es  ist  sair  knit. 
Es  gayt  inc  kaltervind. 
Es  ist  shlec//tes  vcttcr. 
Es  is  naybcli^;/. 
Dair    hinimel    ist    hi.' 

deckt. 
Es  vird  shnyen. 
Es  freert  shtnrk. 
Kojnnen   see   shlitslmc) 

lowfen? 
Das  ice  tray^t  nir/zt. 
Das  ice  ist  dick  genooi;-. 

Es    ist  gesoondes   vet- 
ter. 


ENGLISH. 

It  thaws. 

It  is  slippen,'. 

The  ice  is  thawing. 

The    streets    are   very 

wet  and  dirty. 
Christmas. 
Xew  Year. 
New  Year's  day. 
A  new  year. 


GERMAN. 

(?8  tliaut. 

m  i[t  fcblupfrtg. 

Ta3  (Sta  ge&t  auf. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Es  towt. 

Es  ist  shlipfrii^. 

Das  ice  gayt  nwf. 


Xie   Strafjen   finb  fcftr  Deeshtraassensindsair 


nag  unb  fcfimuljtg. 
^ei^inad}ten. 
3ccuia^r. 
ytcujalir^tag. 
(5in  neue^  ^ahx. 


nass   oont  shmootsi^' 
Vynar//tcn. 
Noiyahr. 
Noiyahrstajj*". 
Ine  noyes  yahr. 


RELATING  TO  CORRKSPONDENCK. 


Ink. 

Pens, 

Have  yo«  any  envel- 
opes? 

Postage  stamps. 

I  want  a  sheet  of  writ- 
ing paper. 

Blotting-paper. 

I  have  a  letterto  write. 

A  pen-knife. 

Now  I  will  write. 

What  is  the  day  of  llie 
month? 

It  is  the  sixteenth. 

Where  is  the  post-of- 
fice? 

Close  by. 

Take  care  of  the  letter. 


a:intc. 

gebcrn. 

^taben  2ie  lUMircrto  ? 

^cftmarfen. 

3i^  braudje  ciiicu  Imogen 

Sdircibv^picr. 
?cfd>va}:ior. 
^di  babe  cincn  ^'ticf  ju 

fcbtcibcn. 
(fin  Jetcrmeffer. 
3c^t  trill  id)  fdn-eibcu. 
Ten    irietjielften  I»abcn 

luir  bcutc  ? 
C^§  ift  tor  fecbSKbnte. 
aSoifi  tic*;-cft  ? 


Tintay. 

Faydern. 

Haaben  sec  coovairts? 

Postmark  en. 

Ic/i  browc//ay  incn  hn- 

gen  shribcpapecr. 
Lfcshpahpecr. 
Ir/t  haabay  inen  hrrvi 

tsoo  shrvbcn. 
Ine  faydermcsscr. 
Yetst  vill  ic/i  shryhen. 
Den  vecfeelsten  haaben 

veer  hoytay? 
Es  ist  dair  sextsanetay. 
Vo  ist  dee  pust? 


Olflbe  bei.  Xahay  by. 

3icbmcn   3ie  ten  SHiof  Naynu-n  see  den  brc(.  f 
in  2ld)t.  in  ac/it. 


kL- 


/ 


THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE. 


-/K/Si. 


^B^-H-^o-i-^^ 


CRENCH    WITHOUT  A 


^,§-||..*o.||-^ 


A  Simple  System  of  Self-Instruction  in  the  French  Language. 


MATTER  of  vitalimpor- 
tance  to  all  is  the  study 
of  the  French  language. 
Not  to  mention  the  rich- 
ness of  French  literature 
and  the  vast  pleasures 
which  arise  from  an  in- 
ttlhgent  perusal  of  the  pages  of 
the  grcit  authors  who  have  built 
it  up,  the  practical  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  a  knowledge  of 
"  the  language  of  diplomacy  "  are 
too  patent  to  require  explanation. 
No  one  can  be  a  perfect  master  of 
the  English  language  who  does 
not  possess  a  certain  amount  of  familiarity  with 
the  French  tongue,  through  which  so  many 
of  our  strongest  expressions  have  been  filtered 
after  leaving  the  more  ancient  parent  stock. 
The  traveller  making  the  tour  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  will  find  a  knowledge  of  the 
French  language  indispensable.  In  all  parts  of 
that  continent  this  language  provides  the  com- 
mon ground  upon  which  men  of  all  tongues 
meet  in  conversation,  and  the  traveller,  having 
simply  made  himself  sufficiently  familiar  with 
the  language  to  ask  for  what  he  wants,  will  have 
done  much  towards  making  his  trip  thoroughly 
enjoyable  and  instructive.  The  following  sys- 
tem of  self-instruction  has  been  formulated  with 
a  v'iew  to  providing  a  simple  yet  thorough  means 


of  studying  French.  The  student  who  masters  its 
details  with  care  will,  within  the  space  of  a  very 
few  days,  find  himself  able  to  converse  in  that 
language,  and  begin  to  enjoy  thoroughly  the 
beauties  of  its  literature. 

ALPHABET  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 


FRENCH 
ALPHABET. 

NAME. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

A 

ah 

like  a  in  ihe  English  word  arm. 

B 

bav 

as  in  English. 

C 

say 

before  e  and  /,  is  pronounced   like  .t 

■  before 

rt,  0,  u  and  before  a  consonant  c 

soimds 

like   h;   is  soft  before  a,  o,  n   in 

certain 

instances,  when  a  mark  beneath 

t  called 

a  cedilla  is  used, thus:  ^. 

D 

day 

as  in  English. 

E 

ai 

e,  e  ,   ai\   er\  are    pronounced  like  a 
English  word  care. 

in    the 

F 

eff 

as  in  English. 

G 

jay 

before  e  and  /sounds  like/. 

H 

aash 

is  generally  silent. 

J 

ee 

like  e  in  the  English  word  7ve. 

7 

jce 

like  .?  in  the  English  word  measure. 

A' 

kah 

as  in  English. 

L 

el 

as  in  English. 

M 

em 

as  in  English. 

N 

en 

as  in  English. 

O 

o 

0,  in  stock;  an,  eau,  are  pron.  like  o  in  no. 

P 

pav 

like  the  English,  but  is  often  mute  at 
of  words. 

the  end 

Q 

ku 

like  i: 

Ji 

air 

like  the  English  r  in  run. 

s 

CSS 

like  the  English  s,  sometimes  like  x. 

T 

tav 

like  /  in  the  English  word  /*■;//. 

U 

ecyu 

like  K  in  the  English  word  sia'ie. 

V 

vay 

like  the  English  z-. 

X 

ccks 

.as  in  English. 

r 

cgrec 

like  e  in  the  English  word  w**. 

z 

zed 

like  a  soft .?. 

There  are  combinations  of  letters  which  are  sometimes  called 
compound  vowels,  viz. :  an,  in,  on,  en,  ou,  which  are  pro- 
nounced as  follows : 


-M 


The  compound  vowel  an  as  an  in  the  w<ir(l  want. 

«•  •*        in  as  an        '*        "      anchor. 

"  "       on  as  on        "        "     wrong. 

*<  "        ««  has  no  correspondent  in  Enjjlish, 

««  **        eu  as  /   in  the  word  bird. 

"  "       Oil  as  o«     "        "        you. 

Ch  is  pronounced  generally  as  *//  in  the  word  share. 
Gn  like  7//  in  the  word  minion. 
Gu  is  pronounced  generally  Wkc g\n git. 
Ph  zs ph  \n phtlosophy. 

j^w  is  gcneraliv  jironounced  like  k  in  king, 
Th  like  th  in  Thames. 

ACCENTS  AND  OTHER  MARKS. 

The  French  make  a  frequent  use  ot  certain  signs  called  ortho- 
graphic SIGNS.  They  are  the  accents^  the  apostrophe^  the  trait  d' un- 
ion (hyphen), the  trcma  (diaeresis),  the  ceJUU  (cedilla),  \.\\c parcuthnsc 
(parenthesis),  and  the  different  marks  oi punctuation. 

There  are  three  accents,  the  accent  aigit  (aculc  *),  which  is  never 
used  except  over  the  Vowels;  the  accent  grave  ( '  ),  which  is  used  over 
the  vowels  a.  e. «,  and  the  accent  circonjlexe  (*) ,  which  is  used  with  any 
of  the  vowels  but_j'. 

The  apostrophe  (")  is  used  to  point  out  the  elision  of  a  vowel  at  the 
end  of  a  word  before  another  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  an  h 
mute,  as  in  Vame^  the  soul ;  Vhomme,  the  man,  instead  of  ht  dme, 
le  horn  me, 

A,  f,  /,  are  the  onlv  vowels  liable  to  be  thus  cut  off,  and  this  last  one 
in  the  single  word  si  before  //;  sWl  for  si  H. 

The  trait  d^ union  (■)  is  used  principally  to  connect  compound  words, 
■AS  in  arr-en-ciel  (rainbow),  or  to  join  the  pronoun  to  the  verb,  in  ttic 
interrogative  conjugation. 

The  trema  ( "  * )  'S  the  same  sign  as  the  diceresis  and  used  for  the  same 
purpose  in  I'rcnch  as  in  English. 

The  ci'd///e  is  a  little  mark  put  under  the  c  (^)  whenever  it  is  required 
to  give  to  that  letter  the  articulation  produced  by  the  letter  s,  before 
the  letters  a,  o,  «;  as,  Frau<^ais,gar<^on,  re<;u. 

NUMBER  AND  GENDER. 

There  are  two  numbers  in  French  as  in  English,  the  singular  and 
the  plural . 

The  I*'rench  language  has  only  t\vo  genders,  the  masculine  and  the 
Jeminine.  The  gender  of  animate  objects  is  the  same  as  in  English; 
but  practice,  close  attention  to  the  harmony  of  the  language,  and  very 
often  derivation,  can  alone  teach  the  gender  of  inanimate  objects. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

These  are  ten  in  number:  article,  noun,  adjective,  pronoun, 
verb,  adverb,  participle,  conjunction,  preposition,  interjection. 

THE   ARTICLE. 

There  are  two  .articles,  the  definite  and  the  indefinite.  The  definite 
article  is  rendered  by  "/^  '*  before  a  masculine  noun,  and  by  "/«  '*  before 
•a  feminine  noun ;  as,  le  pire^  the  father;  la  mcre^  the  mother.  Tlie 
plural  for  both  genders  is  *Ues ;"  as,  les peres,  the  fathers  ;  les  rn^res, 
the  mothers. 

The  articles  arc  declined  as  follows: 

Jfasculine. 
.Singular.  Plural. 


Ace. 

Nom, 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 


tlie  fathers 
of  the  fathers 
to  the  fathers 
the  fathers 


Xom.  /^  (leh) /«*r^,  the  father  les       (lay) /i^r*-.^. 

Gen.    dn  (du)  ptre^  of  the  father  des      (day)  pires^ 

Dat.     an  (o)  ptre^    to  the  father  aux     (o)  peres, 

le  (leh)  /cr^,  the  father  les       (lay)  peres, 

Fetninine. 

la  mere^        the  mother  les  meres,        the  mothers 

de  la  mere^  of  the  mother  des  meres^       of  the  mothers 

A  la  mere,     to  the  mother  aux  mtres^       to  the  mothers 

la  meret        the  mother  les  meres,        tlie  mothers 


^ 


DECLENSION* 

Of  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  a  silent  *'A." 
Singular.  Plural. 


Xom, 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 


Xom. 
Gen, 
Dat. 
Ace. 


rhomme,         the  man 
de  rhomme,    of  the  man 
d  rhomme,     to  the  man 
rhomme.         the  man 


les-^hommes,  the  men 

Jes'^hommes,  of  the  men 

aux'^hommes,  to  the  men 

les'~'hommes,  the  men 


INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


ttnjardin, 
d^unjardin, 
d  unjardln^ 
un  jar  din. 


a  garden 
of  a  garden 
to  a  garden 
a  garden 


une  ville, 
dUme  ville, 
a  une  ville^ 
une  ville. 


a  town 
of  a  town 
to  a  town 
a  town 


DECLENSION  OF  PROPER  NA3IES. 


Xom 

Paris, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

(ien. 

de  Paris, 

of  Paris 

de  Louise, 

of  Louisa 

n:it. 

a  Paris, 

to  Paris 

d  Louise, 

to  Louisa 

Ace. 

Paris, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 

Having  mastered  the  declensions,  tlie  student  will  thoroughly 
fanuHarize  himself  with  the  use  of  the  articles  by  memorizing 
the  following  vocabulary : 

THE   UNn^ERSE. 

FKENCH. 

r>ieu 


ENGLISH. 

(M.d 

the  world 
tlic  sky 
tlie  sun 
the  moon 
;i  star 
tlie  air 
the  earth 
the  water 
the  fire 
tlie  sea 
an  island 
a  lake 
a  stream 
a  river 
the  animals 
the  metals 
the  gold 
the  silver 
tlie  iron 
the  steel 
the  copper 
the  tin 


Man 
the  body 
the  head 
tlie  face 
the  forehead 
the  ej-e 
the  eyes 
the  nose 
the  ears 
the  chin 
the  beard 
the  mouth 
the  lips 
the  tooth 
the  tongfue 
the  neck 


le  monde 

le  del 

le  soleil 

la  I  une 

une  Hoile 

rair 

la  ierre 

Veau 

lefeu 

la  mer 

une  lie 

un  lac 

unjieuve 

une  riviere 

les  animaux 

les  nUtaux 

for 

Var^rent 

lefer 

racier 

le  cuivre 

Vvtain 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Decyu 
leh  maund 
leh  secycl 
leh  sdhleyl 
lah  lune 
une  aitoahl 
I'air 
lah  tayr 
I'o 

leh  feuh 
lah  mare 
une  eel 
ung  lahc 
ung  fleuhv 
une  rceveeare 
laiz  aneemo 
lai  maito 
Torr 
I'arjang 
leh  fayr 
I'asseay 
leh  cweevT 
I'aitang 


THE    HUMAN    BEING. 

I'omm 
leh  cor 
lah  tait 
leh  vecsaje 


rhomme 
le  corps 
la  tUe 
le  x'isage 
le  front 
Peril 

le.'T^yeux 
le  net 

les  oreilles* 
le  menton 
la  bar  he 
la  bouche 
les  lii'res 
la  dent 
la  langue 
le  cou 


leh  frong 
rile 

laiz  eeyeu 
leh  nay 
laiz  ohraill 
leh  maimtong 
lah  barb 
lah  boosh 
lai layvr 
lah  dong 
lah  laungh 
leh  coo 


v 


'r 


^\ 

a          ^ 

C) 

J-  ^ 

3 

\ 

/ 

p 

1 

I02 

THE    FRENCH 

LANGUAGE. 

> 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

FRONL'NCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

the  shoulders 

h-s'^ipaules 

laiz  aipole 

the  umbrella 

le  parupluie 

Ieh  paraplwee 
Ieh  parasol 

the  arm 

le  bras 

Ieh  brah 

the  parasol 

I e  parasol 

the  hand 

la  main 

lah  mang 

TH£  HOME. 

the  fingers 

ies  doigis 

lai  douah 

the  nails 

les^  angles 

laiz  aungl 

The  house 

la  ma  is  on 

lah  maysong 

the  chest 

la  poilrine 

lah  pouahtreen 

the  door 

la  parte 

lah  port 

the  heart 

le  coeur 

Ieh  keuhr 

the  key 

la  clef 

lah  clay 

the  knee 

legenou 

Ieh  jenoo 

the  bell 

la  sonnetie 

lah  sonnet 

the  leg 

lajambe 

lah  jahmb 

the  staircase 

V  esc  a  Her 

Tescallyai 

the  foot 

lepit'd 

Ieh  peeay 

the  drawing-room 

la  snlle 

lah  sal 

the  bones 

les^os 

laiz  0 

the  dining-room 
the  room 

la  salle-  a  ■  manger 
la  chambre 

lah  sal-ah-maunjai 
lah  shaumbr 

FOOD. 

the  bed-room 

la  chambre-a.-coHcher 

lahshaumbr-ah-cushai 

Bread 

lepain 

Ieh  pang 

the  window 

la  f entire 

lah  fennaitr 

flour 

lafarine 

lah  fareen 

the  wall 

la  parol 

lah  pahrouah 

meat 

de  la  viande 

de la  veeaund 

the  kitchen 

la  cuisine 

lahcwcezeen 

roast  meat 

dii  rbti 

du  rotee 

the  roof 

le  toit 

Ieh  touah 

beef 

du  boeiif 

du  beuhf 

the  cellar 

la  cave 

lahcaav 

veal 

du  veau 

du  vo 

the  garden 

le  jar  din 

Ieh  jardang 

mutton 

du  mouton 

du  mootong 

a  table 

une  table 

une  tahbl 

1          lamb 

de  Pagneau 

deh  I'anyo 

a  chair 

une  chaise 

une  shayse 

pork 

du  pore 

du  pork 

an  arm-chair 

unfautenil 

ung  fotayle 

bacon 

du  lard 

du  lar 

a  looking-glass 

un  miroir 

i]ng  meerouahr 

ham 

dujambon 

du  jahmbonfT 

a  clock 

une  horloge 

tme  orloje 

soup 

la  soupe 

lah  soup 

a  trunk 

un  c  off  re 

ung  cofr 

rice 

du  riz 

du  ree 

a  box 

une  boite 

une  bouaht 

eggs 

des^ceufs 

daiz  cuh 

the  bed 

le  lit 

Ieh  lee 

salad 

de  la  salaJe 

deh  lah  salade 

the  counterpane 

la  cotiverture 

lah  coovairtyure 

mustard 

de  la  inoutarde 

deh  lah  mootard 

a  pillow 

uu  oreiller 

un  oraylyai 

salt 

du  sel 

du  sel 

the  sheets 

Ies  drops  de  lit 

lai  drah  deh  lee 

oil 

de  Vhuile 

deh  Tweel 

the  mattress 

le  mate  las 

Ieh  mail  ah 

vinegar 

du  vinaigre 

du  veenaigr 

the  plate 

fassiette 

I'assyct 

pepper 

dupoivre 

du  pouahvr 

a  candlestick 

un  chandelier 

ungshaundelyai 

butter 

du  beurre 

du  bcuhr 

the  lamp 

une  lampe 

unelaump 

cheese 

dufromage 

du  fromahje 

a  spoon 

une  cuiller 

une  cu-eelyai 

breakfast 

le  dejeuner 

Ieh  diiyjeuhnai 

a  fork 

unefourchette 

une  foorshet 

dinner 

le  diner 

Ieh  deeiiai 

a  knife 

un  couteau 

ung  cooto 

supper 

le  souper 

Ieh  soopai 

a  cup 

tine  tasse 

une  tass 

hunger 

lafaim 

lah  fahng 

the  saucer 

la  soucoupe 

lah  sooccoop 

thirst 

la  soif 

lah  souaf 

the  tablecloth 

la  nappe 

lah  nap 

water 

de  Veau 

deh  I'D 

the  towel 

un  essuie-main 

ung  esswee-mang 

wine 

du  vin 

du  vang 

a  glass 

un  Tjerre 

ung  vair 

beer 

de  la  biere 

deh  lah  beeair 

the  tea-pot 

la  theiere 

lah  taiyare 

milk 

du  la  it 

dulay 

TRADES. 

tea 

du  thi 

du  tay 

An  occupation 

un  mdtier 

ung  maytyai 

gin 

du  genikvre 

du  jenyavr 

a  workman 

un  artisan 

ung  arteesong 

brandy 

de  Veau  de  vie 

deh  lo  d(-h  vee 

a  baker 

un  boulauger 

img  boolonjai 

DRESS. 

a  miller 

un  meunier 

ung  meuhnyai 

A  coat 

a  butcher 

un  boucher 

ung  booshai 

un  surtont 

ungsyuretoo 

nngbrasseuhr 

a  cloak 

a  brewer 

un  brasseur 

un  manieau 

ung  maunto 
ung  jeelay 
lah  kvulot 

a  waistcoat 
Iho  trowsers 

ungilei 
la  culotte 

a  tailor 

a  shoemaker 

un  tailleur 
un  cordofinier 

ung  lalyeur 
ung  cordonyai 

the  braces 

Ies  brctelles 

lai  bretell 

a  smith 

un  forgeron 

img  forjchrong 

the  cap 

le  bonnet 

Ieh  bonnay 
Ieh  shapo 

a  saddler 

un  scllier 

img  selyai 

the  hat 

le  chapeau 

a  carpenter 

un  menuisier 

ung  menweesyai 

tlic  comb 
gloves 

le  p  eigne 

des  gants 

a  mason 

un  ma<^on 
un  relieur 

ung  massong 

Ieh  paine 
dai  gang 

a  bookbinder 

ungrellyeuhr 

a  ring 

une  bague 

une  baag 

THE  TOWN. 

a  watch 

une  montre 

une  mongtre 

The  town 

la  villi 

lah  veel 

the  stocking 

le  bas 

Ieh  bah 

the  bridge 

le  pout 

Ieh  pong 

the  boots 

Ies  bottes 

lai  bot 

the  tower 

la  tour 

lah  toor 

the  bootjack 

le  tire-botte 

Ieh  tecr-bot 

the  gate 

laporte 

lah  port 

the  slippers 

Ies  pantoujles 

lai  pauntoofl 

the  street 

la  rue 

lah  ru 

the  shoes 

Ies  souliers 

lai  soolyai 

the  market 

le  marchi 

Ieh  niarshay 

a  shirt 

une  chemise 

une  sherneeze 

the  building 

le  bailment 

Ieh  bahlecmong 

the  necktie 

la  era  vale 

lah  cravaht 

the  town-house 

Vhdtel  de  rille 

I'otel  deh  veel 

1 

a  pocket-handkerch 

ef  un  mouchoir 

ung  mooshouah 

the  theatre 

le  thidtre 

Ieh  layahtr 

L 

the  clothcs-bru>h 

In  brosse 

l.ih  bn.ss 

the  post-office 

la  paste 

lah  post 

1 

/ 

\ 

3 

"*7 

'b            "^ 

■-          o 

^T" 

ENGLISH. 

the  church 
the  cathedral 
the  school 
the  prison 
the  exchange 
the  palace 
the  hotel 
the  inn 

the  public  house 
the  coffee-room 


FRENCH. 

Pt^glise 

la  cathcdrale 

re  cole 

la  prison 

la  bourse 

le  palais 

I'hotel 

Vaiiherge 

le  cabaret 

U  cafi ' 


PRONUNCIATION. 

I'ayglceze 
lah  cataydral 
Pay  col 
lah  preesong 
lali  boorse 
luh  pallay 
I'otel 
I'obayrje 
leh  cabbaray 
Ich  caffay 


An  animal 

a  horse 

a  donkey 

the  dog 

the  cat 

the  rat 

the  mouse 

an  ox 

a  cow 

a  calf 

a  sheep 

a  lamb 

a  pig 

the  hare 

a  monkey 

a  wolf 

a  bear 

a  lion 

an  elephant 

a  ti-cr 

a  bird 

a  cock 

a  hen 

a  chicken 

a  swan 

a  goose 

a  duck 

a  lark 

a  nightingale 

the  swallow 

the  sparrow 

the  raven 

the  crow 

tlie  parrot 

the  eagle 

a  fish 

a  pike 

a  salmon 

a  carp 

an  eel 

a  trout 

a  herring 

oysters 

a  crab 

a  whdle 

a  serpent 

a  frog 

a  worm 

an  insect 

a  spider 

a  moth 

a  lly 

a  gnat 

a  bee 

the  honey 

a  wasp 

a  butterfly 


BEASTS,  BIRDS,  FISHES,  ETC. 

ung  aneemal 
ung  sheval 
ung  ahn 
leh  sheeang 
leh  shah 
leh  rah 
lah  sooree 
ung  beuh 
une  vash 


iin  anitnal 
un  cheval 

un  Ane 

h  chieyt  , 

le  chat 

le  rat 

la  sour  is 

ufi  bceuf 

une  vache 

un  -veau 

une  brebis 

utt  agneau 

un  cochon 

le  lievre 

un  singe 

uit  loup 

un  ours 

un  lion 

un  iUphant 

un  tigre 

un  oiseau 

un  cog 

une  poule 

un  poule t 

un  eigne 
une  oie 

un  canard 
une  alouette 
un  r  OS  signal 
Vhirondclle 
lemoineau 
le  corbeau 
la  corneille 
le  perroquet 
Vaigle 
unpoisson 
un  brocket 
un  saumon 
une  carpe 
une  anguille 
une  truite 
un  hareng 
des  huitres 
une  icrevisse 
une  balcine 
un  serpent 
une  grenouille 
un  ver 
tin  insecte 
line  araiguee 
une  teigne 
une  vtouche 
un  moucheroH 
une  abeille 
le  miel 
une  guipe 
une  papillon 


ung  vo 
une  brebbee 
un  anyo 
un  coshong 
leh  leeayvr 
ungsangj 
ung  loo 
ung  oor 
ung  leeong 
un  aylayfong 
ung  teegr 
un  woiso 
un  cock 
une  pool 
ung  poolay 
ung  seen 
une  ouah 
ungcanar 
une  allooet 
ung  rosseenyol 
I'eenrongdel 
leh  mouano 
leh  corbo 
lah  cornayl 
leh  perokay 
I'aygl 
ung  pouassong 

ungbroshay 

ung  somong 

une  carp 

une  ongghee 

une  trweet 

ung  harrong 

daiz  weetr 

une  aycreveece 

une  ballayn 

ung  sairpong 

une  grenooecl 

un  vair 

un  angsect 

une  arraynyai 

ung  taine 

une  moosh 

ung  moosherong 

une  abbail 

leh  mccyel 

une  gape 

ungpappillyong 


TREES,  FRUITS,  FLOWERS    ANI>  VEGETABLES 

ENGLISH. 


A  tree 

a  branch 

a  leaf 

an  apple 

a  pear 

a  plum 

a  cherry 

a  nut 

a  currant 

a  gooseberry 

a  strawberry 

a  chestnut 

the  oak-tree 

the  fir-tree 

the  birch 

the  willow 

a  flower 

a  rose 

a  pink 

a  tulip 

a  lily 

a  violet 

a  bouquet 

beans 

peas 

cabbage 

cauliflower 

carrots 

asparagus 

spinach 

radishes 

celery 

a  melon 

cucumber 


A  school 
the  teacher 
the  book 
the  paper 
a  pen 

an  inkstand 
the  ink 
the  pencil 
a  letter 
an  envelope 


FRENCH. 

un  arbre 

une  brancke 

unefeuille 

une  pomme 

une  poire 

une  prune 

une  cerise 

une  noix 

de  la  groseille 

de  la  groseille  v€*-te 

une  f raise 

un  marron 

le  c/tSne 

le  pin 

le  bouleau 

le  saule 

unejleur 

une  rose 

un  (xillet 

une  tulipe 

un  lis 

une  violette 

un  bouquet 

des  f eves 

des  pots 

des  choux 

des  choux-fleurs 

des  betteraves 

des  asperges 

des  dpinards 

des  radis 

du  ccleri 

un  melon 

des  concombres 

SCHOOL. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

ung  arbr 

une  braungsh 

une  file 

unepomm 

une  pouar 

une  pryun 

une  serreezc 

line  nouah 

de  lah  grozale 

deh  lah  grozale  vertc 

line  fraize 

ung  marrong 

leh  sliane 

leh  pang 

leh  boolo 

leh  sole 

une  fleuhr 

une  rose 

un  J  ley  a  i 

une  tyuleep 

ung  Ice 

une  veeolet 

ung  bookay 

dai  faive 

dai  pouah 

dai  shoo 

dai  shoo-fleuhr 

dai  betrahve 

daiz  aspairj 

daiz  aipecnar 

dai  raddee 

du  selree 

ung  mellong 

dai  congcongbr 


THE 

I'icole 
le  malt  re 
le  livre 
le  papier 
une  plume 
un  encrier 
Vencre 
le  crayon 
une  let t re 
une  enveloppe 

TIME  AND   SEASONS 


raycol 

leh  maytr 

leh  leevr 

leh  papyai 

une  plyume 

un  ongcreeai 

I'ongkr 

leh  crayong 

une  lettr 

une  ongvellope 


The  time 

a  minute 

an  hour 

a  quarter  of  an  hour 

half  an  hour 

the  day 

the  morning. 

noon 

the  afternoon 

the  CNCifing 

the  night 

a  year 

a  month 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 


le  temps 

une  minute 

une  heure 

un  quart-d'heure 

une  demie-keure 

lejour 

le  matin 

le  midi 

Vapres-midi 

le  soir 

la  nuit 

un  an 

un  mo  is 

Janvier 

Fivrier 

Mars 

Avril 

Mai 

yuin 

Juillet 


leh  long 

une  meenyute 

une  eur 

ung  kar  d'eur 

une  dcmi  eur 

leh  joor 

leh  mattang 

leh  meedee 

I'apray  meedee 

leh  souahr 

lah  nwee 

un  ong 

ungmouah 

Jongvecay 

fayvreeay 

marse 

avreel 

may 

jyuang 

jweelyai 


Al, 


■v 


"V 


104 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


lA 


August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

a  week 

a  fortnight 

Alonday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

Sunday 

spring 

summer 

autumn 

winter 


The  country 
the  village 
the  hut 
the  soil 
the  meadow 
the  barn 
the  mill 
the  cattle 
the  herd 
the  shepherd 
the  mountain 
the  hill 
the  dale 
the  wood 
the  forest 
the  road 
the  high-road 
the  railroad 
a  mile 

the  waterfall 
the  fisherman 
the  huntsman 


The  family 
the  husband 
the  wife 
the  father 
the  mother 
the  child 
the  son 
the  daughter 
the  brother 
the  sister 
the  uncle 
the  aunt 
the  cousin 
the  marriage 


An  American 
a  German 
Germany 
a  Dutchman 
Holhind 
a  Belgian 
Belgium 
a  Swiss 
Switzerland 
a  Hungarian 


AoiU 

Sfpiembre 

Ociobre 

Novembre 

Dicembre 

une  scmaine 

quime  jours 

Lundi 

Mardi 

Mircredi 

yeudi 

Vendredi- 

Samedi 

Dimanche 

le  printemps 

Vautomne 

Vhiver 

THE  COUNTRY. 

la  campagne 

U  -village 

la  cabane 

h  sol 

le  pre 

la  grange 

le  motilin 

le  bitail 

If  troKpeau 

le  berger 

la  mo7itagiie 

la  colline 

la  valUe 

le  bois 

laforlt 

le  chemin 

le  grand'Chemin 

le  chemin  defer 

une  mi  lie 

la  Cascade 

le  pSclieiir 

le  chasseur 

THE  EAAIILY. 

la  famille 
le  mari 
In  fern  me 
lepire 
la  tncre 
Venfant 
lefils 
lafille 
lefrire 
la  strur 
Voncle 
la  tanle 
le  cousin 
le  mariai^e 

NATION^\XITIKS. 

UH  Amiricain 
un  Allemand 
r Alleniagne  f. 
un  Itollandais 
la  Ifollaude 
uu  Helge 
la  Belgique 
un  Suisse 
la  Suisse 
un  Hongrois 


oo 

septaumbr 

octobr 

novaumbr 

daysaumbr 

une  semmane 

kanzc  joor 

lungdee 

mardee 

mayrcredee 

jeuhdet 

vondredee 

samdee 

deemaunshe 

leh  prangtong 

I'aytay 

I'otonn 

I'eevare 


lah  caumpahne 

leh  veelaj 

lah  caban 

leh  sol 

lah  pray 

leh  graunj 

leh  moolang 

leh  ba\'tale 

leh  troopo 

leh  bayrjay 

lah  montaine 

lah  colleen 

lah  vallay 

leh  bouah 

hill  forray 

leh  sliemmang 

leh  grong  shemnian|- 

leh  shemmang  deh  fare 

une  meel 

lah  cascad 

leh  paysheur 

leh  shasseuhr 


lah  fameel 
leh  maree 
lah  fani 
leh  pare 
lah  mare 
I'ongfong 
leh  fccss 
lah  feel 
leh  frarc 
lah  seuhr 
I'oncle 
lah  launte 
leh  coosang 
kh  marceahjc 


un  amayrcccang 
un  almaung 
I'almaine 
ung  hollaunday 
lah  hoUaund 
une  belj 
!ah  bcljcek 
ung  sweess 
lah  sweess 
ung  hongrwah 


Hungary 

an  Englishman 

England 

an  Irishman 

Ireland 

a  Scotchman 

Scotland 

a  Dane 

Denmark 

a  Swede 

Sweden 

a  Russian 

Russia 

a  Spaniard 

Spain 

a  Frenchman 

France 

an  Italian 

Italy 


la  Hongrie 
un  Anglais 
V Angleterre  f. 
itv  Irlandais 
Virlande  f. 
un  Ecossais 
VEcosse  f . 
un  Danois 
le  Danemarc 
nn  Suedois 
la  Suede 
un  Russe 
la  Russie 
un  Espagnol 
VEspagne  f. 
un  FraJiqais 
la  France 
itn  Italien 
rilalie  f. 


lah  hongree 
un  aunglay 
I'aungltare 
un  eerlaunday 
I'eerlaund 
un  aycossay 
I'aycoss 
ung  danouah 
leh  danmark 
ung  swaydwah 
lah  swayde 
ung  russe 
lah  russee 
un  espanyol 
I'espaine 
ung  fraungsay 
lah  fraupgse 
un  eetalyang 
I'eetalee 


THE  NOUN. 

To  form  the  plural  of  French  nouns,  add  s  to  the  singular; 
^s  pere,  father,  percs,  fathers. 

Nouns  ending  in  s,  x  or  r,  in  the  singular,  do  not  vary  in  the  plural ; 
VLSfJils,  son  ;  Jlls,  sons. 

Nouns  ending  in  au  or  eu  add  .r  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  eau^  water ; 
eauA\  waters. 

Nouns  in  on   form  their  plural  regularly,  by  the  addition  of  >■;. 

But  the  following  nouns  in  ou  take  x  to  the  plural,  viz. :  bljou^  caillou, 
chotifgenou,  hibou,  joujou^pou. 

Nouns  ending  in  al  change  this  termination  into  anx  to  form  the 
plural ;  as,  chcval,  horse  ;  chcz'aux,  horses. 

But  bal,  carnaval,  regain  and  a  few  others,  form  their  plural  reg- 
ularly, by  the  addition  of  *■  to  the  singular. 

Nouns  in  a// form  their  plural  regularly,  by  adding  s  tothesingtilar. 

The  following  seven  nouns  in  ail  form  their  plural  by  changing  ail 
into  aux,  viz.:  bail,  lease;  intail,  enamel ;  C(7ra;7,  coral;  soupirail^ 
air-hole ;  travail,  work  ;  vantail,  leaf  of  the  folding-door ;  ventaily  the 
part  of  a  helmet  which  admits  air;  vitrail^  glass-window. 

C/V/,  heaven,  has  f/Vrtj:  in  the  plural.  tlE//,  eye,  has  _)t"W4'.  A'ieul, 
ancestor,  has  a'l'enx. 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

The  French  adjectives  are  placed  either  before  or  aftt-r  the 
nouns; as: 

le  bon  pire^  the  good  father  la  bonne  me  re,  the  gooi\  mother 

un  bon gart^on,  a  good  boy        '  unejennefille,  a  young  girl 

une  tabic ronde,  a  round  table  du  latt  chaud,  warui  milk. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECXn'ES. 


Grand,  great 

petit,  small 
bon,  good 
mauvais,  had 
petit,  little 


plus  grand,  greater 

plus  petit,  smaller 

iiicilleur,  btttcr 

pire,  worse 

moindre,  less 

"  Than  "  following  the  comparative  is  always  translated  by  "  </«< 
II  est  plus  poll  (^ne  son/rire — he  is  more  polite  than  Iii'^  brother. 


/(■  plus  grand,  tlic  greatest 
le  plus  petit,  the  smallest 
le  mcilleur,  tlie  best 
le  pire,  the  worst 
le  moindre,  the  least 


NUMERAL  .VDJECTIVES. 


I 

un 

ung 

1 1 

ome 

ongz 

2 

deux 

deuh 

\i 

dome 

dooze 

^ 

irois 

trouah 

'3 

treize 

trayz 

■\ 

quatre 

kahtr 

»4 

qnatorze 

katorz 

5 

cinq 

sahnk 

'S 

qntnze 

kangz 

6 

SIX 

seece 

i6 

seize 

savz 

7 

sept 

set 

•7 

dix -Sep I 

dec -set 

S 

huit 

wheel 

iS 

dix -huit 

dccz-whect 

0 

neuf 

neuf 

19 

dix -neuf 

deez-neuf 

o 

dix 

deecc 

20 

vingt 

vahng 

/ 


THE    FREN'CH    LANGUAGE. 


21  vingt-un         vahnt*ung 

23  vingt'iietfx 

23  vingi-trois 

24  vingt-quatre 
35  vingt-cinq 

26  vingt'six 

27  vingt'Sept 
23  vingt'kttit 

29  vingt'Ueiif 

30  trente  tr;mnt 
40  quarante  karaunt 
50  cinqnanU        sahnkaunt 
60  soixatiie          soassaunt 

70  soixante-iiix 

71  soixanie-onze 

72  soixante-  douze 

73  soixant€-ir€iz€ 

74  soixante-quatorze 

75  soixante  ■  quiuse 

76  soixantc-scize 

77  soixante-dix  -  .ft-// 

78  soixante-dix-huit 

79  soixante-  dtx  •  ncuf 

80  quatre-vingt        katr-vahng- 
Si  quatre -vingt-un 

katr-vahnt-unjj 

Si  quatre-vingt 'deux 

53  quatre-vingt  -  trois 

54  quatre  •  vingt  -  quatre 

55  quatre-vingt  •  cinq 
86  quatre  ■  vingt  -  six 
S7  quatre  -  vingt  -  j**// 


SS  quatre-vingt-hiiit 
S9  quatre- vingt- neu/ 
90    quatre-  vingt- dix 

quatre  vingt-onze 

quatre-vingt-douze 

quatre-vingt- treize 

quatre-  z'ingt  •  quatorze 

quatre-vingt- quinze 

96  quatre  -  v/«^  -  .*^/>tr 

97  quatre-vingt-  dix-  sept 
9S  quatre-  vingt  ■  dix  -  //«// 
99    quatre-  vingt  -  dix  -  neuf 

saung 
saunt-ung 
saung-decce 
g 


100  ^e'w/ 

lOi  ccnt-un 

I  ro  <rt'«/  ^/> 

120  f^«/  7/i«^        saung-vahn 

130  c^«/  trente 

200  </f«^  ftr/;/^ 

300  trois  cents 

400  quatre  cents 

500  <:/«y  <rtv//j 

600  */t  cents 

700  J</>/  c^«/^ 

800  huit  cents 

900  neuf  cents 

1,000    TO/7/tf  meel 

2,000     rft'KX  wi///^ 

3,000    trois  mille 

10,000    (//V  tniHe 

20,000    Z'/V/o^  ;«///(? 

a  million,  un  w;7//o/i,  ungnicllyong 


The 


first, 

"  second 

"  third 

"  fourth 

"  Sth 

"  6th 

"  7th 

"  Sth 

"  9th 

"  loth 

"  nth 

"  12th 

*'  13th 

"  14II1 

"  15th 

"  16th 

"  17th 

"  iSth 

"  lyth 

"  20th 

*'  2ISt 

"  30ll\ 

"  4olh 

"  5olh 

"  6olh 

*•  70th 

"  80th 

•'  yoth 

"     I 00th 
"     1,000th 
the  last 


ORDINAL  NUaiBERS 

le  premier 
le  second 
letroisihne 


leh  premyai 
I  eh  zeggong 
leh  trouazzeeame 
le  quatricme  leh  kattreeame 

le  cinquikme  k-h  sahnkeeame 

h  sixikme  leh  secceeame 

le  scptikme  leh  scetteeame 

le  huitikme  leh  wheeteeame 

le  neuvikme  leh  ncuveeame 

le  dixihne  Ich  deezeeame 

I'onzihne  leh  ongzeeame 

le  douzicme  leh  doozecame 

le  treizihne  leh  trayzccame 

le  quatorzihne  leh  kattorzccatnc 

le  quinziime  leh  kahngzeeame 

le  veiziente  leh  sayzeeame 

le  dix-septiinie  leh  deessettiame 

le  dix-huitiime  leh  deez-wheeteeame 

le  dix-neuvitme         leh  deez-neuveeame 
le  vingtivme  leh  vahntccame 

le  vingt' unii: me  leh  vahnt-uneeame 

le  trentiinne  leh  traunteeame 

ie  qnaranti'vme  leh  karauntceame 

le  cinquanlivme  leh  sahnkaunteeame 

le  soixantiiime  leh  souahssaunteeamc 

le  soixante-dixiitme  leh  soualissaunt-dcezeeame 
le  quatre-  vingti'vme   leh  kattr- vahnteeaine 
le  qtintre-vingt-dix-   k-h  kattr-vahnt-deezecame 


le  centihne 
le  mil  lie  me 
le  dernier 


leh  saunteeame 
kh  millceame 
leh  dareneeav 


VOCABULARY  OF  ADJECXn^S. 


I'oor 
rich 


Pamire 
riche 


pohvr 
rt-esh 


clever 

stupid 

sharp 

blunt 

clean 

dirty 

hard 

soft 

strong 

weak 

WL-Il 
ill 

lean 

thick 

fat 

thin 

polite 

impolite 

false 

deep 

wide 

narrow 

round 

square 

short 

long 

flat 

warm 

cold 

fresh 

ripe 

drv 

sour 

sweet 

bitter 

hungry 

thirsty 

heavy 

light 

Wet 

content 

happy 

gay 

sad 

useful 

strange 

pretty 

ugly 

dark 

open 

disagreeable 

prctud 

arrogant 

cowardly 

courageous 

faithless 

Innocent 


105 


prudent 

prudong 

stupide 

stupeed 

aigtt 

aygu 

obtus 

obtu 

propre 

propr 

sale 

saal 

dur 

dure 

mou 

moo 

fort 

fore 

faible 

fabl 

sain 

sang 

malade 

malahd 

maigre 

maygr 

gros 

gro 

gras 

gra 

mince 

mangcc 

poll 

polee 

malhonnite 

mallonnate 

faux 

fo 

prof  and 

profong 

large 

larj 

itroit 

aytrouah 

rond 

rong 

carri 

carray 

court 

coor 

long 

long 

plat 

pi  a 

ckaud 

sho 

froid 

frouah 

frais 

fray 

mur 

mure 

sec 

sec 

aigre 

aygr 

doux 

duo 

amer 

amaru 

affam& 

affammay 

altiri 

altayray 

Pesant 

pezong 

t^ger 

layjai 

humide 

umeed 

content 

congtong 

heureux 

eureu 

gat 

gay 

triste 

treest 

utile 

utcel 

it  range 

aytraunj 

joli 

jolee 

laid 

lay 

sombre 

sombr 

ouvcrt 

GOV  arc 

iivsagr^abU 

daysagrayabl 

fi'r 

fee are 

arrogant 

arrogong 

lac  he 

lahsh 

courageux 

coorrajeu 

perfide 

patrfeed 

innocent 

innosoDg 

THE  PRONOUN. 

The  personal  pronouns  arc  as  foUo\ss  ; 


J' 
lit 
I,- 

a 

tile 
mot 
lot 


(j.h) 

(I") 

(tch) 

(L..-1) 
(.•1) 


I 

tliou 
tliee 
he 
she 


(iiiouah)    nic 
(touah)      thee 


Xoits 

vous 

vous 

Us 

riles 

ttflttS 

hit 


(noo) 

(voo) 

(voo) 

(eel) 

(cl) 

(noo) 

(Iwee) 


we 

you 

you 

they 

they 

us 

him 


VL 


!ij 


, 

4 

\ 

ra 

..       ') 

^ 

"F"*" 

G\ 

\ 

/ 

1 

Io6                                                                                    THE    FRENXH 

LANGUAGE. 

» 

POSSESSIVK  PRONOUNS. 

he  had  hud                       ilavait  eu 

eel  avait  ew 

Mas.            man            (mone^)       mv  )       „,        ,                     .          , 

_.                                       ,       ,  ,                       riural:      mcs       (may)  my 

Fein.            ma               (muh)         my  t 

we  had  had                        nous  avions  eu 
you  had  had                      vous  az-iez  eu 

nooz  aveeohngzew 
vooz  aveeayz  ew 

they  liad  had                    Us  avaient  cu 

eels  avait  ew 

M.TS.            ton              (long)         thy    ,          ..              .            ,       ,     ., 
Fern.            /.                 (tahV         thy    i                         '"         <'^-^''     "'>■ 
Mas.            son              (song^)      i  his    i          ,                                     .    ,  .     , 

Past  Anterior. 
I  had  had                         feuseu 

jeus  ew 

.-                                       ;     ,^           ,         f                         ses         (sav)    his,  her. 
l-ein.            sa                 (sah)        \  her   J                                       v     ,  /          . 

thou  hadst  had                 tu  eus  eu 

tu  eus  ew 

noire          (notr)         our              *'            uos         (no)      our 

he  had  had                         U  eut  eu 

eel  eut  ew 

fo/^tf          (voir)        your           •*            vos        (vo)    your 

we  had  had                      nous  cumes  en 

nooz  eums  ew 

Uur           (leur)        their            "            ieurs    (leur)  their 

you  had  had                       vous  eulcs  eu 
they  had  had                      Us  eurent  eu 

vooz  cuts  ew 
eels  eurt  ew 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Future, 

^ut            (kee)                           who,  which,   that 

I  shall  have                      faurai 

jo  ray 

quoi            (couali)                     what,  that 

thou  shalt  have                tu  auras 

tu  orah 

quel            (kcl),    Uqnd?       which?              que  (keh)  what? 

he  shall  have                     U  aura 

we  shall  have                    no-ts  aurons 

eel  orah 
nooz  oi-ong 

THE  VERB. 

you  shall  have                  vous  aiirez 
they  shall  have                  Us  auront 

vooz  oruy 
eels  orong 

Before  proceeding   to  study  the  conjugations  of  the  regular 

Future  Anterior, 

verbs,  the  student  must  ground  himself  thoroughly  in  the  irreg- 

I shall  have  had             faurai  eu 

joray  ew 

ular  verbs  avoir,   to  have,  and  ^tre,  to  be,  which  are  designated 

thou  shalt  have  had        tu  auras  eu 

tu  orahs  ew 

auxiliary  verbs  because   they  assist   in  the  conjugation  of  the 

he  shall  have  had             U  aura  eu 

eel  orah  ew 

others. 

we  shall  have  had            nous  aurons  eu 
you  shall  have  had          vous  aurez  eu 

noos  orongz  ew 
vooz  orayz  ew 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERB  "AVOIR'*— TO  HAA*E. 

they  shall  have  had        Us  auront  eu 

eels  oront  ew 

INFINITIVE     MOOD. 

Conditional  Present, 

Present.                                                                    Past, 

I  should  have                   faurais 

joray 

Avoir,  to  have.                                           Avoir  en,  to  have  had. 

thou  shouldst  have          tu  aurais 

tu  oray 

I-AKTICIPLES. 

he  should  have                 U  aurait 

eel  oray 

Ayant,  having-.                                              Eu,  had 

we  should  have               nous  aitrions 

nooz  oreeong 

Ayant  en,  liaving  had. 

you  should  have              vous  auriez 

VOOZ  orceay 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

they  should  have             Us  auraient 

eels  oray 

Present, 
I  have                               jai                                      jay 
thou  hast                          iuas                                  tu  ah 
he  h.is                                  ila                    •                    eel  ah 
she  has                              ^//^  a                                 cl  ah 
we  have                             nous  avons                       nooz  avong- 
you  have                           vous  avez                         vooz  avai 
they  have                          Us  {elles)  ont                   eels  ong 

Conditional  Past, 
I  should  have  had          faurais  eu 
thou  shouldst  h.ave  had  tu  aurais  eu 
he  should  have  had        il  aurait  eu 
we  should  have  had        nous  aurions  eu 
you  should  have  had      vous  auriez  eu 
they  should  have  had     Us  auraient  eu 

jorays  ew 
tu  orays  ew 
eel  orait  ew 
nooz  areeongz  ew 
vooz  orecayz  ew 
eels  orait  ew 

Imperfect. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

■  I  ''nd                                 j'ava/s                              javay 

Have                                    aie 

ay 

thou  hadst                          tu  avais                               tu  avay 

let  us  have                       ayons 

ayong 

Jie  had                               it  avail                              eel  avay 

have  (ye)                          ayez 

ayay 

we  had                               nous  avians                      vooz  aveeong- 
you  had                             vous  aviex                        nooz  aveeay 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

*hey  had                           Us  avaient                        eels  avay 

Present, 

Past  Definite, 
I  had                                 feus                                 jew 
thouhadst                         iueus                                 tu  ew 
he  had                               ileui                                  eclcw 
we  had                              jtous  t&mes                       nooz  eum 
you  had                             vous  eutes                         voozeut 
they  had                            Us  eurent                          eels  eur 

That  I  may  have              que f  aie 
that  thou  ninyest  have  que  tu  aies 
that  he  may  have            quit  ait 
that  we  may  have            que  nous  ayons 
that  you  may  have          que  vous  ayez 
that  they  may  have        qu'ils  aient 

keh  Jul 

keh  tu  ai 

keel  ai 

keh  nooz  ayong 

keh  vooz  ayay 

keels  ai 

Perfect, 

Imperfect, 

I  have  had                      faieu                                jayew 

That  I  might  have          quefeusse 

keh  jeuss 

thou  hast  had                   /«  as  eu                            tu  ahz  ew 

that  thou  mightesthave  que  tu  eusses 

keh  tu  euss 

he  has  had                        il  a  cu                                ccl  ah  ew 

that  he  might  have          qu' il  eut 

keeleu 

she  has  had                      eUe  a  eu                             el  ah  ew 

tliat  we  niiirht  have         que  nous  eussious 

keh  nooz  eussyong 

we  have  had                    nous  avons  eu                  nooz  avongz  ew 

that  you  niij:ht  have       jue  vous  tussiez 

keh  vooz  eussyay 

you  have  had                   vous  avez  eu                    vooz  av.-iyz  ew 

that  they  might  have      qu'Us  eussent 

keels  euss 

they  have  had                   Us  ont  eu                          eels  ont  ew 

Perfect, 
Tliat  I  may  have  had     quefaieeu 

P/uferfect. 

keh  jai  ew 

J 

I  had  had                          f  avais  eu                            javayz  ew 
thou  hast  had                  tu  avais  eu                        tu  avuyz  cw 

that  thou  niayest  have  que  tu  aies  eu 

hud 

kth  tu  aiz  ew 

1 

c 

/ 

^^ 

tg 

"T 

to 

■^            6 

T* 

\ 

^\ 

-5 «^ 

,^ 

J- 

S\ 

\ 

• 

y 

a 

( 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

107 

1 

that  he  may  have  had     qu^ii ait  eu 

keel  ait  ew 

we  had  been 

nous  eiimes  eti 

nooz  eums  ettay 

that  we  may  have  had    que  nous  ayons  eu 

keh  nooz  ayongz  ew 

you  had  been 

vous  riites  Hi 

vooz  cuts  ettay 

that  you  may  have  had  que  vous  ayex  eu 

kch  vooz  ayayz  ew 

they  had  been 

il  eurent  He 

eels  curt  ettay                      ^ 

that  they  may  have  liad  qu'ils  aient  tu 

keels  ait  ew 

Future. 

Pluperfect. 

I  shall  be 

je  serai 

je  serr.iy 

That  I  iniyht  have  had  quej'cusseeu 

keli  jeuss  cw 

thou  shall  be 

tu  seras 

tu  serrah 

that  thou  mightust  have  qtte  tu  eusses  eu 

keh  tu  euss  ew 

he  shall  be 

il  sera 

eel  serrah 

had 

we  shall  be 

nous  serons 

noo  serrong 

that  he  might  have  had  quUl  eut  eu 

keel  eut  ew 

you  shall  be 

vous  serez 

voo  serray 

that    we    might    \\2L.vti  que  nous  eussions  eu 

keh     nooz     eussyongs 

they  shall  be 

ils  serout 

eel  serong 

had 

ew 

Future  Anterior. 

that  }  ou   might    have  que  vous  eussiez  eu 

keh  vooz  eussyaz  ew 

had 

I  shall  have  been 

faurai  Hi 

joray  ettay 

that  they  might  have  quails  eusseut  eu 

keels  eusst  ew 

thou  shall  have  been 

tu  auras  Hi 

tu  orahs  ettay 

had 

he  shall  have  been 
we  shall  have  been 

il  aura  iti 
nous  aurons  iti 

eel  orah  ettay 
nooz  orongz  ettay 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERB  <*ETRK"— TO  BE. 

you  shall  have  been 

vousaurez  Hi 

vooz  orayz  ettay 

they  shall  have  been 

ils  auront  Hi 

eels  oront  ettay 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

1 

Present. 

Past. 

Conditional  Present 

AVrtf(cttr),  to  be.                       Avoir  dtd  (avoahr  etlay),  to  have  been. 

I  should  be 

je  serais 

je  serray 

PARTICIPLES. 

thou  shoiildsl  be 

tu  serais 

in  serray 

£/aH/ (ettaung),  being.            ^/t*  (ettay),  been. 

he  should  be 
we  should  be 

il  serait 
nous  serious 

eel  serray 
noo  serreeong 

_                             Aj'iiut  etd  (ayaunt  cttav)  havini:  btcn. 

you  should  be 

vous  seriez 

voo  serreeay 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

they  should  be 

ils  seraient 

eel  serray 

Present. 

Conditional    Past. 

I  am                                  je  suis 

jeh  swce 

I  should  have  been 

j'aurais  iti 

jorays  ettay 

thou  art                             tu  es 

tu  ay 

thou   shouldst  have 

tu  aurais  iti 

tu  orays  ettay 

he  is                                      j/est 

eel  ay 

been 

^ 

she  is                                    e//e  est 

el  ay 

he  should  have  been 

il  aurait  Hi 

eel  orait  ettay 

we  are                                nous  somrnes 

noo  som 

we  should  have  been 

nous  aurious  iti 

nooz  oreeongz  ettay 

you  are                             vous  etes 

vooz  ait 

you  should  have  been 

vous  auriez  iti 

vooz  oreeayz  ettay 

they  are                             its  {elles)  sont 

eel  song 

theyshould  have  been 

ils  auraieut  iti 

eels  orait  ettay 

Imperfect . 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD 

I  was                                    fetais 

jcttay 

thou  wert                            tu  eta/s 

tu  ettay 

Be 

sot 

sou  ah 

h  e  was                               //  etait 

il  ettay 

let  us  be 

soyons 

swoiyong 

we  were                               nous  4tions 

nooz  ettyong 

be  (ye) 

soyez 

swoiyay 

you  were                            vous  ^ticz 

vooz  ettyay 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

they  were                          ils  itaient 

eels  ettay 

Present. 

1 

Past    Definite. 

That  I  may  be 

queje  sois 

keh  jeh  sou  ah 

I  was                                    j^ftis 

je  fu 

that  thou  mayeslbe 

que  tu  sois 

kch  lu  sonah 

thou  wert                          tufus 

tu  fu 

that  he  may  be 

qu^il  soit 

keel  souah 

he  was                                ilfut 

eel  fu 

that  we  may  be 

que  nous  soyons 

keh  noo  swoiyong 

we  were                             nous  fumes 

noo  fume 

that  you  may  be 

que  vous  soyez 

keh  voo  swoiyay 

you  were                            vousfittes 

voo  fute 

thai  they  maybe 

qiCils  soient 

keel  souah 

1         they  were                          ilsfurenl 

eel  fure 

Imperfect. 

Perfect. 

That  I  might  be 

quejefusse 

■  kch  jeh  fiissc 

I  have  been                       fai  ^te 

jai  ettay 

that  thou  mightest  be 

que  tu  fusses 

keh  tufussc 

thou  hast  been                  tu  as  Hi 

tu  ah  ettay 

that  he  might  be 

qu''iljiit 

keel  fu 

he  has  been                        il  a  iti 

eel  ah  ettay 

that  we  might  be 

que  nous  fussious 

keh  noo  fussyong 

she  has  been                      elle  a  H4. 

el  ah  ettay 

that  you  might  be 

que  vous  fnssiez 

kch  voo  fussyay 

we  have  been                    nous  az'ons  ite 

nooz  avongz  ettay 

that  they  might  be 

qu'ilsfusseut 

keel  fusse 

you  have  been                   vous  avex  iH 

vooz  avayz  ettay 

Perfect, 
que  fate  Hi 

they  have  been                  ils  (^elles)  out  iti 

eels  ont  ettay 

That  I  may  have  been 

keh  jai  ettay 

Pluperfect. 

that  ihou  mayest  have 

que  tu  aies  Hi 

keh  tu  aiz  ettay 

I  had  been                         J'avais  4te 

j  avayz  ettay 

been 

thou  hadst  been                tuavais4ti 

tu  avayz  ettay 

that  he  may  have  beer 

qu*ilait  iti 

keel  ait  ettay 

he  had  been                      H  avait  it6 

eel  avail  ettay 

that  we  may  have  been 

que  nous  ayons  iti 

keh  nooz  ayongz  ettay 

we  liad  been                       nous  avians  etc 

nooz  avyons  ettay 

that    you    may    have 

que  vous  ayez  iti 

keh  vooz  ayayz  ettay 

9a 

you  had  been                    vous  aviez  el^ 

vooz  avyayz  ettay 

been 

they  had  been                    /7a-  avaient  He 

eels  avait  ettay 

that    they     may     have  quails  aient  vtc 

keels  ait  ettay 

Past  Anterior. 

been 

I  had  been                         feus  (-ti 

jeuz  etlav 

Pluperfect. 

< 

thou  hadst  been                tu  eus  tii 
he  had  been                      il  eut  Hi 

tu  enz  ettay 
eel  eut  ettay 

That  I  might  have 
been 

quej'eusse  Hi 

kch  jcuss  ettay 

k 

,    <? 

/" 

\ 

0 

■  '"7 

^            ^ 

■•      0 

'v 

^■s. 

cs 

5) 

>^_^ 

1 

\ 

/ 

f 

1 

I08                                                                                       THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

r 

that    thou     mightest       ^ue  tii  cusses  itr               keh  tu  euss  ettay 

Narrative. 

have  been 

Past  Definite. 

Past  Anterior. 

that  he   might    have       gu^il  eiit  4t4                        keel  eut  ettay 
been 

I  spoke. 

I  had  spoken. 

that    we  might  have      gue  7tous   eussions  ele     keh  nooz  eussyongs 

fe  pariai 

jeh  parlay 

yens  parU 

been                                                                                    ettay 

tu  par  las 

tu  parla 

tu  eus  parii 

that  you  might  have       que  rous  eussiez  ete         keh  vooz   eussyaze  et- 

ilparla 

eel  parla 

il  eut  parU 

been                                                                                     tay 

nous  parldmes 

noo  parlahme 

nous  eiimes  parte 

tliat  they  might  have      qu^ilx  eusst-nt  ttk               keels  eusst  ettay 

Z'Oiis  parhites 

voo  parlahte 

vous  eutes  parte 

been 

Us  parlerent 

eel  parlaire 

Us  eurent parli 

REGULAR  VERBS. 

Future. 

Future. 

Future  Anterior. 

The  infinitives  of  verbs  in    the  French  language  have  the  four  fol- 

lowing terminations : 

I  shall  speak. 

] 

shall  have  spoken. 

t'r,         as  in    parler^         to  speak, 

fe  parlcrai 

jeh  parlerai 

f'aurai  parU 

/r,         in  in    Jim'r,            to  finish, 

tu  parleras 

tuparlera 

tu  auras  parte 

oir,       as  in     re^evoir,     to  receive, 

il  parler  a 

eel  parlera 

il  aura  parli 

re,         as  in     vendre^       to  sell. 

nous  parlerons 

noo  parlerong 

nous  auronsparli 

All  that  precedes  this  infinitive  termination  is  called  the  ^'root  "  of 

vous  parh-rez 

voo  parleray 

vous  aurez parli 

the  verb. 

Us  parleront 

eel  parlerong 

Us  auront parte 

Verbs  which  only  change  their  terminations  and  not  their  roots  are 

Conditional. 

called   '■'Regular   f-Vr^^t;  "  those  which  change  their  roots,  "/^rf^tt/«r 

Present. 

Past. 

Verbs.'* 

I  should  speak. 

I  should  have  spcjken. 

The  verbs  ending  in*'o/V'*  are  all  irregular,  and  the  French  Ian  gu  age 

fe  parlerais 

ji:h  parleray 

j'anrars  parte 

therefore,  has  in  reality  only  three  regular  conjugations. 

tu  parler ais 

tu  parleray 

tu  aurais  parld 

The  First  Conjugation  ends  in  'Vr." 

il  Parlerait 

eel  parleray 

il  aurait  par  Id 

The  Second  Conjugation  ends  in  "/r." 

nous  parlerions 

noo  parlereeong 

nous  anrions  parte 

The  Third  Conjugation  ends  in  **(7/r.'* 

vous  parlcrii-z 

voo  parlcreeay 

vous  auriez parli 

The  Fourth  Conjugation  ends  in'V^." 

Us  parleraient 

eel  parleray 

Us  auraientparU 

The  past  participle  is  formed  by  adding  to  the  root  of  the  First  Con  • 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

jugation  an  "e,"  to  that  of  the  second  an  "/,'*  to  the  fourth  a  "«;" 

Present. 

Past. 

as: 

That  I  may  speak. 

That  I  may  have  spoken. 

Parl-er,      to  speak ;    parU^        spoken 
FtJi-ir,         to  finish ;    _/?«/,            finished. 
Veud-re,    to  sell;        vendu,       sold. 

^uejeparle 

keh  jeh  pari 

^uefaieparU 

que  tu  parUs 

keh  tu  pari 

que  tu  ales  parte. 

qil'il  parte 

keel  pari 

qu'ilait  parti 

The  student  may  now  proceed  to  the  mastery  of 

que  nous  parlions 

keh  noo  parlyong 

que  nous  ayons parld 

que  vous  parltez 

keh  voo  parlyay 

que  vous  ayez parte 

THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS, 

quails  parlcnt 

Imperfect. 

keel  pari 

qu'ils  aient parte 
Pluperfect . 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

That  I  might  speak 

That  I  might  have  spoken. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present,                                                                          Past. 

^u€  je  parlasse 

keh  jeh  parlass 

^uefetfsse  parlii 

que  tu parlasses 

keh  tu  parlass 

que  tu  eusses  parte 

Parler  (parlay),  to  speak.              Avoir  parU,  to  have  spoken. 

qu^il  par  It'll 

keel  pariah 

qui'l  eut  parld 

1                                            rARTIClPLES. 

que  nous  parlassions 

keh  noo  parlassyong 

que  nous  eussions  parti 

Parlani  (parlong),  spciking.      ParU,  spoken. 

que  vous  parlassiez 

keh  voo  parlassyay 

que  vous  eussiez  parU 

Ayant  parit,  having  spoken. 

quails  parlassent 

keel  parlass 

qu'ils  eussent  Parle 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD 

Present. 

SIMPLE    TENSES.       *                                                          COMPOUND  TENSES. 

Parle  (pari),  speak  ti 

ou                            parlon 

s  (parlong),  Ut  us  speak 

qu'il parte  (keel  pari) 

let  him  speak     parhz 

(pnrlav),  speak  ve 

qu'ils 

parlent  (keel   pari),  let 
speak. 

Absoiu.                                                                Atiten'eur. 

them 

I  speak.                                                                I  have  spoken. 

y^- parle                               jeh  pari                                   j'aiparU 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

1          tu  paries                                tu  purl                                     tuasparle 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

il  pitrle                                eel  pari                                 it  a  parU 

Present. 

Past. 

7I0US  parionx                      noo  parlong                       uous  avotts parU 
;          vonsparh-z                          voo  parlay                            vons  avez  paric 

Finir  (feeneer),  to  finish.               Az'oir  ^ni(f 

„>cnee),  to  have  finished. 

J          - 

1         lis parhnt                           eel  pari                                Us  out parU 

PARTICIPLES. 

i                                                           Descriptive, 

imperfect.                                                                         Pluperfect . 

Finissant  (feencesong),  finishing.        Fini,  finisht-d. 

Ayant  fini,  having  fin  is.hcd. 

rilk 

I  spoke.                                                                               I  h.id  spoken. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

jeparlais                          jdi  parlay                           J'avais par/,' 

SIMPLE    TENSES. 

Present. 

"OMPOL'ND   TENSES. 

tu  parlais                           tuparlay                              tuavaispi  rli 
ilparlaie                               eel  parlay                              il  avail pari^. 

Absoiu, 

Antirieur. 

nous parlious                      noo  parlyong                      nous  az-ions pnrU 

I  finish. 

1  have  finished. 

j 

I'onspar!'  s                       voo  parlyay                        i-oiis  aviez par.'t 

fe  finis 

jeh  feenec 

y'aifi:ii 

I 

ilsparlaient                      vv\  i>arlay                            Us  avaient parte 

tu  finis 

tu  feenec 

tu  asfini 

o' 

/"* 

•• 
\ 

ci 

t' 

V     ~      ^~ 

■■m- p^, 

^r 

rv 


THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGK 


-M^ 


/ 


109 


ilfinit 

nousfinissons 
voHsJinisscz 
Us  Jinissent 

Imperfect, 
I  finished. 

'jefinissais 

Uijinissais 

a  Jin  is  sail 

noil  sjjn  is  s  ions 

Tousjinissitz 

i/s  ^fiissaient 

Past  Definite. 
I  finishtrl. 
ye  finis 
tn  finis 
ilfinit 

noHsfininti-s 
•votis  finites 
Us  finirent 

Future. 

I  shall  finish. 
yefinirai 
tufiniras 
ilfinira 
nous  finirons 
Tousfinirez 
ilsfiniront 

Present, 
I  should  finish. 
ye  finirais 
tu  finirais 
il fin  i rait 
nous  finirions 
votiS  finiriez 
ils  finiraient 

Present. 
That  I  may  finish. 
^nejefinisse 
que  tufinisses 
qu'ilfinisse 
que  nousfinissions 

que  I'Ousfinissiez 
q'nilfinissent 

Imperfect. 
That  I  inifjjht  finisli. 
^ue  j'e  finis  se 

que  tufinisses 

t/uW/finit 

que  nousfinissions 

que  vous  fifiissiez 
gu '  i/s  fin  is  sent 


Finis  (fccncc),  finish 


eel  feence 
noo  feeiieessong- 
voo  fccnecssay 
eel  fecncess 
Descriptive. 


jch  fccneessay 
tu  fccnecssay 
eel  fccneessay 
noo  fccnecssyong 
voo  fcenucssyay 
ccl  feenccssay 

Narratix-g. 


jeh  feenee 
tu  feenee 
eel  fcencc 
noo  fecnecm 
voo  fecnect 
eel  feencer 
Future. 


jeh  feeneeray 
tu  fecneera 
celfeenecra 
noo  fcencerong 
voo  feeneeray 
eel  feeneerong 

Conditional. 


jch  feeneeray 
tu  feeneeray 
eel  feeneeray 
noo  feeneereeong 
voo  feencereeay 
eel  feeneeray 


il  afini 

nous  ax'onsfini 
vous  aviezfini 
ils  ontfini 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  finished. 
y'etfaisfini 
tu  avals fini 
il  avail fiui 
nous  (i2'ionsfini 
vous  aviezfini 
ils  avaientfini 

Past  Anterior. 

I  had  finished. 
yens  fin  i 
tu  eusfini 
il  eutfini 
nous  eiimesjlni 
Z'ous  eiitesfini   ^ 
ils  eurentfini 

Future  Anterior. 
I  shall  have  finished. 

y'aurnifini 
tu  auras  fini 
il  aura  fini 
nous  auronsfini 
vous  aurezfini 
ils  auront  fini 

Past. 
I  should  have  finished. 
y'auraisfini 
tu  auraisfin  i 
il  auraitfini 
nous  aurionsfini 
vous  auriez  fini 
ils  auraient  fini 


TlllUn   CONJUGATION. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 


Past. 

That  I  may  have  finished. 
^uefaiefini 
que  tu  aiesfini 
qu'il  ait  fini 


keh  jeh  feeneess 

kch  tu  feeneess 

keel  feeneess 

keh     noo      feencessee-^wt-  fious  ayonsfini 

ong 
keh  voo  fecnecsseeav 
keel  feeneess 


que  vous  ayezfini 
quails  ayentfini 


kch  jeh  feeneess 
keh  tu  feeneess 
keel  feenee 
kch     noo       feeneess 


Pluperfect. 
That  I  might  have  finished. 
^uefeussefini 
que  tu  eussefini 

quUl  eutfini 

que  nous  eussions  fini 


yong 
keh  voo  feeneessyay 
keel  feeneess 


que  vous  eussiezfini 
qu'ils  eussent  fini 


IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 


qu'' il finisse  (keel  feeneess), 

let  him  finish 


finissons  (feeneessong),let  us 

finish 
finissez  (feeneessay),  finish  yc 
quails finissent  (keel  feeneess), 
let  them  finish 


Present. 
Recevoir  (rcssevouahr) 


INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Past. 
■),  to  receive.      Avoir  ret^u,  to  have  received. 

PARTICIPLES. 

liecevant  (rcssevong),  receiving.  Re<^u  (ressu),  received. 

Aj'ant  rei^Uy  having  received, 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 


SIMPLE    TENSES. 

Absolu. 
I    receive. 
ye  retools 
tu  reqois 
il  reqoit 
nous  recrvons 
vous  recevez 
ils  reqoivent 

Imperfect. 
I   received. 
ye  recevais 
tu  recex'ais 
il  recevait 
nous  recez'ions 
vous  recez-iez 
ils  recevaient 

Past  Definite. 
I  received. 
ye  requs 
tu  reigns 
il  recent 
nous  re<iumes 
7-ons  ret^utes 
ils  requrent 

Future. 
I  shall  receive. 
ye  recevrai 
tu  rccez-ras 
il  recevra 
nous  recevrons 
70US  recez'rez 
ils  recevront 

Present. 
I  should  receive. 
ye   recevrais 
tu  recei'rais 
il  recevrait 
nous  rccevrions 
vous  recevriez 
ils  recez'raient 

Present. 
That  I  may  receive. 
^ueje  ret^oive 
que  tu  reqoiz'es 
qnUl  ren^oive 
que  nous  recex'ions 
que  vous  receviez 
quails  ref^oivent 


Present. 


jch  ressonah 
tu  ressouah 
eel  ressouah 
noo  ressevong 
voo  ressev.ay 
eel  ressouahve 


Descriptive. 


jeh  ressevay 
tu  ressevay 
eel  ressevay 

noo  ressevyong 
voo  rcssevyay 
eel  ressevay 

Narrative. 


jeh  ressu 
tu  ressu 
eel  ressu 
noo  ressume 
voo  ressute 
eel  ressure 

Future. 


jeh  ressvray 
tu  ressvrah 
eelressvrah 
noo  ressvrong 
voo  ressvray 
eel  ressvrong 

Conditional. 


jeh  ressvray 
tu  ressvray 
eel ressvray 
noo  ressvreeong 
voo  ressvrceay 
eel ressvray 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 


COMPOUND    TENSES. 

Antirieur. 
I  have  received. 

y^ai  reqn 

tu  as  requ 

il  a  rei^u 

nous  avons  ret^u 

vous  avez  re^u 

ils  out  re^H 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  received. 
y'avais  re<iu 
tu  avals  ret^a 
ilaz'ait  re(^u 
nous  az'ions  re<;u 
vous  aviez  re<^u 
ils  avaient  requ 

Past  Anterior. 

I  had  received. 
y*eus  re(^u 
tu  eus  ret^u 
il  eut  re<^u 
nous  eitmes  rei^tt 
vous  eutes  requ 
ils  eurent  re<^u 

Future  Anterior. 

I  shall  have  received. 
y  aurai  rei^u 
tu  auras  recu 
il  aura  ra^u 
nous  aureus  re<^u 
vous  aurez  requ 
ils  auront  requ 

Past. 
I  should  have  received. 
y'aurais  requ 
tu  aurais  requ 
il  aurait  requ 
nous  aurions  requ 
vous  auriez  requ 
ils  auraient  requ 


keh  jeh  ressouahve 
keh  tu  ressouahve 
keel  ressouahve 
kch  noo  ressvyong 
keh  voo  ressvyay 
keel  ressouahve 


Past. 

That  I  may  have  received. 
^nej'aie  requ 
que  in  aiesrequ 
quilait  requ 
que  nous  ayons  requ 
que  OHS  ayez  requ 
quails  aient  requ 


VL- 


V  K" 


, 

. 

, 

^ 

O 

O 

J-  ^ 

G 

\ 

/ 

jO 

1 

I  lO 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

> 

/m/-er/.'Ci. 

Pluperfect. 

Present. 

Conditional. 

Past. 

That  I  might  receive 

That  I  might  have  received. 

^ 

I  should  sell. 

I  should  have  sold. 

^nejt'r^i^nsstr 

keh  jeh  ressuce 

^uejeusse  re(^n 

qitg  in  reqiisses 

keh  tu  ressuce 

que  tu  eusses  requ 

ye  vendrais 

jeh  vaundray                      yaurais  vendu 

quil  ri'i^ut 

keel  ressu 

tju'il  exit  recu 

iu  vendrais 

tu  vaundray                       tu  anrais  vendu 

que  nous  m^ussiotts 

keh  noo  ressussvong      que  nous   eussious  re<^n 

il  vendrait                  » 

eel  vaundray                     il  auratt  vendu 

que  votts  reqnssii'Z 

keh  voo  ressussyay         que  vous  eussiez   requ 

nous  vendrions 

noo  vaundreeong            nous  aurions  z>endu 

qii'ils  reqttssent 

keel  ressusse 

IMPERATIVE 

qu'ils  eussent  re<^u 

MOOD, 

vons  vendriez 
i/s  vendraient 

voo  vaundreeay                vous  auricz  z'eudn 
eel  vaundray                     ils  auraient  vendu 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.                                                                             j 

Rec^ois  (ressouah),  receive  thou    recex'07is  (ressevong),  let  us  receive 

Present. 

Past. 

recevez 

(ressevay),  receive  ye 

That  I  may  sell. 

That  I  may  have  sold. 

yK'/7r(?^o/Vf  (keel  ressouahve),     qu'iis   reqoiverii    (keel    ressouahve), 

^ueje  x'ende 

keh  jeh  vaund                    ^uefaie  vendu 

leth 

m  receive 

let  them  receive 

que  tu  vendes 

qu^il  vende 

que  nous  vendions 

keh  tu  vaund                     que  tu  aies  vendu                     '■ 

keel  vaund                          qu^il  ait  vendu 

keh  noo  vaundyong        que  nous  ayons  vendu 

que  vous  vendiez 

keh  voo  vaundyay           que  vous  aycz  vendu 

FOTTRTH  CONJUGATION. 

quUls  vendent 

keel  vaund                          qu'ils  aient  vendu 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

P  rest- fit. 

Past. 

That  I  might  sell. 

That  I  might  have  sold 

Vendre  (vaundr),  to  sell,                   Azwir 

vendn,  to  have  sold. 

^uej'e  vendisse 

keh  jeh  vaundeess            ^uej'eusse  vendu 

que  tu  vendisses 

keh  tu  vaundeess             que  tu  eusses  vendu 

Participles. 

qii'il  vendit 

keel  vaundee                     qu'il  eiit  vendu. 

que  nous  vendissions 

keh     noo    vaundeess-  que  nous  eussions  ven- 

Vendtiut  (vaundong) 

selling.         Vendsi 
Ay  ant 

(vaundu),  sold. 
z-endu,     having  sold. 

que  vous  vendissiez 

yong                                     du 
keh  voo  vaundeessyay  que  vojis  eussiez  vendu 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

qu'ils  7'endissent 

keel  vaundeess                  quUls  eussent  vendu 

Present. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

SIMPLE  TENSES. 

COMPOUND  TENSES. 

Vends  (vong),  sell  th 

ou                               vendons  (vaundong),  let  us  sell 

Absoiu. 

Aniirieur. 

vendez  (vaunday),  sell  ye 

quUl  vende  (keel  vaundej,                           (?«'//*  vendent  (keel  vaund), 

I  sell. 

I  have  sold. 

let  him  sell                                                   let  them  sell 

ye  vttids 

je  vong 

yai  vendu 

lu  vends 

tu  vong 
eel  vong 

tu  as  vendu 

il  vend 

1 1  a  vendu 

VOCABULARY  OF  AERBS. 

nous  vendons 

noo  vaundong 

nous  ax'ons  vendu 

To  eat 

manger                                maunjav 

Tous  ve7idez 

voo  vaunday 

vous  azH'z  vendu 

to  drink 

hoire                                     boualir 

ifs  t<ejident 

eel  vaund 

Pescriptive 

ils  out  vendu 

to  be  thirsty 
to  be  hungry 

avoir  soif                           avouahr  souaf 
az'oirfaim                          avouahr  fang 

Imperfect, 

Pluperfect. 

to  breakfast 
to  dine 

dt-jcuner                             dayjeunai 
diner                                 deenai 

I  sold. 

I  had  sold. 

to  sup 

sotiper                               soopai 

ye  vendat's 

jeh  vaunday 

y*avais  vendu 

to  serve 

servir                                sareveer 

in  vendat's 

tu  vaunday 

tu  avals  vejtdu 

to  carve 

trancher                              traunshai 

it  vendait 

eel  vaunday 

il  avail  vendu 

to  smoke 

fumcr                                   fumai 

nous  vendions 

noo  vaundyong 

nous  az'ions  vendu 

to  sneeze 

vtcrnuer                              aytairniiai 

TOUS  vendiez 

voo  vaundyai  ' 

TOUS  aviez  vendu 

to  cough 

tousser                                toossai 

i/s  vendaient 

eel  vaunday 

J\'arrotive* 

ils  avaient  vendu 

to  think 
to  reflect 

penser                                  paungsai 
ri^fechir                             rayflaysheer                      • 

Past  Dejinile. 

Past  Anterior. 

to  speak 
to  say 

parler                               parlai 
dire                                   deer 

I  sold. 

I  had  sold. 

to  repeat 

npHer                              raypaytai 

* 

ye  vendis 

jeh  vaundcc 

y*eus  vendu 

to  explain 

declarer                              dayclarrai 

1         iu  vend  is 

tu  vaundec 

tu  eus  vendu 

to  be  quiet 

se  taire                             seh  tare 

il  vendit 

eel  vaundee 

il  eut  Tcndu 

to  chat 

causer                                  cosay 

nous  vendhnes 

noo  vaundeem 

nous  eumes  vendu 

to  tell 

raconter                            raccongtai 

7'ous  vendues 

voo  vaundect 

vous  eutes  ziendu 

to  ask 

demander                            demaundai 

i/s  vendireni 

eel  vaundeer 

Future, 

ils  eurent  vendu 

to  answer 
to  reply 

npondre                             raypongdr 
ripliquer                             raypleckai 

Put  u  re. 

Past. 
I  shall  have  sold. 

to  be  mistaken 

se  tromper                          seh  trompai 

I  shall  sell. 

to  object 
to  doubt 

ohjccter                             objectai 
douter                               dootai 

ye  vendrai 

jeh  vaundray 

y^aurai  vendu 

to  affirm 

affirmer                               affeermai 

tu  vendras 

tu  vaundrah 

tu  auras  vendu 

to  prove 

prouver                               proovai 

'         il  vendra 

eel  vaundrah 

il  aura  vendu 

to  ar.sure 

assurer                                assurai 

1        noHS  vendrons 

noo  vaundrong 

nous  aurons  vendu 

to  deny 

nier                                   neeai 

4 

votts  vendrex 

voo  vaundrav 

vous  aurez  vendu 

to  maintain 

soutenir                            sooteneer 

1 

its  vendront 

eel  vaundrong 

ils  auront  vendu 

to  dispute 

disputcr                            disputai 

Q 

/ 

^^ 

n 

» 

^           a 

v 

THK  FKENCH  LANGUAGE. 


/ 


III 


lo  consent 

to  appro%'u 

to  priiisc 

to  utlmirc 

to  Maine 

to  believe 

to  know 

not  to  know 

to  imagine 

to  compare 

to  imitate 

to  f<trj;ct 

to  remember 

to  wish,  to  will 

to  desire 

to  wish 

to  love 

to  flatter 

to  embrace 

to  hope 

to  rejoice 

to  give 

to  tiiank 

to  esteem 

to  honor 

to  despise 

to  hate 

to  offend 

to  insult 

to  quarrel 

to  swear 

to  punish 

to  beat 

to  weep 

to  sigli 

lo  regret 

to  repent 

to  excuse 

to  pardon 

to  revenge 

to  joke 

to  laugh 

to  live 

to  feel 

to  touch 

to  taste 

to  see 

to  hear 

to  grow 

to  go 

to  go  out 

to  return 

to  meet 

to  follow 

to  run 

to  jump 

to  fall 

to  dance 

to  play 

to  ascend 

to  descend 

to  sit  down 

to  lie  down 

to  rest 

to  sleep 

to  dream 

to  awake 

to  get  up 


con  sent  I  r 
opproHX'er 
loner 
admirer 
b  lamer 
croire 
savoir 
ignorer 
imaginer 
comparer 
i miter 
otiblier 
se  souvenir 
X'ottloir 
lii'sircr 
son /tatter 
aimer 
/titter 
tm/'rasscr 
ts/trer 
rejoitir 
donner 
remercier 
estimer 
honor er 
vii-p  riser 
hair 
offenser 
insult  er 
qtiereller 
jiirer 
punir 
battre 
plettrer 
soupirer 
rcgretter 
se  repenfir 
exciist-r 
pardonner 
venger 
raillcr 
rire 
vivre 
sentir 
toucher 
gouter 
I'oir 
entendre 
croilre 
aller 
sortir 
retourner 
rencontrer 
stiivre 
courir 
satiter 
tomber 
danser 
j'ouer 
mo  liter 
descendre 
s*asseoir 
se  coucher 
se  re  poser 
liormir 
riz'er 
s^iveiller 
se  lever 


J'liONUNCIATION. 

congsaunteer 

approovai 

looai 

admeerai 

blahmai 

crouahr 

savouahr 

eenyorai 

eemajeenai 

compahrai 

eemeetai 

oobleeai 

seh  soovenneer 

vouloualir 

dayseerai 

sooaytai 

aimai 

flattai 

aumbrassai 

espayrai 

rayjooeer 

donnai 

remmairceeai 

esteemai 

onorai 

maypreezai 

haeer 

offongsai 

angsuhltai 

kerrellai 

jural 

puneer 

batre 

pleuhrai 

sooperai 

regrettai 

seh  ropauntecr 

excusai 

pardonnat 

vaungjai 

raeelyai 

reer 

veevr 

saunteer 

tooshai 

gootai 

vouahr 

auntaundr 

crouahtr 

allai 

sorteer 

retoornai 

rauncongtrai 

sweevr 

cooreer 

sotai 

tombai 

daungsai 

jooai 

mongtai 

dessaundr 

sassouahr 

seh  cooshai 

seh  rcpozai 

dormeeer 

rayvai 

sayvailyai 

seh  levvai 


F.Nr.Lisn. 


to  dress 
to  draw 
to  show 
to  present 
to  take 
to  accept 
lo  refuse 
to  receive 
to  spoil 
to  throw 
to  lose 
to  look  for 
to  find 
to  hide 
to  cover 
to  uncover 
to  roast 
to  boil 
to  weigh 
to  build 
to  sow 
to  pluck 
to  plant 
to  reap 


s'habiller 
tirer 
motttrer 
presenter 
prendre 
accepter 
refuser 
rectvoir 
gdier 
Jeter 
perdre 
chercher 
tronver 
cache r 
couvrir 
dtcouvrir 
rittir 
bonillir 
peser 
bdtir 
semer 
cueillir 
planter 
moissonner 


PRONUNCIATION. 

s'abbeelyai 
teerai 
mongtrai 
pravsaunlai 
praundr 
acceptai 
reffusal 
ressevouahr 
gahtai 
jcttai 
pairdr 
shairshai 
troovai 
cashai 
coo  v  reer 
daycoovreer 
rotccr 
booeclyecr 
pezai 
bahteer 
scmmai 
kileyeer 
plauntai 
mouahssonnai 


YOCABtJXARY  OF  ADA^RBS. 


At  first 

previously 

atterwards 

together 

at  last 

where 

here 

there 

elsewhere 

above 

below 

within 

without 

everywhere 

nowhere 

up 

down 

anywhere 

already 

often 

Sometimes 

in  future 

always 

never 

soon 

immediately 

Jate 

early 

at  present 

quickly 

at  once 

afterwards 

yesterday 

5-esterday  evening 

to-day 

to-morrow 

to-morrow  morning 

to-morrow  evening 

day  after  to-morrow 

enough 

too  much 

little 


d\ibord 
auparaz'ant 
ensiiite 
ensemble 
enjin 
oit 
ici 
Id 

ailleurs 
dessus 
dessous 
dedans 
dehors 
par  tout 
niille  part 
en  haut 
en  bas 

quelqtie  part 
d^jii 
souvent 
quelijuefois 
&  Vavcnir 
toujour  s 
jamais 
bientot 
aussitot 
tard 
iot 

hprisent 
vite 

tout  de  suite 
puis 
hi.-r 

hicr  au  soir 
(jujourd'hui 
demo  in 
dcmain  matin 
dcmain  soir 
apriis-demain 
as  sex 
trop 
pen 


d'abor 

oparravang 

aunsweet 

aunsaumbl 

aunfang 

CO 

eesee 

lah 

seellyure 

dessu 

dessoo 

deddong 

dehor 

partoo 

nule  par 

aung  ho 

aung  bah 

kelkeh  par 

dayjah 

souvong 

kelcahfouah 

ah  I'avneer 

toojoor 

jammay  * 

beeangto 

osito 

tar 

to 

ah  praysong 

veet 

too  deh  sweet 

pwee 

yare 

yare  o  souahr 

oj  cord  wee 

demmang 

demmaiig  mattang 

demmang  souahr 

appray  demmang 

assay 

Iro 

peuh 


Ji^ 


\ 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


/ 


ENGLISH. 


FRF.NCH. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


much  heaucoup  bocoo 

very  tris^/ort  tray, fore 

more  //«*  plu 

less  mains  mouang' 

at  least  oit  moins  o  mouang 

thus  s.i  see 

nearly  presquf  pressk 

about  environ  aung^-eerong 

all  tout  too 

altogether  tout-ii-fait  toot-ah-fay 

only  setilement  seuhlmong 

well  hien  beeang 

better  mieux  meyew 

so  much  the  better  tant-mieux  tong-  meyew 

bad  mal  mal 

worse  pis  pee 

rather  pluU'yt  pluto 

without  doubt  sans  doute  song  doot 

indeed  en  effet  aun  effay 

on  the  contrary  au  contraire  o  congtrare 

scarcely  ii  peine  ah  pane 

perhaps  pettt-itre  put-aUr 

all  at  once  tout-a-coup  toot-ah-coo 

not  at  all  point  dii  tout  pouangdu  too 

not  yet  pas  encore  paz  auncore 

nothing  rien  reeang 

nothing  at  all  rien  du  tout  reeang  du  too 

VOCABUI.AKY  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


Or 

with,  near 

near 

in,  within 

before 

behind 

below 

over    , 

against 

far  from 

on  the  side  of 

opposite 

round  about 

instead  of 

in  the  midstof 

on  thisside 

on  the  opposite  side 

out  of 

after 

with 

since       ^ 

between 

without 

for 

through,  by 

against 

during 


ou 

chez^  auprks 
pres 
Jans,  en 
az-ant 
derrikre 
sous 
sur 
vers 
loin  de 
a  cdt^  de 
7'is-a-vis 
autour  de 
au  lieu  de 
au  milieu  de 
en-der^a  de 
au-delh  de 
kors 
aprhs 
avec 
dipuis 

entre—parmf 
sans 
pour 
par 
c outre 
pendant 


oo 

shay, opray 
pray 

dong,  aung 
avvong 
derreeare 

SOD 

sure 

vare 

louang  deh 

ah  cotay  deh 

veez-ah-vee 

otoor  deh 

oleeyu  deh 

o  millj-u  deh 

aung-dessah  de 

o-dellah-deh 

hor 

appray 

avvec 

deppwee 

aungtr — parmee 

song 

poor 

par 

congtr 

paundong 


VOCABULAKY  OF  CONJITNCTIONS. 


either,  .or 
neither.. nor 
also 
but 

however 

yet 

if 

if  not 
if  only 
even  if 


ou, .ou 
ni.  .ni 
aussi 
mats 

Cependant 
P  our t  ant 

si 

si  noH 
pourvu  que 

quand  mime 


00..00 

ncc. .nee 

ossi 

may 

seppaundong 

poortong 

see 

sec  nong 

poorvu  kth 

kaungmcym 


ENGMSU. 

although 

that  is 

as 

except  that 

for 

because 

why 

and 

therefore 

consequently 


quoique 
c^est-a-dire 

com  me 
outre  que 
car 

parceque 
pourquoi 
et 

a  in  si 
par  consequent 


PRONUNCIATION. 

conak 

sait-ah-deet 

comm 

ootr  keh 

car 

parsk 

poorkouah 


angsee 

p;ir  congsaycong 


41 


CONVERSATION  IN  FRENCH. 


HAVING  by  study  of  the  foregoing  made  himself 
famihar  with  the  salient  features  of  the  French  gram- 
mar, the  student  will  require  to  learn  those  niceties 
and  elegancies  of  expression  which  make  the  French 
language  the  most  graceful  of  all  spoken  tongues.  These  can 
be  largely  acquired  by  learning  by  heart  the  following  vacabu- 
lary  of  phrases,  which  have  been  collated  under  different  heads 
and  thus  will  be  the  more  readily  memorized  and  more  certainly 
retained. 

CONSTANTLY  OCCURRING  EXPRESSIONS. 


Tell  me. 

If  you  please. 

Have  the  goodness. 

Yes,  sir. 

Yes, Madam. 

Yes,  Miss. 

Xo,  sir. 

"Will you  tell  me? 

I  thank  vou. 


Dites-moi. 

S'ilvons  p/alt. 
Ayez  la  hontc. 
Ottif  Monsieur. 
Oui,  Madame. 
Otiiy  Mademoiselle. 
A'(?«,  Monsieur. 
Voulez  zous  me  diref 
ye  Z'ous  remercie. 


Do  you  speak  English  ?  Parlez  z'OUS  anglais  ? 

French?  fran<;ais  T 

I  do  not  speak  French.   "Je  ue  Parle  pas  f ran- 
(^aisf 


I  understand. 
I  do  not  understand. 
Do  you  understand? 
Give  me  some  bread. 


Thank  you. 
Good  morning. 
How  do  you  do? 

Very  well. 

I  am  very  \vell. 

How  is  vour  father? 


Deet  mouah. 
Seel  voo  play. 
Aiyai  lah  bongtai. 
Wee,  mosseeu. 
"Wee,  madamm. 
\Vee,  madmouazel. 
Nong,  mosseeu, 
Voolai  voo  meh  deer, 
Jeh  voo  remmairsee. 
Parlat-voo  aunglai? 

fraunsai? 
Jeh     nch      pari       pah 

fraunsai. 
Jeh  comprong. 
Jeh  neh  comprongpah. 
Comprennai-voo. 
Donnai  mouah  dupang. 


"je  comprends. 
ye  ue  comprends  pas. 
Comprenez-vous  ? 
Donnez  moidu  pain. 
Bring  me  some  coffee.  Apportez-moi  du  cafv.   Apportai-mouah     du 

caff  ay, 
Merci,  Mairsee. 

lion  jour.  Bong  joor. 

Comtneiit    Tons  portez  Commong   voo     por- 

vous?  taivoo? 

Tris-hien.  Tray  beiang. 

ye  meporte  fort   lien.  Jeh  meh  port  fore  bee- 
ang. 
Comment       se     parte  Commong       seh     port 

tnonsienrvotreperet     mosseeu  voir  pare? 


How  is  your  inothi-r? 

She  is  not  well. 

She  is  ill. 
He  is  very  ill. 
She  has  a  cold. 
I  must  go. 
Good -by. 
Farewell. 


Comment     se     forte      Commong      seh       port 

Madame  voire  mere?    maddam  votr  mare? 
Elle  ue    se  parte  pas   El  neh    seh    port    pah 


bien. 
Kile  est  malade. 
II  est  hien  malade. 
KUe  est  enrhumve. 
Ilfautpartir. 
An  plaisir. 
Adieu, 


beeang. 
El  ai  mallad. 
Eel  ai  beeang  mallad. 
El  ait  aunrecmay. 
Eel  fo  parteer. 
O  playzecr. 
Adieu. 


ENGLISH.  FKENCH.  PKONLNCIATION. 

Your  scr\'ant.  Votre  serviteur.  Votr  sairvcctur. 

I    wish    yow     n  good  ye     votts    souhaite  U  Jeh     voo     sooate     kh 

morning.  bonjour.  bong  joor. 

Good  evi-ning.  Bon  sotr.  Bong  souar. 

Good  night.  Bonne  nuit.  Bon  nwee. 

I  wish  you  good  night,  ye  vous  souhaite  une  Jeh  voo  sooate  iine  bon 

bonne  nuit.  nwee. 

My     compliments     to  Saluez    monsieur   vo-  Salluai    mossicii     votr 

your  father.  tre piire  de  ma  part,        pare  dch  mah  par, 

I  will  not  fail.  ye  uy  manquerai pas.  Jeh  nee  maunkrai  pah. 


bi 


What! 

Is  it  possible? 

Who  would  have 

lieved  it! 
Indeed ! 

It  is  impossible. 
That  cannot  be. 
I  am  astonished  at  it 


SPECUIiATORY. 

Catnmctit! 

St- rait  -  il possibli- ! 

^ui i'aurait  cm! 


Commong! 
Serrait-eel  posseebl? 
Kee  lorav  cru ! 


It  is  incredible. 
I  am  sorry  for  it. 
It  is  a  great  pity. 
It  is   a    great    misfor 

tune. 
I  am  very  glad. 
I  am  very  glad  of  it. 
It  gives  me  great  joy. 


I  wish  you  joy. 
I      congratulate 
on  it. 


Ong  vereetay. 
Slah  ait  amposseebl. 
Slahneh  sch  peu  pah. 
Jong  swec     beean    ai* 

tonnai. 
Sait  angcnvoyable. 
Jong  swee  fashai. 
Say  beeang  dommaje. 
grand  mal-  Salt   ung    grong     mal- 
leur. 
Jeh  swee  beean  aze. 
Jong  swee  fort  aze. 
la  Jon      ay    beeang    deli 
lah  jouah. 
Jeh  voo  faileeseet. 
ynu   ye    vous   en  fais   man  Jeh      vooze     ong     fay 
compliment.  mong  compleemong. 


Envirit^l 
Cela  est  impossible. 
Ct'la  «(■  se ptut pas. 
je'  suis  bien  ttonne. 

C'est  incroyabh: 
y'en  suis  fdcke. 
C\'st  bien  dommage. 
C'est    un 

hettr. 
ye  suis  bien  aise. 
y\n  suis  fort  aise. 
y'en    ai    bien     de 

joie. 
ye  vousfelicite. 


AG£. 


How  old  are  you? 
I  am  twenty-two. 
I  shall  soon  be  thirtv. 


ENGLISH.  FKENCH.  PRONUNCLATION. 

What  does  thai  mean?  ^uWstce  quecela  ~.eut  Case  keh  slaveuh  deer? 

diref 
"What  Is  ih At  good  for ^  A  tj a oice/a  est- i/ bon  f  Ah    couah  sla  ait   eel 

bong? 

MORNING  C1L\T. 

Quelle  heure  est- ilT        Kel  eiir  ait-cel? 

//    est    pri's     de    huit  Eel  ai  pray    deh  weet 

heures.  eur. 

Faites  dufeu.  Fate  du  fcnh. 

ye  vais  me  lever.  Jeh  vay  meh  levvai. 


^ittl ng&  ai-ez-Tous  T     Kel  ahjc  avai  voo? 
y'ai  I'ingt-deux  ans.      Jay  vang-deuh  ong. 
y^ai     bientot     ircnte  Jay     beeangto     trannt 
ans,  ong* 

He  looks  older.  II paraXt plus  dg^.  Eel  paray  pluzc  ahjai, 

I    did    not    think    yon  ye  ne  vous  rroj'ais pas  Jeh    neh    voo    crwovai 
were  so  old.  si dgil.  pah  see  ahjai. 

TO  ASK  QUESTIONS. 

What  do  you  say?  ^ue dites-vous  f  Keh  deet  voo? 

Do  you  hear  me?  M^entendez-i'ous  ?  Mauntaiindai-voo? 

I  don't  speak  to  ynu.  Ce  n*est  pas    it    I'ous  Snay  paz  ah  voo  keh 

quejcparle.  jeh  pari. 

Do     you      understand  Me  comprenez-vous  t      Meh  comprcnnay  voo? 

me? 
Listen.  Ecoutez.  Aicootai. 

Come  here.  Approchex — venez   /c/.  Aproshai   —    Vcnnai/, 

eessee. 
What  is  that?  ^u*estceqne  cela  f         Case  keh  sla? 

Why  don't  you  answer  ?/*o«ryKo///(rre/>(JK</t*z-  Poorcouah  neh  raipon- 

vous past  dai  voo  pah? 

What  do  you  mean?       ^ue  voulez-vous  dire?  Keh  voolai-voo  deer? 
Don't     you     speak  Ne   parlex '  vous   pns  Neh     parlai    voo     pah 

French  ?  francais  t  f  raunsay  ? 

Very  little,  sir.  Bien  peUy  Monsieur.      Beeang  peuh,  mossieu. 

Do  you  know  Mr.  11.?  Connaissex-voiis  Mon-  Connaissai     voo     mos- 

sieur  II.  f  sieu  H.? 

I  know  him  by  sight,      ye  Ic  connats  de  vuc.    Jeh  Ich  connay  dch  vu. 
I  know  him  by  name,     ye  te  connais  de  nom.    Jeh     leh     connay    deh 

nong. 
What  doyoucall  that?  Comment appelex-vous  Comment    apphii     voo 

celaf  sla? 


What  o'clock  is  it? 
It  is  near  eight. 

Light  the  fire. 

I  am  going  to  get  up. 

CJ  e  t  n-.  e  s  o  m  e    hot 

water. 
Make  haste. 

How  have  you  slept? 

Did  you  sleep  well? 

Ven,'  well,  lliank  you. 

Not  very  well. 

I  neverwoke  all  night. 

I  could  not  sleep. 

I  neverclosed  my  eyes. 

I    liave    been    up    this 

hour. 
Ynu  are  an  early  riser. 
I  generally  rise  early. 

Breakfast  is  ready. 
Is  breakfast  ready? 

Come  to  breakfast. 

That  is  enough. 

Some  rolls. 

Do   you   drink   tea  or 

coffee? 
This  cream  is  sour. 
Will  you  take  an  egg? 

These  eggs  are  hard. 
Pass  nic  the  butter. 
Is    the    coffee    strong 

enough? 
We  want  more  cups. 

Take  some  more  sugar. 

-\  piece  of  toast. 

Cold  meat. 

The  table-cloth. 

The  sugar-bowl. 

Chocolate. 

A  knife. 

This  knife  is  blunt. 

We   have  done  break- 
fast. 

AT 

Show  me  the  bill    of 

fare. 
What    soup    will   you 

have? 


AlliX  me   ehercher  de  AUai     meh     shairshai 

Vmtt  ehaude.  deh  lo  shode. 

Xe   soyf:x    pas     long-  Neh  swoyai  pah  long- 

te'ips.  tong. 

Comment     avez  •  i-ous  Commont       avai  -  voo 

dormi  T  dormee? 

Arez-ious b/m  dor/ni ?  A\-SLt-voo   beeang  dor- 
mee? 
Trcs-bie>/,  j'e  tous  re-  Tray    beeang,  jeh  voo 

mercie.  remmairsee. 

Pas  trts-b/en.  Pah  tray  beeang. 

y'ai  dormit  tout  d'un  Jay  dormee    too  dung 

somme.  som. 

ye  u*ai pas pu  dormir.  Jeh    nai   pah    pu    dor- 

meer. 
ye  n'aipasf-rm^  ra'il.   Jeh    nai   pah     fatrmay 

lilc. 

II y  a  un«  heure  que  je  Eel  ee  ah  une  eur  keh 

me  suis  lex-c.  jeh  meh  swee  levai.  ^ 

Vous  ites  matinal.  Vooz  ait  malteenal. 

ye  me  live   ordinaire-  Jeh    meh    lave    ordee- 

.  nareinong     deh     bon 

eur. 
Leh  daijeunay  ai  pray. 
Ledejeurierestilprdt?  l^eh  daijeunay  ait  eel 

pray? 
Venez  dejeuner.  Vennay  daijeunay. 

Ce/a  est  assez.  Sla  ait  assay. 

Vespetits pains.  Day  pcttee  pang. 

Prenez-vous  du  tJU  on  Prennay-voo  du  tay  oo 

ducafiT  ducaffay? 

Cette  crime  s*estagrie.  Set  cramc  sait  agree. 
V'oulez  •  vous  Manger  Voolay  -  voo    maunjay 

un  auff  un  uf? 

CV^  ceufs  son  durs,         Sazc  cuf  son  dure. 
Passex-moi  le  beurre.    Passay  mouah  ieh  bcur. 
Le   cafi    est  -  il  fl.«5fz  Leh  caff  ay  ait  eel  assay 

fort?  fore? 

//  nous    manque    des  Eel    noo    maunk    day 

tasses.  tass. 

Prenez  encore  du  mere.  Prenaze     auncorc     Ju 
sucr. 
Une  rotec. 


mcnt  dc  bonne  heitre 
L  e  dejeuner  est  prit. 


(^ne  rotie. 

De  la  viandefroide. 

L.a  nappe. 

Le  sucrier, 

Du  cltocolat. 

Un  couteau. 


De  lah  veciundfrouad. 
Lah  nap. 
Leh  sucreeay. 
Du  shocolah. 
Ungcooto. 


Ce   couteau   ne    row/^  Sch  cooto  neh  coop  pas. 

pas. 
Nous  avonsjini  de  d^-  Nooz  avong  feenee  dch 

j'euuer,  daijeunay. 

THK  DINNER-TABLE, 

Montrex-moi  la  carte.     Mongtray    mouah    lah 

carte. 
Quelle  soupe  vous  set-  Kel  soup   voo  sairvcc- 
riraij:  T  raije. 


Ai 


A^ 

'^             ...^ 

i 
G) 

<?■ 

a 

\ 

A 

s  * 

( 

'    114 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

} 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH.                         PRONUNCIATION, 

BED-TIME. 

Maccaroni  soup. 

I>e  la  sottpe  au  tnaca-  Deh  lah   soup  0  mac- 

ENGLISH.                                      FRENCH.                            PRONUNCIATION. 

1          Have  you  any  roast 

beef? 
1          Xot  to-day. 

We  have  vtrv  fine  fish 

What  wines  will   you 

have? 
Let  us  see. 
Here  is  the  list. 
We  shall  dine  at  six 

o'clock. 

roni.                                    aroni. 
At'i-z  -  vous    Jh    hatuf  Avav-voo   du  beuf  ro- 

roti?                                 tee? 
Pas  auJourtThui.             Paz  ojoordwee. 

JVous  arofts  de  trts-bon  Nooz  avong  deh  tray- 
Poisson.                               bongpouahssong. 

^uels   vins   Monsi,'ur  Kel  vang  mossieu  day- 
dUsire-t-il  f                       zeer-t-eel? 

It  is  late.                             II  est  tard.                          Eel  ai  tar. 

It  is  not  late.                      //  n' est  pas  tard.               Eel  nay  pah  tar. 

It  is  still  early.                  li  est  encore  de  bonne  'E.eX    ait     auncore    deh 

heure.                                   bon  eur. 
Are  you  tired?                  Etes-vous  fatigue.          Ait  vnofateegay? 
Not  at  all.                           Point  du  tout.                   Pouang  du  too. 
Not  much.                            Pas  beaueoup.                    Pa  bocoo. 
It  is  only  ten.                    II  n' est  que  dix  heures.  Eel  nay  keh  deeze  eur. 

Voyons,                               Vwoiyong. 
En  void  la  liste.             Ong  \-vvoysee  lah  leest. 
N^otts   dineroiis   d.    six  Noo       dcenerons       ah 
keures^                              scece  e»ir. 

\t'\s\\xaQ.XQ^,QXQhG,A.  II  est  Vheure  de  secou-   Eel    ai    leur    deh    seh 
cker.                                     cooshay. 

Is  my  room  ready?          Ma   chambre    est  -  elle  'Slz.   shaumbr    ait      e 

prete?                                   prate?                                       1 

Go  and  see.                        Allez  voir.                         Allay  vouahr.                            I 

A  blanket.                          Une  c  ouver  t  ure  de  Une   coovaiiture   d  t:  h         I 
laine,                                       lane. 

Goodnight.                        Bon  soir.                            Bongsouahr. 

Be  punctual. 

What  shall  I  help  you 

to? 
Will   you    take  some 

Soyz  exacte.                     Swoyaiz  exact. 

^ite  vous  strviraije  ?   Keh  vos  sairveeraijt.? 

Voulez-vous  tin pt'u  de  Xoq\^\-\oo7.   ung  peu 

soup? 
No,  thank  you. 
Willingly. 
Help  yourself. 
Do  you  take  pepper? 

soHpe?                                 deh  soup? 
Merci  bien.                        Mairsee  beeang. 
Trts-z-oloTiiiers.                Tray  volontyai. 
Svrvez-vous.                     Sairvai  voo. 
MaiigeZ'-voiisIe poivreT'Sl^\in]2.\  voo  leh  pou- 
ahvr. 

I  wish   you    a    good   fe  X'ous  souhaile   k«^  Jeh-voo  sooate  unehon 

night.                                    bonne  nuit,                          nwee. 
I  am  sleepy,                       fai sommeil.                    Jay  sommail. 
Are  you  sleepy?               Avez-vous  sommeil?     Avay-voo  snmmail? 

THE  TIME  OF  DAY. 

Potatoes. 

Des  fommes  de  terre.     Dav  pom  deh  tare. 

What  o'clock  is  it  by  Quelle  heure  est-il   (i  Kel  eur   ait-eel   a  voir 

The  mustard  pot. 

Le  moutardier.                  Leh  mootardyai. 

your  watch  ?                       votre  montre  ?                  mauntr? 

Give  me  a  clean  fork. 

Donnez-moi  une  four'  Donnay   mouah   une 
chette  propre.                    foorshetpropr. 

It  has  stopped.                  EUe  s'est  arrUie.            El  sait  arraytai. 

I  forgot  to  wind  it  up.    fat  oubiie  de  la  mon-  J  ay    oobleeay  deh    la 

Are  you  hungr\'? 

Avez'votisfaim?             Avay-voo  fang? 

ter.                                        mauntay. 

1  am  hungry. 

y^aifaim.                          Jay  fang. 

My  watch  is  too  fast.     Ma    montre    est    ^«  M  a     mauntr    ait    an 

Vou  don't  eat. 

Vous  ne  mangez pas.       Voo  neh  maunjay  pah. 

avance.                                   av.aunce. 

Are  you  thirsty? 

Avez-vous  soif.                 Avay  voo  souaf? 

It  gains.                              EUe  avance.                       El  avaunce. 

I  am  very  thirsty. 

yaihien  soif.                    Jay  beeang  souaf. 

It  is  too  slow.                    EUe  est  en  retard,            EI  ait  ong  retard. 

I  am  dying  of  thirst. 

fe  meurs  de  soif.             Je  meur  deh  souaf. 

It  is  a  quarter  of  an  EUe  retarde  d'un  guart  El     retard     dung      kar 

Take  a  glass  of  wine. 

Prenezunverredevin.'PrGnna.ze  ung  vair  de 
vang. 

hour  too  slow.                   dltcure.                               deur. 
It  goes  right.                    EUe  va  bien.                      El  va  beeang. 

Give  me  something  to  Donrit-z-moi  d  boire.        Don  nay    mouah     ali 

A  quarter  to  eight.          Huit  heures  moins  nn  Wheel  eur  mouans  ung 

drink. 

bouahr. 

quart,                                kar. 

A  cork-screw. 

Un  tire-bouchon.             Ung  teer  booshong. 

Midnight.                           Minuit,                                Meenwee. 
Noon.                                   Midi,                                   Meedee. 

TAtK  AT  THE  TEA-TABLK. 

A  quarter  past  one.         Une  heure  et  quart,          Une  eur  ai  kar. 

Tea  is  quite  ready. 
They  are  waiting   for 

Le  thi  est  fouiprU.          Leh  tay  ai  too  pray. 
On  vous  attend,                Ong  vooz  attong. 

Half  past  four.                 ^uatre  heures  et  demie.  Katr  eur  ai  demmee. 
Twenty  minutes  to  six.  Six  heures  moins  vingt.Seec  e    eur    niouang 

vang. 

I  am  coming. 
Pour  out  the  tea. 
Bring  a  saucer. 

Me  void.                           Meh  vwoysee. 
V'ersez  ie  tki.                     Vairsay  leh  tay. 
Apportez une  soucoupe.  Apportaze     une     soo- 

■  It  has  just  struck  nine.  AVk/  At-«r^^  riV««<-M/ Neuv   cur   veeyen    deh 

de  sonner.                             sonnay. 
Ten    minutes   past  Sept    heures    dix    mi-   Set  eur  dee  mcenute. 
seven.                                   nutes. 

Ring,  if  you  please. 
A  little  more  milk. 

coop. 
Sonnez.s^ii  vous  plait.  Sounay  seel  voo  play. 
Encore  un  pen  de  lait.    Auncore   ung  peu  deh 

Exactly  three  o'clock.  Trois  heures  juste.           Trouaz  eur  juste. 
The  clock  is  striking.      V oi I d    Vhorloge    qui  Vwoyla  lorlojekee  son. 
Sonne, 

What  will  you  take? 

lay. 
^u€  prendrcz-vous?      Keh  praundray  voo? 

THE  PROMENADE. 

A   slice   of  bread    anc 

Vne  beurr^e — une  tar-   Une  beurray — une  tar- 

Shall  we  take  a  little  Irons  •  nous  faire    un  Eerong   noo   fare    ung 

butter. 

tiue  de  heurre,                   teen  deh  beur. 

walk?                                   petit  tour  ?                         pcttee  toor? 

Hand  the  plate. 

Passiiz  Vassietie.              Passay  hissyett. 

Willingly.                           De  tout  mon  cceur,          Deh  too  mong  kcur. 

Will    you    take    some 

I'ou/ez  •  vous  du  gn-  Voolay  voo  du  gahto? 

Where  shall  we  go?        Par  oh  irons-nous  f        Par  00  eerongncKi? 

cake? 

teau  T 

On  the  highroad.             Sur  la grandc  route.       Sure  la  graundc  root. 

A  small  piece. 

Un  petit  morceau.            Ung  pcttee  morso. 

There  is  a  good  deal  It  y  fait  beaucoup  de  Eel   ce  fay  bocoo    dth 

Make  some  toast. 

Faites  encore  des   ro-  Fates  auncore  day  ro- 
ties.                                   tec. 

of  dust.                      ■      poussiere,                         poossyare. 
Into  the  fields.                  Dans  la  campagne.          Dong  la  caumpainc. 

Make  haste. 

DepZchez-vous.                 Daypayshay  voo. 

They  arc  reaping.            On  moissonne.                  <?ug  mwoysson. 

This  is  excellent  tea. 

VoiUi  d'l'xcellent  thi'.     Vwoyla  dcxcellongtay. 

They  are  making  hay.   On  fauche  Vherbe.          On  foshe  lairbe. 

The  tea-tray. 

Z('  cabaret.                         Leh  cahbaray. 

Whatapleasantscent !  .^«  *•//(•    odcur    dili-  Kel    odeur    daileesee- 

The  milk  jug. 

Ee  pot  au  lait.                   Leh  pote  0  lay. 

cieusel                                yeuse. 

A  set  of  tea-things. 

Vn  service.                        Ung  sairvcccc. 

An  abundant  harvest.   Une  moisson    {une  re-   Une    mwoyssong   (une 

Brown  bread. 

Du  pain  his.                       Du  pailg  bee. 

colte)  abondante.              raicolt)  abaundaunte. 

White  bread. 

Du  pain  blanc.                  Du  pang  blong. 

Let  us  cross  this  field.  Traversons  ce  champ.     Travairsong  schshnng. 

1 

Stale  bread. 

Dupain  rassis.                Du  pang  rassee. 

W'hich  isthcway  to  A.?j^wr/«'.v//(^i"//rOTi«/cJ«r*  Kel    ai  leh  shemmang 

1 

New  bread. 

Dttpainfrais.                   Du  pang  fray. 

alter  a  A.T                         pour  allay  ah  A? 

,  el 

/ 

N 

Is 

■/• 

(3                ^ 

■»       0 
\ 

v*" 

/ 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


"5 


KNGLISll.  KKENCH.  PRONINCI ATION. 

Where,  docs  this  road  Ou  ft7«(/«/V(:t7/(rr<»«//^  Oo  condwee  set  root? 

UMd? 

'^'\\\c\\wxs  3.n\\Ko  ^o'i  De  quel  c6iefaut-il  que  Deh  kel    cotay  fot  eel 
y  aillt-t  kch  i'aeel? 

AUez  droit  devant  Allay    druuah     dcvonjf 

Z'OttS.  voo. 

A  gauche. 
A  droit.: 

Envirott  un  tnille. 
A  /'ei/re  un  milh: 
Rcntrons. 


ENGLISH. 


Straight  before  you. 


Tn  the  k-ft. 
To  tlic  right. 
About  a  mile. 
Hardly  a  mile. 
Let  us  go  in. 


Ah  goshe. 
Ah  drouate. 
Oiigvccrong  ung  nieel. 
Ah  pane  ung  nieel. 
Rauntrong. 


PERSONAIi  ENQUIRIES. 


Do  you  know'Mr.  F.?    Connaissez'Zious  Mon-  Connassay    voo    nios- 

sieur  F.f  sieu  F.? 

I  don't  know  anybody   'Jeneconnais  personne  J  eh  neh  connay  pair.-;on 

of  that  name.  de  ce  nom.  deh  seh  nong. 

I  know  him.  "Je ie  connais.  Jth  leh  connay. 

Intimately.  Intimement.  Angteenieinong. 

I     am    very    intimate   Je  suis  tres-lii    avec  Jeh     swte     tra\'    lecay 

with  him.  lui.  avec  Iwee. 

He  is  a  friend  of  mine.  11  est  un  de  mes  amis.     Eel   ait  ung  deh  maze 

amce. 
I  have  known   him    a   ye    le  connais    dt-puis  Jeh  Ich  connay  depwec 

long  time.  longtemps.  longtoiig. 

He  is  my  brother-in-    Cesi  mon  beau-frkre.     Sai  mong  bo-frare. 
law. 

Le  connaissez-xwus  ?     Lch  connalssay-voo. 
ye  le  connais parfaite-  Jch  leh  connay  parfatc- 


Do  you  know  him? 
I  know  him  very  well. 


ment. 
Oil  dcmenre-t-il  ? 
Ici  prks. 


mong. 
Oo  dcinmeur-t-eel.' 
Eessce  pray. 
Ah  deu  pa  dcessee. 


Where  docs  he  live: 

Close  by. 

A   step    or  two  from  Adeux  pas  dUct. 

here. 
Is  it  far?  Est-ce  loin  T  Ai-ce  louang. 

Can  you  direct  me  to  Poiivez-vous  mUfidi-  Poovay  -  voo   mandee  • 

his  house?  quer  samatson  T  kay  sali  maisong? 

I  will  show  you  where  ye  voits  montrerai  oil  Jeh  voo  mauntrerai  oo 

he  lives.  il  demeure.  eeldemmeur. 


Spring  has  come. 
It  is  still  cool. 

The  trees  are  begin- 
ning to  bud. 

The  season  is  very  for- 
ward . 

The  season  is  very 
backward. 

Summer  is  coming. 

It  is  becoming  warm. 

I  am  very  \varm. 

It  is  very  warm. 

It  is  a  fine  day. 

The  heat  is  unbearable. 

Let  us  go  into  the 
shade. 

I  think  we  are  going 
to  have  a  stem. 

Summer  is  over. 

The  leaves  arc  begin- 
ning to  fall. 

The  days  are  still  fine. 


THE  SEASONS. 

Voiln  le printemps  ar- 
rivi. 

II  fait  toujours  un  pen 
frais, 

Les  arbres  commcuceni 
a,  boutonner. 

La  saison  est  hien 
avancie. 

La  saison  est  bien  re- 
tarddc, 

L'i-te  approchc. 

II  commence  ii  /aire 
chaud. 

y'ai  bit'tt  chaud. 

II fait  trts  •  chaud. 

C\'st  un  beau  jour. 

La  chalt'ur  est  insup- 
portable. 

Allons  dans  Vombre, 


\*woila  leh  prangtong.s 

arreevay. 
Eel    fay  toojoors    ung 

pcu  fray. 
I-aiz   arbr  commaunsc 

ah  bootonnnay, 
Lah  saizon   ai  beeang 

avaunsay. 
Lah  saizon  ai   beeang 

retardav. 
Ecttay  approshe. 
Eel  commaunse  a  fare 

sho. 
Jay  beeang sho. 
Eel  fay  tray  sho. 
Sait  ung  bo  joor. 
Lah  shalleiir  ait    ang- 

supportabl. 
AUong  dong  lombr. 


ye  cr o is  que  nous  Jeh  croah  k<.'h  noox 
auroHs  de  Voragc.  orong  dc  lorahje. 

Voila  /V/t!  passe.  Vwoila  Icttay  passay. 

Les feuilles  commenceni  l^.xy  file  commaunst  a 
iitomber.  tanmbay. 

Les  jours  sont  encore  Lay  joor  sont  auncorc 
fort  beaux.  fore  bo. 


We  must  soon   begin  //   faudra     que    noux 

fires.  ayon  ?  du  feu  souspvu. 

"We  have  had  a  fire  al*  Nous  az'ons  dejd  fait 


ready. 
Il  is  soon  dark. 
It  is  a  fine  niglit. 
A  dark  night. 
Is  it  moonlight? 
Do    you   think    it   w 

rain? 
I  am  afraid  so. 
It  rains. 
It  drizzles. 
It  pours. 
It  is  ven'  windy. 
It  is  winter. 

It  is  ven.'  cold. 

It  is  bad  weather. 
Cloudy  weather. 

It  is  fogg>', 

Tlie  sky  is  overcast. 

It  snows. 

It  freezes. 

Can  you  skate? 

It  thaws. 

Christmas. 

New  Year's  day. 

Light  the  fire. 

I  am  looking  for  the  ye    cherche 

tongs.  cetlt's. 

Are  there  any  coals?      T-a-til  du  charbon  t 
Tell    the    servant    to  Ditt'S    a   la    serzante 

bring  some.  d\n  apjyrtar. 


dufeu. 
II  fait  bientot  nuit. 
II fait  WW  bilh  nuit. 
Une  nuit  obscure. 
Fait-il  clair  de  lune  f 
ill  Croycx  •  vous     gn^ il 

pivuve  T 
y'vn  ai pvur. 
Ilpleut. 
Il  bruinc. 
II  pleut  h  Ttrse. 
II fait  lien  du  vent. 
jVous    Z'Oild,   dans 

riiiier. 
II  fait    excessiz'ement 

froid. 
II fait  maUTois  temps. 
fn  temps  gris, 
II fait  du  brouillard. 
Le  cielest pris  de  tons 

cotes. 
II  neige. 
Ilgt'le. 

Sa  vez-  7'0/ts  patiner. 
II  d^gkle. 
Noel. 

Lejour  de  I'an, 
Allumcz  lefeu. 

les    pin- 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Eel   fodrah    keh   nooz 

avong  du  feu  soo  peu. 
Nooz  avong  dayjah  fay 

du  feu. 
Eel  fay  beeangtonwcc. 
Eel  fait  une  bel  nwee. 
Une  nwee  obscure. 
Fatt-eel  clare  dehlunc. 
Cnvoiyai  -  voo     keel 

pleuv? 
Jon  ai  peur. 
Eel  pleu. 
Eel  bnieenc. 
Eel  pleut  a  vairse. 
Eel  fay  beeang  du  vong. 
Noo  vwoila  dong  lee- 

vair. 
Eel  fait  excesscevmong 

frouah. 
Eel  fay  movay  long. 
Ung  tong  gree. 
Eel  fay  du  brooillar. 
Leh  secyti  ai  pree  deh 

too  cotay. 
Eel  naje. 
Kel  jale. 

Savay  voo  pateenay? 
Eel  daijalc. 
Noel. 

Le  joor  deh  long. 
Allumay  leh  feu, 
Jeshairshe  lay  pangset. 

Ee  at  eel  du  sharbong. 
Deets  ah  lah  sairvaun 
don   opportay. 


GENERAL  CONVERSATION. 

an  vou  read  French?  Pouvez-Tous     lire 


leh 


Pouvez-Tous    lire    le  Poovay    voo 
francaisf  fraunsay  ? 

You  read  very  well.        Vous  liscz  tris-bien.      Voo  leesay  tray  beeang. 
Do  you  speak  French?  Parlezvous  fran<^ais  f  Parlay  voo  fraunsay? 
I  speak  it  a  little.  je  le parle  unpen.  Jeh  leKparl  ung  peu. 

I  do  not  understand  it.   ye  ne  lecomprends pas.  }eh  neh  leh  comprong 

pah 
How   long    have    you  Depuis     quand     I'ap-    Depwee   kong    lappre- 

learncd?  prenez  vousT  nay  voo? 

A  short  time  only,  Depuis  peu  de  temps.      Dcpwee  peu  deh  tong. 

You    pronounce    very   Vous   prononcez    tri'S  Voo    pronongsay    tray 


bien.  beeang. 

Vous     avez     I'accent  Vooz  avay  Lacsong  tray 

tri-s-ptir.  pure. 

Comprenez-vous  f  Comprcnay  voo? 

Ce  tCest  rien.  Snay  rccang, 

ye  viens  vous  dire.        Jeh  veeang  voo  deer. 
ye  nWnfais  pas  grand  Jch  nong  fay  pah  grong 

rai.  cah. 

Aussitut  dit,  aussitot  Osseeto     dec.    osseeto 

fait.  fay. 

ye  n\n  puis  plus.  Jch  nong  pwcc  phi. 

She  took  it  in  bad  part.  Elle  /'a  pris  en  tnau-  El  lah  prccz  on  movaze 

taise  part.  par, 

ye  me  plais  ici.  Jeh  me  plaze  eessec. 

On  m'a  dit.  Ong  mah  dee. 

Autantqu^ilestentnoi.  Otong     keel      ait    ong 

mouah. 
A  plus  forte  raison.        Ah  plu  fort  raisong. 
yy  tiens  luaucoup,        J cc  tecang  bocoo. 


well. 
Vou  have  a  very  good 

accent. 
Do  you  understand? 
It  is  no  matter. 
I  am  come  to  tell  you. 
I  don't  tliiiik  much  of 

it. 
No   sooner  said    than 

done. 
I  can  bear  it  no  longer. 


I  like  being  here. 
I  have  been  tt>ld. 
As  much  as  I  can. 

So  much  the  more. 
I  value  it  very  much. 


sr 


ii6 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


I— eT 


^. 


f 


<£.A 


-^-^ 


"^e— 2 


>i*^ih' 


-«0«-il.^*^jI.4j»^l>-«< 


|F  the  importance  to  all  classes  of  a  legi- 
IPl\nl  ble,  easy  and  rapid  handwriting,  we 
scarcely  need  speak.  No  other  one 
attainment  assists  an  equal  number  of 
young  ladies  and  gentlemen  to  positions  of  profit 
and  advancement,  or  affords  more  satisfaction 
as  an  accomplishment ;  and  we  believe  it  to  be 
an  acquirement  within  the  reach  of  all  persons 
having  common  sense  and  one  good  hand. 

It  has  been  the  determination  of  the  publish- 
ers of  this  work  to  spare  no  pains  or  expense  to 
place  before  the  student  the  very  best  instruction 
and  examples  in  every  department  of  Penman- 
ship. They  accordingly  employed  Prof  D.  T. 
Ames,  of  New  York,  the  famed  pen  artist,  and 
editor  of  the  Penman's  Art  Jounial,  to  prepare, 
specially  for  this  work,  the  following  pages  of 
in.struction  and  examples.  It  is  their  belief  that 
the  instruction  embodies  the  best  thought  of 
the  times,  while  the  copies  and  specimens  are 
certainly  the  product  of  the  highest  order  of 
artistic  skill. 


All  the  copies  and  specimens  have  been  photo- 
engraved  directly  from  the  original  pen-and-ink 
copy,  and  therefore  may  be  said  to  be  actual 
pen-work,  and  not  the  result  of  the  engraver's 
skill,  as  is  generally  the  case  witii  what  has 
heretofore  been  presented  to  the  jniblic  as  repro- 
ductions of  penmanship. 

The  learner  will,  therefore,  know  that  the 
copies  before  him,  having  once  been  executed 
with  a  pen,  may  be  exactly  reproduced  by  the 
same  simple  process. 

If,  in  some  instances,  the  forms  are  less  rigidly 
correct,  or  the  lines  less  delicate  than  are  fine 
plate  engravings,  we  are  fully  convinced  that  the 
more  easy,  flowing  and  natural  lines  of  the 
actual  pen-work  will  more  than  compensate  for 
such  lack,  if  so  it  maj'  be  termed. 

The  publishers  are  confident  that  no  equalK- 
practical  and  useful  exposition  of  teaching  and 
practicing  the  art  of  Penmanship  has  ever  been 
presented  to  the  public. 


/ 


K" 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


117 


-^POSITIOKS.#- 


iIRST  in  importance  to  the  pupil  in  writing  is  a  CORRECT 
yU  Position.  As  in  logic  an  error  in  the  premises  must 
lead  to  false  conclusions,  so  a  bad  position  while  learn- 
ing to  write  must  lead  to  failure.  It  is  only  when  in 
a  correct  po>ition  that  the  pen,  even  in  the  hand  of  its  skillful 
master,  is  cap.ible  of  producing  the  smooth,  graceful  line,  shade 
and  curve  so  essential  to  good  writing.  If  such  is  the  fact  when 
in  a  master's  hand,  how  doubly  so  it  is  in  the  undiscijilined  and 
struggling  hand  of  the  learner ! 

It  is  also  important  that  a  proper  position  be  maintained  at 
the  table  or  desk,  as  well  as  the  relative  positions  of  the  pen, 
hand,  paper,  desk  and  body. 

Each  of  three  posi- 
tions at  the  desk  has 
more  or  less  advo- 
cates, and  each,  in 
our  opinion,  is  com- 
mendable, according 
to  the  circumstances 
of  the  writer.  We 
give  each  position, 
with  the  reasons  urged 
in  their  favor. 

RicaiT  Position. — 
Turn  the  right  side 
near  to  the  desk,  but 
not  in  contact  with  it. 
Keep  the  body  erect, 
the  feet  level  on  the 
■floor.  Place  the  right 
arm  parallel  to  the 
edge  of  the  desk,  rest- 
ing on  the  muscles 
ju>t    forward   of   the 

elbow,  and  rest  the  hand  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers,  not  permitting  the  wrist  to  touch  the  paper.  Let  the 
hands  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  rest  on  the  book, 
keeping  the  book  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  desk. 

This  position  is  advocated  as  furnishing  the  best  support  for 
the  hand  and  arm  while  writing,  and  we  think  not  without  jus- 
tice in  school  or  cl.iss  rooms,  where  the  desk  is  often  sloping 
and  n.rrrow. 

Front  Position. — In  this, 
the  same  relative  position  of 
hand,  pen  and  paper  should  be 
maintained  as  described  in  the 
former  one.  In  commercial  col- 
leges and  writing  academies, 
where  more  spacious  desks,  or 
tables,  are  used  than  in  the 
common  school  room,  this  posi- 
tion is  permissible  and  is  fre- 
i[uently  adopted.  pkoni-  hosihon. 


RIGHT  POSITION. 


Left  Position. — Without  illustrating  this  position,  we  would 
say  that  the  left  side  is  presented  to  the  desk,  and  the  .same  rela- 
tive positions  maintained  as  in  the  right  and  front.  This  jiositiun 
is  advocated  on  the  ground  of  its  relieving  the  right  arm  from 
being  burdened  with  any  support  of  the  body  while  writing,  and 
thus  giving  a  more  free,  rapid  and  less  tiresome  action  to  the 
hand  and  arm.  This  argument  has  considerable  force  where 
the  fore-ann  or  muscular  movement  is  practiced. 

It  is  also  the  most  convenient,  if  not  a  necessity,  in  the  count- 
ing-room, where  numerous  and  large  books  are  refiuired  to 
remain  in  a  position  at  right  angles  with  the  desk,  and  also  in 
the  execution  of  large  drawings  or  specimens  of  penmanship, 
which  necessarily,  or  most  conveniently,  occupy  positions  directly 
in  front  of  the  artist. 

Right  Ohlique  Position. — Another  position  at  the  desk, 
sometimes  advocated  by  authors  and  teachers,  is  the  right 
oblique,  which  is  a  posiiinn   between   the   front   and   side,  as 

illustrated  below. 
In  our  opinion, 
the  question  which 
of  these  positions 
is  to  be  adopted 
is  not  of  such 
vital  importance 
as  that  the  prop- 
er relative  posi- 
tion of  pen,  hand 
and  paper  should 
be  maintained, and 
thatthearm  should 
be  perfectly  free 
from  the  weight 
of  the  body  while 
writing. 

Position  OF  Pen 
AND  Arm. — Take 
the  /«■«  between 
the  first  and  second 
fingers  and  thumb, 
letting  it  cross  the  forefinger  just  forward  of  the  knuckle,  and 
the  second  finger  at  the  root  of  the  nail,  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
from  the  pen's  point.  liring  the  point  squarely  to  the  paper 
and  let  the  tip  of  the  holder  point  toward  the  right  shoulder. 
The  Ihiimh  should  lie  bent  outward  at  the  first  joint,  ami 
touch  the  holder  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  forefinger. 

'X\\<i  ftrsi  mil/  seiftiid  /t>!f;crs  should  touch  each  other  as  far  as 
the  first  joint  of  the  first  finger;  the  f/iini  and  foiirlh  must  be 
slightly  curved  and  separate  from  the  others  at  the  middle  joint, 
and  rest  upon  the  paper  at  the  tips  of  the  nails.  The  wrist 
must  always  be  elevated  a  little  above  the  desk.  This  position 
of  the  pen  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  all  writers  using  the 
finger  movement,  as  it  admits  of  the  greatest  freedom  and  facil- 
ity of  action  of  the  fingers.  Hut  among  writers  using  the 
muscular  movement,  where  less  depends  upon  the  action  of  the 
lingei's,  it  is  common,  and  we  think  well,  to  allow  the  holder  to 


RIGHT  OBLIQUE   POSITION. 


/ 


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ii8 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


fall  back  and  below  tlie  knuckle  joint.  It  is  more  easily  helil, 
and,  from  its  forming  a  more  acute  angle  with  the  paper,  moves 
more  readily  and  smoothly  over  its  surface. 

Finger  Movement  is  the  combined  action  of  the  lirst  and 
second  fingers  and  thumb. 

Fore- Arm  ilovemciit  is  the  action  of  the  fore-arm  sliding  the 
hand  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers. 

Combined  Movement  is  that  which  is  most  used  in  business 
penmanship.  It  is  a  union  of  the  fore-arm  with  the  finger 
movement,  and  possesses  great  advantage  over  the  other  move- 
ments in  the  greater  rapidity  and  ease  with  which  it  is  employed. 

mole-Arm  Mo^'enieni  is  the  action  of  the  whole  arm  from 
the  shoulder,  with  the  elbow  slightly  raised,  and  the  hand 
sliding  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  and  is  used 
with  facility  in  striking  capital  letters  and  in  ofi"-hand  flourishing. 


SCALE  OF  SLANT. 

Main  SUint. — A  straight  line  slanting  to 
the  right  of  the  vertical,  forming  an  angle  of 
52°  with  the  horizontal,  gives  the  main  slant 
for  all  written  letters. 

Connective  Slant. — Curves  which  connect  straight  lines  in 
small  letters,  in  a  medium  style  of  writing,  are  usually  made  on 
an  angle  of  30°.  This  is  called  the  connective  slant.  See  dia- 
gram. 

Base  Line. — The  horizontal  line  on  which  the  writing  rests 
is  called  the  l>ase  line. 

Head  Line. — The  horizontal 
line  to  which  the  short  letters 
extend  is  called  the  head  line. 

Top  Line. — The  horizontal 
line  to  which  the  loop  and  capi- 
tal letters  extend  is  called  the 
top  line. 

A  Space  in  I/eiglit  is  the 
height  of  small  /. 

.4  Space  in  JVidth  is  the  width  of  small  n. 

The  distance  between  the  small  letters  is  \\^  spaces,  measured 
at  head  line,  except  in  the  a,  d,  g  and  (/.  The  top  o{  the  pointed 
oz'al  in  these  letters  should  be  two  spaces  to  the  right  of  a  pre- 
ceding letter. 

Upper  and  Lo7ver  'J'nrns. — In  tlie  analysis  of  small  letters, 
short  curves  occur  as  connecting  links  between  the  principles. 
These  curves  we  call  turns.  When  one  appears  at  the  top  of  a 
letter,  it  is  called  an  upper  turn  ;  when  at  the  base,  it  is  called 
a  lower  turn. 

MOVEMENT   EXERCISE. 

All  instruction  in  penmanship  .sliould  be  initiated  with  a 
liberal  use  of  movement  exercises,  arranged  and  practiced 
with  the  view  of  facilitating  upward  and  downward  as  well 
as  lateral  movement  of  the  hand,  and  each  and  every  lesson 
should  be  ])receiled  by  more  or  less  practice  upon  movement 
exercises. 


POSITION  OP   PEN    AND    ARM 


CARE  IN   PRACTICE. 

In  practicing  upon  movements  and  writing,  it  should  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  the  amount  of  practice  so 
much  as  the  careful  and  thoughtful  effort  to  acquire  precision 
and  certainty  that  determines  the  success  of  the  writer. 

It  is  often  said  that  "  practice  makes  perfect."  This  is  true, 
if  the  term  practice  implies  thoughtful,  patient  and  persistent 
eftbrt  for  improvement;  otherwise  it  may  be  quite  untrue. 

Thoughtless  scribbling  tends  rather  to  retard  than  to  enhance 
the  acquisition  of  good  writing.  Each  time  a  copy  has  been 
carelessly  repeated,  incorrect  or  bad  habits  have  been  confirmed 
rather  than  corrected — a  move  backward  instead  of  forward. 
This  is  a  fact  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by  teachers  or  pupils. 
Better  far  not  to  practice  than  to  do  so  carelessly ;  one  might  as 
well  seek  to  win  a  race  by  occasionally  taking  a  turn  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

Good  or  well-constructed  writing  is  no  more  essential  than 
that  it  should  be  executed  with  facility  and  ease ;  yet  we  would 
have  no  learner  fall  into  the  mistaken  idea  that  he  is  to  give 
special  attention  to  speed  before  having  acquired  by  deliber.ate 
study  and  practice  correct  forms  and  proportions  in  writing. 
First  accuracy,  then  speed.  Rapid  and  thoughtless  practice  is 
worse  than  useless.  The  mind  must  be  educated  before  the 
hand.  The  hand  and  pen  are  only  the  servants  of  the  mind,  and 
as  such  can  never  surpass  the  mind's  conception  and  power  to 
guide  and  direct  in  any  jjerformance. 

If  upon  the  tablets  of  the  mind  there  is  presented  constantly 
to  our  mental  vision  a  perfect 
copy  of  the  letters  and  their 
varied  combinations  into  grace- 
ful writing,  the  hand  will  strike 
for  the  single  and  definite  pur- 
pose of  reproducing  the  same, 
and  will  progress  steadily  to  the 
attainment  of  .skill  requisite  for 
the  reproduction  of  the  most 
perfect  conceptions  of  the  mind. 
The  hand  of  tlie  greatest  sculptor  or  artist  has  no  cunning  not 
imparted  by  a  skillful  brain.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  chief  of 
artists,  because  of  his  superior  mental  conception  of  art,  and 
may  we  not  suppose  that  the  untouched  canvas  presented  to  his 
mental  vision  all  the  grandeur  and  beauty  in  design  and  finish 
that  delighted  the  eye  of  the  beholder  when  finished  into  the 
most  exquisite  painting?  The  hand  can  never  excel  the  con- 
ception of  the  mind  that  educates  and  directs  its  action.  If 
Spencer  or  Flickingcr  excel  others  in  the  perfection  and  beauty 
of  penmanship,  is  it  not  because  of  their  .superior  conception  of 
that  in  which  superior  penmanship  consists  ?  The  student  who 
would  have  success  must  see  that  his  practice  is  preceded  by 
and  always  attended  with^Iioughtful  study  and  criticism. 

.\rter  having  once  written  the  copy,  study  and  criticise  your 
effort  before  the  next  trial.  Your  faults  noted,  and  a  thought  as 
to  how  they  may  be  best  corrected  will  enaljle  you  to  make  an 
intelligent  and  successful  effort  for  improvement.  Rcmemljor 
that  unknown  faults  can  never  be  avoideil  or  corrected.      First 


/ 


-N 


T 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


study  to  discover,  and  then  to  mend.  Short  exercises  or  copies, 
if  rightly  practiced,  are  much  more  favorable  for  improvement 
than  long  ones,  inasmuch  as  they  are  repeated  at  intervals  so 
short  as  to  keep  faults  and  criticisms  fresh  in  mind,  while  oft- 
repeated  efforts  for  correction  will  be  correspondingly  effective. 
Faults  observed  by  ourselves  or  pointed  out  by  others  at  the 
beginning  of  a  long  copy  are  very  likely  to  be  out  of  mind 
before  that  portion  of  the  copy  in  which  they  occur  is  repeated. 

WRITING   NOT  A  SPECIAL  GIFT. 

It  is  often  said  that  good  writing  is  a  "special  gift."  This 
idea  is  not  only  fallacious,  but  is  exceedingly  pernicious  as 
regards  the  acquisition  of  good  writing,  inasmuch  as  it  tends  to 
discourage  pupils  who  write  badly,  by  leading  them  to  believe 
that,  not  having  "  the  gift,"  they  are  debarred  from  becoming 
good  writers. 

Good  writing  is  no  more  a  gift  than  is  good  reading,  spelling, 
grammar,  or  any  other  attainment,  and  in  the  same  way  it  is  and 
can  be  acquired,  vir.,  by  patient  and  studious  effort. 

The  correct  form  and  construction  of  writing  must  be  learned 
by  study,  while  practice  must  give  the  manual  dexterity  for  its 
easy  and  graceful  execution.  Many  persons  fail  to  become 
good  writers  from  not  properly  uniting  study  and  practice. 
Careful  study  with  too  little  practice  will  give  writing  conqjara- 
tively  accurate  in  its  form  and  manner  of  construction,  but 
labored,  stiff  and  awkward  in  its  execution;  whde,  upon  the 
other  hand,  much  practice  with  little  study  imparts  a  more  easy 
and  flowing  style,  but  with  much  less  accuracy,  as  regards  the  forms 
of  letters  and  general  proportion  and  construction  of  the  writing, 
which  will  commonly  have  a  loose  and  spravvly  appearance.    * 

Example  of  w  riting  which  has  resulted  more  from  study  than 
practice : 

Example  of  writing  in  which  there  has  been  more  practice 
Ihan  study:        /■'^ 

The  result  of  .study  jiroperly  combined  with  practice: 

Undoubtedly,  many  of  our  readers  will  see  forcibly  illustrated 
in  one  of  these  examples  their  own  experience.  So  manifest  is 
the  effect  of  these  different  modes  of  practice  that  we  have  only 
to  glance  at  a  piece  of  writing  to  discern  the  extent  to  which  a 
writer  has  combined  study  with  jiractice  while  learning  to  write. 


UNITY  AND  SIMPLICITY  OF  FORM. 

It  is  an  old  but  true  saying  that  "  a  jack  of  all  trtides  is  master 
of  none."  This  is  so  from  the  fact  that,  working  at  many 
things,  neither  the  hand  nor  brain  can  attain  to  a  high  order 
of  proficiency  or  skill.  It  is  the  .specialist  that  advances  the 
standard  of  progress  in  all  the  directions  of  human  discovery. 
Concentration  of  thought  and  action  makes  the  great  masters  of 
the  world,  while  by  a  diffusion  of  the  same  the  greatest  genius 
is  dis.sipated  and  fails  to  attain  to  a  marked  degree  of  eminence. 

So,  in  learning  to  write,  the  pupil  wlio  vacillates  between 
many  systems  and  multitudinous  forms  of  letters  must  inevitably 
fail  of  becoming  an  expert  and  skilful  writer. 

It  is  a  matter  of  fretjuent  observation  that  persons  learning  or 
practicing  writing  vacillate  between  from  two  to  six  different 
forms  of  the  capitals,  and  as  many  as  are  possible  in  the  small 
letters,  apparently  in  the  belief  that  variety  is  the  chief  element 
of  good  writing,  which  is  a  double  mistake,  as  it  detracts  from 
the  good  a])pearance  of  the  writing  at  the  same  time  that  it 
enhances  the  difficulty  of  learning  and  of  executing  it. 

For  exam]ilc,  we  have  known  wiiters  who,  in  executing  a 
short  ]nece  of  writing,  would  for  many  of  the  letters  make  use 
of  forms  as  varied  and  numerous  as  follows: 


and  use  more  or  less  variety  in  all  of  the  letter.'.,  llius  rec|uiring 
study  and  practice  upon  about  one  hundi-t-d  different  and  unnec- 
essarily complicated  forms  for  the  alphabet,  in  place  of  twenty- 
six.  Thus  the  labor  and  uncertainty  of  becoming  a  skillful 
writer  is  magnified  fourfold.  A  single  and  simple  form  for  each 
letter,  capital  and  small,  should  be  adopted,  and,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  which  we  shall  hereafter  explain,  should  be  invaria- 
bly practiced.  The  frequent  and  uniform  repetition  will 
impart  that  accuracy  of  form,  grace  and  facility  of  execution 
which  constitute  good  writing. 

The  simple  forms  are  not  only  more  easily  ac<|uired  and 
more  rapidly  executed,  but  they  are  more  easily  read  than  the 
more  ornate  styles;  in  fact,  those  forms  that  cost  the  most  are 
worth  (he  least.  It  is  as  if  a  merchant  should  constantly  pur- 
chase an  inferior  class  of  merchandise  and  pay  the  high  price 
of  the  best ;  his  chances  for  success  certainly  would  not  be  very 
promising. 

ECONOMY  OF  FORM. 

Labor,  whether  of  the  clerk  or  mechanic,  is  rewarded  accord- 
ing to  the  results  it  can  produce. 

The  copyist  or  clerk  who  can  write  one  hundred  words 
equally  as  well  in  the  same  time  that  another  writes  fifiy  will 
certainly,  other  things  being  equal,  command  twice  as  much 
pay.  The  rapidity  with  which  writing  can  be  executed  depends 
largely  upon  the  simplicity  of  the  forms  of  letters  used  and  the 
size  of  the  writing.  A  medium  or  small  hand  is  written  with 
much  more  ease  and  rapidity  than  a  large  hand,  from  the  fact 
that  the  ])en  can  be  carried  over  short  spaces  in  less  time  and 
with  greater  ease  than  over  long  ones,  and  can  execute  simple 


-^ 


Q 


120 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


ra 


forms  more  easily  aiul  rapidly  than  complicated  ones.  To  illus- 
trate :  Suppose  one  writer  were  to  habitually  make  the  capital 
/•thus; 

^Y/A        \\'hich    refiiiires  ele\'cn   motions   of    tlie    hand   to 

execute;   and    that  another  were  tf)  uniformly  make 

it  thus: 

Requiiing  only  four  motions  of  the  hand.     It  is 

apparent  that  the  difl'erence  of  time  required  to  make 

each  cannot  be  less  than  the  proportion  of  eleven  to 
four.  That  is  not  all.  The  complicated  form  consists  of  many 
lines,  some  of  which  are  required  to  run  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  all  made  with  reference  to  balancing  or  harmonizing  with 
some  other  line,  and  requires  to  be  made  \\'ith  much  greater  care 
and  skill  than  the  more  simple  form,  so  that  the  disadvantage  is 
even  greater  than  indicated  by  the  simple  proportion  between 
eleven  and  four. 

The  practice  of  these  complex  forms  of  the  alphabet  will  be 
fatal  to  rapid  and  legible  business  writing. 

These  remarks  are  intended  to  apply  more  especially  to  busi- 
ness and  unprofessional  writing.  Where  show  and  beauty  are 
of  greater  consideration  than  dispatch,  variety  and  complexity 
of  forms  are  quite  proper,  and  even  necessary. 

We  give  here  the  entire  alphabet  of  capitals  such  as  we 
would  recommend  for  all  business  purposes,  as  combining  sim- 
plicity of  form  and  ease  of  construction : 

cJ G'  J>  US <^ 

^  of  0  (?  il 

We  would  add  as  not  objectionable  the  following : 

CORRECT  PROPORTION   ESSENTIAL  TO 
GOOD  WRITING. 

One  might  be  able  to  execute  faultlessly  each  single  letter  of 
the  alphabet,  and  yet  be  a  most  miserable  writer.  Writing,  to 
be  really  good,  must  be  harmonious  in  all  its  parts;  letters  must 
be  projiortionate  to  each  other,  properly  connected,  spaced,  have 
a  uniform  slope  and  degree  of  pen-pres.sure,  etc.,  as  well  as  an 


easy   and   graceful   movement.     The   following   example  will 
illustrate  the  bad  effect  of  disproportion  of  letters : 

It  will  be  seen  that  each  letter,  taken  by  itself,  is  creditably 
accurate  in  form,  and  yet,  when  associated  with  each  other  in  a 
word,  they  present  an  appearance  as  ungainly  as  would  an  ox 
yoked  with  an  elephant.  We  have  often  seen  writing  in  which 
the  letters  were  really  badly  formed,  yet  so  harmonious  in  their 
combinations,  and  easy  in  their  construction,  as  to  present  an 
attractive,  not  to  say  an  elegant,  effect;  while,  upon  the  other 
hand,  we  have  often  seen  writing  in  which  the  letters  were  well 
formed,  and  yet  so  awkward  in  their  combinations,  and  labored 
in  their  execution,  as  to  be  really  painful  to  the  sight  of  persons 
having  a  refined  and  correct  taste  regarding  writing. 

CORRECT  AND  INCORRECT  SPACING. 

Another  important  factor  of  good  writing  is  the  proper  spac- 
ing and  connecting  of  letters  and  words.  Upon  these  very  much 
depends,  as  in  many  instances  the  connecting  lines  alone  impart 
the  distinctive  character  to  letters. 

In  determining  the  proper  spacing  of  writing,  the  distance 
between  the  straight  lines  of  the  small  tt  may  be  taken  as  a 
space  in  width.  The  distance  between  the  parts  of  letters  hav- 
ing more  than  one  downward  stroke  should  be  one  space ; 
between  the  letters  one  and  one-fourth  spaces,  measured  at  the 
head  line,  except  a,  </,  i,''  and  </,  which  should  occupy  two  spaces, 
nflasuring  from  the  preceding  letter  to  the  point  of  the  ovals; 
between  words  there  should  be  two  spaces. 

Example  of  correct  spacing  : 

Incorrect  spacing: 


SLANT  OF  WRITING. 

The  degree  of  slant  now  adopted  by  the  leading  authors,  and 
one  which  we  approve,  is  at  an  angle  of  52°  from  the  horizon- 
tal, as  per  diagram  in  a  preceding  column. 

The  relative  effects  of  incorrect  and  correct  slope  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  examples: 


ir?z^ 


The  variation  in  the  slope  of  different  letters  an<l  their  parts 
will  be  rendered  much  more  perceptible  by  drawing  straight 
extended  lines  through  their  parts,  thus: 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP 


121 


One  of  the  most  common  faults  in  slopt;  occurs  on  the  last 
[jart  of  letters  /«,  ii,  ii.  It  and  /,  which  are  made  thus : 


77V^^^yi^' 


'W 


Example  of  correct  slant,  space,  proportion,  etc. : 


SIZE  OF  WRITING. 

In  its  practical  application  to  the  aflfairs  of  life,  writing  must 
be  greatly  varied  in  its  size,  according  to  place  and  purpose. 

It  would  he  obviously  bad  taste  to  use  the  same  size  and  style 
of  writing  for  the  headings  of  a  ledger  and  other  books  of 
account  or  record  that  would  be  employed  on  the  body  of  a 
page.  In  the  address  of  a  letter  and  superscription  upon  the 
envelope  much  greater  license,  as  regards  size  and  style,  may  be 
taken  than  in  the  body  of  the  writing.  Nor  is  it  practical  at  all 
times  to  maintain  a  uniform  size  for  body  writing.  It  may, 
with  propriety,  be  written  larger  upon  wide  than  narrow-ruled 
paper.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  gauge  the  size  of  the 
writing  according  to  the  space  in  and  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  to  be  written.  This  should  be  done  by  varying  the  scale 
rather  than  the  proportions  of  the  writing.  When  writing  upon 
ruled  paper  we  should  always  imagine  the  space  between  the 
lints  to  be  divided  into  four  ei|ual  spaces,  three  of  which  may 
be  occupied  by  the  writing ;  the  fourth  must  not  be  touched, 
save  by  the  downward  extended  letters  from  the  line  above. 
This  open  space  between  the  lines  separates  them,  and  enables 
the  eye  more  readily  to  follow  and  distinguish  between  the  lines 
when  reading.  A  small  or  medium  hand  is  the  best,  both  as 
regards  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  reatl  and  the  ease  anti 
rapidity  of  its  execution. 

In  a  large  hand,  the  writing  is  apt  tu  lie  more  or  less  inter- 
mingled and  confu.sed,  the  loops  of  one  line  often  cutting  into 
and  obscuring  the  writing  upon  other  lines,  while  the  more 
extended  sweeps  of  the  pen  in  the  large  writing  are  proportion- 
ately slow  and  tedious. 

For  legibility,  ease  and  rapidity  of  execution,  small,  unshaded 
writing  is  decidedly  the  best. 


HOW  TO   LEARN  AND  TEACH 
WRITING. 

CONSPICUOUS   FAULTS. 

To  note  and  indicate  all  ihc  faults  liable  In  occur  in  writing, 
or  to  jjrescrilie  a  cure-all  remedy,  is  more  than  we  presume  to 
undertake.  They  are  as  numerous  and  varied  as  are  the  cir- 
cumstances, habits,  tastes  and  accomplishments  of  the  writers; 
but  it  is  quite  safe  to  say  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  all  the 
"unpleasantness"  in  writing  comes  from  sheer  carelessness  on 


the  part  of  the  writers,  which  is  manifest  in  the  awkward,  non- 
descript or  uncertain  forms  which  are  employed — forms  often 
most  easy  and  graceful,  but  which,  taken  separately,  represent 
no  intelligible  character,  and,  apart  from  the  context,  are  liable 
to  be  mistaken  for  any  one  of  the  several  letters  that  are  similar 
in  their  construction.  This  fault  is  specially  grievous  where  it 
occurs  in  an  initial  letter,  in  short  names,  abbreviations  and 
cipher  writing,  as  in  such  cases  the  context  furnishes  the  reader 
little  or  no  aid. 

Another  prolific  source  of  annoyance,  and  not  unfre<iuently 
illegibility,  arises  from  the  inexcusable  use  of  flourishes  and 
superfluous  lines.  We  say  inexcusable,  because,  at  best,  they 
mix  and  confuse  the  writing,  and,  when  hurriedly  and  carelessly 
made,  they  frecjuenlly  take  forms  which  are  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken by  the  reader  for  letters  or  parts  of  letters,  and  thereby 
puzzle  and  annoy,  if  not  entirely  change  the  intent  of  the 
writer.  Another  frequent  fault  is  the  i)ersonal  eccentricity 
which  leads  writers  to  adopt,  as  their  style,  forms  for  letters,  and 
especially  capitals  and  in  autographs,  which  are  entirely  outside 
the  pale  of  any  known  system  of  writing,  and  whose  identity 
can  only  be  guessed  at  by  those  unfamiliar  with  the  peculiarity. 

While,  as  we  have  staled,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  name  all 
the  sources  of  bad  writing,  or  to  formulate  rules  for  its  pre- 
vention or  correction,  we  do  believe  that  there  are  many  of  the 
most  common  faults  —  among  which  are  those  enumerated 
above — that  with  a  little  thought  and  care  may  be  avoided. 

To  aid  the  student,  as  far  as  possible  by  negative  instruction, 
to  avoid  some  of  the  more  common  and  inexcusable  faults,  we 
have  formulated  a  few  rules,  with  examples  illustrative,  which 
we  here  present. 

Rule  First. — All  unnecessary,  superfluous  or  flourished  lines 
must  be  omitted;  as: 


Rule  Seeoiiit. — No  capital  letters  or  words  shoulil  be 
together;  as : 


joined 


/^ 


or} 


122 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


Rule    Third. — Capital    letters  should    not  be  joined   to  the 
smaller  letters;  as: 


9ndy     ./  CMJy 

Rule  Four. — The  capital   T  should  never  be  looped  at  the 
top;  as: 


J^S^'z^^^^  y,L^^^^^^^^n^ 


Several  expensive  litigations  have  grown  out  of  the  delivery 
of  messages  having  the  latter  combination,  as  Seventy  when  it 
was  written  for  Twenty,  or  vice  versa,  by  the  sender  of  the 
dispatch.  We  are  not  informed  respecting  the  precise  circum- 
stances of  any  of  the  cases,  but,  supposing  the  error  to  have  been 
in  orders  to  buy  twenty  thousand  bushels  of  grain,  shares  of 
stock,  or  other  thing  of  similar  value,  the  consequence  might 
have  lieen  serious. 


Rule  Fi-t'f. — A  capital  //  should  never  be  so  made  as  to  be 
mistaken  for  an  ./  or  other  combination ;  as: 


^r  >v_ 


Rule  Six. — Cross  all  I's  with  a  single  horizontal  line  at  the  top. 


A  telegraph  dispatch  addressed  as  above  was  taken  down  and 
sent  to  Ha-Hi-E,  who  was  not  known  at  the  street  and  number 
to  which  it  was  directed,  and  it  was  consequently  returned  ;  and 
when  the  error  was  discovered,  and  traced  to  the  operator  who 
made  it,  he  was  asked  how  he  came  to  make  such  a  mistake,  and 
whom  he  supposed  Ha-Hi-E  to  be.  The  operator  replied, 
"Some  Indian  Chief  or  Chinese" — a  very  natural  supposition 
in  such  a  city  of  all  peoples  as  is  New  York. 

Rule  Seveti. — The  capital  /should  always  be  made  above  the 
line,  while  the  J  should  extend  below.  Otherwise,  when  used 
as  initials  or  in  cipher-writing,  they  cannot  be  distinguished  with 
certainty. 

Rule  Eight. — The  small  s  should  never  be  made  with  the 
loop  below  the  line,  as  it  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a/  or^,-  as  : 


forM^^ 


Rule  Xitie. — Letters  should  be  connected  in  their  parts,  and 
with  other  letters,  by  the  proper  and  characteristic  curv'ed  or 
straight  lines.  It  is  a  common  and  grievous  fault  in  writing  that 
a  straight  line  or  the  wrong  curve  is  employed  in  the  contruc- 
tion  and  connection  of  letters,  thus  leaving  them  without  dis- 
tinctive character,  or  imparting  one  which  is  false  and  misleading. 
For  instance,  a  form  made  thus  y^-^^  may  be  taken  for 
an  j/^^Ty" '  ^  -^^--^ •  ^^^'  possibly,  for  a  ^C^  ■  I"  cases 
where  the  context  does  not  determine,  its  identity  becomes  a 
mere  matter  of  guess,  and  when  extended  thus  y^^^^^^ 
its  significance,  as  will  be  seen,  is  still  more  vague  and  uncertain, 
as  it  might  be  intended  for  either  of  the  following  seven 
combinations : 

With  a  properly  trained  hand  no  more  time  or  effort  is 
required  to  impart  the  true  and  unmistakable  characteristics  to 
each  letter  than  to  make  forms  whose  identity  is  open  to  doubt 
and  conj'.-cture. 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


123 


Rule  Ten. — No  letter  should  have  a  doubtful  form,  such  as 
may  be  mistaken  for  one  of  several  letters ;   as : 

Rule  Elnien. — All  eccentric  forms  and  conspicuous  personal 
oddities,  which  so  often  render  writing,  and  especially  auto- 
graphs, illegible,  should  be  av9ided;  as: 


for 


'Mefs:a^ 


for 


/?  This  example  was  used  as  an  initial  letter  in 
(''^  a  communication  recently  received.  In  address- 
ing the  author  we  could  only  do  as  we  are 
often  obliged  to  do  with  doubtful  initials — make  a  facsimile, 
and  leave  it  to  the  postmaster  to  decipher  at  the  office  of  delivery. 
Writers  should  remember  that  short  names  and  initial  letters, 
when  carelessly  written,  are  very  liable  to  be  misread,  from  the 
fact  that  no  aid  can  be  derived  from  the  context. 

A  large  proportion  of  letters  which  miscarry  through  the 
mails  do  so  from  the  careless  manner  in  which  they  are  super- 
scribed. As  an  example,  let  us  suppose  that  a  writer  desires  to 
address  an  important  communic.ition  to 


J.<^€L..^. 


«lt'n.-ei-*i , 


■ei-t. 


but  he  hurriedly  and  carelessly  superscribes  it  thus : 


The  abbrevialion  for  the  name  of  the  State  (ta/.)  is  so 
indefinite  that  the  letter  goes  first  to  Colorado,  but,  there  being 
no  Herman  or  Sherman  in  that  State,  it  is  finally  re-directed  to 
Herman,  Cat.  The  initial  S  and  following  letter  //  beini;  of  so 
indefinite  and  doubtful  a  character,  they  together  were  naturally 
mistaken  for  an  H,  but,  there  being  no  Herman  post-office  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  mistake  is  finally  discovered  by  a  di>tributing  agent, 
and  the  letter  is  again  re-directed  to  Sherman,  Cal.;  here  the  // 
in  Howell  is  read  SI,  and  accordingly  the  letter  is  placed  in  .V 
box  for  general  delivery ;  not  being  called  for,  it  is  at  lengtli 
advertisi  d  in  the  list  of  undelivered  letters,  thus :  /.  A.  Stmvetl. 
The  J,  having  been  made  above  the  line,  is  mistaken  for  an  /, 
while  the  initial  //  is  so  nearly  closed  at  the  top  that  it  is  mistaken 
for  an  A.  After  being  duly  advertised,  the  letter  is  sent  to  the 
Dead  Letter  Office  at  Washington,  and  from  there  returned, 
after  several  weeks,  to  the  writer.  J.  H.  Howell,  in  the  mean- 
time, has  enquired  daily  for  lettere  at  the  Sherman  post-office, 
when  the  delivery  clerk  has  looked  in  the  //  box  and  answered, 
"  Nothing."  Mr.  Ilowell  has  also  carefully  scanned  every  list 
of  advertised  letters,  but  never  could  he  have  imagined  that  the 
letter  advertised  for  I.  A.  Stowell  was  the  one  he  had  so  long 
and  anxiously  looked  for. 

It  is  just  such  errors  as  those  above  described  that  cause  .i 
large  percentage  of  the  miscarriages  of  mail  matter. 


VL 


\ 


124 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


^^«>  fflOVEMENT   GXEI^GISBS.®- 


5*^ 


Much  patience  should  be  devoted  by  the  learner  tu  practice 
upon  movement  exercises,  for  the  purpose  of  disciphning  and 
bringing  undtr  perfect  control  the  motions  of  the  hand  and  arm. 

The  following  will  serve  a  good  purpose,  and,  with  the 
copies  following,  will  be  a  guide  to  a  course  of  twenty  lessons, 
with  or  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher  : 


PRINCIPLES 


/ 


Jc/fDO 


COPIES. 


/ 


C/Cy4^ 


-n'l^^^ur^^ 


'C^urm^pz^ny 


c^ 


^CyGU^^^^^/^n^i^ 


\ 


*- 

o         ^ 

o 

i-  ^ 

PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP.                      ^                                             125 

» 

6 ^^ J^4a^^^/^na4y 

/^X  iLfy^>U€m^ 

/rO' Gl^  f^im4Jy 

/^  Uiy  Uu^^u^^n^TTz^ 

.  /f  0/^fXQ^7^ 

/^cjo^^^^^^'^^^^ 

J^^^^/^ 

/  (^  CyW92yy^A^^ycAyy/u4^€^ 

cj  (0j^n^^2^t^u^^'Z^c^,^i^..am^/^^              (^7 

J.y(U/^^?n^/ia^n^y^iz^.^<?z^^          (J>cr?ns^ 

1 
0 

1 

"^ 

<s "^ 

■'    1 

V 

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«    « 

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1 

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126                                                                               PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 

/ 

S'  O^^^^^^^^/^^^^^^^^C^..^/^^^  0^^ 

S  C^/cn^'^^^>niy.Jm/i7td^                      C^<n^ 

/  J^^nM^ku^f^.-'Un/iyx^yU                        ■ 

J^  ^^^m^^^yM^yd^^Ji'C^U^  CjU^^ 

1 

f   i/t^ij^^Z'C^urr^7?^^<^x?^^^ 

/^J^^^^^^^^^/^.^;^^;'Z^'z5^.  .-^W^^^^^^?^<^ 

//  (04tui^Ji^^^c^nJy/:m^i^^ 

/3  Ofe^/^r;^'?7^g^.<^^^^5J^..^:^^^^^  CyKm^ 

/^  (u^^^^^^^^2^/^^^«^/^^^^^^^^'?^^^^^&^  ^^^ 

J 

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'^        0 

K- 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAI,  PENMANSHIP. 


127 


/<f 


//^ 


/^  J^^^a^^t^. 


^3F~ 


'yU^7^?/n^.  (OCu 


/r 


'^^i^/z^M^yaua^^(:>tzi^  ( AM/Z£^ 


/f 


'^^Jy, 


'^y? 


/yme^. 


^y?U 


J^ 


'^y^y. 


',^^^^ 


^U 


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JV' 


K 


128 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


~A 


SCALE  OF 


'"E*^^/ 

\,-' 


^*   W     SLANT. 


PRINCIPLES. 


-1 a a i—/^ — ^ 


-6— y 7~ 


2: 


SCALE  OF  PROPORTIONS  OF  LETTERS. 


-,^!:y.6  (^u.^j  dr^cK^^^^w  i/^^^^ 


y/yyy/r  jj/^^/y  y/yyy^y^  W- 
7 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP.  ^  129 


STANDARD   ALPHABETS. 

c/(^'(^Q  6<^Sa/^<J fc2i:j^6 


ABBREVIATED   CAPITALS   FOR  BUSINESS. 


EXTENDED   LETTERS  FOR  LADIES'  EPISTOLARY  WRITING. 


■"yV.^  ^.^J^^^yc^^ymo^y'rn/y7t^y^y/i^yi^/  y^J/yU^ 


y^^^ 

4 


^     ,.  71 

130  PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


S^Ui^7<n-€Z^n^  (2^UiyynJ2^^rny  CjUi^^&U^t^  U^^ 


_x^^<2iW:^0'fe/^<^^o^4>%ik^«s<5^^  U^n'fn.an<:iA^Ay  IJ^-CifU-^y- 


i^A:ia^7^/i^CM^uc^/i^^  \  u^nu^?'p2/-u^  ( /^ij^um<dy  {Mcmt^  iX^nui/  i^/c^iJs/ 


-<^^.«^W<^  Grur' 


■/ 


lA 


V 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


-7[ 


131 


'H^ 


WHOLE-ARM   CAPITALS.— PLAIN. 


^)    /^ 


cv 


WHOLE-ARM    CAPITALS.— FLOURISHED. 


)  > 


V- 


K" 


132 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


A 


^im-u^/^  LJ^4:yf,  j//f. 


Y^^^n'/CT^t^^u/Gt^^^^/y^-^^ 


^U^n^my/r^ 


ROUND  WRITING  FOR  HEADINGS. 


un<^/t^/njA/^. 


V- 


\1 


^f 


^ 


''.u^C4-^^n 


C^u^pcd'^  /^,  /c^fi3 


~)y€^yi^r?yf^ 


'ya/n^.^i^/y- 


^/^^y?^^ynJ^^.^U/-figJy 


^^UA 


'       •  '  /      /  /  ' 

C   •     //  /  -^r^        •  y/  ^ 


€>ffU 


(>^&^i;^^?^^0^«*^.5^7^^'2^^^ 


-133 


■V|o         ^ J1  » 

■*  -  V- 

j,_^  PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


Cyk^ur- \c/t^i^  cL^i^  r\  /;, 


-fZ^.'?9^-^. 


S^^^ii'^nu^  Cx  f  >*w^2^=^^*^ 


Is 


PRACTICAL    AND    ORNAMENTAL    PENMANSHIP. 


135 


flpti^tie  V  e)eQman^t7ip. 


\\IN  embellishment  is  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  useful  of  the  arts.  In  ancient  times, 
before  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing, 
the  pen  was  not  only  the  sole  recording 
agent,  save  the  chisel,  but  the  chief  implement 
of  art.  All  manuscript  books  were  the  tedious 
productions  of  the  pen.  These  were  often  elab- 
orately embellished  with  ornate  lettering  and 
various  styles  of  ornament.  The  more  ancient 
styles  of  ornamentation  were  of  the  scroll  and 
grotesque  order.  Mythical  figures  of  gods, 
dragons,  genii  and  all  manner  of  imaginary 
forms  figured  conspicuously  in  ornamentation. 
Later,  beginning  with  about  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, in  nearly  all  of  the  F"rench,  Englisli  and 
American  published  works  upon  penmanship, 
off-hand  flourishing  was  the  predominant  mode 
of  pen  embellishment,  which  appeared  in  all 
manner  of  forms,  from  a  simple  sweep  of  the  pen 
to  elaborate  designs  representing  birds,  beasts, 
dragons,  fishes  and  all  manner  of  fanciful 
designs.  This  order  of  embellishment,  although 
greatly  modified  from  the  masters  of  a  few 
centuries  ago,  is  still  a  conspicuous  element  in 
the  penman's  as  well  as  the  engraver's  art,  and 
is,  therefore,  entitled  to  consideration  in  any 
work  of  the  present  time  devoted  to  artistic 
penmanship.  The  art  of  flourishing  is  not  only 
desirable  as  an  accomplishment  to  the  pen 
artist,  but  its  practice  tends  to  discipline  the  hand 
and  eye,  so  as  to  impart  greater  case  and  de.x- 
terity  in  the  execution  of  practical  writing. 

Recently,    through    the    introduction    of    the 
various  photographic  processes  for  transferring 


and  printing  pen  drawings,  new  demands  have 
been  made  upon  the  penman's  art.  The  pen 
artist  is  now  called  upon  to  execute  all  manner 
of  designs  which  ha\c  hithci'to  been  strictly 
within  the  province  of  the  engraver,  and  such 
designs  must  be  produced  not  only  witli  a 
degree  of  care  and  perfection,  but  in  a  style  to 
meet  and  rival  the  various  classes  of  engraving 
with  which  they  must  compete. 

Through  this  exacting  demand,  the  styles  of 
lettering  and  ornamentation  which  were  formerly 
known  and  recognized  as  essentially  the  pen- 
man's art  require  modification  and  adaptation  to 
these  new  purposes.  Flourishing  is  now  less 
abundant  and  conspicuous;  in  its  place  are 
various  other  species  of  ornamentation,  such  as 
floral,  scroll,  panel  and  tint  work.  Examples  of 
these  several  styles  of  ornamentation,  illustra- 
tive of  their  propjr  application  in  artistic  pen 
work,  will  appear  upon  the  following  pages. 

It  has  been  the  earnest  endeavor  of  the  authoi 
to  present  the  best  forms  for  standard  and  ornate 
lettering,  together  with  designs  covering  the 
entire  range  of  the  penman's  art. 


THE  DESIGN  AND  EXECUTION 
^-1^^^  OF  PEN-WORK.  ■a:.cr^ 


'd 


HATEVER  the  purpose  of  any  work, 
much  of  its  success  depends  upon  the 
skill  and  artistic  effect  of  the  design  ; 
hence  extreme  care  and  thought  should  be  ex- 
ercised   in   this    respect.     No  amount  of  work. 


\ 


^^ 


"71 


136 


PRACTICAL   AND    ORNAMENTAL    PENMANSHIP. 


however  carefully  and  skilfully  performed,  can 
produce  a  good  or  satisfactory  result  from  a 
design  awkward  or  inappropriate. 

After  selecting  the  paper  or  material  upon 
which  the  work  is  to  be  executed,  fasten  it  with 
thumb-tacks  or  glue  to  a  drawing-board  ;  draw 
with  a  pencil  border  and  centre  lines  ;  then 
sketch  lightly  with  a  pencil  the  design,  having 
care  to  give  due  prominence  to  the  several  parts 
according  to  their  importance  in  the  work,  with 
a  proper  intermingling  of  light  and  shade. 

When  designs  are  to  be  copied,  there  are 
numerous  methods  for  making  transfers.  The 
most  common  is  by  means  of  thin,  transparent 
paper  or  cloth,  which  is  placed  over  the  design 
to  be  copied,  and  the  outline  traced  over  with 
a  pencil,  after  which  the  opposite  side  of  the 
tracing  is  penciled  over  with  a  soft,  black  pencil; 
then  place  the  tracing  upon  the  paper  on  which 
the  copy  is  to  be  made,  when  the  lines  upon  the 
tracing  are  retraced  with  a  pencil  or  any  smooth- 
pointed  instrument  which  will  give  a  distinct 
outline  upon  the  paper  underneath. 

Transfer  or  blackened  paper  is  often  placed 
under  the  tracing  before  retracing  it,  instead  of 
pencilling  its  reverse  side,  w4iich  is  objectionable 
from  the  liability  of  blackening  or  soiling  the 
paper  upon  which  the  drawing  is  to  be  made; 
and  then  the  transfc-r  lines  thus  made  are  not 
easily  removed  with  a  rubber. 

Of  course  this  method  of  transfer  can  be  used 
only  where  the  desired  reproduction  is  the  same 
size  as  the  original.  If  it  is  to  be  enlarged 
or  diminished,  other  methods  must  be  sought. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  marking  the  copy 
to  be  transferred  into  squares,  and  the  paper 
upon  which  the  reproduction  is  to  be  made  into 
corresponding  squares,  enlarged   or  diminished 


according  to  the  change  desired  from  the  size  of 
the  original  copy.  The  same  change  is  accom- 
plished very  readily  by  the  use  of  proportional 
dividers,  with  which  every  draftsman  should  be 
provided,  or  by  the  use  of  the  pantograph. 

MATERIALS  ADAPTED  TO   ARTISTIC   PEN- 
WORK. 

Use  a  fine  quality  of  Bristol  board  or  What- 
man's hot-pressed  drawing-paper,  and  a  fine 
quality  of  black  India-ink,  freshly  ground  from 
a  stick,  in  a  tray  containing  rain-water.  Ink  of 
any  desired  shade  may  thus  be  made.  If  work 
is  intended  for  reproduction  by  any  of  the  pho- 
tographic processes,  the  ink  must  be  ground 
until  jet  black,  and  then  the  pencil  guide-lines 
must  be  removed  with  a  soft  gum  or  sponge 
rubber,  so  as  to  remove  as  little  of  the  ink  as 
possible.  Hard  rubber  will  not  only  remove 
much  of  the  ink,  but  will  tear  up  the  fibre  of  the 
paper,  and  thus  break  or  make  ragged  the  deli- 
cate hair-lines,  which  will  therefore  fail  of  a  good 
result  when  photo  -  engraved.  It  should  be 
specially  noted  that  all  lines  to  reproduce  must 
be  clear,  smooth,  continuous  and  black  ;  if  so, 
no  matter  how  fine,  they  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose. Copy  should  also  be  made  at  least  twice 
the  dimensions  of  the  desired  reproduction. 

PENS. 
For  script  writing,  use  Gillott's  "  303 "  or 
Spencerian  Artistic  No.  14.  For  fine  drawing 
or  tinting,  use  the  "303"  or  Crow  Quill.  For 
flourishing,  use  Spencerian  No.  i  or  Ames' 
Penman's  Favorite.  For  lettering,  especially 
Old  English,  German  and  Church  Text,  the 
Sonnecken  pen,  both  broad  and  double-pointed, 
may  be  used  to  advantage. 


A^ 


\ 


,       PRACTICAL  AND   ORNA^^ENTAL    PENMANSHIP. 


^ 


'37 


VL 


^ 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


1°^ 


141 


VL 


T 


142 


7t 


2w  ,  'w ,  .-e*--*''^  "„> 


(5 


pji='» 


i 


iB'|i0ii 


fl(JriJpfijriiJ6rmna|iqrsfn 


L^ 


_NJ 


146 


^i^M^w^^^ 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


-7\ 


/ 


\ 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


147 


"71 


>^ 


^^ 


^t^^^^^^^^S^^^ff^ 


'^  J 


^^ '^^■^f^'$Zl~, 


-^^^^ 


/ 


K" 


148 


"Tf 


SHORT-HAND  AND  TYPE-WRITING. 


Sy^.t)5^^^'^'^'   * 


rSou)  to  Require  anb  fjom  to  practice  tijese  ^rts. 


►i-i-f=^^=f-H^ 


^1  HORT-HAND  is  the  general  term  applied  to 
^^''  all-  styles  of  brief  or  rapid  writing,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  ordinary  writing,  or 
long-hand.  Numerous  systems  of  abbre- 
viated writing  under  various  names,  the 
principal  of  which  were  "Short-hand"  and  "Sten- 
ography," have  been  used  and  recommended  by 
prominent  men  from  the  times  of  Socrates  and 
Cicero  down  to  the  present  day.  It  is  commonly 
conceded  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  system  of 
short-hand  which  has  been  preserved  to  the  invention 
of  Tiro,  a  freedman  of  Cicero,  in  the  year  65  B.C., 
although  it  is  recorded  that  Xenophon,  the  Greek 
philosopher  and  historian,  used  abbreviated  charac- 
ters for  noting  down  the  sayings  of  Socrates,  and 
that  these  characters  were  adopted  by  the  Romans 
and  reduced  by  Ennius  to  a  methodical  scheme, 
about  150  B.C.  Herodotus  also  informs  us  that 
traces  of  abbreviated  writing  were  found  among  the 
Persians  480  B.C.,  at  the  time  of  the  expedition  of 
Xerxes  into  Greece.  The  Tironian  characters  were 
used  for  the  preservation  of  speeches  as  delivered  in 
the  Roman  Senate.  Plutarch  says  that  the  oration 
of  young  Cato  of  Utica,  delivered  in  the  Roman 
Senate  on  December  5th,  63  B.C.,  was  reported  at 
Cicero's  request.  In  the  year  52  B.C.,  professional 
short-hand  writers  in  Rome  are  mentioned  for  the' 
first  time. 

Besides  the   use   of  short-hand  by  TirO'  and   his 
pu[)ils  in  the  Roman  Senate,  Cicero  was  accompanied 


by  Tiro,  as  short-hand  writer,  in  many  of  his  travels, 
and  many  of  his  letters  were  written  from  dictation. 
Pliny  is  represented  as  never  being  abroad  without 
a  short-hand  writer  at  his  elbow;  and  St.  Paul  dic- 
tated to  Tychicus,  his  amanuensis,  some  of  his 
epistles.  Under  the  Emperor  Constantine,  imperial 
or  official  reporters  were  among  the  court  attaches. 
Mention  is  also  made  of  them  in  other  courts,  and 
references  to  the  quality  of  their  work  and  the  inci- 
dents connected  with  it,  such  as  severe  punishments 
for  betrayal  of  professional  secrets,  and  misreporting. 
All  the  facts  collected  from  history  clearly  indicate 
the  practical  uses  of  short-hand  as  at  the  present 
time.  From  the  verses  of  the  Latin  poet  Ausonius, 
written  about  the  year  380,  we  learn  something 
of  the  manner  of  writing,  in  the  following  words: 
"Fly,  young  and  famous  reporter;  prepare  the 
tablets  on  which  you  express,  with  small  dots,  whole 
speeches  as  rapidly  as  others  would  trace  one  single 
word." 

These  early  characters  were  called  nof<e  tion 
litera:,  and  the  short-hand  writers  were  called  fiohirii. 
They  were  a  numerous  and  respectable  profession, 
including  many  of  the  well  known  names  of  history, 
such  as  Cicero,  Augustus,  Vespasian,  Julius  Caesar 
and  Cassienus. 

Tracing  short-hand  from  these  earliest  times,  we 
find  it  under  the  titles  of  Brachygraphy,  Characterie, 
Tachygraphy,  Semigraphy,  Criptography,  Bodio- 
graphy,     Zeiglography,     Polygraphy,     Zeitography, 


ki 


,1. 


SHORT-HAND  AND  TYPE-WRITING. 


149 


Radiography,  Thoography  and  Stenography.  The 
last  name  is  still  applied  to  nearly  all  systems  of 
short-hand  writing  in  use  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. 

By  a  careful  study  of  the  history  and  characters  of 
the  systems  of  short-hand,  we  find  that  they  were  based 
upon  the  common  spelling,  or  ordinary  alphabet,  fol- 
lowing the  ABC  order,  until  1837,  when  Isaac  Pit- 
man, of  Bath,  England,  invented  a  system  of  sound- 
writing  based  upon  an  analysis  and  philosophical 
arrangement  of  the  different  sounds  of  the  English 
language,  and  in  the  year  1840  issued  a  small  sheet 
entitled  "Phonography;  or.  Writing  by  Sound:  a 
New  and  Natural  System  of  Short-hand,"  which  sold 
for  a  penny  a  copy. 

One  of  these  original  sheets  is  in  the  possession 
of  Brown  &  Holland,  of  Chicago,  who  have  had  pho- 
tographic copies  made  of  it.  The  system  of  Isaac 
Pitman  has  passed  through  many  editions,  undergone 
frequent  changes  and  improvements,  and  is  now  used 
more  than  any  other  system  in  England,  although 
several  others  have  been  invented  and  published 
there. 

In  the  United  States,  Mr.  Pitman's  system  was 
republished  as  early  as  1845.  I"  1853,  Mr.  Benn 
Pitman,  a  brother  of  Isaac  Pitman,  who  had  been 
teaching  phonography  in  England  for  ten  years, 
came  to  this  country  and  commenced  the  publica- 
tion of  phonographic  works,  which  he  has  carried  on 
ever  since,  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  The  early  and 
continued  dissemination  of  Pitman's  phonography  in 
the  United  States  has  given  to  that  system  the 
advantage  of  having  the  largest  number  of  practition- 
ers in  this  country,  although  many  other  systems  of 
short-hand  have  been  published.  Those,  however, 
having  a  phonetic  basis  have  all  been  derived  from, 
or,  rather,  are  imitations  of,  Pitman's  system.  The 
changes  made  by  Isaac  Pitman  in  the  various  edi- 
tions of  his  phonographic  works  in  England,  and  by 
Benn  Pitman  in  the  various  editions  of  his  system  in 
the  United  States,  have  caused  these  two  systems  to 
differ.  Benn  Pitman's  system,  although  the  oldest 
phonographic  system  in  this  country,  has  kept  pace 
with  all  the  recent  improvements  in  the  art.  In 
illustrating  the  principles  of  phonography  and  its 
uses,  in  this  article,  we  have  selected  this  system, 
the  alphabet  of  which  will  be  found  on  this  page. 


SHORT-HAND   OR  PHONOGRAPHIC 
ALPHABET. 


CHAR 
ACTEK 

\ 

SOUND. 

p  as  in  up. 

\ 

b      ' 

be. 

1 

t 

'      it. 

1 

d      ' 

'      do. 

/ 

ch    ' 

'       each. 

/ 

J       ' 

'     joy. 

— 

k     • 

'      oak. 

— 

g     • 

'      go. 

^ 

f      ' 

'      if. 

^ 

V       * 

'      vie. 

( 

th     ' 

'      oath. 

( 

th     ' 

'      thy. 

e      * 

'      me. 

1 

a      ' 

'      day. 

I 

a      ' 

alms. 

CHAR- 
ACTER. 


all. 


boot. 


oil. 


J  or  o     s  as  in  us. 
)<>'•  O      z      "      zon 

J 

J 

r 
r 


Sh 

zh 

1 


</' 


ng 
li 


wish, 
azure, 
ale. 
ye. 


no. 

sing. 

he. 

it. 

pet. 

at. 

on. 


u       " 

up. 

00   " 

foot. 

ow  " 

owl. 

By  a  careful  examination  of  this  alphabet  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  forty  sounds  of  the  English  language 
are  represented  in  a  philosophical  arrangement,  con- 
sisting of  twenty-four  consonants,  twelve  vowels  and 
four  diphthongs.  The  simplest  geometric  signs,  a 
straight  line  and  a  curved  line  about  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  written  in  four  different  directions, 
and  made  light  and  heavy,  furnish  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct characters  for  the  representation  of  all  the 
consonants.  A  small  dot  and  dash  are  used  to  rep- 
resent the  vowels,   being   placed   in   three   relative 


\ 


15° 


SHORT-HAND   AND  TYPE-WRITING. 


positions  to  the  consonant  strokes,  and,  made  light 
and  heavy,  are  adequate  for  all  practical  purposes. 
A  small  angle  placed  in  two  positions  to  the  conso- 
nants represents  the  diphthongs.     The  signs  for  the 


iBuSmessLe-Wev) 


vowels  and  diphthongs  may  be  written  on  either  side 
of  the  consonant  stroke.  For  example,  write  the 
vertical  shaded  line  d  and  make  the  second  vowel, 
a  heavy  dot,-  on  the  left-hand  side  near  the  middle 
of  the  letter,   for  a,  wliicli  will    l>e  read  a-d,   and 


represents  the  word  aid.  Make  the  same  sign  d 
and  place  the  second-place  vowel  a  on  the  opposite 
of  right-hand  side  of  the  letter  near  the  centre, 
and  you  have  d-a,  representing  the  word  day. 
Write  the  horizontal  consonant  stroke  ti,  and 
make  a  short  dash  above  the  centre  of  it,  thus 
representing  o-n,  and  spelling  the  word  own. 
Write  //  and  put  the  dash  for  the  vowel  o  be- 
neath it,  and  you  spell  the  word  know. 
This  illustrates  one  of  the  principal  features  of 
phonographic  writing  or  sound-writing,  repre- 
senting only  the  sounds  in  words  as  spoken. 
By  the  use  of  the  above  alphabet  any  word  in 
the  English  language,  and,  indeed,  in  almost 
any  other  language,  may  be  written  much  more 
briefly  than  in  ordinary  long-hand.  By  the 
combination  of  letters,  writing  all  the  conso- 
nants of  a  word  without  lifting  the  pen,  and 
by  the  use  of  abbreviating  principles,  such  as 
hooks  and  circles  on  the  consonants  and  the 
combining  of  words  into  phrases,  a  speed  in 
writing  sufficient  to  keep  pace  with  a  rapid 
speaker  may  be  attained.  This  is  termed  the 
"  reporting  style  "  of  short-hand,  in  which  the 
appended  letter  is  written. 

TYPE-WRITING. 

It  is  not  probable  that  any  system  of  short- 
hand writing  will  ever  be  brought  into  common 
use  and  supplant  the  ordinary  handwriting. 
The  attainment  of  this  end  has  been  the  fond 
delusion  of  many  authors  of  short-hand  systems, 
but  years  of  labor  and  thought  have  as  yet  failed 
to  produce  such  a  system.  The  opinion  held 
by  some,  that  no  short-hand  writer  can  read 
the  writing  of  another,  is  not  a  correct  one,  as 
there  are,  at  the  present  time,  hundreds  of  short- 
hand writers  who  read  each  other's  writing  in 
correspondence  and  in  actual  work,  so  tliat  it 
is  altogether  possible  that  short-hand  may  be 
so  written  by  one  person  as  to  be  read  by 
^  others.  However,  in  the  practical  use  of  the 
art,  this  question  is  of  little  importance,  as 
nearly  all  short-hand  writing  is  transcribed,  that 
is,  written  in  ordinary  long-hand,  Ijy  the  writer, 
in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  various  uses  now  made 
of  it.  This  transcribing  has,  in  past  years,  been 
done  bv  the  tedious  method  of  long-hand  writing. 


\ 


■K 

\ 

J- 

G 

■-                                                                        •                     ^ 

0 

1 

SHORI-IIANl)   ANL>  TVI'E  WKIIING,                                                                                      '5' 

• 

fTranscript  of  shorthand  letter  on  opposite  page.) 

Galveston, Texas, July  25,1883. 

Messrs*    Brown  £  Holland, 

50  Dearborn  St. , Chicago, 111. 

Gentlemen, 

Vfe  -wish  you.  would  Ise  so  kind  as    to  send, 

at   once, to  R.B.Havley  &.   Co.  ,  Calves  ton,  a  first-class    stenogra- 

pher  and    type-writer, as    they  have    tried   everywhere  to  get   one, 

bxit-are  unable   to  secure   the  man   they  want.          They  are  will- 

ing to  pay  $100.00  per  month,  if  lie  is  a  perfect  machine. 

Their   "business    is    comniission,  and   of   course    their    correspond- 

ence  is   very  large,    and   it  requires  a  fine  operator   to   take 

the  head  of  the  house, as  he  talks  about  200,    and  sometimes 

above   that. 

"We  have    two  letters   written  ty  young  men  under  your  sug- 

gestion, but,  from   their   own   statements, we  do  not      think  they 

would  suit    this   house. 

We  also  wish    to  get  a  good   s t en ograpTter  for   the  house  of 

Chas.  Heidenheiraer  &.   Co.,  this   city.           They  will   pay  SSO.oo    to 

start   on, and   if   the  party  suits    they  will   also  pay  $100. oo. 

They  agree    to  pay  one-half  the  fare  out   if   the  man  is  as   rep-     i 

resented. 

There   is    a  demand   for    good  material  here, but   inexperi- 

enced persons    in   either   line  of  business  will    find  nothing 

but    disappointment    in   store  for   them. 

The   latter  party  must    be   also   an  expert   type-writer, able 

to   write   at  least   70  words  per  minute.             We  have   several 

here  who  do  so, and   as   we   have  sold  nearly  every  house   in   the 

trade  a    type-writer,    the    demand  for   first-class      stenos  and 

type-writers    is    increasing. 

Please  wire  at   our   expense  v^hat  you  will   do  for  us, as 

the  parties   are  waiting  on   us. 

Hoping  you  "Will   let  us  have  a  prompt  reply»we  are 

Yours    truly 

i 

J.    H.  "Havley  &  Co. 

\ 

0 

/                                                                                                                                 \ 

^ 

-f^ 

,- •-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          -»            i. 

r 

IV 


152 


SHORT-HAND  AND  TVPE-WRITING. 


-A 


at  a  speed  averaging  from  twenty  to  thirty  words 
per  minute,  and  requiring  five  or  six  times  as  much 
time  to  be  devoted  to  transcription  as  was  occupied 
in  the  taking  of  a  lecture,  sermon  or  other  report- 
ing. In  the  present  day  of  rapid  business  trans- 
actions, this  slow  speed  is  not  satisfactory,  and 
necessity,  the  mother  of  invention,  has  urged  un- 
tiring effort  in  the  direction  of  improvement,  re- 
sulting in  the  type-writer  of  the  present  day,  which 
within  the  past  ten  years  has  come  into  extensive 
use  for  all  writing  purposes,  and  especially  by  the 
reporter  in  the  transcription  of  his  short-hand  notes. 
On  these  machines  expert  operators  have  attained  a 
speed  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  words  a  minute, 
thus  trebling  the  capacity  for  work,  and  with  really 
less  fatiguing  labor.  The  transcript  of  the  short- 
hand letter,  given  on  page  109,  illustrates  type- 
writing in  one  of  its  most  common  uses  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  that  of  letter-writing,  hundreds  of  business 
houses,  general  offices,  agencies,  etc.,  having  their 
letters  written  on  the  type-writer,  and  obtaining 
thereby  a  decided  gain,  in  addition  to  that  of  the 
amount  of  work  which  can  be  done,  in  condensation 
of  space,  and  in  facility  of  reading.  The  hurry  of 
business  at  the  present  day  will  not  allow  the  promi- 
nent business  man  to  spend  hours  over  badly  written 
letters,  when  he  can  read  type-written  letters  with 
the  facility  of  ordinary  print. 

SHORT-HAND  SYSTEMS. 

Every  one  whose  interest  has  been  awakened  in 
short-hand,  either  in  its  literature  or  in  the  art  as  a 
study,  becomes  at  once  interested  in  short-hand  sys- 
tems, and  it  is  sometimes  an  apparently  perplexing 
question  to  choose  between  the  various  systems 
claiming  the  attention  of  the  student  or  embryo 
reporter. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  give  the  number  of  short- 
hand systems  which  have  been  invented  and  pub- 
lished, to  say  nothing  of  the  number  which  have  been 
invented  and  not  published.  And  it  would  require 
an  extensive  volume  to  give  the  titles  and  claims  of 
the  various  systems.  Some  lately  published  re- 
searches into  the  history  of  the  art  contain  very  full 
information  upon  this  subject,  the  extent  of  which 
is  not  of  .so  much  interest  to  the  person  who  is  about 
to  enter  upon  the  study  as  is  a  choice  between  the 


different  systems  now  in  use.  These  may  be 
referred  to  under  two  heads:  the  phonographic,  or 
sound-writing,  systems ;  and  the  alphabetic,  or  ordi- 
nary spelling,  systems.  The  latter,  which  we  will 
denominate  under  the  general  head  of  "Stenogra- 
phy," can  lay  but  little  claim  to  the  attention  of  the 
short-hand  student  of  the  present  day.  The  choice 
is,  therefore,  among  systems  which  have  a  phono- 
graphic basis.  All  of  these  trace  their  origin  to  the 
system  of  Isaac  Pitman,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made.  And  among  these  we  would 
mention  as  of  equal  merit  the  systems  of  Isaac  Pit- 
man, Benn  Pitman,  A.  J.  Graham,  Elias  Longley 
and  James  Munson. 

A  choice  having  been  made  of  one  of  the  above 
systems,  and  a  given  time  devoted  to  study  by  any 
individual,  the  result  in  speed  of  writing  attained 
will  not  vary  ten  words  per  minute ;  but  the  ease  of 
reading  what  has  been  written  will  vary  more  than 
ten  per  cent  among  the  writers  of  these  different 
systems.  Having  selected  the  Benn  Pitman  system 
as  the  basis  of  illustration,  we  will  give  a  further 
description  of  the  principles  of  that  system,  and 
show  the  similarity  of  the  systems  above  named. 

By  examination  of  the  consonants  as  given  in  the 
alphabet,  they  will  be  found  to  be  written  in  four 
directions,  namely :  first,  sloping  obliquely  from  left 
to  right  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  (letters 
sloping  in  this  direction  are  all  written  downward, 
and  are  six:  /,  b,  f,  v,  r,  w);  second,  in  an  upright 
or  vertical  direction,  written  downward,  six  :  t,  d,  th, 
the,  s,  z ;  third,  sloping  from  right  to  left  at  an  angle 
of  forty-five  degrees,  eight  letters,  five  of  which  are 
written  downward,  ch,  j,  sh,  zh ;  and  three  written 
upward,  /,  upward  r,  and  h  ;  fourth,  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  five  letters  written  from  left  to  right :  k, 
g,  m,  n,  fig.  These  letters,  or  consonants,  when 
joined  together,  are  written  in  the  same  direction  as 
when  standing  alone,  except  /,  which,  when  joined, 
may  also  be  written  downward.  Observing  this  rule, 
write  /-/i",  and  make  the  dot  for  a  after  the  middle  of 
the  /,  representing  the  word  take ;  and  with  the  same 
consonant  outline,  t-k,  write  the  first  place  heavy 
dash,  aw,  and  you  spell  the  work  talk. 

In  the  alphabet  given  you  will  notice  a  small  circle 
representing  s  and  z.  This  circle  may  be  made  on 
the  beginning  or  end  of  any  of  the  consonant  signs. 
It    is  made  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and 


VL 


_1J 


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SHORT-HAND  AND  TVPE-WRITINO. 


1^ 


153 


sloping  straight  consonants.  Making  it  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  letter  /,  you  have  represented  sf,  and 
by  making  the  heavy  dot  for  e  before  the  beginning 
of  the  letter  /  you  spell  the  word  seat.  This  circle 
is  joined  on  the  inside  of  curved  consonants  either  at 
the  beginning  or  end.  Writing  the  consonant  stroke 
//,  making  the  circle  at  the  end,  and  writing  be- 
neath the  centre  of  n  the  dash  vowel  0  you  spell  the 
words  knows  or  nose.  This  circle  is  made  double  its 
usual  size,  or  large,  to  represent  the  syllable  ses. 
Writing  the  letter  n  and  making  the  circle  large, 
and  writing  the  vowel  o  in  the  same  position,  under 
the  middle  of  the  letter,  you  spell  the  word  noses. 

In  many  words  of  the  English  language  we  have 
what  is  commonly  termed  a  consonantal  diphthong 
formed  by  the  letter  I  ox  r  immediately  following 
one  of  the  other  consonants,  as  in  the  words  play, 
plea,  place.  This  double  consonant  is  represented 
by  making  a  small  initial  /  hook  on  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  letter ;  and  in  such  words  as  pray,  pry, 
price,  the  double-consonant  principle  is  represented 
by  making  the  initial  r  hook  on  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  letter.  When  this  double  consonant  of  the  pr 
series  is  preceded  by  s,  the  hook  is  made  into  a 
circle  on  the  left-hand  side  of  uj)right  and  sloping 
straight  letters,  and  beneath  horizontal  straight  let- 
ters, representing  spr,  sir,  skr,  etc.  In  all  other 
cases  the  circle  s  preceding  double  consonants 
should  be  slightly  flattened  and  made  inside  of  the 
initial  hook.  A  small  final  hook  on  any  consonant 
represents  the  letter  /;.  By  confining  this  hook  to 
the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping  straight  let- 
ters, and  beneath  horizontal  straight  letters,  we 
have  the  final  hook  on  the  right-hand  side  to 
represent  /  and  v.  By  making  the  final  hook  large 
after  any  consonant  we  represent  the  ending  tion. 
The  circle  s  may  be  added  after  any  one  of  these 
final  hooks  by  writing  the  circle  inside  the  hook, 
except  with  n  hooks  on  straight  letters,  when  the 
hook  may  be  made  into  a  comjilete  circle,  being  on 
the  opposite  side  from  the  circle  s  final.  The  small 
initial  hook  for  /  and  r  are  not  used  on  the  letters  /, 
upward  r,  m  and  ;/,  on  which  letters  a  small  initial 
hook  represents  the  consonant  w. 

Any  consonant  written  half  its  usual  length  repre- 
sents the  addition  of  /  or  d,  called  the  halving  prin- 
ciple, in  connection  with  which  all  the  -other 
abbreviating  principles  may  be  used. 


By  elongating  the  circle  representing  s  into  a  loop, 
and  making  it  about  half  the  length  of  the  consonant 
to  which  it  is  attached,  we  represent  the  couplet  st 
either  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  word.  There 
are  a  few  other  abbreviating  principles  contained  in 
the  system,  but  those  given  are  the  principal  ones, 
and  by  their  application  to  twenty-one  of  the  single 
consonants  we  obtain  a  total  of  over  fifteen  hundred 
available  derivatives,  giving,  as  a  result,  a  speed  in 
writing  ranging  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
words  per  minute,  and  sufficient  for  reporting  the 
most  rapid  speakers. 

To  illustrate  the  similarity  of  the  systems  named, 
in  Isaac  Pitman's  the  alphabet  is  like  that  of  Benn 
Pitman's,  as  given,  except  the  last  three  consonants, 
w,  y  and  h,  and  the  reversed  position  of  four  of  the 
vowels,  making  the  long  dot  vowels  read  ah,  a,  c, 
and  the  short  vowels  a,  e,  i.  The  abbreviating  princi- 
ples are  the  same  with  the  exception  of  the  initial 
hooks  on  the  letters/,  v,  ith,  the.  In  Graham's  sys- 
tem the  alphabet  is  the  same  throughout  as  in  Benn 
Pitman's;  the  abbreviating  principles  th»  same  ex- 
cept the  large  final  hook,  which  is  used  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  sloping  straight  letters  and  above  hori- 
zontal letters  to  represent  tion,  and  on  the  left-hand 
side  of  upright  and  sloping  straight  letters,  and  be- 
low horizontal  straight  letters  to  represent  live. 
Some  of  the  initial  and  final  hook  principles  are  also 
applied  by  Mr.  Graham  to  his  vowel  word  signs 
which  are  not  so  used  by  Benn  Pitman.  In  Mun- 
son's  system  the  consonant  alphabet  is  the  same  as  in 
Benn  Pitman's  with  the  exception  of  the  letter  //, 
which  is  represented  by  a  shaded  m.  The  vowel 
scale  is  inverted  the  same  as  that  of  Isaac  Pitman. 
The  abbreviating  principles  are  the  same  as  Benn 
Pitman's  with  the  exception  of  the  initial  hooks  on 
the  curved  letters/,  v,  ith  and  the,  and  a  large  final 
hook  on  the  right-hand  side  of  straight  letters  repre- 
senting the  syllable  ter.  In  Longley's  system  the 
alphabet  is  the  same  as  Benn  Pitman's  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  consonants  ■w,y,  h,  and  an  inversion 
of  the  vowels  similar  to  Isaac  Pitman. 

This  comparison  will  serve  to  prove  that  very  little 
advantage  can  be  claimed  by  any  one  of  these  stand- 
ard phonographic  .systems,  in  all  of  which  we  have 
in  the  United  States  many  practical  short-hand 
writers;  and,  in  truth,  there  is  but  one  system,  that 
of  Pitman's  phonography,  the  others  being  but  slight 


y^ 


-N 


X 


,t 


'54 


SHORT-HAND  AND  TYPE-WRITING. 


variations,  or  different  methods  of  writing  that  sys- 
tem. Among  those  who  make  practical  use  of  short- 
hand in  the  United  States,  the  writers  of  the  above 
systems  represent  99-100,  and  of  these  the  proportion 
using  Benn  Pitman's  phonography  is  52  per  cent, 
Graham  23  per  cent,  Munson  10  per  cent,  Isaac  Pit- 
man 9  per  cent  and  Longley  6  per  cent. 

Some  surprise  may  be  expressed  as  to  these  pro- 
portions, but  it  will  be  found  upon  examination 
that  the  increased  proportion  is  the  result  of  longer 
use  of  the  system,  Benn  Pitman's  being  the  oldest  in 
this  country,  and,  being,  in  fact,  Isaac  Pitman's  sys- 
tem at  the  time  of  its  introduction  here,  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  old  adherents  and  practitioners.  Next  in 
order,  and  without  radical  changes,  is  that  of  Gra- 
ham ;  next  Munson.  In  order  of  age  Longley  would 
come  next ;  but  the  radical  changes  recently  made 
by  Mr.  Longley  in  his  system  place  it,  as  now  used, 
among  the  younger  systems. 

What  conclusion  will  the  student  of  phonography 
draw  from  the  above  statements,  or  in  what  way 
will  they  assist  him  in  making  a  decision  or  choice 
of  the  systems  to  be  learned?  Our  intention  is, 
first,  to  fortify  him  in  his  choice  against  the  much 
advertised,  shorter  and  easier  systems  of  phonog- 
raphy, to  be  learned,  according  to  the  advertise- 
ments, almost  without  effort,  or,  as  one  author  says, 
"  Short-hand  written  at  sight."  We  believe  that 
such  an  advertisement  bears  falsehood  upon  its  face. 
One  of  the  distinctive  merits  of  short-hand  writing 
is  the  difficulty  of  learning  it.  If  it  were  as  easily 
learned  as  some  authors  of  systems  would  have  us  be- 
lieve, according  to  their  representations,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  art  would  be  reduced  in  value  more 
than  50  per  cent.  In  the  second  place,  we  have 
endeavored  to  anticipate  the  e.xtravagant  claims 
with  which  some  of  the  practitioners  of  various 
systems  mislead  those  who  are  about  to  enter  upon 
the  study  ;  one  of  them  being  that  one  system  is 
much  briefer  in  its  reporting  style  than  another, 
and  therefore  can  be  more  rapidly  written.  As  an 
offset  to  this  claim,  the  result  of  brevity  in  writing 
is  increased  difficulty  in  reading,  and  the  loss  by  this 
difficulty  more  than  counterbalances  the  gain  in 
speed  of  writing ;  and  the  tendency  of  minute 
abbreviations  is  to  put  upon  the  head  the  work  which 
is  taken  from  the  hand. 

We  believe  that   in  the  above  statement  we  have 


given  due  credit  to  the  various  systems  in  use.  The 
further  questions  entering  into  the  decision  of  sys- 
tem would  be  the  opportunities  of  assistance  in 
practical  and  long  established  schools,  such  as  that 
of  Brown  &  Holland,  Chicago,  or  from  persons 
using  short-hand  in  a  practical  way. 

PRACTICAL  SHORT-HAND. 

A  few  years  ago,  the  use  of  short-hand  was  be- 
lieved to  be  confined  to  a  favored  few,  who  made 
reports  of  public  speeches,  lectures,  sermons,  etc. 
The  reference  which  we  have  already  made  to  the 
history  of  the  art  shows  that  its  application  to  busi- 
ness is  not  new.  In  our  own  country  short-hand  has 
been  practiced  from  the  earliest  times.  Without 
referring  more  lengthily  to  the  former  uses  of  short- 
hand, we  wish  to  call  attention  to  its  particular  uses 
at  the  present  time.  The  principal  of  these  in  the 
United  States  is  reporting  the  proceedings  of  Con- 
gress. For  many  years,  the  speeches,  both  in  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  have  been  re- 
ported by  short-hand  reporters  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  the  daily  record  of  the  doings  of  Congress 
during  its  sessions  is  thus  preserved  complete. 
Each  committee  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives is  allowed  the  service  of  a  short-hand  re- 
porter, who  is  also  paid  by  the  Government.  In 
nearly  all  of  the  State  Legislatures  during  the  time 
they  are  in  session,  short-hand  reporters  are  em- 
ployed, and  paid  by  State  appropriation,  to  report 
the  proceedings,  which  are  afterward  published  in 
pamphlet  form.  "^  In  the  majority  of  the  States  of  the 
Union,  stenographic  laws  are  enacted  pr.oviding  for 
the  appointment  of  short-hand  reporters  in  the  various 
courts.  The  salaries  earned  in  this  way  range 
from  twelve  hundred  to  three  thousand  dollars  per 
year.  The  reporter  is  required  to  take  in  short-hand 
the  oral  testimony  of  witnesses  and  to  give  briefly 
all  objections  of  counsel  and  rulings  of  the  Court,  in 
the  transcript  of  his  notes.  In  States  where  no  steno- 
graphic law  has  been  enacted,  in  many  large  cities 
and  court  districts,  general  reporters  find  a  fair  field 
and  make  good  salaries;  but  the  uncertainties  in  the 
collection  of  fees  cause  variations  in  the  amount 
earned  each  year.  In  large  cities  like  Chicago,  inde- 
pendent or  general  reporters  find  plenty  to  do,  court 
or  legal  work  being  the  most  remunerative.  Besides 
the  work   done  by  official  rejjorters,  there  are  con- 


V- 


SHORT-HAND  AND   TVPE-WRITINO. 


155 


ventions,  political  and  otherwise,  that  have  their  pro- 
ceedings reported  and  published.  Short-hand  re- 
porters used  to  be  extensively  employed  on  daily 
newspapers,  but  of  late  years  there  are  very  few 
papers  that  constantly  employ  experienced  reporters; 
they  prefer  to  depend  upon  general  reporters  in  large 
cities  when  occasions  require  verbatim  reports. 
Many  lectures  and  sermons  are  thus  reported  and 
published. 

SHORT-HAND   AMANUENSES. 

Not  the  least  in  their  profession  are  the  large 
army  of  short-hand  amanuenses,  whose  number 
has  increased  so  rapidly  during  the  last  five  years, 
and  is  still  growing.  Formerly  the  doctor,  the  min- 
ister, the  historian  and  the  lecturer  were  the  only 
persons  making  use  of  short-hand  for  composition  ; 
but  now,  in  addition  to  these,  short-hand  is  utilized 
in  the  correspondence  of  business  houses. 

Since  the  introduction  of  short-hand  for  this 
purpose,  the  office  of  the  old-time  corresponding- 
clerk  has  almost  ceased  to  exist,  and  the  member  of 
a  firm  who  has  charge  of  the  correspondence  is 
now  relieved  from  the  drudgery  which  used  to  be  en- 
tailed upon  him  by  this  work,  and  is  able,  by  the  de- 
votion of  one  or  two  hours  daily,  to  read  and  answer 
a  larger  mail  than  he  could  formerly  by  giving  the 
greater  portion  of  the  day  to  writing  letters  in  the 
old  way.  The  mode  of  procedure  is  usually  as  fol- 
lows :  The  mail,  being  received  and  opened,  is  read, 
and  memorandum  of  reply  made  on  each  letter.  All 
letters  requiring  an  immediate  answer  are  attended 
to  first,  and  from  fifty  to  one  lumdred  letters  may  be 
read  and  replies  dictated  in  two  or  three  hours. 
The  business  man,  sitting  at  his  desk,  takes  up  a 
letter  and  talks  to  his  correspondent,  while  his  short- 
hand amanuensis  takes  down  his  words,  indicating 
each  letter  on  his  note-book.  The  short-hand  writer 
usually  transcribes  his  short-hand  notes  rapidly  upon 
the  type-writer,  and  is  able  to  write  in  this  way  many 
more  letters  in  a  day  than  any  jjcrson  could  com- 
pose and  at  the  same  time  write  in  long-hand.  After 
the  letters  are  written,  they  are  usually  examined  and 
signed  by  one  of  the  firm,  and  are  then  ready  for 
mailing.    It  is  scarcely  necessary  in  these  days  to  urge 


upon  any  business  man  the  advantage  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  use  of  short-hand  in  his  business, 
for  there  is  scarcely  a  man  doing  any  extensive 
business  who  is  not  daily  in  receipt  of  letters  marked 
"  Short-hand  Dictation,"  and  observation  will  readily 
show  him  that  the  firms  who  employ  short-hand 
writers  to  take  letters  from  dictation  are  the  most 
prosperous  in  their  line  of  business.  A  person  who 
does  not  employ  a  short-hand  writer,  on  going  into 
a  store  or  office  and  hearing  the  dictation  of  letters, 
contracts,  or  other  papers,  may  conclude  that  such 
dictation  is  a  very  easy  thing  to  do.  Now,  while  it 
is  easy  compared  with  the  writing  of  letters,  it  has 
its  difficulties.  Very  few  men  are  as  careful  in  the 
choice  of  words  in  conversation  as  they  are  in 
written  compositions,  and  a  man  who  has  been 
accustomed  to  writing  his  own  letters  may,  at  first, 
find  it  difficult  to  satisfactorily  dictate  them  to  a 
short-hand  writer,  and  indeed,  were  the  letters  al- 
ways transcribed  e.vactly  as  dictated,  they  would 
often  be  found  faulty  in  construction,  with  gram- 
matical errors  and  verbose  expression.  In  many 
instances  the  short-hand  writer  is  not  only  respon- 
sible for  taking  the  words  exactly  as  they  are 
dictated,  but  also  for  the  grammar  and  proper  ar- 
rangement of  the  letters  when  transcribed.  But 
business  men  soon  become  accustomed  to  writing 
letters  in  this  way,  and  dictate  systematically  and 
correctly.  The  daily  correspondence  then  becomes 
a  pleasant  duty. 

The  qualifications  required  of  a  short-hand  rejwrter 
are  varied.  Hardly  any  branch  of  knowledge  could 
be  mentioned  which  would  not  be  of  benefit  to  him. 
The  amanuensis  must  have,  besides  a  general 
knowledge  of  composition  and  the  grammatical 
construction  of  language,  a  thorougli  knowledge  of 
the  particular  business  in  whicli  he  is  employed  a.s 
short-hand  writer.  A  short-hand  amanuensis  in  a 
railroad  or  other  office  soon  becomes  familiar  with 
the  particular  duties  of  the  department  or  office  in 
which  he  works ;  in  the  wholesale  house  he  becomes 
familiar  with  the  particular  kind  and  importance  of 
the  business  in  which  he  is  engaged,  and  obtains  in 
a  short  time  a  knowledge  of  the  business  which  could 
scarcely  have  been  obtained  by  a  clerk  in  any  other 
capacity  from  years  of  experience. 


\ 


NT 


156 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


ISelMiiMoi  in  SWt-M  WntiDg. 


— ^^^-^i^ 


if  A  COMPLETE  COURSE,  IN  TWELVE  PRACTICAL  LESSONS, 
Based  01  llie  Benn  Pitman  System  ol  FionoerapliT. 


f 


•0 — ^i— {<» — • 

Arianieil  tiy  Browi  &  Hollani,  and  nsed  By  tnem  in  tlelr 
during  tie  past  eleyen  years. 


LESSON    I— THE   ALPHABET. 


Name. 

Sign. 

Sound. 

Name. 

Sign. 

Sound. 

pe 

\as 

in  up. 

es 

)or  0  a.i 

in  us. 

be 

\    ' 

'      boy. 

ze 

)or  0 

"     zero. 

te 

1    • 

'      it. 

esh 

J 

"    ash. 

de 

1   ' 

day. 

zhe 

J 

"    azure 

che 

/    ' 

'     eacli. 

el 

r 

"     oil. 

jay 

/ 

'   joy- 

ye 

r 

"    yet. 

l:ay 

—     ' 

'     oak. 

ar 

-^or/ 

"     air. 

s^y 

—    ' 

'     go. 

we 

> 

"     way. 

cf 

V.     ' 

'     if. 

em 

/->. 

"     me. 

ve 

^  ' 

vote. 

en 

w 

"     no. 

cth 

(   ' 

oath. 

ing 

^ 

"     sing. 

the 

(   ' 

they. 

he 

^ory 

"     hat. 

ee 

•1           I 

1 

me. 

i 

•! 

"    sit. 

ay 

* 

aim. 

e 

.i 
j 

"    let. 

all 

! 

car. 

a 

J 

"    cat. 

aw 

1 

'     all. 

0 

"I 

"     not. 

oh 

-i    ' 

'     old. 

u 

-1 

"     nut. 

ooh 

J    ' 

'     boot. 

00 

1 
_i 

"     foot. 

eye 

"l   ' 

pile. 

ow 

i 

.1 

"     now. 

1 

oi 

A 

'     toy. 

ew 

i 

Ml 

''    you. 

LEARN  the  names,  by  repeating  them  over  several 
times,  tracing  the  signs  with  a  dry  pen  as  you  pro- 
nounce each  name.  Trace  the  short-hand  signs  several 
times,  naming  each  as  you  trace  it,  according  to  the 
following  directions:  The  signs  pe,  l>e,  ef,  iv,  a>-,  Wf, 
slope  from  left  to  right,  and  ai'e  written  downward ;  the 
signs  te,  de,  eth,  the,  es,  ze  (stroke  form),  are  upright,  and 
are  always  written  downward;  the  signs  che,  jay,  esh, 
the, ye,  slope  from  right  to  left,  and  are  written  down- 
ward ;  the  signs  e/,  he,  slope  from  right  to  left,  and  arc 
written  upward,  commencing  at  the  line;  tlie  signs /'uj', 
gfy,  em,  en,  ing,  are  horizontal,  and  are  written  from  left 
to  right,  the  lower  part  of  the  letter  touching  the  line. 

WRITING   EXERCISE  1. 

Write  the  consonant  signs  ten  times  on  double- ruled 
paper,  the  lower  part  of  each  sign  touching  the  line, 
according  to  the  alphabetical  arrangement  — pe,  be,  te,  de, 
I  he,  jay,  gay,  ef,  ve,  eth,  the,  es,  ze,  esh,  zhe,  el,  ye,  ar,  -ue, 
em,  en,  ing,  he.  The  shaded  straight  letters  are  made 
heavy  throughout.  The  shaded  curve  letters  are  made 
lieavy  in  the  center,  tapering  toward  each  end. 

The  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  written  in  three  posi- 
tions, beginning,  middle  and  end  of  the  consonant,  and 
are  called  fust-place,  second-place,  third-place.  When 
written  on  the  left  hand  of  upright  or  sloping  consonants, 
they  are  read  before  the  consonant. 

Write  before  the  letter  te  the  first-place  vowels  ee,  i,  aw, 
o,  eye,  oi ;  also  write  them  before  pe,  che.  When  vowels 
are  written  above  a  horizontal  letter  they  are  read  first. 
Write  the  first-place  vowels  before  the  letter  /;ay.  Write 
before  the  letters /e',  te,che  and  l;ayX\\e  four  second-])lace 
vowels,  ay,  e,  oh,  u.  Write  before  these  four  consonants 
the  si.s  third-place  vowels  —  all,  a,  ooh,  00,  ow,  e-,u. 

When  the  vowels  are  written  on  the  righl-hand  side  of 
upright  and  sloping  consonants,  and  below  horizontal 
ones,  they  are  read  after  the  consonants.  Write  after  the 
consonants  pe,  te,  che  and  l;ay  all  the  first,  second  and 
third  place  vowels. 

Tlie  student  nmst  become  thoroughly  familial-  with  the 
names  and  forms  of  the  short-hand  signs.  lie  may  then 
try  how  many  words  he  can  write  containing  one  conso- 
nant witli  a  vowel  either  liefore  or  after.  Spell  words  in 
short  hand  .as  thuy  are  pronounced,  that  is,  represent  by 
the  shorthand  sign  the  sounds  as  heard  by  the  ear.  For 
example,  the  word  though  is  not  spelled  t-h-o-u-g-h,  but 
the  sounds  are  represented  by  the  sign  the  and  the  second 
place  heavy  dash,  oh. 

The  use  of  the  second  sign  given  in  the  .alphabet  for 
es,  ze,  ar  and  he  will  be  explained  in  future  lessons. 


[Copyright,  18S4.  by  Hrown  ft  Holland. 


Ai 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


157 


LESSON   II.  -POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


TN  short-hand,  words  are  written  in  three  positions — those 
■'■containing  first-place  vowels  in  the  first  position,  those 
containing  second-place  vowels  in  the  second  position,  and 
those  containing  third-place  vowels  in  the  third  position. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  study,  and  until  the  hand  is  trained 
to  an  accurate  and  uniform  style  of  writing,   double-ruled 
paper  should  be  used,  that  is,  paper  ruled  with  lines  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  and  twice  that  distance  between 
the  lines.     The  lower  hne  of  double-ruled  paper  corresponds 
to  the  one  line  of  single-ruled  paper,  and  is  the  one  referred 
to  when  "  the  line  "  is  spoken  of.     On  double-ruled  paper 
upright  and  sloping  letters  in  the  first  position  are  written 
through  the  upper  line,  second  position  between  the  lines, 
and  third  position  through  the  lower  line.    Horizontal  letters 
in  first  position  immediately  below  the  upper  line,  second    _^ 
position  resting  on  the  lower  line,  third  position  immediately 
below  the  lower  line.     When  single-ruled  paper  is  used,  the    ~^ 
first  position  is  above  the  line,  second  position  resting  on  the    ~ 
line,  third  position  througli  the  lower  line,  and  horizontal  let-    _ 
ters  under  the  line.     The  consonants  form  the  basis  or  out-    — 
line  of  a  word,  and  must  always  be  written  first,  and  the 
vowels  inserted  afterward.     When  a  vowel  occurs  before  a     n 
consonant,  it  must  be  written  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping  letters,  and  above  horizontal  letters.     When  it  is     - 
desired  to  represent  a  vowel  after  a  consonant,  it  must  be    ~ 
placed  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping  letters, 
and  below  horizontal  letters.     All  dash  vowels  are  made  at    J] 
right  angles  with  the  direction  of  the  consonant  to  which 
they  are  placed.  ~[. 

When  vowels  are  inserted  in  words,  the  writing  is  called 
"vocalized,"  or  "corresponding  style;"  when  the  vowels  are    — 
omitted,  it  is  called  "unvocalized,"  or  "reporting  style."  — 

In  the  short-hand  lesson  words  are  placed  in  three  positions,  _ 
according  to  the  vowel  used.  Read  aloud  lines  I  to  8  in-  _^ 
elusive,  tracing  each  word  with  a  dry  pen  as  you  read  it. 

Consonants  which  are  written  upward  —  e/,  ray,  he — are    ~J 
vocalized  from  the  bottom,  which  is  the  beginning  of  the  let- 
ter.    The  first  word  in  line  9  is  eel.     Read  aloud  and  trace    _ 
hnes  g,  10,  11  and  12.  — 

The  object  of  writing  words  in  three  positions,  according 
to  the  accented  vowel,  is  to  indicate  the  vowels  in  unvocalized 
words.  ,  Each  of  the  letters  in  lines  13,  14  and  15  represents  a 
word.  Read  these  lines  aloud,  using  one  of  the  vowels  indi- 
cated by  tlie  position  of  the  letter,  making  a  common  word,  and 
tracing  each  character  as  read.  For  examjile,  the  first  word  in 
line  13  may  be  read  air,  ore,  or  err.  When  words  are  grouped 
together  in  sentences,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  determining  what 
word  is  intended  to  be  represented  by  the  consonant  outlines,  as 
the  context  will  indicate  the  same. 

When  vowels  alone  are  used  to  represent  words,  they  are 
called  vowel  word  signs.  The  vowel  word  signs  in  line  16 
represent  the  following  words:  The,  of,  all,  or,  already,  on, 
aught,  and,  to,  two,  but,  before,  should,  who,  how,  you,  ah, 
oh,  I. 


1    I'  /    -  V  V  W  •-",  ')   ^v 


"T — 


\  \   1  1   -/x 


i  )  -j  "„\  ^.\  ^.  ^ 


-V 


T-V 


-Tf- 


^ 


A- 


3 


-V 


-7^ 


-Tt 


-A 


-^ 


^^;:?r 


:y3: 


-v. 


ILZC 


-^^r-^ 


^)-v 


-TT^ 


-7^ 


~r~r- 


-Tf=- 


v^~r 


/:   /; 


Tf- 


y 


-^ 


^ 


,zi_ 


y 


-7^ 


:^ 


-7^- 


-7^ 


s; 


-^ 


-\ 


ix: 


-^ 


-f- 


\  1  /       - 


^Ar 


-^ 


-V-f 


"TT 


-^ 


-^ 


-^ 


1 

WRITING  EXERCISE  11. 

Copy  lines  i  to  16  inclusive  ten  times,  and  transcribe  the  lines 
into  long-hand.     Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand : 

Ate,  at,  awed,  ape,  Abe,  ache,  aid,  add,  are,  am,  an,  all,  air, 
aim,  ale,  age,  ago,  allow,  alloy,  allay,  airj-,  arrow,  away,  Annie, 
annoy,  anew.  Anno,  aha.  Be,  by,  boy,  bough,  bow,  bay.  Cow, 
cue,  coy,  chew,  chaw.  Die,  do,  due,  day,  dough,  liat,  each, 
eve,  eel,  ear,  ebb,  Edd,  etch,  edge,  err,  eyes,  ell,  echo,  Eva,  era, 
easy,  Erie,  Emma.  Foe,  fay,  few,  fee,  fie.  Go,  gay,  gnaw. 
High,  hue,  how,  he,  hay.  It,  itch,  if,  ill,  ice,  icy,  in,  issue. 
Jaw,  jew,  Joe.  Key,  knee.  Lay,  low,  lee,  law.  lieu,  lie.  May, 
me,  mew,  mow.  New,  now,  nay,  no.  Ought,  oat,  out,  odd, 
off,  of,  or,  oath,  ope,  ode,  oak,  ooze,  oil,  oily,  owl,  own,  owes, 
obey,  our.  Pew,  pea,  paw,  pie,  pay,  pshaw.  Row,  row,  raw, 
rue,  r)'c,  ray.  Say,  so,  show,  see,  sigh,  shoe,  she,  sue,  saw,  shy. 
Tie,  toe,  toy,  tea,  to,  the,  they,  though,  thaw,  thigh,  thy,  thou. 
Up,  use,  use.  View,  vow.  Way,  woe,  we,  woo,  who.  Yea, 
your,  youth,  ye,  you. 


J^ 


.t. 


158 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


2  1-^    -q     ^   V       A" 


/c\ 


LESSON   III —WORDS  CONTAINING  ONE  OR  MORE  CONSONANTS. 

the  direction.     When  el  begins  a  word  followed  Viy  kay  or 


em,  use  the  upward  el ;  when  a  vowel  precedes  it,  use  tlie 
downward  el ;  when  el  is  the  last  letter  in  a  word,  w-rite  the 
tf/ downward,  if  it  joins  conveniently;  when  there  is  a  final 
vowel  after  it,  write  el  upward,  if  it  joins  conveniently.  See 
lines  5  and  6. 

The  curved  sign  ar  is  written  downward,  and  should  al- 
ways be  used  before  em.  The  straight  sign  for  ar  (called 
ray)  is  always  written  upward,  and  should  be  used  before 
ef,  zie,  ith,  en,  ing.  In  other  cases,  when  preceded  by  a 
^  vowel,  use  ar ;  when  followed  by  a  vowel,  use  ray.  When 
it  is  the  last  letter  of  a  word,  use  ar ;  when  followed  by  a 
final  vowel,  use  ray.     See  lines  8  and  9. 

When  words  contain  more  than  one  vowel,  the  primary  or 
accented  vowel  determines  the  position.  When  any  doubt 
exists,  write  the  word  in  the  second  position,  it  being  the 
most  convenient. 

In  the  alphabet  there  is  no  shaded  letter  corresponding  to 
em.  This  sign  represents  the  double  consonant  mp  or  iitb, 
called  emp. 

The  reporting  style  of  short-hand  is  writing  consonant  out- 
lines in  three  positions,  without  vowels  (or  "unvocalized"), 
and  the  use  of  word-signs  and  phrases.  Eacli  of  the  conso- 
nants in  lines  II,  12,  13,  represents  a  common  word. 

A  word-sign  is  one  or  more  letters  written  in  other  than 
the  position  of  the  leading  vowel,  or  a  contraction  represent- 
ing the  word.  The  single  consonant  word  signs,  lines  15 
and  16,  represent  the  following  words:  Party,  dollar,  do, 
had,  be,  to  be,  time,  it,  which,  much,  advantage,  large,  com- 
mon, come,  give,  together,  for,  ever,  have,  however,  think, 
thank,  them,  was,  shall,  issue,  usual,  will,  are,  thing,  language, 
your,  important,  improvement. 

Read  and  copy  exercise  3  ten  times,  and  transcribe 
it  into  long-hand,  numbering  each  line  of  transcript. 

WRITING    EXERCISE    III. 

Write  tlie  following  words  lliree  times  vocalized,  and  tliree 
times  unvocalized : 

Acute,  arm,  ask,  alum,  arrive,  abode,  abide,   ambush, 
pie,   advantage,  are,  army. 


^^^=¥^ 


-^ 


TN  combining  consonants  to  form  words,  they  are  written  in 
^  ihe  same  direction  as  when  standing  alone,  the  second  begin- 
ning where  the  first  ends,  the  third  where  the  second  ends,  etc. 

First-place  vowels  occurring  between  two  stroke  consonants 
must  lie  ])laced  after  the  first  consonant,  and  third-place  vowels 
be/ore  the  second  consonant. 

The  first  upright  or  sloping  letter  in  a  combination  determines 
the  position  of  the  word.  In  first-place  words  this  upright  or 
sloping  letter  is  written  h.alfway  tlirough  the  upper  line  (see  line 
I ) ;  second  place  words  between  the  lines  (see  line  2) ;  third-place 
words  ihrough  the  lower  line  (see  line  3).  In  combinations  con- 
taining two  upright  or  sloping  letters  the  first  one  determines  the 
]iosiiion  of  a  word,  as  in  line  4. 

When  the  letter  el\i  joined  to  other  letters,  it  may  be  written 
oil'icr  upward  or  downward,  convenience  in  joining  determ'ning 


am- 
Beam,  bought,  babe,  bell,  I:)ale, 
bellow,  body,  bump,  bit,  bite,  bait,  boat,  liet,  body,  boot,  bat, 
beauty,  be,  book,  bake,  become.  Cheek,  coat,  code,  cage,  cud, 
cash,  copy,  camp,  common,  come,  chalk.  Pate,  dolly,  dare, 
dish,  dash,  duly,  decay,  damp,  dairy,  dollar,  do.  Elm,  error, 
earth,  embark,  embellish,  ever,  early.  Fame,  full,  feed,  foot, 
fill,  folly,  fully,  fair,  fairy,  fish,  fob,  fire,  far,  fury,  for.  Genuine, 
give,  hourly,  have,  however,  half,  had.  Into,  it,  issue,  improve- 
ment, important.  Keep,  kneel.  Like,  love,  look,  lamb,  long, 
lamp,  lump,  large,  language.  Mouth,  mule,  male,  meal,  Maiy, 
many,  money,  manu.al,  much.  Nail,  namely.  Occupy.  Peak, 
pick,  peep,  pope,  ]iure,  pale,  page,  pull,  ]>urely,  pump,  party, 
pout,  pile,  pale,  pier.  Room,  roam,  roof,  rainy,  rebuke,  revoke, 
redeem,  repair,  romp,  ring,  rosy.  Shame,  shade,  shape,  sheep, 
shore,  sheer,  share,  shall.  Talk,  team,  time,  tame,  take,  look, 
t  night,  toad,  tool,  tide,  to  be,  together,  think,  thank,  them,  tiling. 
Vowel,  very.     Usual.     Which,  was,  will.     Your. 


\ 


A    SI;LI'"-1NS1KLC1i>K     in    ^UOK  r-UANll. 


159 


LESSON    IV.— THE  HALVING   PRINCIPLE. 


By  the  mastery  of  lessons  i,  2  and  3  the  student  has  al- 
ready learned  short-hand  sufficiently  to  write  any  word 
in  the  English  language,  and  has  made  all  the  progress  that 
is  claimed  for  any  of  the  "  shortest,  easiest-to-be-learned" 
systems  which  have  ever  been  invented.  A  study  and  prac- 
tice in  writing  of  what  has  already  been,  loarned  etjual  to 
tliat  which  is  devoted  to  learning  long-hind  writing,  would 
enable  the  pupil  to  write  sixty  words  a  minute,  or  three 
times  as  fast  as  ordinary  long-hand  writing.  This,  however, 
would  not  be  sufficient  for  reporting  speeches  in  which  the 
speed  varies  from  100  to  200  words  a  minute.  In  order  to 
attain  this  higher  rate  of  speed  in  writing  it  is  necessary  to 
use  abbreviating  principles.  The  simplicity  of  the  primary 
])rinciplc-^  of  short-hand,  as  already  given,  allows  the  applica- 
tion of  a  variety  of  abbreviating  principles,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  which  the  highest  possible  rate  of  speed  in  writing 
may  be  attained.  These  principles  will  be  introduced  ac- 
cording to  our  own  arrangement  in  this  and  subsequent 
lessons. 

The  halving  principle  is  used  as  frequently  as  any  other, 
and  is  always  difficult  to  learn.  We,  therefore,  give  it  as  the 
first  principle  of  abbreviation. 

Each  stroke  consonant  may  be  made  half  its  usual  length 
to  add  t  or  d.  When  a  vowel  is  written  after  a  half-length 
letter  it  is  read  between  the  consonant  and  the  added  t  or 
1/,  as  in  "pet,"  first  word  line  i.  When  a  vowel  is  written 
before  a  half-length  letter  it  is  read  first,  as  in  "  apt,"  first 
word  line  2.  The  first  position  for  half-length  letters  is  im- 
mediately under  the  upper  line,  second  position  resting  on 
the  lower  line,  third  position  below  the  lower  line. 

As  either  /  or  </  is  added  by  the  halving  principle,  the 
half  length  letter  pe,  followed  by  the  vowel  ay,  may  repre- 
sent either  pate  or  paid,  and  similarly  with  many  other 
simple  words. 

Read  aloud  and  trace  lines  i  to  4,  inclusive. 

In  consonant  combinations  either  one  or  all  of  the  conso- 
nants may  be  made  half-length.     When  a  half-length  letter  is 
followed  by  anotlier  consonant  the  /  or  d  is  read  before  tlie 
additional  consonant.      See  first  word  in  line  i ;,  "intellect." 
Read  aloud  and  trace  lines  6  to  13,  inclusive. 

The  halving  principle  can  be  used  only  in  combinations 
where  a  distinct  angle  is  formed  at  the  joining  of  letters.  In 
some  words  it  is  better  to  write  the  lialf-length  letter  disjoined, 
as  in  line  14,  the  first  word  in  which  is  "  doubted.''  In  other 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  wiite  the  full  consonant  outline,  as  in  line 
15.     Read  aloud  and  trace  lines  14  and  15. 

The  h.ilf-length  word  signs  given  in  line  16  represent  the  fol- 
lowing words:  Could,  good,  feature,  after,  fact,  that,  without, 
astonish,  establish,  wished,  immediate,  nature,  under,  read. 
Read  aloud  and  trace  line  16. 

WRITING    EXERCISE    IV. 
Copy  short-hand  lesson  IV.  ten  times,  and  transcribe  it  in  long- 
hand.    Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand  : 

Art,  apt,  about,  aged,  added,  ached,  arrived,  acted,  avoided, 


1   V    V      '■ 

1                 /.        _         _       ^ 

V'      <- 

/                     1 

C 

2     ■)                A 

/.       <^^ 

.) 

.1 

/ 

3                      ./ 

X             <i 

r.             ,. 

\    V 

.1            -          /- 

>^          U 

4       4          L        J 

'           'i^             V^              ^                  ^               ' 

-      .w      ^^ 

s     \'       A 

iV                 •               ^            1- 

^^ 

/                 •                 '                                      T^ 

1 
-\              r 

ii 

/X      ^ 

/r^          L 

1    \    \ 

\'  1^^  — ■              '     ■ 

-     ^r    \ 

^      ^^    V.     -b 

-^      / 

1'^ 

'    \      ^ 

\.-^ ,      ,—     • 

^^  V-    '- 

,  -^ 

\ 

9      ^       VV 

^     — \      <r-^    S 

/>    ^^ 

(■ 

^-v                  ^«                  ^ 

>"          .       \ 

^    '■  ^   ^o     " 

A       /^ 

1 

Jl      --H        v., 

"11        kX        ^      ' 

-— 1      ^V 

1 

'\ 

> 

12      -^        -^ 

,     ^     y-    ^-    .v^    -1      -> 

, 

^ 

13        -Z 

—1      r     ^     <- 

r"       ?-    .) 

• 

|- 

14        ,             1=1 

xl-i     A'l       '      "^  >i 

ll    ^-1     ^. 

ll 

■  ! 
^     1 

15    .V     .      •<.' 

^       1      /C-l      ^ 

'-        1      V 

II                                    '       '          1                          -^—1 

16                        ^ 

(     r      '     ^    - 

w — ^_ 

alphabet,  assert,  awaited,  afl'ect,  after,  astonish.  Bet,  boat,  bait, 
bad,  boot,  begged,  belt,  backed,  better.  Chat,  cut,  cat,  coat,  cot, 
caged,  captivate,  could.  Date,  dead,  doubted,  dated,  deeded, 
dotted.  East,  end,  ended,  editor,  evident,  effect,  evoked,  estab- 
lish. Fight,  foot,  failed,  filed,  fold,  fitted,  faded,  feature,  future. 
Clet,  got,  gate,  good.  Hate,  height,  hat,  hot,  hated,  hunted, 
habit.  Invite,  induct,  indeed,  individual,  imitated,  intellect, 
intend,  intended,  immediate.  Knocked,  kicked.  Let,  light, 
lot,  lit,  load,  laid,  loved,  laughed,  lived,  lighted,  legitimate, 
little,  lately,  locate,  locked,  looked.  Met,  meat,  mode,  moveil, 
mailed,  mold,  mild,  mended,  middle,  model,  mutual,  meditated. 
Xot,  night,  note,  noted,  natyre.  Oft.  Pet,  pad,  paid,  port, 
paged.  Rout,  robbed,  relieved,  removed,  repeated,  radiated, 
read.  Shut,  sheet,  shot.  That,  talked,  toiled.  Used,  un- 
packed,  untold,  under.  \'ole,  viewed.  Wait,  weighed,  written, 
writing,  without.      Vaclil. 


i6o 


A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


A- 


IZL 


LESSON   V 


53^ 


THE  CIRCLE 


-t- 


^ 


Ih. 


-z^ 


Il_^ 


-^- 


-V 


■^^ 


-N5^ 


UEZIZ 


\^-^ 


(a   > 


-J" 


12: 


-,f^-7r-^ 


^ 


,^ 


I^ 


^v-rt 


z: 


-^      .i^o    '^ 


_z_ 


^1. 


.9^ 


JB.^^ 


J^S 


^r-  "^ 


2^ 


-^ 


IS 


4- 


^=0- 


X 


-^ 


iz 


-fe-^ 


-^^ 


^ 


"'rxr 


'^      aJ_o" 


^ 


T7^?^~T~^r-^ 


"f    H       -^ 


':::o 


^ 


'ttV 


i 


> 


7^" 


-^ 


»»3     V,                £           /• 

">'                ^D 

1                                                            '^ 

-) 

.1*  ^    >      -J    J- 

-v  ^^^n_\- 

L^    1-. 

1^    °     o        ^     \       \ 

p           <L  ^    ^ 

.0^    (r>      <r^ 

J                fa 

IG 


x: 


""?"-75 — ^C3r- 


z 


.--G_ 


_o,_ 


THE  frequently  recurring  sounds  .f  and  ze  are  provided  for 
in  short-hand  by  a  small  circle  joined  on  the  right-hand  of 
upriglit  and  sloping  slraight  letters,  and  above  horizontal  straight 
letters.  The  student  must  observe  carefully  the  side  of  straight 
letters  on  which  this  circle  is  used,  as  by  confining  it  uniformly 
to  one  side,  we  have  the  use  of  it  on  the  opposite  side  for  the 
representation  of  otlier  abbreviating  principles.  This,  however, 
does  not  apply  to  curved  letters,  as  the  circle  s  is  always  made 
inside  the  curve.  The  circle  s  at  the  beginning  of  a  letter  is 
always  read  first. 

As  there  is  no  beginning,  middle  or  end  to  the  circle,  it  can- 
not be  vocalized.  The  vowels  must,  therefore,  be  placed  to  the 
consonant  to  which  the  circle  is  joined,  and  read  either  before 
or  after  that  consonant;  if  before,  between  the  circle  s  and  the 
consonant.     See  first  word  in  exercise  5 — .;-;(•/,  "sup."     When 


S"  AND   "Z." 

the  circle  is  at  the  end  of  a  letter,  it  is  read  last,  after  the 
vowels.  The  circle  may  be  used  both  initial  and  final, 
as  in  the  lines  5  and  6. 

By  making  the  circle  double  its  usual  size,  it  represents 
the  syllables  ses  and  sfz,  as  in  "pieces."  See  lines  7,  8 
and  9.  When  the  circle  i-  occurs  between  two  straight 
letters  forming  an  angle,  the  circle  is  made  outside  the 
angle,  which  is  tlie  shortest  direction  for  writing.  If  both 
letters  are  written  in  the  same  direction,  the  circle  es  must 
retain  its  position  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and 
sloping  straight  letters,  and  above  horizontal  straight 
letters.  See  line  2.  The  application  of  this  principle 
makes  it  necessary,  in  placing  the  es  on  the  outside  of  the 
angle,  to  join  the  circle  on  either  side.     See  line  12. 

The  circle  s  used  on  half-length  letters,  is  read  after  the 
added  /  or  d.  When  j  or  2  are  the  only  consonants  in  a 
word,  or  when  s  or  z  is  the  first  consonant,  preceded  by 
a  vowel,  or  the  last  consonant,  followed  by  a  vowel,  use 
the  stroke  form  for  j  and  s,  as  in  line  14. 

The  word  signs  in  lines  15  and  16  represent  the  follow- 
ing words  :  Is,  as,  speak,  special,  subject,  satisfy,  sig- 
nature, several,  salvation,  similar,  single,  simple,  somewhat, 
objects,  religious,  because,  those,  impossible,  influence, 
system,  United  States. 

When  a  sign  represents  more  than  one  word  it  is  called 
a  phrase,  as  in  line  16.  The  large  circle,  first  position, 
represents  is-as :  second  position,  as-is.  The  remaining 
phrases  in  line  16  are:    Is-the,  as-the,  is-a,  as-a. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  V. 


Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand:  Assays, 
arise,  arouses,  accuses,  amuses,  accept,  ask,  asp,  also,  arts, 
as,  as-is,  as-the,  and-is  and-as.  Boys,  basis,  bestow, 
besides,  boots,  busy,  because,  bask.  Cheese,  choose,  case, 
custody,  ceases,  chooses,  cask,  choosing,  chats,  cuts,  cosy, 
causing,  cities.     Does,  doses,  dusty,  decide,  desk,  dismay, 

.     designs,  dots.     Eggs,  exist,  exercise,  e.xcept,  easy.     Face, 

S=-r  faces,,  fights.  Goes,  ga»es,  gossip,  goods.  House,  hours, 
hisses,  husk,  hasten.  Insist,  induce,  icy,  is,  impossible, 
influence,  is-as,  is-the.  Joys,  Jesus,  jots.  Kisses.  Lace,  lessons, 
listens,  loosens,  loses,  loves,  lazy,  lights.  Mass,  mazes,  misses, 
musty,  meets.  Nice,  noses,  necessary,  necessity,  notes.  Oozes, 
owns,  opposite,  objects.  Pays,  pieces,  possess,  possessor,  passage, 
pets.  Rose,  reasons,  rises,  rosy.  Sup,  sob,  sorrow,  sway,  sighs, 
sash,  stay,  soar,  shoes,  suppose,  series,  speak,  speedy,  special, 
said,  sale,  sake,  says,  sobs,  siezes,  sways,  sashes,  supposes, 
systematic,  spoke,  shoots,  several,  signs,  system,  such,  sum, 
seeds,  souls,  seems,  success,  snake,  saying,  salvation, 
sieges,  signs,  songs,  sages,  soars,  sense,  since,  smoke,  seeing, 
similar,  simple,  sky,  sip,  sex,  stays,  scheme,  subject,  single, 
somewhat,  sage,  safe,  soap,  sacks,  suspect,  saves,  snare,  sauce, 
sat,  sufiices,  seek,  signify.  Toes,  thaws,  thus,  tosses,  thesis, 
task,  thoughts.  United  States.  Upset.  Voice,  vices,  votes. 
Wise,  ways,  waits.     Yes,  yachts. 


V 


A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR  IN  SHORT-HAND. 


"^ 


i6i 


LESSON  VI.- LOOPS  "ST"  AND  "STR." 


A  LOOP  the  width  of  the  circle  .t,  ami  one-half  the  length 
of  the  consonant  to  which  it  is  joined,  represents  the 
combination  st.  This  loop  is  governed  by  the  same  rules  as 
the  circle  s,  and  is  made  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping,  and  above  horizontal,  straight  letters,  and  on  the 
inside  of  curved  letters.  See  lines  I  to  4.  A  large  loop  the 
width  of  the  circle  sez,  represents  the  combination  str.  See 
line  5.  The  circle  s  may  be  made  after  the  st  and  str 
loops,  as  in  line  6.  These  loops  may  be  used  in  the  middle 
of  words,  as  in  line  7.  The  circle  s  sometimes  represents 
st,  where  the  loop  cannot  be  conveniently  made,  as  in  line 
8.  The  ending  st  is  occasionally  represented  by  the  half- 
length  s,  written  upward,  as  in  the  first  four  words  of  line  II. 
The  circle  s  represents  the  prefix  self  and  the  affix  self ; 
the  large  circle  ses  represents  the  affix  selves,  as  in  line  12. 
The  circle  s  in  phrases  represents  is,  as,  his,  or  has.  The 
phrases  in  line  13  are:  as-good-as,  as-much-as,  is-not,  is-to- 
be,  this-is,  which-is,  as-large-as,  for-his,  have-his,  is-ever. 
The  circle  .;  is  used  to  represent  the  plural  of  nouns  the 
singular  of  verbs,  and  the  possessive  case.  The  word  signs 
in  line  14  are  :  Parties,  times,  dollars,  does,  advertisements, 
advantages,  because,  comes,  gives,  thinks. 

The  words  and  phrases  in  line  15  are  :  Of-his,  all-is,  to-his, 
or-is,  already-has,  but-as,  before-his,  on-his,  should-his, 
whose,  thoughts,  facts,  that-is,  astonishes,  establishments. 
The  word  signs  in  line  16  are:  First,  largest,  commonest, 
extraordinary,  influenced,  next,  stenography,  stenographer, 
yesterday,  history. 

Read  aloud  lines  i  to  16  several  times. 


WRITING  EXERCISE  VI. 


'^TV 


X 


^ 


izj-l 


szmiKZZi: 


.^.rtSs-, 


^ 


■Z- 


"^ 


\r 


-r^^^^^ 


-^r-^ 


-a~^ 


^■^     f-r^ 


^¥=>- 


? 


^ 


-.^s?- 


^ 


y 


i=^^ 


-1?- 


-"=^-^^ 


10 


11 


12 


•J5 


16 


Copy  exercise  VI.  ten  times.  Transcribe  it  into  long- 
hand. Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand :  Atheist, 
assayist,  arrest,  amazed,  amused,  announced,  antagonist, 
abstract,  analyzed,  as-good-as,  as-much-as,  as-large-as,  adver- 
tisements, advantages,  all-his,  already-has,  astonishes,  answer. 
Beastly,  before-his,  best,  boaster,  boasts,  but-has.  Castor, 
castors,  castle,  caucuses,  chaste,  chests,  chorister,  coast, 
coaster,  coasts,  costly,  comes,  commons,  commonest.  Distinct, 
distinguish,  does,  dollars,  dust,  duster,  dusters.  Embarrass, 
embezzle,  establishments,  extraordinary.  Faced,  facts,  fast, 
faster,  feast,  feasters,  festers,  first,  for-his,  foster,  guest,  gives. 
Hands,  haste,  has-not,  have-his,  his-has,  historj',  honest,  honesty. 
Influenced,  invest,  investigate,  is-ever,  its,  itself,  is-not,  is-to-be, 
imposter.  Jest,  jester,  jesters,  joist,  justify,  justified.  Largest, 
last,  lastly,  lists,  luster.  Master,  midst,  most,  mostly,  muster, 
must,  myself.  Orchestra,  ourselves,  obstruct,  of-his,  on-his, 
or-his,  ought-his.     Parties,  past,  pester,  posts,  postal,  postage. 


& 


"~T 


A— 


-F- 


/• 


3: 


^•' 


-^- 


"•2^7 


T~[~ 


_dr>_ 


n^z 


13 


-f- 


A-^=^-^ 


"V.      ^ 


-^ 


-=^- 


14 


-^- 


-l— t- 


T- 


~c 


-t 


-/y    -^^ 


TT 


-#- 


post-ofiice,  poster.  Raised,  raciest,  revised,  received,  rosiest, 
rooster.  Stab,  stack,  stabbed,  state,  stage,  stag,  staff',  stake,  stare, 
starry,  start,  stamp,  stain,  stairway,  stamina,  step,  stead,  stem, 
steam,  stealthy,  steamed,  stenographer,  stenography,  stamped, 
sting,  stove,  stole,  story,  stock,  stoop,  store,  storm,  stuff",  stung, 
stitch,  study,  stuff'ed,  songsters,  sincere,  selfish,  selfsame,  self- 
made,  self-esteem,  self-education,  self-iwssessed,  should-his, 
sometimes,  style.  Taste,  tastes,  testify,  testified,  times,  this-is, 
thinks,  thanks,  thoughts,  that-is,  themselves,  thyself,  to-his. 
Vast,  vaster,  vastly,  vest.  Waste,  west,  westward,  which-is, 
whose.     Yesterday,  yourself,  yourselves.     Zest. 


l62 


^ 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


LESSON   VII.— "WE"  AND   "YE"   DIPHTHONGS. 


A^_L     ^ 


-\z-^ 


-^ 


-^- 


^^^- 


jk 


r 


-k:^ — 3z;r 


1Z' 


y^ 


-^^^- 


-^ 


ir   b 


-^ 


^^^ 


VA 


111 


T^ 


sents,  _j'aw,  j-o,  _)'oo  ,•  an  em  curve  in  the  position  of  the  three 
short  dash  vowels  represents  yo,  yu,  yoo.  Read  line  2. 
These  coalescent  diphthongs  in  the  first  and  third  positions 
may  be  joined  to  the  consonant  when  they  will  form  a  dis- 
tinct angle.     Read  lines  3  and  4. 

We  Hooks. — A  small  initial  hook  on  /,  ray,  m,  em/>a.nd  n 
represents  the  letter  7v,  the  hook  is  read  first.  Read  lines 
5  and  6.  A  large  initial  hook  made  above  the  letter  /:  also 
represents  the  letter  w ;  this  hook  is  used  in  the  class  of 
words  commencing  with  qu,  pronounced  kiv.  This  hook  is 
read  after  the  k.     Read  lines  7  and  8. 

He  Signs. — In  addition  to  the  stroke  form  for  /u-,  given 
in  the  alphabet,  it  is  also  represented  by  a  c/ie  tick,  that  is,  a 
small  tick  written  downward  in  the  direction  of  the  letter 
c/ie.  The  stroke  form  for  he  should  be  used  in  all  words 
where  he  is  the  only  consonant,  and  in  many  others  begin- 
ning with  the  letter  he.  Read  line  9.  The  tick  he  is  only 
used  before  those  consonants  with  which  it  will  form  a  dis- 
tinct angle,  as  k,gay,  r,  m,  z  and  we.  Read  lines  10  and 
II.  The  last  five  words  in  line  11,  when  written  in  long- 
hand, commence  with  the  letters  wh  ;  but  as  the  he  in  this 
combination  is  pronounced  first,  in  short-hand  it  is  written 
first.  When  a  word  beginning  with  hw  can  be  most  con- 
veniently written  with  the  w  hook  on  /,  ray,  m  and  K,  the 
he  may  be  omitted.  Read  hne  12,  commencing  each  word 
with  hiu. 

Double- Length    Letters. —  Any   curved    letter   made 

^   double  its  usual  length,  represents  the  addition  of  ther,  ter 

or  der.     Double-length  ing  also   represents   an  added  ger, 

and  double-length  emp  an  added  per  or  ber.     Read  lines  13 

and  14. 

Line  15  contains  the  following  word-signs:  We,  with, 
were,  what,  would,  ye,  yet,  beyond,  you,  while,  where,  where- 
with, when,  he,  their.  With  and  we  may  be  represented  by 
a  we  hook  in  phrases.  Line  16  contains  the  following 
phrases :  With-me,  with-him,  with-whom,  with-him-you-will, 
we-will,  we-are,  we-may,  we-may-be,  we-might,  we-met. 


WRITING    EXERCISE    VII. 


TN  addition  to  the  consonant  signs  for  the  coalescents  we  and 
••■  ye,  when  these  letters  are  used  in  connection  with  any  of  the 
vowels  or  diphthongs,  they  form  what  is  called  a  coalescent  diph- 
thong, which  is  represented  as  follows  :  A  small  the  curve, 
that  is  tlie  curved  sign  resembling  the  letter  the,  but  only  about 
one-fourth  the  length  of  the  letter,  placed  in  the  position  of  the 
three  long-dot  vowels,  represents  we,  wa,  wah  ;  an  eth  curve, 
written  in  the  position  of  the  three  short  dot  vowels,  represents 
wi,  we,  wa ;  a  ze  curve  in  the  position  of  the  three  long  dash 
vowels  represents  wau,  wo,  woo ;  an  es  curve  in  the  position  of 
the  three  short'  dash  vowels  represents  wo,  wu,  woo ;  a  small 
right  angle  in  the  position  of  the  diphthongs  represents  wi,  wot, 
wow.  Read  line  i.  A  small  )'«^  curve  in  the  position  of  the 
three  long  dot  vowels  represents  _)•«,_)'«,  yah  ;  an  en  curve  in  the 
position  of  the  tliree  short  dot  vowels  represents  yi,  ye,  ya  ;  an 
emp  cur\e  in  the  position  of  the  three  long  dash  vowels  repre- 


Copy  lines  I  to  16  ten  times.  Write  the  following  words 
in  short-hand :  Aha,  another.  Betwixt,  beyond.  Curious.  Due, 
dwell.  Father.  High,  highly,  hip,  hay,  hate,  hat,  height, 
hung,  hang,  hasten,  house,  harmony,  horse,  harm,  liearsay,  her, 
here,  hug,  hog,  hack,  hook,  home,  hazy,  hymn,  huzzy, liymental. 
Inquiry.  Leather,  letter,  latter,  longer.  Mother.  Neither. 
One,  once.  Quick,  quote,  quake,  quaiTel,  queer,  quartz,  "quo," 
quire,  query,  quack,  quest,  quilt,  quit,  qualify.  Smoother,  Sep- 
tember, Swede,  sweat,  swift,  swiftest,  swing,  superior.  Twice, 
twill,  timber,  twist.  Use.  Weave  wound,  wave,  walk,  waif, 
wag,  wove,  wit,  wooed,  woof,  widow,  weed,  wide,  walked, 
wife,  want,  war,  wanted,  warm,  Wabash,  wardrobe,  washing, 
worship,  wall,  weary,  wilt,  worse,  wealth,  work,  well,  wool, 
wear,  went,  wigwam,  Winchester,  wampum,  window,  win,  wine, 
whimper,  while,  when,  wheel,  whale,  wjiim,  whence,  wharf, 
where,  whine,  whither,  weather,  wander,  winter,  wonder,  Walter, 
we,  what,  wherewith,  would,  with,  were,  with-me,  with-whom, 
with-hini-youwill,  we-will,  within,  with-him,  we-are,  we-may  be, 
we-may,  we-miglit,  we-met.  Year,  young,  yoke,  yet,  yon,  youth, 
Yankee,  you,  ye. 


A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR  IN  SHORT-HAND. 


"A 


03 


LESSON   VIM.- 

THE  letter  /  occurs  frequently  in  connection  with  all  other 
consonants,  forming  in  many  words  a  consonantal  diph- 
thong. It  is  conveniently  represented  by  a  small  initial  hook 
made  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping,  and 
above  horizontal  straight  letters,  as  in  line  i.  To  distinguish 
the  /  hook  series  of  letters  from  the  single  consonants,  the 
latter  are  called  fe-fl,  bc-el,  and  the  former  pel,  bel,  etc. 
Although  the  /  hook  is  made  on  the  beginning  of  a  conso- 
nant, it  is  read  after  it. 

A  vowel  after  an  /  hook  consonant  is  read  last ;  the  first 
word  in  line  I  is  plea.  A  vowel  before  an  /  hook  conso- 
nant is  read  first;  the  second  word  in  line  1  is  idle.  Read 
line  I.  The  /  hook  on  the  esh  and  zhe  cannot  be  made 
on  the  back  of  the  letter,  or  on  the  right  hand  side,  these 
letters  are  therefore  struck  upward,  and  are  never  used  ex- 
cept when  joined  to  other  letters.  The  /  hook  on  ray,  m, 
nip,  n,  ing  is  made  large  to  represent  rel,  mel,  empl,  nel, 
ingl,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  we  hook  on  those  letters. 
The  initial  hook  of  lie  is  also  made  large  to  represent  hel. 
Read  line  2.  In  half-length  consonants  on  the  /  hook 
series,  the  added  ^  or  o^  is  read  after  both  consonants.  Read 
line  3. 

.V  vowel  may  be  represented  between  the  double  conso- 
nants by  making  a  small  circle  in  the  position  of  the  vowel 
before  the  double  consonant  for  the  long  dot  vowels  ee,  ay^ 
ah,  and  by  a  small  circle  after  the  double  consonant  for  the 
short  dot  vowels  i,  e,  a.  The  dash  vowels  are  struck  through 
the  stem  of  the  letter,  except  when  they  would  interfere  with 
a  hook  or  circle,  when  they  are  written  immediately  before 
the  consonant,  if  first-place;  and  immediately  after  it,  if 
third-place.  Read  line  4.  When  a  double  consonant  of 
the  /  hook  series  is  preceded  by  the  circle  s,  the  circle  is 
slightly  flattened  and  made  inside  the  hook,  and  is  always 
read  first.  Read  lines  5  and  6.  Curved  Consonants  of  this 
series  may  be  made  double  length  for  adding  tlu-i;  to;  der. 
Read  line  7.  In  a  few  words,  where  the  /  hook  is  preceded 
by  another  consonant  and  a  circle  s,  the  hook  cannot  be 
made  complete,  but  there  is  no  ditificulty  in  reading  those 
words.     Read  lines  8  to  12. 

The  frequently  recurring  prefixes  com  and  con  are  repre- 
sented by  a  dot  made  before  the  beginning  of  the  letter.     Read 
line  13.     The  aftix  ing,  when  the  consonant  ing  cannot  be  con- 
veniently joined,  is  represented  iiy  a  dot  made  after  the  end  of 
the  letter.     Read  line  14. 

The  word  signs  in  lines  15  and  16  are:  Comply,  complete, 
people,  belong,  build,  until,  deliver,  delight,  children,  child, 
angel,equal,difficult,  collect,  glory,  follow,  value,  theology,  only. 
The  curved  word  signs  may  be  made  double  length  for  the 
addition  of  their-there  in  phraseography.  The  last  three  signs 
in  line  16  represent  the  phrases:  FoUow-their,  value-their,  only- 
there. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  VIII. 

Transcribe  exercise  VIII.  and  copy  lines  I   to  16  ten  times. 
Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand:  Able,  agile,  angle. 


HOOK. 


ankle,  applied,  apple,  April,  awful.  Beautiful,  belong,  Bible, 
blame,  blot,  build.  Call,  camel,  calling,  canal,  casual,  casual- 
ties, child,  children,  civil,  clay,  clot,  clothed,  clouded,  close, 
chcle,  connect,  commencing,  complacent,  complete,  compel, 
completing,  complex,  comply,  conclude,  concluding,  conflict, 
consonant,  context,  cultivate.  Dangle,  delight,  deliver,  de- 
veloping, difliculty,  double.  Enable,  enclose,  equal,  evil,  ex- 
ample, "exclude,  explicit,  explode,  explore,  explosive.  Fangle, 
family,  female,  final,  flat,  flight,  flutter,  fly,  follow,  follow-their, 
fulfill,  funnel.  Glad,  girl,  glory,  glue.  gold.  Halifax,  heahng, 
help,  helping.  Idle,  imperial,  initial,  initialed,  including,  in- 
volved. Mclancholv,  military.  Oblige,  ofticial,  only,  oral. 
Pearl,  people,  peopled,  pickled,  place,  plat,  plea,  please,  pleas- 
ing. Railway,  reality,  relent,  reply,  rule.  Saddle,  sable,  serial, 
settle,  school,  shouldered,  simplicit'v,  skill,  stable,  supple,  supply, 
supplying.  Table,  talc,  tell,  theology,  till,  titled,  told,  tolerable, 
tunnel.  Unable,  uncle,  unhealthy,  until.  Value,  value  their, 
vocalize.     Vale,  yellow,  yield. 


/ 


.t. 


164 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


^ 


~7\ 


LESSON  IX.-"  R"  HOOKS. 


T-V 


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A  SMALL  initial  hook  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and 
sloping  and  below  horizontal  straight  consonants  represents 
r.  This  is  called  the  per  series  of  double  consonants.  When 
speaking  o  f  them  we  use  the  one-syllable  name  per  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  single  consonants  pe-nr  etc.  Vowels  are  written 
either  before  or  after  double  consonants  of  the /^>- series,  or  may 
be  e.vprcssed  between  the  two  consonants,  the  same  as  in  the/?/ 
series,  as  follows :  For  the  long  dot  vowels  make  a  small  circle 
in  the  position  of  the  vowel  before  the  double  consonant;  for 
the  short  dot  vowels  a  small  circle  in  tlie  position  of  the  vowel 
after  the  double  consonant.  Write  the  first-place  dash  vowels 
just  ofl  the  beginning  of  the  consonant ;  the  second-place  dash 
vowels  through  the  consonant,  and  the  third-place  dash 
vowels  ju.st  off  the  end  of  the  consonant.  The  student  will  soon 
become  familiar  witli  the  outlines  of  words,  and  full  vocalization 
will  not  be  necessary.  It  would  not  be  convenient  to  make 
a  hook  on  the  back  of  the  curved  letters  /,  v,  ith,  the.    These 


letters  are  therefore  reversed  to  bring  the  hook  on  the  left 
side  and  inside  the  curve.  These  forms  will  not  be  mis- 
taken for  the  similar  letters  r,  -uie,  s  and  z,  as  the  initial  r, 
hook  is  not  used  on  these  four  letters.  The  stem  of  the 
letter  is  shaded  in  merawA  nerio  distinguish  them  from  7vem 
and  -oen.     Read  lines  I  and  2. 

On  eight  straight  consonants  of  the  fer  series  the  hook  is 
made  into  a  circle  on  the  left  side  to  represent  the  sir  series 
of  treble  consonants.      Read  line  3. 

When  the  circle  is  used  on  the  curved  letters  of  the  per 
series  it  is  made  inside  the  r  hook,  and  is  always  read  first. 
Read  line  4. 

\Vhen  s  occurs  before  the  double  consonant  in  the  middle 
of  a  word,  both  the  circle  and  the  hook  must  be  made. 
Read  line  5. 

When  ker  and  ger  follow  ts  and  ds^  tlie  circle  only  is  used 
and  is  written  on  the  right  side  of  I  and  d  and  below  the  k 
and^rt)'.     Read  line  6. 

After  p  and  b  the  circle  and  hook  cannot  be  distinctly 
made,  but  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  reading  this  class  of 
words.     Read  line  7. 

The  prefixes  in  and  un  before  the  spr  series  of  conso- 
nants is  represented  by  a  small  backward  hook;  also  before 
ser,  sel  and  sem.      Read  line  8. 

When  double  consonants  of  X\iQ per  series  are  made  half- 
length,  the  added  t  or  d  is  read  after  both  consonants. 
Observe  that  although  the  hook  representing  r  is  initial,  it  is 
always  read  after  the  consonant  on  which  it  is  used.  Read 
lines  9  to  13  inclusive. 

The  word-signs  in  line  14  are  :  Principle,  practice,  ex- 
perience, surprise,  express,  suppress,  particular,  opportunity, 
hberty,  remember,  number,  truth. 

Inline  15;  Strength,  external,  instruct,  doctor,  during, 
consider,  charity,  danger,  larger,  according,  accurate. 
Christian. 

In  line  16:  Correct,  character,  from,  over,  virtue,  other, 
short,  sure,  pleasure,  measure,  Mr.  or  remark. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  IX. 

Copy  exercise  IX.  ten  times,  and  transcribe  either  in  long- 
hand or  on  the  type-writer. 

Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand :  Archer, 
azure.  Brow.  Cedar,  charming,  charity,  cheerful,  christian, 
character,  color,  court,  comprise,  consider,  correct,  criminal, 
cry,  culture.  Danger,  destroy,  descry,  discried,  disgrace, 
disagree,  describer,  disagreeable,  discursive,  dear,  doctor,  dray, 
during.  Either,  energy,  every,  everywhere,  extra,  extreme, 
examiner,  expert,  express,  expressive.  Farmer,  figures,  former, 
forgot,  from,  fraternal,  free,  further.  Greet,  grow.  Honor, 
humor.  Instruct,  instructor,  inscribe,  insert, insult,  inseparable, 
invulnerable.  Labor,  larger,  learner,  lover,  liberty.  Masterly, 
Mr.  measure,  more,  maternal,  minor, murder.  Number.  Obscure, 
occurs,  opportunity,  over,  other,  owner.  Pray,  present,  prescribe, 
practice,  particular,  prosper,  proscribe,  principle  pleasure. 
Remember,  roller,  rumor.  Saber,  sadder,  seeker,  surely,  sober, 
spray,  strew,  striver  screw,  suitor,  supper,  suffer,  swimmer, 
sooner,  sever,  sinner,  sailor,  seizure,  safer,  suffering,  subscribe, 
subscriber,  scribe,  severed,  secure,  short-hand,  spry,  strong, 
strength,  sure,  strung,  spring,  separate,  suppress,  surprise.  Tiy, 
treasure,  true,  there,  truth,  through,  toward.  Unscrupulous,  un- 
seemly, unsalable,  unsociable.  Virtue.  Wager,  wager,  westerly, 
writer,  wrestler. 


k- 


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A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR  IN  SHORT-HAND. 


=4^ 


16:; 


LESSON    X.-"F,' 


A  SMALL  final  hook  on  the  right  hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping  and  above  horizontal  and  straight  letters 


'V"  AND 


TION"   HOOKS. 


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Fir 


10 


represents  either  /or  v.  On  ray  and  he,  which  are  written 
upward,  this  hook  is  made  above.  The  /  and  v  hook  is 
only  on  straight  letters.  Read  Une  I.  S  may  be  added 
after  the  f  at  -j  hook  by  making  the  circle  inside  the  hook. 
Read  line  2. 

The/and  v  hooks  may  be  used  in  the  midiUe  of  words. 
Read  lines  3  and  4. 

A  large  final  hook  made  on  the  right  hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping  and  above  horizontal  straight  letters  (the  same 
side  as  the  f  and  v  hook)  represents  tion  or  sion.  This 
hook  is  also  used  on  the  inside  of  curved  letters.  Read  lines 
5  and  6. 

To  represent  tions  and  sions  make  tlie  small  circle  s  inside 
the  hook.     Read  line  7. 

The  syllable  tion  is  represented  after  the  circle  j  and 
loops  St  and  str  by  a  small  hook  made  on  the  opposite  side 
of  a  consonant.  This  s-tion  hook  is  vocalized  by  writing 
first  place  vowels  before  the  end  of  the  consonant,  and  second 
jilace  vowels  after  it.     Read  line  8. 

When  s  follows  this  s-tion  hook  the  circle  is  made  inside 
the  small  hook.      Read  lines  9  and  lo. 

The  prefixes  inter,  intro,  and  enter,  are  represented  by  half- 
length  «  joined  to  the  remainder  of  the  word.  Read  line  11. 
The  prefixes  contra,  contro,  counter,  are  represented  by  a 
disjoined  che  tick;  that  is  a  short  tick  made  downward  in 
the  direction  of  che  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.  Read  line  12. 
The  prefixes  Magni  and  Magna  are  represented  by  a  dis- 
joined m,  the  remainder  of  the  word  being  commenced 
under  and  near  the  center  of  the  in.     Read  line  13. 

They  and  1/  hook  word  signs  in  line  14  are:  Perfect, 
whatever,  divine,  difference,  advance,  whichever,  Jehovah, 
descriptive,  careful,  government,  reverend. 

The  tion  hook  word  signs  in  line  15  are:  Option,  objec- 
tion, contribution,  tuition,  condition,  generation,  imagination, 
description. 

The  word  signs  in  line  16  are:  Correction,  glorification 
signification,  revelation,  revolution,  information,  justification, 
jurisdiction,  investigation.     Read  lines  14,  15  and  16. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  X. 

Achieves,  approves,  adventure,  advocate,  advocacy,  advent, 
addition,  ambition,  aversion,  actions,  acquisitions,  arrestations, 
accusations,  annexation,  attestation,  advance.  Beef,  braves, 
brevity,  briefest,  bravest.  Cessation,  cuff,  craft,  cover,  contriv- 
ance, contrive,  confusion,  consummation,  constitution,  consecra- 
tion, conclusion,  confessions,  centralization,  civilization,  connec- 
tions, contradict,  counterfeit,  counterfeited,  controversy,  contra- 
distinction, contravention,  counteraction,  counter-irritation, 
counterpart,  countersign,  creative,  construction,  condition,  cor- 
rection, chief     Dive,  drove,  drives,  derives,  differ,  descriptive. 


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directions,  description.  Edition,  exhibition,  emulation,  exception 
enterprise.  Fashion.  Gave,  gifts,  govern,  generation,  glorifica- 
tion. Hive,  half,  hallucination,  heaven.  Intervention,  intro- 
duce, interline,  introduction,  intercept,  interfered,  intercourse, 
interview,  intercede,  interest,  imagination,  investigation,  informa- 
tion, illustration.  Jove,  Jehovah,  jurisdiction.  Mission,  mani- 
festations, molestations,  moralization,  magnify,  Magna  Charta, 
magnitude,  magnetic,  magnificent,  magnanimous,  magnetize, 
mention.  Notions.  Oration,  obligation,  omissions,  occasions, 
oppositions.  Pave,  proves,  prefix,  profanity,  prevent,  position, 
possession,  procession,  persuxsion,  physician.  Reverend,  reve- 
lation, revolutions.  Strives,  session,  stations,  suggestion,  sym- 
bolization.  Tough,  tuition,  twelve.  Version,  vision.  What- 
ever, whichever. 


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A    SELF-IXSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND 


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LESSON   Xl.-THE   "N"   HOOK. 


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A  SMALL  final  hook  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and 
^  *•  sloping  and  below  horizontal  straight  letters  and  on  the 
inside  of  curved  letters,  represents  «.     Read  lines  i  and  2. 

When  the  n  hook  is  used  on  half-length  letters,  the  added  / 
or  d  is  read  after  the  hook.  The  first  word  in  line  3  is 
"point."     Read  line  3. 

The  hook  being  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  circle  s,  it  is  made 
into  a  circle  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping  and 
below  horizontal  straight  letters  to  represent  ns.     Read  line  4. 

When  the  n  hook  is  followed  by  the  circle  s  on  curved  letters 
the  s  is  made  inside  of  the  hook.  In  order  to  do  this,  do  not 
enlarge  the  hook,  but  flatten  the  circle.     Read  line  5. 


The  K  hook  is  used  to  advantage  in  the  middle  of  many 
words.     Read  line  6. 

On  straight  letters,  the  n  hook  may  be  followed  by  tlie  st 
and  the  str  loops  by  making  the  hook  into  a  small  or  large 
loop.     Read  line  7. 

The  ns  circle  on  sti-aight  letters  may  be  followed  by  the 
back  hook  tion.     Read  line  6. 

A  large  final  hook  on  the  «  side  of  straight  letters  repre- 
sents the  termination  n-tion.  The  first  word  in  line  9  is 
"pension,"     Read  lines  9,  10  and  11. 

The  n  hook  and  halving  principle  are  conveniently  used 
to  represent  not  in  phrases.  The  phrases  in  line  12  are: 
Will-not,  was-not,  did-not,  do-not,  had-not,  have-not,  are-nct, 
shall-not,  may-not,  am-not,  cannot. 

The  final  n  hook  logographs  in  line  13  are :  Upon,  pun- 
ish, been,  at-length,  eternal,  circumstance,  denomination, 
providential,  denominations,  audience,  providence. 

The  logographs  in  line  14  are:  Darken,  darkens,  religion, 
general,  imagine,  religionist,  generalized,  generalization, 
gentlemen,  gentleman,  imagined. 

Those  in  line  15  are:  Question,  signify,  significance, 
begin,  begun,  began,  organize,  organization. 

Those  in  line  16  are:  Often,  phonography,  philanthropy, 
herein,  alone,  men,  man,  human,  women,  woman,  opinion. 

WRITING    EXERCISE   XI. 


Copy  short-hand  Exercise  XL  ten  times  and  transcribe   it 
once.     Write  the  words  in  Exercise  XI.  in  position,  unvocal- 

—  ized. 

—  Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand  :  Abandoned,  ab- 
scond, adamant,  against,  alone,  am-not,  around,  are-not, 
argument,  apprehension,  attends,  attention,  at-length,  audi- 

—  ence,  assign,  assigns, assistant.  Balanced,  been,  beans,  begin, 
begun,  began,  bound,  bonds,  bounced,  brain,  brown.     Cone, 

5~  canst,  canister,  carbon,  cannot,  chain,  circumstance,  circum- 

—  stances,    chant,  chance,   chanced,  counts,  conscience,  com- 
pensation, condensation,  conden.sations,  combinations,-  con- 
s'" sequence,      consequential,     comprehension,     consternation, 

—  Danced,  darken,  darkness,  denomination,  denominations, 
dine,  dined,  dispensation,  dispensations,  did-not,  donations, 

dunce.  Earn,  eternal,  event,  extend,  extension.  Fan,  find, 
finds,  finish,  finance,  financial,  furnish.  Gained,  general, 
generalization,  gentlemen,  gentleman,  gone.  Had-not,  hence, 
have-not,  hen,  heathen,  herein,  liinls,  Holland.  Imagine, 
imagined,  infant,  infantry,  irons.  Joints,  joined,  June.  Kind, 
known.  Land,  line.  Man,  may-not,  men,  mind,  mine,  minds, 
monument.  Nouns.  Often,  one,  ocean,  opinion,  organize, 
organization,  ordination,  outline.  Pain,  pens,  paints,  pension, 
phonography,  pliilanthropy,  point,  pro\idence,  providential, 
l)uiiish,  punster,  punsters,  question.  Rain,  retufti,  returned, 
runs,  religion,  religionist.  Shall-not,  shown,  spinster,  spinsters, 
suspicion,  swoon.  Then,  thin,  tent,  tendency,  thence,  town, 
towns,  torment,  turn,  transition,  transitions,  transitional.  Upon. 
Vagrancy,    vanish,   veins,   vine.     Was-not,    will-not,    women. 


1" 


-^  V 


^ ' 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


167 


LESSON   XIl.-CONTRACTIONS,   ETC. 


10 


As  in  long-hand  contractions  are  often  used,  so  it  is  found 
tliat  jjrinciples  of  contraction  can  lie  employed  in  short- 
hand writing,  which  will  materially  increase  the  speed  of 
writing,  without  sacrificing  legibility.  These  principles  need 
to  be  understood.  -A.s  a  general  rule,  many  derivatives  may 
be  represented  by  the  short-hand  form  adopted  fur  the  root 
of  the  word.  As  derivatives  usually  form  different  parts  ot 
speech,  there  is  no  difficulty  to  the  experienced  phonog- 
rapher  in  readily  deciphering  them.  A  few  special  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  abbreviations  is  all  that  will  be  found 
necessary  in  this  connection. 

The  letter  or  letters  representing  the  portion  of  the  prefix 
preceding  con,  com,  cog,  may  be  joined  to  the  remaimler  of 
the  word.  The  words  in  lines  I  and  2  are:  accommodate, 
accommodation,  accompany,  incomplete,  incompatible, 
inconceivable,  recommend ;  recommendation,  unconcern, 
unconditional,  unconscious,  magnanimous,  magnificent. 
Re.ad  lines  I  and  2. 

The  letter  /■  fallowing  iiig  may  be  omitted  in  many  words. 
Tlie  words  in  line  3  are  :  Anxious,  anxiety,  bank,  bank- 
able, banking,  bankrupt,  sanction.     Read  line  3. 

The  letter  k  may  be  omitted  in  many  words  commencing 
with  ^jr.  The  words  in  line  4  are  :  Expression,  expressive, 
explain,  explicit,  e.xplore,  explode,  explanation,  expiration, 
extension.     Read  line  4. 

The  prefixes  con,  com,  are  frequently  omitted.  The 
words  in  line  5  are :  Condition,  condensation,  combine, 
combination,  contend,  comprehend,  consideration,  incon- 
sideration,  construction,  instruction,  completion.  Read 
line  5. 

The  dot  for  the  aft'ix  ing  is  generally  omitted.  The 
words  in  line  6  are  :  Doing,  trying,  combining,  compound- 
ing, craving,  crossing,  explaining,  banking,  recommending, 
buying.     Read  line  6. 

Many  words  which  would  make  lengthy  and  difficult 
forms,  if  written  in  full,  are  represented  by  two  or  more 
consonants  of  the  word.  Word  signs  may  iie  joined  either 
as  prefixes  or  as  affixes.  The  words  in  line  7  are: 
-•Vcknovvledgc,  acknowledged,  assemble,  auspicious,  become,  to 
become,  cabinet,  captain. 

Tine  S :  Change,  common-sense,  dignity,  downward,  hereto- 
fore, hereafter,  knowledge,  legible,  illegible. 

Line  9  :  Peculiar,  especially,  examination,  cross-examination, 
re-examination,  direct-examination,  mistake. 

Words  and  phrases  in  line  10 :  Nevertheles.s,  notwithstanding, 
temperance-society,  humane-society,  in-reply-to-yours,  in-reply- 
to-your  favor,  in-reference. 

Line  11  :  Inrefcrence-to  your,  inherit,  inheritance,  in-receipt, 
in-receipt  of-your,  I-am-in-receipt-of-your,  short-hand,  short- 
hand-writer. 


^~7""T~^ 


zs: 


VZ 


-^1-^ 


X 


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-V 


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~7 


-Lr 


-i^ 


V  /V  / 


■^ 


:c^ 


^   -4-    u^ 


11 


^,.  M 


T-=^ 


^ 


=^F^ 


--^ 


^   ^  A^ 


T 


13 


z: 


'71 


?  cXlA  T 


\i 


-^- 


_C2_ 


"^T" 


\       P 


^ 


^ 


:xz 


i5 


'21 


IC 


-^- 


"C^ 


-^  ^   r^. 


^.\  v: 


Line  12:  What  is  your  name,  age,  and  occupation?  Where 
do  you  reside  ? 

Line  13:  Tnis  finishes  a  course  of  12  lessons  in  short-hand, 
giving  the 

Line  14:  Bcnn  Pitman  system  at  a  glance,  arranged  by  Brown 
&  Holland, 

Line  15:  Chicago,  and  successfully  taught  by  them  for  more 
than  ten  years,  with  the  result  of 

Line  16:  educating  hundreds  of  short-hand  writers,  who  are 
now  occupying  good,  paying  positions. 

Read  lines  7  to  16. 


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BOOK-KEEPING. 


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^^  AND  DOUBUe  ^^ 


PJgMrlMP^PMPMPMPliPMgMPMgMPMmlii 


The  Two  Systems  Compared  Side  by  Side. 


OOK- KEEPING  is  the 
art  of  recording  business 
transactions  in  a  system- 
atic manner,  so  that  the 
results  will  be  readily  ap- 
parent.and  so  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  business,  as 
to  its  resources  and  liabil- 
ities, losses  and  gains, 
may  be  ascertained  with  ease  and 
exactness.  A  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  accounts  is  necessary  to 
all  men,  no  matter  in  what  business 
they  may  be  engaged.  It  is  especially 
valuable  as  it  is  demanded  in  every 
position  in  life.  There  are  two  sys- 
tems of  Book-keeping,  Single  Entiy 
and  Double  Entry.  The  former  is 
mainly  used  where  transactions  are 
limited  to  the  business  of  retail  dealers,  and 
where  it  is  only  necessary  to  record  the  details 
of  purchases  and  sales  for  cash  or  credit.  A 
single  entry  of  the  account  in  the  Ledger  is  am- 
ple for  the  purpose  of  a  record.  But  where 
business  is  done  on  a  large  scale,  such  as  jier- 
tains  to  a  wholesale  house,  it  becomes  necessary 


to  have  recourse  to  the  more  satisfactory  though 
more  intricate  system  of  Double  Entry.  Instead 
of  making  only  one  entry  of  a  transaction,  as 
in  the  simpler  method,  two  are  made — first  on 
the  Dr.  or  Cr.  side  of  one  account,  and  again  on 
the  contrary  side  of  some  other  account.  The 
advantage  of  this  double  entry  is  that  the  mer- 
chant can  always  inform  himself  of  the  exact 
state  of  each  account,  and  not  alone  of  the 
goods  sold,  but  of  what  he  has  on  hand,  without 
the  inconvenience  of  often  taking  an  account  of 
stock.  Then  again  it  is  a  check  by  which  errors 
may  be  easily  detected. 

Books  Used  in  Single  Entry. 

In  Single  Entry  only  three  books  are  neces- 
sary— Cash-Book,  Day-Book  and  Ledger.  All 
moneys  received  or  paid  out  are  entered  in  the 
Cash-Book.  If  goods  are  purchased  for  cash, 
the  money  being  paid  away,  the  entry  is  made 
on  the  Cr.  side,  "  By  Merchandise  per  Day- 
Book."  The  cash  should  be  balanced  as  soon 
after  the  last  day  of  the  month  as  possible. 

A  record  of  the  transactions  of  each  and 
every  day  in  the  order  in  which  they  take  place 
should  be  entered  in  the  Day-Book.    The  name 


/' 


^ 


"S  \ 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


169 


/ 


of  the  customer  is  entered  in  full,  with  the  term 
Dr.  or  Cr.  annexed,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  transaction — Dr.  when  goods  are  sold  to 
him,  and  Cr.  when  goods  are  bought  or  received 
from  him.  The  date  of  each  entry  must  be  in- 
serted, and  the  names  and  addresses  of  custom- 
ers written  in  full.  Goods  purchased  or  received 
on  credit  are  entered  under  Cr.,  and  the  entry 
preceded  by  the  word  "  By."  When  goods  are 
sold  on  credit  add  "Dr."  to  the  person's  name 
and  residence,  and  begin  the  entry  with  the 
word  "  To."  When  abatement  for  discount  or 
short  measure  is  allowed  by  you,  enter  the 
person  Cr.,  and  when  similar  allowance  is 
made  to  you,  enter  the  person  Dr. 

Every  transaction  is  entered  in  the  Ledger 
from  all  other  books,  with  certain  references, 
indicating  the  sources  from  which  the  items  are 
derived.  Each  customer's  name  has  a  certain 
space  allotted  to  it,  in  which  the  goods  sold  ap- 
pear on  the  Dr.  side  and  the  cash  received  on 
the    Cr.  side. 

Books  Used  in  Double  Entry. 

In  Double  Entry  the  principal  books  used  are 
the  Day-Book,  Cash-Book,  Journal  and  Ledger. 
The  first-named  book  should  contain  the  prin- 
cipal transactions  occurring  in  the  various  stages 
of  business.  Entries  should  be  fully  intelligible, 
from  the  fact  that  it  contains  the  greater  portion 
of  the  matter  from  which  the  other  books  are 
made.  All  transactions  in  which  cash  has  any 
part  must  be  entered  in  the  Cash-Book  at  the 
time  they  occur,  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
entries  are  made  in  the  Day-Book.  In  the 
Journal  are  entered  and  methodically  arranged 
the  scattered  items  of  the  Cash-Book  and  Day- 
Book. 

The  Ledger  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
books  in  the  series,  and  into  it  are  transferred 
the  entries  from  the  Journal,  under  their  separ- 
ate heads.  To  facilitate  the  finding  of  particu- 
lar accounts,  an  inde.x-book  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Ledger,  in  which  the  names  are 
alphabetically  arranged,  with  the  number  of  the 


/ 


page  of  the  Ledger  opposite  each.  The  very 
important  fact  mu.st  not  be  lost  sight  of  that 
eveiy  item  is  entered  twice,  once  on  the  Dr. 
side  of  one  account,  and  once  on  the  Cr.  side  of 
another  account. 

How  Entries  are  Made. 

If  a  person  buys  merchandise  to  the  amount 
of  ^1,000,  for  which  he  pays  cash,  the  entry 
would  be  made  as  follows : 


Merchandise,  Dr. 


To  Cash 


$i,cxx)!oo 


$i,ooo'oo 


The  first  entry  shows  what  the  merchandise 
has  cost  him,  and  the  second  shows  that  he  has 
paid  away  cash  amounting  to  ;^  1,000.  Accounts 
are  opened  with  Cash,  Merchandise,  Bills  Paya- 
ble, Bills  Receivable,  Interest,  Commission,  etc., 
in  the  same  manner  as  personal  accounts  are 
treated  in  the  Single  Entry  Ledger,  all  items 
received  or  disbursed  being  debited  and  credit- 
ed to  their  account.  To  make  it  still  plainer, 
suppose  George  Smith  sells  a  quantity  of  goods 
to  Peter  Aylmer,  and  charges  him  ^50  commis- 
sion; the  entry  would  be  made  in  this  fashion  : 


Peter  Aylmer,  Dr. 


To  Commission 


$So'oo  I 


$5000 


If  the  same  party  owed  Aylmer  the  same  sum 
of  money  and  gave  him  a  note  for  the  amount 
with  ;^5.oo  interest  added,  it  would  be  entered 
thus: 


Sundries 

Peter  Aylmer 
Interest 


To  Bills  Payable 


$5000 
5I00 


$SS|oo 


There  are  two  styles  of  accounts,  Real  and 
Representative.  The  latter  class  embraces  such 
as  Commission,  Interest,  etc.,  and  should  be  deb- 
ited and  credited  for  what  they  cost  or  pro- 
duce. By  doing  this,  when  the  books  are  bal- 
anced a  person  can  tell  at  once  exactly  what 
these  representative  accounts  have  cost  or  pro- 
duced. 

How  to  Detect  Errors. 

It  is  customary  among  merchants  to  have  a 
set  time   for  the   adjustment  of  their  account 


\ 


T 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


/ 


books,  and  for  this  it  is  necessary,  before  tak- 
ing a  general  balance,  to  prove  the  posting  of 
the  Ledger  by  taking  a  trial  balance.  To  do 
this  the  accountant  adds  all  the  Dr.  sides  into 
one  sum,  and  all  the  Cr.  sides  into  another. 
When  the  Ledger  has  been  correctly  posted 
these  two  sums  will  be  equal ;  but  if  they  do 
not  balance  the  cause  of  the  difference  must  be 
looked  up  at  once.  Sometimes  a  sum  is  enter- 
ed to  a  different  account  than  the  one  to  which 
it  belongs,  but  on  the  same  side,  and  the  sums 
will  still  agree.  To  find  such  an  error  as  this, 
the  Journal  and  Ledger  should  be  compared  by 
two  persons,  the  one  reading  from  the  Journal, 
and  the  other  scanning  the  accounts  in  the 
Ledger,  and  checking  them  when  correct. 
When  a  Journal  entry  is  omitted  or  twice  en- 
tered in  the  Ledger,  the  summing  up  of  the 
latter  will  not  show  the  error.  To  find  it,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  foot  up  the  Cash  re- 
ceived. Cash  paid,  Bills  Receivable,  Bills  Payable 
and  Day-Book  entries,  and  the  sum  will  always 
agree  with  that  side  of  the  Ledger  which  is  cor- 
rect, leading  easily  to  the  detection  of  the  error. 

How  Errors  are  Made. 

Very  frequently  errors  are  made  in  journal- 
izing the  subsidiary  books  and  in  posting  the 
Ledger,  such  as  debiting  or  crediting  one  per- 
son or  account  in  place  of  another;  omitting 
entries ;  making  the  sum  too  large  or  too  small, 
etc.  Immediate  attention  should  be  paid  to  er- 
rors of  this  kind,  not  by  an  erasure  or  interlin- 
eation, but  an  explanatory  entry  in  the  Day- 
Book.  That  is  then  to  be  journalized  like  a 
regular  transaction  and  posted  in  the  Ledger. 
For  instance,  in  the  Ledger  of  May  loth,  Rich- 
ard Klotz  is  debited  to  Bills  Payable,  but  on  the 
30th  of  May  it  is  found  that  this  entry  should 
have  been  posted  to  John  Dobbins'  account. 
John  Dobbins  is  therefore  debited  to  Richard 
Klotz  in  the  Day-Book,  and  the  mistake  is 
thereby  explained.  If  any  account  has  been 
overposted,  it  must  be  either  debited  or  credited 
for  the  excess  ;  and  if  it  has  been  underposted. 


a  new  entry  must  be  made  upon  the  same  side 
for  the  deficiency.  When  an  entry  has  been 
entirely  omitted,  it  must  be  made  as  soon  as 
discovered,  mentioning  when  omitted.  When 
an  entry  has  been  posted  twice,  it  may  be  cor- 
rected by  entering  the  amount  on  the  other  side, 
noting  the  fa9t  of  its  being  twice  posted.  The 
greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  mak- 
ing original  entries,  as  they  are  the  most 
dangerous  of  all.  Balancing  books  should  not 
be  delayed  beyond  a  specified  time,  for,  the 
longer  the  time,  the  more  difficult  the  correction 
of  an  error.  Where  an  account  has  been  under- 
paid for  a  year  or  so  the  person  may  have  sub- 
sequently died,  failed,  retired  from  business,  or 
otherwise  become  inaccessible.  Thus  a  positive 
loss  is  sustained  which  might  otherwise  have 
been  avoided. 

Subsidiary  Books. 

Among  the  subsidiary  books  generally  used 
is  the  Petty  Cash-Book,  in  which  a  record  is 
kept  of  the  various  charges  incurred  in  trade, 
too  trifling  to  be  entered  separately  in  the  Cash- 
Book.  This  book  is  balanced  monthly,  and  the 
total  amount  of  expenditures  transferred  to  the 
Cash-Book  under  the  head  of  Petty  Cash.  The 
Bill-Book  is  used  in  the  same  manner  in  Single 
and  Double  Entry.  A  separate  book  should  be 
kept  for  Bills  Receivable  and  Bills  Payable. 
When  a  note  is  received  it  should  be  imme- 
diately entered  under  the  head  of  Bills  Receiv- 
able and  duly  numbered ;  and  when  a  draft  is 
accepted,  or  note  paid  away,  it  should  be  en- 
tered as  Bills  Payable. 

In  some  cases  merchants  keep  a  Cash  account 
and  Bank  account  separately.  Thus,  if  they 
have  §5,000  on  hand  in  cash  and  should  deposit 
§1,000  of  it  in  the  First  National  Bank,  they 
would  debit  or  charge  the  bank  with  the  amount 
and  credit  Cash  for  the  amount  paid  away,  and 
when  they  draw  any  portion  from  the  bank  they 
credit  the  bank  with  the  amount  and  debit  Cash 
with  it ;  or,  if  it  is  paid  away  to  any  person,  he  is 
charged  with  it.       In  large  establishments  the 


/ 


\ 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


171 


Bank   account   is   frequently   kept  in  a   separ- 
ate book. 


THE  TWO  SYSTEMS. 


z^- 


®_ 


In  the  following  pages  are  given  three  sets  of 
accounts,  exemplifying  thoroughly  the  theory 
and  practice  of  Single  Entry  and  Double  Entr>' 
Book-keeping. 

Of  the  Double  Entry  sets,  the  first  is  a  very 
simple  one,  and  designed  to  prepare  the  student 
for  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  second,  in 
which  has  been  introduced  the  feature  of  com- 
bining the  Journal  and  Day-Book,  and  which 
also  presents  two  methods  of  closing  the  Led- 
ger, as  will  be  explained  further  on. 

The  Cash-Book,  in  Double  as  well  as  in  Sin- 
gle Entry,  shows  on  the  debit  side  all  cash  re- 
ceived and  on  the  credit  side  the  cash  paid  out, 
and  the  excess  of  debit  consequently  shows  the 
exact  amount  of  cash  on  hand.  The  form  used 
in  both  systems  is  the  same,  with  this  exception, 
that  in  Double  Entrj',  where  the  posting  is  done 
direct  from  the  Cash-Book,  a  column  is  ruled  off 
next  to  the  date  column  to  show  the  folio  of  the 
Ledger.  The  balances  may  be  brought  down 
weekly,  but  when  the  entries  are  numerous  it 
would  be  better  to  balance  the  Cash  account 
daily.  Money  received  or  paid  on  account  is 
entered  in  the  Cash-Book  as  well  as  the  Day- 
Book. 

The  first  and  last  thing  to  remember  in  study- 
ing Book-keeping  is  that 

The  thing  received  is  Dr. 
The  thing  delivered  is  Cr. 


Or, 


What  you  owe  is  Cr. 
What  owes  you  is  Dr. 

Debit  what  costs  value. 
Credit  what  produces  value. 


Book-Keeping  by  Single  Entry. 

In  the  pages  immediately  following  we  pre- 
sent to  the  student  a  set  of  books  kept  by  Single 
Entry. 

The  Day-Book  affords  a  regular  daily  history 
of  every  transaction,  giving  details  and  particu- 
lars. The  entries  in  the  book  are  direct 
and  simple,  first  stating  the  name  of  the  person 
to  be  debited  or  credited  on  the  Ledger,  ex- 
pressed, respectively,  by  "Dr."  and  "  Cr.,"  and 
giving  the  consideration  and  amount.  These 
entries  are  transferred  under  the  proper  heads 
in  the  Ledger,  which  in  Single  Entry  exhibits 
the  relation  in  which  persons  with  whom  we 
deal  stand  to  the  business.  An  account  in  the 
Ledger  should  be  transferred  to  a  new  folio  be- 
fore it  crowds  upon  the  one  below  it. 

The  Day-Book  and  Ledger  contain  only 
transactions  relating  to  persons.  A  prudent 
business  man,  however,  will  feel  the  necessity  of 
keeping  a  record  of  receipts  and  disbursements 
of  cash,  the  issue  and  redemption  of  his  own 
notes  and  the  receipt  and  disposition  of  the 
notes  of  others,  and  for  this  purpose  will  keep  a 
Cash-Book  and  a  Bill-Book.  The  Cash-Book  is 
here  given  in  full.  In  view  of  the  thorough  ex- 
planations appended,  the  form  of  the  auxiliary 
books  is  not  given. 

The  words  and  figures  in  italics  would  in 
practice  be  entered  in  red  ink,  as  illustrated  in 
the  Double  Entry  sets. 


VL 


A 


172 


SINGLE    ENTRY    CASH-BOOK. 


SINGLE  ENTRY  CASH-BOOK. 


Dr. 


Cash. 


ISS3. 

Nov. 

1 

To  Charles  Evans,  invested  by  him 
"    Thomas  J  effers,        "         "     '* 
"    Edgar  Hatch,  on  ^ 

To  Balance  on  hand  from  3d  inst. 
"    I   Bureau,  Mahogany  Veneered 

"   Bills  Receivable,  Martin  Stevens*  Note,  Evans*  favor. 
'•  John  Roberts,  Arm  Chair  for  Office 

$50 

64S 

60 

00 
oS 
00 

7SS 

08 

Nov, 

S 

l 
10 

674 

22 

S 

98 
00 

CO 

CX) 

826 

9S 

Nov, 

12 

'4 
16 

"7 

To  Balance  on  hand  from  loth  inst. 
"    I  Pint  of  \^amish 
"    Standing  Cupboard 
'*    I  Reclining  Chair 
"    2  Ottomans 
"    I  Walnut  Bedstead, 

64S 

7 

4 

60 
50 

75 
00 
00 
50 

6S6 

35 

Nov. 

19 

22 

To  Balance  on  hand  from  17th  inst, 
"   Steamboat  Vint  Shinkle,  part  Bill  of  date 

^ • 

S9S 
150 

23 
00 

74S 

23 

Nov, 

26 

7.0 

To  Balance  on  hand  from  24th  inst. 
"  2  Mahogany  Rocking  Chairs  Walnut,  O  $12.50 
*'   2    Walnut  Bedsteads,                                    fai      4.50 
"    I  Doz.  CaneSeat  Walnut  Chairs                         24.CO 
"    1  Child's  High  Chair                                                 1.25 
"          "        Rocking    "                                                   I.2S 
"    Edgar  Hatch,  in  full 
"   Repairing  Tables 
"          Chairs 

474 
25 
9 

26 

62 

2 

I 

S3 
00 
00 

50 
75 

f 
62 

1SS3. 
Dec, 

602 

oS 

, 

To  Balance  from  Nov.  30lh,  1SS3 

47" 

98 

\ 


SINGLE    ENTRY    CASH-BOOK. 


173 


/ 


SINGLE  ENTRY  CASH-BOQK. 


Cash. 


Cr. 


I8S3. 

1 

Nov. 

2 

By  C.  R.  George,  Bill  of  Lumber 

?  75  60 

" 

3 

"  BiUof  CoM 

V» 

" 

" 

"  Balance  in  Bank  ^Ojo,  in  Sa/t-  ^24.08 

674'qS 

. 

75S 

oS 

Nov, 

5 

By  Joseph  Maynes,  Bricklaver,  Repairs  to  House 

5' 

50 

" 

" 

**  James  Wright,  Painting  Hdusc 

22  00 

" 

8 

"  Samuel  Hudson,  in  full  of  jf 

6700 

** 

" 

'*  One  pair  of  Pinchers 

38 

" 

10 

"  Wages  paid  hands 

^.50 

" 

" 

"  Balance  in  Bank  ?t2o,  in  Safe  ^28.60 

648  ta 

82608 

By  Samuel  Hudson,  part  Bill  of  Paints,  etc. 

] 

Nov. 

16 

5000 

" 

■7 

'*  Wages  paid  hands 

38J.2 

"  Balance  in  Bank  ^S^S-SO,  '«  -^'f/e  f72.7j 

J9S 

•IJ 

^ 

6S6  3S 





Nov. 

22 

By  Bills  Payable,  Evans'  Note,  Smith's  favor,    $200.00 

Less  Discount  from  date  to  Jan.  6th,  1SS3             1.50 

19850 

" 

2.? 

**  Charles  Evans  on  ^ 

10  00 

" 

" 

"  Bill  of  Varnish 

■3  50 

" 

" 

"  Gas  Bill 

1425 

*' 

^^ 

*'  Dravagc  of  Furniture 

50 

" 

'* 

*'  Wages  paid  hands 

36  65 

" 

"  Balance  in  Bank  $470^  in  Safe  ^4.83 

474  Ss 
74S|23 

Nov. 

27 

By  Bill  of  Veneering 

25|6o 

" 

29 

"  Thomas  Jeffers,  on  f 

2500 

" 

•' 

"  Glazing  one  Light  of  Glass 

25 

" 

30 

"  Rent  of  Shop,  one  month 

40 

00 

" 

'• 

*'  Wages  paid  hands 

39 

^5 

"  Balance  in  Bank  ^4()o.so,  in  Safe  ^rr.48 

47' 

9* 

. 

602 

oS 





\ 


IV 


174- 


SINGLE    ENTRY    DAY-BOOK. 


SINGLE  ENTRY  DAY-BOOK. 

St.  Louis,  November  ist,  i88j. 


V- 


Charles  Evans,  Cabinet-Maker,  associates  with  himself  Thomas  Jeffers —  JEvans  transferring;  to  the  firm  such  portion 
of  his  resources  and  liabilities  as  is  mutually  agreed  upon,  and  Jeffers  investing  their  equivak-nt  in  Cash. 
The  parties  are  to  share  alike  in  gains  and  losses. 


Charles  Evans, 

By  Cash  invested 

"    Sundry  Notes  he  holds  against  others,  per  B.-B. 
"    Bal.  of  Edgar  Hatch's  jS 
"      "      Maurice  Perry's  {t 

"    Materials  and  Unfinished  work,  as  per  Inventory 
'*    Stock  of  Furniture,  "  ** 

*'         "  Tools,  "  " 


To  Sundry  Notes  he  owes,  per  B.-B. 
**    Bal.  due  Samuel  Hudson,  on    ^ 
"  "         Richard  Kelso  &  Co.,  on   ^ 


Dr. 


Thomas  Jeffers, 

By  Cash  invested 


Edgar  Hatch, 
To  Bal 

of  his  i 

due  Charles 

Evans 

Maurice  Perry, 
To  Bal 

of  his  ^ 

due  Charles  Evans 

Samuel  Hudson, 

By  Bal.  of  Charl 

js  Evans' 

* 

assumed 

by 

US 

Richard  Kelso 
By  Bal. 

&  Co., 
of  Charl 

es  Evans' 

>! 

assumed 

by 

us 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  I  Hair  Cloth  Mahogany  Sofa 

By  Cash  on   ^ 


3d 

Cr. 

5th 


Peter  Fowler, 

To  9  Mahogany  Chairs,  Cane-Seats,  ®  I1.25 
"    6  "  "  Hair-Cloth  Seats,  (a>  3.00 

"    2  Cherry  Dining  Tables,  (3)  6.00 
"    I  Maple  French  Bedstead 
"    I       "        Low-Post  Bedstead 

Osmond  Ray, 

To  I  doz.  Windsor    Chairs 


"    1  Spring-Seat  Black  Walnut  .Sofa 


Samvicl  Hudson, 

To  Cash  in  full 


Richard  Kelso  &  Co., 

By  Bill  of  Lumber 

To  our  Note  ®  30  days  in  full  of  their  ^ 


Sth 


yth 


Dr. 


Edgar  Hatch, 

To  I  Ash  F'ootstool 


Andrew  Cummins, 

To  3  Patent  Ofiice  Chairs  'a)  5.00 


Cr. 


50.00 
350.00 
5S-75 
37-+0 
356-50 
210.43 
151.20 

421.00 
67.00 
75-20 


Dr. 


Dr. 


11.25 
iS.oo 
12.00 
4--5 


Dr. 

$12.00 

®  $15.00    7.50 

"   10.00    5.00 

21.00 


Dr. 


Cr. 


563 


64S 


67 


4S 


'35 
210 


5° 


A^ 


^y^      -.>- 


r^ 


SINGLE    ENTRY    DAY-BOOK. 


175 


"71 


SINGLE  ENTRY  DAY-BOOK. 

S(.  Louis,  November  12th,  188 j. 


Edg:ir  Hatch, 

To  I  Red  Walnut  Dining  Table 

Francis  AVatkins, 

To  2  CluUlrcn's  Low  Chairs,  ®  Jj.oo 

John  A,  Crowe, 

To  3  doz.  Windsor  Chairs,  tSi  ?i  i.oo 
"    I  Rocking  Chair 

];dj;ar  Hatch, 

To   ^  of  Osinoiul  Ray,  assumL'd  bv  him 

Osmond  Rav, 

Ey  transfer  of  f  to  Edgar  Hatch 

Samuel  Hudson, 

By  Bill  of  Paints,  Varnish,  etc. 

To  Cash  in  part 

Francis  "Watkins, 

To  I  Walnut  Book-case 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  I  Hat-stand,  Mahogany  Veneered 

Francis  Watkins, 

To  Varnishing  i  Table 

Steamboat  Vint  Shinklc, 

To   3  Mahogany  Sofas,  ®  $15.00 

"     2            "            Tetc-a-Tctcs,  "  16.00 
"     I            "            Rocking  Chair 

'*     4           *'            Arm  Ch.airs,  "  S.oo 

'*     2  doz.  "            Chairs,  "  30.00 

"    14  Cherry  Wash-stands,  *'  2.00 

'•    14  Looking-glasses,  "  2.00 

By  Cash  in  part  payment 

Charles  Evans, 

To  Cash  on  ^ 


A.  E.  Ford, 

By  Bill  of  Lumber 


Tlioinas  Jeffers, 

To  Cash  on  f 


J  ohn  A.  Crowe, 

To  I  Mahogany  Bureau 


Francis  Watkins, 

To  I  Black  Walnut  Centre  Table 


13th 


iSlh 


i6th 


Pr. 


19th 


22d 


Edgar  Hatch, 

To  1  Mahogany  Bureau,  with  Glass 


Cr. 

23d 


26th 


2yth 


3ot!i 


John  A.  Crowe, 

By  1  Mahogany  Bureau,  returned  because  it  was  toc)  large  for  the  room 


Edgar  Hatch, 

By  his  Note  fS)  60  days 
"    Cash  to  Bal.   i 


Dr. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


e).oo 


32.00 

12.0O 
32.00 
60.00 
2S.OO 
2S.OO 


■lo 


A- 


45 


50 


■75  ^6 
JO  00 


23' 

■50 


>9 


-N 


A, 

ra      ^ 

^            0 

^ 

(3\ 
1 

176 

/ 
SINGLE    EXTRV    LEDGER. 

' 

Z);-. 

SINGLE  ENTRY  LEDGER. 

Charles  Evans.                                                                   0\ 

Jvov. 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

I 

To  Sundries 
"   Net  Capital  at  starting 

To  Cash  on   )! 
"    JVf/  Co/,  to  New  i 

I 
2 

563 '20 

b4S\oS 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

I 

By  Sundries 

I 

1,211 

2S 

1,211 

2S 

00 

3S 

i                1,211 

64S 
140 

2S 

oS 
30 

3S 

23 

30 

10 
778 

I         Bv  Net  Cap.  brought  down 
30          ''  5  Net  Gains 

7SS 

7SS 

1 

By  Net  Cap.  from  old  f 

77s 

3S 

Z?r. 

Thomas  Jcffers,                                                               Ci\ 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

29 
30 

To  Cash  on  ^ 
"    .AV/  Co/,  to  New  ^ 

2 

25 

7b3 

00 
3l_ 

■SS3. 
Nov. 

■SS3. 
Dec. 

30 

By  Cxsh  invested 
"  \  Net  Gains 

Hy  Net  Cap.  from  old  i 

I 

648 
140 

oS 
30 
3S 

r 

7SS 

7SS 

I 

763 

Z?;'. 

Edgar  Hatch,                                                                    0\ 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

I 
3 
9 

13 

'5 

To  Charles  Evans 
••  Sofa 
'*  Footstool 
"  Dinin)!;  Table 
"  Osmund  Ray 

AmU  to  folio 

I 
I 
I 
2 

2 
2 

1 

55'75 
20I00 

I  50 
40100 
4S|50 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

3 

r.y  Cash 

^                    Am^t  to  folio 

1 
2 

60 

00 
00 

ib2 

75 

60 

Dr. 

Maurice  Peny,                                                                Cr. 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

I 

To  Charles  Evans 

I 

37 

40 

Dr. 

Samuel  Hudson,                                                                 Cr, 

■SS3. 

Nov. 
1SS3. 
Nov. 

8 

To  Cash 

To  Cash 
"  £al.  to  New  f 

I 
2 

67 

00 

00 

26 

18S3. 
Nov. 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

1 

By  Charles  Evans 
By  Bill  of  d.ile 

By  Bal.  from  Old  f 

I 
2 

67 

00 

16 
30 

SO 
lis 

16 

■75 

26 

>7S 

'75 
125 

26 
26 

I 

Dr. 

Richard  Kelso  &  Co.                                                           Cr. 

1S33. 

Nov. 

9 

To  Bills  Payable 

1 

210 

20 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

I 
9 

By  Charles  Evans 
•'  Bill  of  dale 

I 

I 

75 
135 

20 
00 
20 

210 

20 

210 

Z*/'. 

Peter  Fowler.                                                                     Cr. 

< 

1S83. 
Nov. 

S 

To  Sundries 

I 

♦s 

-s 

k 

/ 

\| 

9 

^T" 

i           » 

' 

■•      0 

"r 

^^ 

-?               ^ 

<5 

>>•  ^ 

G 

I 

\ 

SINGLE    ENTRY    LEDGER.                                                                                          177" 

> 

Dr. 

SINGLE  ENTRY   LEDGER. 

Osmond  Ray.                                                                    Cr. 

1SS3. 

Xov. 

S 

To  Sundries 

> 

45  50 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

'5 

By  Edgar  Hatch 

2 

4550 

1 

1 

Dr. 

Andrezu  Ctimmins,                                                             Cr, 

1SS3. 

1        Nov. 

9 

To  Office  Chairs 

I 

1 

1500 

Dr. 

Francis  Watkins. 

Cr. 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

'3 
16 
20 

To  Children's  Chairs 
'*  Book -case 
'*  Varnisliing 

2 
2 

2 

4 
>S 

00 
00 
50 
50 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

20 

Bv  Hal.  to  folio 

2 

19 

50 

'9 

10 

5?_ 

Z?r. 

John  A.  Crozve.                                           .                    Cr, 

.SS3. 

Nov. 

.SS3. 
Dec. 

13 

2y 

I 

To  Sundries 
"    Itureau 

To  Hal.  from  Old  f 

2 
3 

42 

00 
00 
00 

00 

■  SS3. 
Nov. 

30 
3' 

By  Bureau 
''   Sa/.  to  New  i 

2 

19 

42 

00 
00 

61 

61 

00 

42 

- 

Dr. 

^        Edgar  Hatch.                                                                 Cr. 

.SS3. 

Nov. 

15 
i6 

To  Am't  from  folio 
'•  llat-srand 
**  Bureau 

I 
2 
2 

162 
10 

2."; 

75 
00 
00 

75- 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

30 

By  Am't  from  folio 
•*  Sundries 

1 
2 

60 

'37 

00 
75 

'97 

'97 

75 

Dr. 

Steamboat  Vint  Shinkle,                                                           Cr, 

■SS3. 

Nov. 

■  SS3. 
Dee. 

22 

To  Sundries 

To  Bal.  from  Old  f 

a 

237 

00 
00 

.SS3. 
Nov. 

22 
30 

Bv  Cash 
''  ]3<il.  to  Ne-M  i 

2 

'1° 

00 
00 
00 

237 

237 

s? 

00 

Dr. 

A.  E.  Ford.                                                                   Cr. 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

23 

By  Bill  of  d.ate 

2 

96 

40 

Dr. 

Francis  Watkins.                                                              Cr. 

■SS3. 

Nov. 
*' 

■  SS3. 
Dec. 

20 
30 

To  Bal.  from  folio 
"  Centre  Table 

To  Bal.  from  Old   * 

2 . 

2 

■950 
15  00 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

30 



liy  Bal.  to  JVeia  f 

3*  SO 

34  50 

3» 

50 

\ 

4 

34 

50 

k 

/ 

9 

"^ 

'3                  *■ 

r 

a 

T*" 

■*. 

i     ^ 

„ 

_9 

^ 

^ 

\ 

178                                                                                                        BOOK-KEEPING. 

-7| 

r 

UNSETTLED 

DEDUCTIONS. 

\ 

BALANCES  ON  THE  LEDGER. 

DEBTS  DUE  THE  FIRM. 

DEBTS   THE    FIRM   OWE. 

Maurice  Perry 
Peter  Fowler 
Andrew  Cummins 
John  A.  Crowe 
Steamboat  Vint  Shinkle 
Francis  Watkins 

374° 
4825 

IS 
34  so 

Samuel  Hudson 
A.  E.  Ford 

"5 
96 

26 
40 

264 

'S 

221 

66 

1 

The  aoove  Ledger  balances,  together  wit 

ASSE 

ent : 

h  the  auxiliary  books,  fuinish  the  material  for  the  following  statem 

TS  AND  LIABILITIES. 

ASSETS. 

\>                                            LIABILITIES. 

Cash  on  hand  per  C.-B. 

Debts  due  the  firm  per  Ledger 
,  Bills  Receivable  per  B.-B. 
i          Furniture  per  Invt.  Book 
1          Materials,  etc.,  per  Invt.  Book 
'          Tools,  per  Invt.  Book 

Total  assets 
Deduct  liabilities 

Firm's  net  capital  or  present  worth 

471 
264 
300 
776 

239 
141 

98 
■5 

75 
79 
95 

Debts  the  firm  owe  per  Ledger 
Bills  Payable  per  B.-B. 

Tot.-il  liabilities 

221 
431 

66 
20 

2,19462 
65286 

6S2 

36 

i,S4"  7fi 

ASSETS,  INCLUDING  PARTNERS'  DEBITS. 

LIABILITIES,  INCLUDING  PARTNERS'  INVESTMENTS. 

Total  assets  per  above  statement 
Cash  paid  Charles  Evans 
"            Thomas  Jeffers 

Deduct 

Firm*s  net  gains 

Each  partner's  K  =  ?MO.30' 

2,19462 
10 

2S 

Total  liabilities  per  above  statement 
Charles  Evans'  investment 
Thomas  Jeffers'  investment 

65^ 
64S 
64S 

oS 
oS 

02 

2,229  ^2 

l,949'o2 

'.9»9 

2S0 

60 

/■ 

i 

n 

r  4  -    "■ 

-^ 

c 

'»*' 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


179 


^¥3  HE  distinguishing  feature  of  Double  Entry 
(3^  is  in  carrying  out  a  mathematical  principle 
of  equilibrium,  under  the  titles  of  debtor  and  cred- 
itor, or  debits  and  credits.  To  preserve  this 
equilibrium,  every  debit  must  have  a  credit  or 
credits  to  balance  the  amount,  and,  vice-versa, 
every  credit  must  be  balanced  equally  by  a 
debit  or  debits.  In  Single  Entry  a  record  is  kept 
of  resources  and  liabilities  only ;  in  Double  En- 
try is  added  a  record  of  gains  and  losses. 

The  Day-Book  is  the  original  book  of  entry 
and  should  contain  in  a  concise  and  unequivocal 
form  a  consecutive  history  of  transactions,  in 
the  order  and  on  the  date  of  their  occurrence. 

The  purpose  of  the  Journal  is  to  decide  upon 
the  proper  debits  and  credits  in  each  transac- 
tion, preparatary  to  entering  them  in  the  Led- 
ger. The  process  of  thus  classifying  transac- 
tions by  debits  and  credits  is  caXled  journalizing. 
Very  often  the  Day-Book  and  Journal  are  com- 
bined in  a  "Journal  Day-Book,"  as  in  Set  II. 

The  Ledger  is  the  final  book  of  entry,  and  in 
it  are  arranged,  under  the  proper  accounts,  all 
facts  necessary  for  a  full  statement  of  the  busi- 
ness. EacK  of  these  accounts  exhibits  one 
of  the  four  following  results,  viz. :  A  resource, 
a  liability,  a  loss,  or  a  gain.  The  process  of 
transferring  accounts  from  the  Journal  to  the 
Ledger  is  called  posting. 


To  close  an  account  in  the  Ledger,  add  the 
debit  and  credit  sides  separately  on  a  slip  of 
paper,  and,  if  the  totals  thus  obtained  are  not 
equal,  subtract  the  smaller  from  the  greater. 
This  difference  is  entered  in  red  ink  to  make  up 
the  deficiency  of  the  smaller  side.  Then  rule 
with  red  ink  and  enter  the  totals  in  black.  The 
red  ink  entry  is  then  transferred  in  black  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  account  into  which  it  is 
closed.  When  both  columns  are  equal  the  to- 
tals are  simply  entered  in  black,  and  this  indi- 
cates that  the  account  is  cancelled.  When  there 
are  more  entries  on  one  side  of  an  account  than 
on  the  other,  a  line  is  drawn,  after  closing  the 
account,  obliquely  across  the  vacant  space. 
This  line  commences  at  a  double  rule  opposite 
the  double  rule  under  the  totals,  and  extends 
thence  in  the  direction  of  the  last  figure  in  the 
column. 

The  Key  to  Journalizing. 

Remember  that  the  key  to  all  journalizing  is 
stated  in  the  two  old  lines  which  the  student 
would  do  well  to  memorize  : 

" By  Journal  laws  ".chat  you  receive 
Is  Dr.  made  to  ivhat you  give." 

By  referring  constantly  to  this  rule  and  ex- 
amining each  entry  in  the  Journal  or  Journal 
Day-Book  by  its  light,  the  whole  mystery 
of  Double  Entry  Book-keeping  will  become 
clear. 


/' 


\ 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


-^^~- 


THE  PRINCIPLES. 


0 


An  account  is  a  statement  of  facts  and  figures 
relating  to  some  person,  property  or  cause,  so 
arranged  as  to  show  a  specific  result.  As  stated 
on  a  preceding  page,  there  are  two  classes  of 
accounts,  Ufa/  and  Representative.  In  other 
terms,  accounts  showing  resources  and  liabilities, 
and  accounts  showing  losses  and  gains.  The  for- 
mer are  closed  "  To  Balance  "  or  "  By  Balance," 
and  the  latter  "  To  Loss  and  Gain  "  or  "  By  Loss 
and  Gain."  Some  accountants  use  the  words 
"  Profit  and  Loss,"  instead  of  "  Loss  and  Gain." 

The  following  rules,  embodying  the  principles 
of  Double  Entry  Book-keeping,  will  be  found 
to  cover  in  a  concise  form  all  points  which  gen- 
erally confuse  the  student  groping  through  a 
voluminous  treatise : 

TXvi  proprietor  or  \h^  partners  in  a  business  should  be  cred- 
ited for  all  investments  and  for  the  gain  or  share  of  the  gain, 
and  debited  for  liabilities  assumed,  for  all  sums  withdrawn  from 
the  business  and  for  the  loss  or  share  of  the  loss  incurred. 
Where  there  is  only  one  proprietor  he  is  represented  on  the 
books  by  Stock,  but  in  a  partnership  business  each  partner's  ac- 
count is  kept  under  his  own  name.  The  Stock  account  and 
partners'  accounts  are  closed  •'To  Balance"  or  "By  Balance." 
The  Cash  account  is  credited  for  all  disbursements  and 
debited  for  all  receipts  of  cash.  It  always  closes  "By  Balance." 
A  Bank  account  shows  on  the  debit  side  the  amount  deposit- 
ed, and  on  the  credit  side  the  amount  withdrawn,  and  closes 
"  By  Balance,"  unless  the  account  is  overdrawn. 

The  Merchandise  account  is  credited  with  the  proceeds  and 
debited  with  the  cost  of  merchandise  on  hand  at  commencing 
and  purchased  in  the  course  of  business.  When  the  merchan- 
dise has  all  been  sold,  as  in  Set  I.,  the  difference  between  the 
sides  will  show  a  gain  if  the  credit  side  is  the  greater,  and  a  loss 
if  the  debit  side  preponderates.  Real  estate,  personal  property 
and  speculative  accounts  come  under  this  rule. 

The  Bills  Receivable  account  is  credited  when  the  notes, 
acceptances  or  obligations  of  others  are  disposed  of  or  paid, 
and  debited  when  such  obligations  are  acquired.  This  account 
always  closes  "By  Balance." 

The  Bills  Payable  account  is  credited  when  notes,  etc.,  of 
the  firm  or  business  are  issued,  and  debited  when  they  are  paid 
or  redeemed.     It  always  closes  "  To  Balance." 

Personal  accounts,  including  the  names  of  persons,  banks 
and  corporations  or  institutions  competent  to  sue  or  be  sued, 
are  credited  when  we  become  indebted  to  them  or  they  get  out 
of  our  debt,  and  debited  when  they  become  indebted  to  us  or 
we  get  out  of  their  debt.  These  accounts  are  closed  "By  Bal- 
ance" or  "To  Balance." 


The  Expense  account  is  debited  for  liabilities  incurred  and 
cash  paid  out  for  which  no  direct  return  is  expected  —  such  as 
salaries,  rent,  etc.     This  account    closes  "  By  Loss  and  Gain." 

The  Loss  and  Gain  account  is  debited  with  losses  and  credit- 
ed with  gains,  and  closes  "To  Stock"  or  "By  Stock." 

Under  the  head  of  Interest  and  Discount  are  debited  and 
credited  all  allowances  for  the  use  of  money  on  notes,  drafts, 
etc.  Credit  the  account  when  it  produces  value ;  debit  the  ac- 
count when  it  costs  value.  This  account  closes  "  To  Loss  and 
Gain"  or  "By  Loss  and  Gain." 

SET  I. 

By  way  of  initiation  into  the  principles  and 
practice  of  Double  Entry  Book-keeping  we 
present  in  Set  L  the  record  of  simple  business 
transactions.  It  will  be  observed  that  all  trans- 
actions are  first  entered,  in  the  order  of  their 
occurrence,  in  the  Day-Book,  from  which  they 
are  transferred  to  the  Journal,  or  journalized, 
and  thence  they  are  posted  to  the  Ledger.  The 
established  form  of  Journal  entries  requires  the 
debit  expression  to  precede  the  credit.  There- 
fore, in  applying  the  preceding  principles  to  the 
first  entry  in  the  Day-Book,  using  the  word 
Stock  to  denote  the  proprietor,  we  have  as  our 
first  Journal  entry,  "  Cash,  Dr.,  to  Stock,  $2,- 
OOO."  When  one  person  or  account  is  indebted 
to  another  in  a  certain  sum,  the  latter  is  the 
creditor  of  the  former  to  the  same  amount.  This 
is  the  foundation  of  Double  Entry  Book-keep- 
ing, the  most  important  characteristic  of  which 
we  now  encounter  in  transferring  the  first  trans- 
action to  the  Ledger,  where  it  will  be  doitbly 
entered,  on  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Cash  account, 
and  on  the  Cr.  side  of  the  Stock  account. 

The  check-mark  (]  )  in  the  Day-Book  is  to 
indicate  that  the  transaction  has  been  carried  to 
the  Journal,  and  the  figure  in  the  first  column  of 
the  Journal  shows  the  page  of  the  Ledger  to 
which  the  account  is  posted.  The  number  in 
the  Ledger  column  immediately  preceding  the 
amount  refers,  in  turn,  to  the  Journal  page. 

How  to  Close  the  Ledger. 

The  purpose  of  closing  the  Ledger  is  to  show 
the  state  of  each  account  in  a  single  amount, 
to  do  away  with  the  unused  accounts,  and  to 
ascertain  clearly  the  general  results  of  the  busi- 


VL 


-^1 


^i 


\ 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


l8l 


ncss.  In  this  process  all  the  losses  and  gains  are 
gathered  together  in  the  Loss  and  Gain  account, 
and  there  compared,  the  gains  being  placed  upon 
the  credit,  and  losses  on  the  debit  side.  When 
the  credit  side  is  the  greater  the  account  is  closed 
"To  Stock"  and  shows  a  net  gain.  The  oppo- 
site entry,  "By  Loss  and  Gain,"  is  made  in  the 
Stock  account  and  increases  the  capital.  When 
the  debit  side  is  the  greater,  the  account  shows  a 
net  loss  and  is  closed  "  By  Stock,"  and  the  op- 
posite entry  in  the  Stock  account,  "To  Loss 
and  Gain,"  indicates  a  decrease  in  capital. 

The  first  step  in  closing  the  Ledger  is  to  take  a  Trial  Balance, 
that  is,  to  make  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  Ledger  accounts, 
with  their  proper  debit  and  credit  totals  and  differences.  If  the 
Ledger  is  correct,  the  total  debits  will  equal  the  total  credits. 

The  ne.\t  thing  in  order  is  to  ascertain  by  an  inventory  the 
value  of  all  goods  and  property  unsold  and  credit  the  amounts 
in  red  ink  to  the  proper  accounts,  "By  Balance,  Inventory." 
The  opposite  entry  is  afterwards  made  on  the  debit  side  of  the 
Balance  account  in  black  ink.  Thus,  if  the  Merchandise  ac- 
count has  in  red  ink  the  entry,  "By  Balance,  Inventory,  $i,6oo," 
the  corresponding  entry  in  black  in  the  Balance  accoimt  will 
read,  "To  Mdsc.,  $i,6oo."  In  Set  I.  the  entire  stock  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  sold,  and  consequently  no  entry  of  this  kind 
will  be  found. 

Now  a  Loss  and  Gain  account  is  opened,  if  this  has 
not  been  done  previously,  and  also  a  Balance  account. 
In  the  first  are  to  be  entered  in  black  ink  all  accounts  closing 
"  To  Loss  and  Gain  "  or  "  By  Loss  and  Gain,"  showing  the 
profit  and  loss  on  each  account.  In  the  second  are  to  be  enter- 
ed all  accounts  closing  "To  Balance"  or  "By  Balance,"  show- 
ing the  resources  and  liabilities. 

Close  first  all  accounts  to  which  inventory  balances  have  been 
carried.  Tlie  differences  between  the  sides  of  these  accounts 
will  show  gain  or  loss,  and  the  closing  entry,  in  red  ink,  will 
express  the  difference — "By  Loss  and  Gain"  or  "To  Loss  and 
Gain." 

Having  finished  these  accounts,  the  other  accounts  in  the  Led- 
ger, excepting  Stock  and  partners'  accounts,  are  closed  in  red 
ink  —  "To"  or  "By  Loss  and  Gain,"  or  "To  "  or  "ByBal- 
ance." 

The  "Loss  and  Gain"  and  "Balance  "  red  ink  entries  are 
now  carried  in  black  ink  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Loss  and 
Gain  and  Balance  accounts. 

The  Loss  and  Gain  account  is  now  closed,  in  red  ink,  "To 
Stock"  or  "  By  Stock."  In  a  partnership  business  each  partner 
is  credited  or  debited  with  his  share. 

The  process  of  closing  the  Ledger  is  now  completed  by  tak- 
ing the  difference  between  the  sides  of  the  Stock  account  and 
entering  in  red  ink  "  To  Balance  "  or  "  By  Balance,"  which  is 
transferred  in  black  to  the  Balance  account. 


Balance  'Sheets. 

The  balance  sheet  given  for  Set  II.  is  tlie  most  condensed 
form  for  a  partnership  business.  The  style  and  symmetry 
will  commend  it  to  all  accountants,  while  the  fulness  of  the 
illustrations  must  satisfy  all.  The  form  has  been  used  for  a  long 
time,  but  has  never  been  adopted  to  any  great  extent  by  busi- 
ness men,  the  objection  being  its  inadequacy  to  contain  long 
lists  of  personal  accounts.  This  objection  can  be  overcome  by 
using,  instead  of  persons'  names,  the  general  titles  Accounts 
Receivable  and  .Accounts  Payable.  In  nearly  all  kinds  of  busi- 
ness this  will  reduce  the  number  of  accounts  within  the  limits  of 
this  form. 

The  following  rules  should  be  used  in  preparing  this  form  : 
First  rule  the  parallel  head-lines,  leaving  space  for  the  double 
captions.  Then  ascertain  the  number  of  Ledger  accounts  to  be 
represented.  This  will,  of  course,  embrace  all  the  accounts  in 
the  Trial  Balance  that  do  not  cancel.  If  the  business  is  that  of 
a  single  proprietor,  rule  in  pencil  as  many  lines  as  will  contain 
all  the  accounts,  and  five  additional.  If  it  be  a  partnership  busi- 
ness, with  two  or  more  partners,  rule  three  additional  lines  for 
each  partner.  Next  lay  off  proper  spaces  for  debit  and  credit 
money  columns  :  first,  for  the  footings  of  Ledger  accounts  ;  sec- 
ond, for  Gains  and  Losses  ;  third,  for  Stock ;  and  fourth,  for  Re- 
sources and  Liabilities;  also, for  a  single  money  column  for  in- 
ventories, and  for  the  Ledger  titles  and  their  Ledger  folios. 
After  denoting  the  proper  space  for  each  heading,  commence  to 
rule  with  red  ink  at  the  right  hand  and  bring  all  the  lines  of  the 
first  two  captions,  Real  accounts  and  Stock,  or  one  of  the  part- 
ners, down  to  the  lower  pencil  line.  For  the  other  partner  drop 
two  lines.  For  Losses  and  Gains "  drop  two  lines,  for  Stock 
business ;  and  an  additional  line  for  each  partner.  Then  rule 
the  foot-lines  as  shown,  and  the  schedule  will  be  ready  to  receive 
the  accounts. 

Auxiliary  Books. 

All  accountants,  where  the  business  is  any  way  large,  keep 
what  are  termed 'auxiliary  books.  Among  these  is  the  Intentory- 
BoOK.  It  is  used  to  enumerate  the  different  articles  of  unsold 
merchandise,  at  such  times  as  may  be  deemed  desirable.  In- 
ventories are  frequently  copied  into  Invoice-Books. 

An  Invoice  is  a  statement  in  detail  of  goods  sold,  shipped 
abroad  or  consigned  to  another  to  be  sold.  The  Invoice-Book 
is  used  for  taking  copies  of  the  invoices  which  accompany 
goods  purchased  or  received  on  consignment.  Some  houses, 
instead  of  copying,  paste  their  invoices  in  a  blank  Invoice-Book 
prepared  for  this  purpose.  This  book,  while  showing  tlie  entire 
cost  of  merchandise,  will  also  exhibit  the  separate  credits  pro- 
ducing merchandise.  If  a  lot  or  package  is  distinguished  by 
a  peculiar  mark,  that  mark  is  transferred  to  the  invoice,  thus 
serving  an  important  purpose  in  checking  the  articles,  adjusting 
disputes,  etc. 

Bills  Receivable  and  Bills  Payable  are  usually  bound  in  op- 
posite ends  of  the  same  book,  termed  a  BlLI,-BoOK.  This  book 
should  never  be  omitted,  and  especially  is  it  important  to  keep 
a  record  of  the  amount  and  condition  of  notes  payable. 

The  Sales-Book  contains  all  the  regular  sales,  cither  for  cash 
or  on  time.  In  houses  doing  a  mixed  business  the  Sales-Book 
and  Commission  Sales-Book  can  with  equal  propriety  be  kept 
together  or  separate,  as  convenience  may  dictate. 


V- 


J^J 


^r 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


SET  I.     DAY-BOOK.    (I.) 

St.  Loins,  December  ist,  i88j. 


V 


,/ 


Commenced  business  this  day  with  Cash  to  the  amount  of 


Bouglit  of  Armstrong"  &  Co.,  on    t , 

i,ooo  brls.  Flour,  fS)  $6.00, 


Sold  Jesse  Jameson,  for  Cash, 

300  brls.  F^lour,  ©  $6.50, 


Sold  John  Williams,  on  ^, 


250  brls.  Flour,  ®  $7.00, 


Sold  Wm.  Moore,  on  his  Note  ®  30  days, 

15a  brls.  Flour,  fS)  $7.00, 


Bought  of  Joseph  Wheelock,  on  our  Note  ©  60  days, 
500  bu.  Wheat,  ©  $1.00, 


Sold  Albert  St.  John,  for  Cash, 

100  bu.  Wheat,  <a>  %\.iS-, 
100  brls.  Flour,  ®  $6.75, 


$125.00 
675.00 


Paid  Cash  for  Stationery  and  Books  for  use  of  Store, 


Bought  of  Edwin  EUerton,  for  Cash, 

300  brls.  Flour,  <S)  $5.00, 


Sold  Peter  Potts,  for  Cash, 


100  brls.  Flour,  fa)  ^.00, 


Bought  of  W.  L.  George,  on  ^ , 


1,000  bu,  Oats,  (&  750, 


Sold  Sellers  &  Bro.,  on  their  Note  (cb  5  days, 

500  bu.  Oats,  <cb  So0, 
100  bu.  Wheat,  (Si  $1.15, 


Sold  Bernard  Blair,  for  Cash, 


400  brls.  Flour,  (cb  $6.00, 
300  bu.  Wheat,  ®  $1.10, 


Bought  of  Howard  Harrison,  on   ^  , 

1,500  brls.  Flour,  (q)  ¥5.50, 


Sold  A.  A.  McHatton,  on  ^ , 


1,000  brls.  Flour,  fS)  $6.00, 


Received  Cash  in  full  for  Sellers  &  Bro.'s  Note, 


Sold  Patrick  Connolly,  for  Cash, 

500  brls.  Flour,  O  $5." 
500  bu.  Oats,  (da  go0, 


-7 

2S 
29 


Paid  Clerk  Hire,  in  Cash, 
Paid  Store  Rent,      ' 


$400.00 
115.00 


$2,400.00 
330.00 


=,875.00 
450.00 


2,000 


6,000 


1,950 


J  ,750 


500 


Soo 


SO 


1,500 


750 


S'5 


8,250 

6,000 

SIS 

3,325 


$60.00 
40.00  100 


3S.3SS 


/^ 


N" 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


SET  I.    JOURNAL     (I.) 

St.  Loin's,  December  i,  iS8j. 


Cash, 


Dr. 


Merchandise, 


JJ^. 


Cash, 


John  Williams, 


Dr. 


Merchandise, 


:  Cash, 


Expense, 


Merchandise, 


Cash, 


I  Merchandise, 


ICash, 


iis; 


ebchandise, 


A.  A.  McHatton, 


Cash, 


Cash, 


2       [Expense, 


Dr. 


Bills  Receivable,  Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


To  Stock, 


To  Armstrong  &  Co., 
3 


To  Merchandise, 

S 


To  Merchandise,    . 

7 


To  Merchandise, 


To  Bills  Payable, 


To  Merchandise, 


To  Cash, 

'S      - 


To  Cash, 


To  Merchandise, 

iS  


Dr.         Cr. 


To  W,  L.  George, 


Bills  Receivable,  Dr. 


To  Merchandise, 


To  Merchandise,    . 
26 


To  Howard  Harrison, 

27 


To  Merchandise, 

2S 


To  Bills  Receivable, 
29       


To  Merchandise, 

3' 


6,000 


1.950 


',750 


Soo 

800 

SO 

I. SOO 
600 
7S0 
S'S 

2.730 

S,2S0 

6,000 

I 

i 
1 
100 

i  38,38s 


-6,000 


'.9S0, 


'  .75° 


SOO 

SCO 

SO 

I, SOO 

600 

750 

5^5 

2.730  , 

8,250 

6,000 

S>5 

3.32s 

100 
38,385 


/• 


K- 


184 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


=k.- 


Dr. 


SET  I.    LEDGER.     (I.) 

Stock. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


■883. 

Dec. 

I 

To  Stock, 

3 

"  Mdse., 

12 

"        '■ 

'7 

" 

22 

2S 

"   Bills  Receivable, 

29 

"  Mdse., 

1884. 

Jan. 

I 

To  Balance, 

Dr. 


1883, 

Dec. 


1  I  To  Armstrong  &  Co., 

10  '  "    Bills  Payable, 

IS  i  "    Cash, 

18  "    W.  L.  George, 

26  "    Howard  Harrison, 

7/  I  "'    Loss  and  Gain, 


Dr. 


1883. 

Dec. 

3' 

To  Balanct, 

3.S70 

1883. 
Dec. 

I 
31 

By  Cash, 
'*    Loss  and  Gain, 

By  Balance, 

I 

2,000 

I.S70 

3,SJ0 

3.S70 

1SS4. 
Jan. 

I 

3.570 

1 

Cash. 


2,000 

'.950 
800 
600 

2.730 

3.325 


11,920 


10,270 


1SS3. 

Dec. 


14 

15 
3' 


Armstrong  &  Co. 


Cr. 


By  Expense, 

I 

50 

"    Mdse., 

I 

1,500 

*'    Expense, 

I 

100 

Balance. 

L2 

lo.rjo 

^.^^--^^^^ 

11,920 

Merchandise. 

Cr. 

18S3. 

6,000 

Dec. 

3         I 

Jy  Cash,                                                i 

1,950 

!            5oo| 

5 

'    John  Williams,                              i 

1,750 

1,500 

7     , 

'    Bills  Receivable,                            i 

1,050 

750 

,2 

'    Cash,                                                I 

Soo 

8,250 

■7     1 

'        "                                                     I 

600 

"^ 

7,720 

i 

20 
22 

27 

'    Bills  Receivable,                           I 
'    Cash,                                                I 
'    A.  A.  McHatton,                           I 

2,730 
6,000 

j 



29 

1 

'    Cash,                                                I 

3.32s 
18,720 

18,720 

Cr. 


VL. 


1SS3. 

Dec. 


3' 


Dr. 


1883. 

Dec. 


Jan. 


To  Mdse., 


To  Balance, 


L2 


1SS3. 
Dec. 


1S84. 
Jan. 


I         Bv  Mdse., 


I      !    By  Balance, 


/okn  Williams. 


1.75 


■,750 


6,000 


Cr. 


Lt 


',7iO 


\<i- 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


i8s 


/ 


Z>r. 


SET  I.     LEDGER.    (2.) 

Bil/s  Receivable. 


Cr. 


I8S3. 

Dec. 

7 

20 

.884. 
Jan. 

I 

Dr. 


To  Mdse., 


To  Balance, 


1,050 
TS5S 


1,050 


1883. 
Dec. 


28        By  Cash, 

31      I       "   Bitlanct\ 


Bills  Payable. 


1 

1 
/.ojc- 

>.S6i 

1 
1 

Cr. 


18S3. 

Dec. 


3' 


To  Balance, 


L2 

JOO 

1883. 

Dec. 

10 

.884. 
Jan. 

1 

By  Mdse., 
By  Balance, 


1 

500 

Soo 

Dr. 


Expense. 


Cr. 


I8S3. 

Dec. 

H 

3' 

Tq  Cash, 


I 

I 

so 
100 

1 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

3' 

1 

. 

; 

By  Loss  and  Gain, 


ISO 


Dr. 


1883. 

Dec. 


3' 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 


W.  L.  George. 


T.2 

ISO 



1883. 
Dec. 

18     \ 

1884. 
Jan. 

1 

I 

By  Mdse., 
By  Balance, 


Howard  Harrison. 


Cr. 


I 

7S0 

1 
7S0 

Cr. 


/S83. 

Dec. 


"^" 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 


L2 

8,350 

1883. 

Dec. 

26 

I 

.8S4. 
Jan. 

By  Mdse., 
By  Balance, 


A.  A.  McHatton. 


8,250 


8,250 


Cr. 


1S83. 

Dec. 

lSS4.~ 
Jan. 


27 


To  Mdse., 

To  Balance, 


Dr. 


1883. 

Dec. 


3> 
3> 
31 
3' 


To  Cash, 
*'  John  Williams, 
**  Bills  Receivable, 
"  A.A.  McHatton, 


Dr. 


X 

6,oao 

1883. 
Dec. 

3' 

6,000 

1 

. 

■ 

By  Balance, 


Balance, 


L. 

Li 
La 
L2 

10,270 
',750 
1,050 
6,000 

1 

IS83. 

Dec. 
«( 

1 
31 

3' 

31 

■  3« 

3" 

19,070 

By  Armstrong  &  Co., 
•*  Bills  Payable, 
"  W.  L.  George, 
"  Howard  Harrison, 
"  Balance  {net  capital)^ 


Loss  and  Gain, 


L2 


Ck 


Li 

L2 
L2 
L2 

6,000 
500 
750 

8,250 

5vJ7o 
.9,070 

Cr. 


1883. 

Dec. 


31 
3' 


To  Kxpense, 
'•   Stock  {net gain^i. 


k- 


v'ls" 


L2 

Li 

ISO 
'xSTO 



1,720 

1883. 

Dec. 


31     (   By  Mdse., 


Li 


1,720 
"T,72o 


fv 


i86 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


^ 


A 


Dr. 


SET  I.    TRIAL  BALANCE— FACE  OF  LEDGER. 


Cr. 


J 1 ,920! 
17,000 

1.750 
1.565 

150 


6,000 


ss^ss 


Stock 

Cash      . 

Merchandise 

Armstrong  &  Co. 

J  ohn  "Williams 

Bills  Receivable 

Bills  Payable 

Expense 

W.  L.  George 

Howard  Harrison 

A.  A.  McHatton 


EqiaUbriiim 


2,000 
1,650 
iS,72o 
6,000 

500 

750 
8,250 

38,3851 


L 


TRIAL  BALANCE— DIFFERENCES. 


Dr. 


Cr. 


Stock, 
Ca.^h, 

Merchandise,     . 
Armstrong  &  Co., 
John  AVilliams, 
]  Bills  Receivable, 
!  Bills  Payable, 
E.\pense,     . 
\V.  L.  George, 
Howard  Harrison, 
A.  A.  McHatton, 


10,270, 


'.75° 
1,050 


ISO 


6,000 
19,220 


*, 

^-. 

o 

G 

1 

\ 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

187 

DOUBLE  isEilL-  ENTRY. 


DAY-BOOK  AND  JOURNAL  COMBINED. 


^H^  N  the  system  given  in  the  following  pages, 
^*^  the  main  feature  is  the  combination 
(?^S  of  the  Day-Book  and  the  Journal.  This 
form  is  the  most  practical  in  use  for  general  pur- 
poses, and  has  been  adopted  by  accountants  in 
all  branches  of  business.  Its  chief  advantage  is 
in  dispensing  with  a  separate  Journal,  and  in 
bringing  the  Day-Book  and  Journal  entries  into 
such  immediate  connection  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
of  their  identity.  In  this  set  by  Merchandise 
Companies  is  meant  the  temporary  copartnership 
existing  between  the  consignor  and  the  con- 
signee, having  reference  to  the  sale  of  particular 
consignments.  In  Merchandise  Company  busi- 
ness, one  of  the  partners,  the  consignee,  is  the 
commission  merchant,  and,  in  that  capacity,  re- 
ceives and  disposes  of  the  property  as  he  would 
of  a  simple  consignment,  the  only  difference  be- 
ing that  he  is  interested  in  the  losses  and  gains. 
This  species  of  copartnership  differs  from  that 
of  a  general  partnership  only  in  its  duration  and 
the  manner  of  conducting  its  sales.  In  the  first 
method,  exemplified  by  the  three  Merchandise 
Company  accounts  A,  B  and  C,  in  the  month  of 
April,  the  principle  recognized  is  that  the  holder 
of  the  property  is  responsible  for  it.  Thus,  when 
we  receive  from  James  A.  Wright  &  Co.  an  in- 
voice to  be  sold  on  joint  account,  we  debit 
Mdse.  Co.  A  with  the  invoice  and  expenses, 
and  credit  the  consignor  with  the  cost  of 
the  invoice,  thus  making  ourselves  responsible 
for  the  property  as  if  it  were  all  our  own.     The 


consignor's  entr}',  if  recognizing  the  same  prin- 
ciple, will  be  to  debit  us  for  the  entire  cost  of 
the  merchandise.  In  the  second  method,  shown 
by  the  three  Mdse.  Co.  accounts  D,  E  and  F, 
the  principle  recognized  is  that  the  owner  of  the 
property  is  responsible.  For  example,  when 
we  receive  from  George  Allen  &  Co.  merchan- 
dise to  be  sold  on  joint  account,  we  debit  Mdse. 
Co.  D  with  our  own  share  only,  and  credit  the 
consignor.  The  consignor's  entry  in  this  case, 
if  made  to  correspond  with  ours,  would  be  to 
debit  us  for  our  share,  and  "Shipment  in  Co.,  to 
St.  Louis,"  for  his  share.  However,  the  final 
result  is  the  same  in  both  cases.  So  far  as  ab- 
solute right  and  responsibility  is  concerned,  the 
second  method  is  correct,  the  principle  recog- 
nized being  that  the  owner  of  the  property  is 
responsible.  The  only  advantage  possessed  by 
the  first  method  is  that  the  Mdse.  Co.  account 
shows  its  entire  cost. 

For  the  month  of  April  the  Ledger  is  closed 
without  the  use  of  a  balance  account  by  bring- 
ine  down  the  resources  and  liabilities  under  their 
proper  accounts.  This  is  the  business  method, 
and  if  each  month  is  supposed  to  represent  a 
year,  this  would  be  a  good  instance  of  the  man- 
ner of  closing  books  at  the  end  of  each  year. 
The  method  of  closing  by  Journal  entries  as 
shown  in  the  month  of  May  is  used  frequently, 
though  requiring  more  labor  and  possessing  no 
advantage  over  the  other.  The  books  used  in 
this  set  are  the  Journal  Day-Book  and  Ledger. 


VL 


Al 


•V 

o           ^ 

^            « 

.> 

1 

\ 

1 88 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

/ 

p  * 
} 

SET  II.  JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK. 

St,  Louis,  April  2,  i88j. 

(1.) 

1 

2 

J    . 

2 

I 

1 
2 
2 

John  Adams  and  Arthur  Astor  have  this  day  entered  into  copartnership,  under  the  style  and  firm  of  Adams 
&  Astor,  in  the  prosecution  of  a  general  Commission  and  Grocery  business  ;  to  invest  in  equal  amounts 
and  participate  alike  in  gains  and  losses. 

Cash,                                             Dr.                                                          

10,000 
10,000 

1      12,500 

;     3.900 

j 

7S 
3.900 

4,000 
1,400 
3.300 

800 

10,000 

10,000 

9.000 

84 

3.416 
3.900 

ii 
3,800 

JOO 

4,000 
1,400 

3.300 

10 

"7 
336 
336 1- 

SO 

25 

To  John  Adams, 
For  amount  of  his  investment. 

First  National,  Bank,           Dr 

To  Arthur  Astor, 
For  amount  of  his  investment. 

•    • 

\ 

Bo't  of  John  Adams  his  store  and  fixtures. 

3 

4 

3 

2 

3 

Merchandise,                         .  Dr 

To  John  A.  Fargo  &  Co., 
Bo't  on  ^, 

5  casks  Brandy,  300  gals.  fS)  $2,          .... 

•    • 

$    600 
1,800 
1,500 

30,000  lbs.  Bacon  Sides,  ®  5|?,            .... 

To  Cash, 

Paid  for  set  of  Books. 

Mdse.  Co.  A,                             Dr.                       To  Sundries 

Received  from  James  A.  AVright  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  to 
and  risk,  each  .^, 
Soo  kcijs  Nails,  ©  $3 

be  sold 

on  our 

joint  i 

$2,400 

1,400 

To  James  A.  Wright  &  Co.,   Their  invoice  as  above, 

"    Cash,                               Paid  freight, 

Mdse.  Co.  B,                                  Dr. 

To  Butler  &.  Carlton, 
Received  from  B.  &  C,  Sedalia,  Mo.,  to  be  sold  on  our  j 
500  brls.  Flour,  fS)  ^ 

oint  i  and  risk, 

eacli  2, 

Cash,                                              Dr. 

400  kegs  Nails,  <&  $3.50 

Bills  Receivable,                  Dr 

To  Mdse.  Co.  A,         .        .        . 
Sold  Joseph  Stanton,  on  liis  note  (a)  30  days. 

fl,8oo 
1,500 

400  kegs  Nails  (a)  $3.75 

Mdse.  Co.  A,                               Dr.                        To  Sundries,        .... 

Closed  Company  sales  with  James  A.  Wriglit  X-  l"o.,  : 
of  the  same. 

To  Stora<:,e  AND  Adv., 

"    Commission,                 Our  charges  ®  2\'fi  on  $4,700, 

"   J.  A.  Wright  &  Co.,  Their  i  net  gain, 

"   Loss  and  Gaxn,          Our       "          "           

ml  iL-nd 

■red  them  an  f 

49.87s 

=. 

49.87s 

1 

I 

e 

/* 

V 

9 

a          "■ 

^^ 

ZJ 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    {2.f 

Saint  Louis,  April  6,  i88j. 


189 


-A 


Amounts  brought  forward .        .        .        . 

Butler  At  Carlton,  Dr.  To  Sundries 

Shipped  them,  to  be  stfld  on  our  joint  ^,e:ichS, 

20  lihds.  Sugar,  24,000  lbs. /a)  5f ?i.200 

100  bags  Coffee,  14,000  lbs.  fSi  10^ 1.400 

100  boxes  Raisins  *®  $3 300 

Bo't  of  J.  Wills  &  Co.,  on  our  Note  ©  yo  days 

To  Bills  Payable;  For  above  Note, 

"    Cash.  Paid  Insurance,  ^  f  on  $.;,ooo 


James  Scott, 


Mdse.  Co.  B, 


To  Mdse.  Co.  B, 
Sold  him  f®  30  days, 
500  brls.  Flour  ®  ?7, 


Dr.  To  Sundries 

Closed  sales  in  Company  with  Butler  &  Carlton,  of  Scdalia,  Mo.,  and  rendered 
them  an   ^  of  sales. 

To  Storage  andAdv.,     Our  Charges 

"    Commission,  2^  56  on  $4,500 

"    Butler  &  Carlton,  Their  ^  net  gain 

"    Loss  AND  Gain,  Our       "  " .*.... 

g 

Sundries,  Dr.  To  Merchandise 


Cash, 

Bills  Receivable, 


Sold  John  Tyler, 

30,000  lbs.  Bacon  <a)  C(f 

Received 

His  Note  ®  30  days,  for  balance. 


James  A.  Wright  &  Co.,         Dr 

To  Bills  Payable, 

Accepted  their  draft  on  us  ©thirty  days  sight,  favor  F.  B.  Morse  &  Co.,  in  full  of 
their  J. 


Mdse.  Co.  C, 


To  Peter  Curtis, 
"  J.  G.  Holland, 
"  Cash, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Received  per  Anchor  Line,  from  Peter  Curtis,  Cairn,  to  be  sold  on  joint  If  of  him- 
self, J.  G.  Holland,  Memphis,  and  ourselves,  each  J,  as  p^.r  contract, 
1,000  brls.  Flour,  ®  $3.50 $8,500 

For  his  and  our  I  above  invoice 


Paid  Freight 


Str.  Missouri  Belle  St*k,  Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Bo't  of  John  Dunn,  }  Steamer  Missouri  Belle,  for 

To  Cash,  Paid  in  hand 

"  Bills  Payable,            Gave  our  note  ®  ninety  days,  for    .... 
,3     — ._ 

Sundries, 


Bills  Receivable, 
Cash, 


Dr.  To  Mdse.  Co.  C, 

Sold  William  Cook,  Sedalia, 

1,000  brls  Flour,  (S)  $10 
His  note  fUb  forty  days,  for 
For  Balance 


Mdse.  Co.  C,  Dr.  To  Sundries 

Closed  sales  in  Company  with  Curtis  it  Holland,  and  rendered  them  each  an  Ac- 
count of  the  same. 

To  Storage  &  Adver.,  Our  charges, 

'•  Commission,  2^  ft  on  $10,000 

"  Peter  Curtis,  His  J  net  gain 

**  J.  G.  Holland,  «<        k 

"  Loss  AND  G.viN,  Our     "      " 


«.87s| 


4,Sool 


500 


800 
1,000 

4.i3fi 


!,7oc 


7,00c 
3.oo<: 


■.3<M 


93.7'< 


H 


49.87s 


2,900 


4.500 


20 

112  SO 
1837'! 
iSj7S 


i.Sod 


4.13^23 


S.6«67 
2,83:33 


5,00c 
S.ooc 


3C 
25c 

34c 
34t 
34c 


93.7«^  ^5 


V 


190 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


/ 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (3.) 

Saint  Louis,  April  14.,  188 j. 


Amounts  brought  forward, 

Cash,  Dr 

To  Merchandise, 
Sold  J.  Collins,  East  St.  Louis, 
5  casks  Brandy,  300  gals.,  (d>  $3 
—      16      


Merchandise, 


To  Cash, 
"  J.  Wills  &  Co., 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Bo'tof  J-AVills  &Co., 

30  hhds.  Sugar,  30,000  lbs.,  (3)  6^. 

Paid  in  hand, 

Balance  on   ^ ,       .         .         ,         ; 

jS        


Sundries,  Dr.  To  Cash, 

Expense,  Paid  clerk  hire  to  isth, 

Arthur  ASTOR,  Priv.,    Paid  him  on  ^,   . 


I  Sundries, 

I  Cash, 

Interest, 


Dr.  To  Bills  Receivable,     .... 

John  Tyler  has  discounted  liis  note  in  our  favor,  due  May  12th. 

Proceeds  of  note, 

Discount  off,  22  days, 


3  ^ 


Butler  &  Carlton,       Dr 

To  Loss  AND  Gain, 

Received  on  Account  Sales  of  the  Mdse,  sent  them  to  be  sold  on  joint  account 
on  the  7th  inst.     Our  ^  net  gain  as  above. 
23       


Sundries, 


J,  G.  Holland, 
Peter  Curtis, 
To  Merchandise, 
"  Cash, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Shipped  J.  G.  Holland,  Memphis,  to  be  sold  on  joint  i  of  J.  G.  Holland,  Peter 
Curtis,  of  Cairo,  and  ourselves,  eacli  3, 

33  hhds.  Sugar,  30,000  lbs.,  fS)  630 $1,950 

Freight  on  same  50 


For  his  and  our  |  above  invoice. 


$2 ,000 


As  above. 
Paid  Freight, 


6       John  Adams,  Priv., 


Drew  on  Private  ^  . 


To  First  National  Bank, 


Butler  &  Carlton, 


Cash, 


Dr. 


93.726 
900 


25 


To  First  National  Bank, 
Paid  their  draft  on  us  in  favor  of  James  Flood. 

2S      

Dr 


To  Store  and  Fixtures, 
Received  rent  for  upper  floors  to  date. 


Steamer  Missouri  Belle,      Dr 

To  Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 
For  our  share  of  earnings  of  last  trip,  as  per  statement  rendered  this  day. 
30 


Expense, 


Dr. 


Loss  AND  Gain, 


To  Cash 

Sundry  expenses  to  date,  as  per  Expense-Book. 
30  


Dr. 


To  J.  G.  Holland 

For  our  \  net  loss  on  shipment  of  Sugar  for  joint  i  of  Holland,  Curtis  and  our- 
selves, of  the  22d  inst.,  as  per  Account  Sales  this  day  received. 


1,800 


SO. 
'SO 


995173 
4 

300 


1.333  34 


666 


pd 


■/s 


1,500 


250 


■59 


■■5 


103,119 


I 
93.726|2S 


800 
1,000 


300 


1,950 
50 


968 


1.500 


250 


■59 


■■5 


103,119 


/• 


\ 

a 

^ 

.^ 

«   > 

1 

\ 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

19 

I 

0 

1 

SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    {A.f 

St.  Louis,  April  JO,  i88j. 

1 

i 

3 
1 

Amounts  brought  forward 

103,119 

2,683 
I 
105,807 

103,119 

9o| 

2,688 

90 

Cash,                                                Dr 

To  John  Adams, 

Amount  invested  this  day. 

• 

90      105,807 

90 

6 

7 

2 

2 
2 

7 

; 

2 
f 

7 
6 

1 

1 

6 

7 
S 
7 
3 

St.  Louis,  May  ist,  i88j. 

1,460 
8,500 

909 
909 

-SO 

37 
2.370 

i.fyfro 
1 

Mdse.  Co.  D,                                 Dr.                        To  Sundries, 

Received  from  George  Allen,  St.  Joseph,  to  he  sold  on  our  joint  f  ,  each  \ 
loobrls.  Cider  Vinegar,  (3)  $7              

40  h'f  kegs  White  Lead,  fa)  $^ 

$700 

2,000 

120 

i     ! 

'        M>o 
5° 

8,500 

1 

11 
1      .,800' 

'^1 

$2,820 

I-'iKST  National  Bank,          Dr 

To  Cash 

Deposited. 

Sundries,                                       Dr.                        To  Sundries, 

Shipped  Watson  Weed,  Springfield,  111.,  to  be  sold  on  joint  f  ,  each  4, 

200  brls.  Mess  Pork  fa)  $9 

Drayage  charges 

Watson  Weed,                 For  his  ^  above  invoice 

?i,Soo 
iS 

Shipment  IN  Co.  i.               "  ourj        "            '* 

To  Merchandise,             As  above,             

"Cash,                                Paid  Drayage,    ....                

Cash,                                                 Dr 

To  Mdse.  Co.  I) 

^                            Sold  to  Richard  Pralt, 

100  brls.  Vinegar  ©  $7.50 

j          750 

1 

i 

Insurance,                                     Dr. 

To  Cash 

J 
1            3750 

».37o 

50 

7S 

i        ■r«7' 

1           *>' 

50      "6.S9S50 

Effected  Insurance  for  $5,000  on  any  property  that  may  be  in  our  Warcho 

1st-. 

$2,250 
120 

ccimnt 

Henry  Green  &  Co.,                 Dr 

To  Mdse.  Co.  D, 
Shipped  them  to  Chicago,  as  per  tlu-ir  order, 

Sobrls.  I.inscL-d  Oil  (2)  $45 

40  h'f  kegs  White  Lead  fa)  ?.^ 

Payable  ®  Sixty  Days. 

Mdse.  Co.  D,                               Dr.                      To  Sundries, 

Closed   Sales    in    Company   with   George   Allen,  and    midered  him  an  A 
Sales. 
To  Ciiarges,                         Storage,  Advertising  and  Insurance,      ........ 

*'  Commission,                  2.i?(.f3,i2o 

*'  George  Ai,i,EN,            For  his  ^  invoice  $1,411)  and  net  gain  $61 

"  Loss  AND  Gain,               "   Our  J  net  gain 

i 

'6,595 

1 

," 

/• 

\ 

9 

•I' 

s 

^ 

0 

'T*' 

192 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.     (5.) 


.k= 


St.  Louis,  May  5,  188^, 


Amounts  brought  fonvard,  

Expense,  Dr 

To  First  National  Bank, 
Paid  advertising  bills  per  check. 
. 7       __ 


Mdse.  Co.  E, 


Dk,  To  Sundries, [ 

Received  of  George  Emerson  &  Co.,  of  Vicksburg,  to  be  sold  on  joint   ^  of  them-   I 
selves,  M.  S.  Clay  &  Co.  and  ourselves,  each  J, 

100  hhds.  Sugar  f®  $60 $6,000 

To  Geo.  Emerson  &  Co.,      For  our  \  Invoice, 

'*  First  National  Bank,    Paid  freight  per  check, 


S     I  Mdse.  Co.  F, 


To  Hugh  Spencer,  Our  \  above  invoice, 

'*  First  National  Bank,     Freight  per  check, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Received  from  Hugh  Spencer,  Topeka,  to  be  sold  on  our  joint  ^  ,  each  ^, 

500  brls.  Pork,  r®  $9.  $4,500 

250  do  Lard,  50,000  lbs.,  (3)  51?. 2,500 

$7,000 


Sundries, 


Bills  Receivable, 


Interest, 
Cash, 


Dr.  To  Mdse.  Co.  E, 

Sold  George  jenks, 

100  hhds.  Sugar,    ©  $75 

Received  in  payment,  Frank  H.  Wells'  note,  dated  January  1,  1&S3,  due  one  day 

after  date, 

Due  to  date  on  above  note, 

For  balance, 


Mdse.  Co.  E, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Closed  Mdse.  Co.  E..and  rendered  Account  Sales  of  the  same  to  George  Emer- 
son, and  M.  S.  Clay  &  Co.,  of  Vicksburg. 

To  Charges,  Storage,  Advertising,  etc., 

*'    Commission,  2.^^  on  $7,500 

"    Geo.  Emerson  &  Co.  Their  net  proceeds, 

**    M.  S.  Clay  it  Co.,        Their  net  proceeds, 

"    Loss  AND  Gain,  Our  J  net  gain, 


Cash, 


Dr. 


To  Bills  Receivable,    , 
Joseph  Stanton  has  paid  his  note,  due  this  day. 


First  National  Bank,  Dr. 

Deposited. 


To  Cash, 


sundries. 


Mortgage  Payable, 
Interest, 


Dr.  To  First  National  Bank, 

Paid  on  mortgage,  favor  of  Patrick  Fields. 

Amount  applied  on  mortgage 

In  full  to  date 


2,500 


Bills  Payable, 


Dr. 


To  First  National  Bank,    .        .        .        . 
Paid  our  acceptance,  favor  James  A.  Wright  &  Co.,  due  this  day. 


5,000 

123 

2,376 


3,300 


4,000 


4.500 

*S7 


John  A.  Fargo  &  Co.,  Dr 

To  Bills  Payable, 
Accepted  their  draft  on  us  payable  fS)  ten  days  sight. 
— 14 —^ 


3.900 


Cash, 


Dr. 


Sold  Adam  Kauffman, 
500  brls.  Pork,  fSl  $9.50 


To  Mdse.  Co.  F. 


4.75* 


60,489 


25 


1 
16,595]  50 

150 


2,OOC 

500 


3.500 
500 


7.500 


50 

1S75O 
2,254  16 
2,254;  17 

2541  17 


4.657 


4,136 


50 


25 


3.900! 


4,7SW 


60,48935 


A.. 

ra 

C! 

t- 

0  ' 

P 

\ 

\ 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

^ 
193 

SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.     (6.) 

St.  Louis,  May  /j,  iSSj. 

-• 

7 
3 

Amounts  brought : 
Henry  Green  &  Co., 

1        1 
60,4892s 

27s 

1 

275 

»AS 

3,000 

SO 

16S 

3.<»5 
6.5 '5 

7S 

62 
62 

Dr 

Received  advice  from  H.  G.  &  Co.,  Chicago,  of  an  error  in  an  Account  Sales  of 
last  year's  business,  in  which  wc  were  credited  too  little  by  the  above  amount. 

2,60c 
44 

OS 

01 

7 

2 
2 

svndries, 

Cash, 
Interest, 

Cash, 

Dr.                        To  Henry  GREEN&  Co., 

Sold  our  draft  on  them  (q>  thirty  days  sight. 

Net  proceeds, 

2,000 

2.750 
4S437 

6,siS  62 
7,000 
10,000 

1 

1 
1 

i 

! 

1 

2 
S 

s 

3 
7 
5 
S 

S 

2 
2 

4 

2 

2 

7 
7 

7 
5 

5 

2 
2 

s 

6 

2 

^7 
Dr 

To  Mdse.  Co,  F, 

Sold  John  \V.  Welsh, 

250  brls.  Lard,  50,000  lbs.,  ®  4^. 

. 

Sundries, 

Mdsf..  Co.  F., 
Loss  AND  Gain, 
To  Charges, 

"   Co^I.MlSSION, 

"  Hugh  Spencer, 

Dr.                      To  Sundries, 
Closed  "Mdse.  Co.  F,"  and  rendered  Hugh  Spencer,  Topeka,  an 
of  the  same. 

Account  Sales 

2.^  Son  sales, 

.  $3,500 

Less  \  net  loss 

.        .       4S43S 

Hugh  Spencer, 

Dr , 

To  Cash,     ..••••• 

Remitted  him  in  full  of  ^. 

Cash, 

First  National  Ban 

Dr 

7,000 

To  Bills  Receivable, 
Received  payment  in  full  for  William  Cook's  note  of  April  13th. 

■23 
<,             Dr 

JO.OOO 

Soo 

2,SSl 

3.900 

4.S00 

1,000 

»4 

To  Cash, 

Deposited. 

Watson  Weed, 

Dr 

Soo 

To  Shipment  IN  Co.  No.  I,    . 
Received  an  Account  Sales  of  200  brls.  Mess  Pork,  shipped  on  the 
net  proceeds  as  above. 

2d  inst.      Our 

George  Allen, 

Dr 

2,SSl 

3.900 

To  Bills  Payable, 
Accepted  his  draft  on  us  i®  thirty  days  sight,  favor  of  W.  H.  Walk 
his  due. 

er,  for  amount 

IliLLs  Payable, 

Dr 

To  Cash, 

Paid  our  acceptance  favor  of  John  A.  Fargo  &  Co.,  due  this  day. 

Cash, 

Dr 

1,000 

i 

To  balance  ^. 

J.Wills  &  Co., 

jO 

Dr 

To  Cash, 

To  balance    )(. 

1 

1 

ios,»40 

>oS,»40 

1 

1 

\ 

y 

I? 

t' 

a       •' 

0 

'v 

\ 


194 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


-A 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.     (7.) 


St.  Louis,  May  j/,  /t?<?j. 


Amounts  brought  forward,    . 
JOHX  Adams,  Dr. 


H  i   1!  I 

I,    105,340- ,24,,    105,240124 


To  John  Adams,  Private,      .... 
For  amount  charged  to  J .  D.'s  Private  ^ ,  now  carried  to  his  Stock  ^  . 


I     1        Authur  Astor, 

;  6 


150 


To  Arthur  Astor,  Private, 
For  amount  charged  to  Private  ^  ,  now  carried  to  Stock  ^  . 


2       Interest, 


To  John  Adams, 
Allowed  7  S  on  his  additional  investment  of  April  30. 


l6Sl 


150 


_25.^ 


105,605921!  105,605  93 


CLOSING   ENTREES. 


Balance, 


To  Stoke  and  Fixtures, 


Valuation  of  property. 


Dr. 


I        Store  and  Fixtures, 
3  To  Loss  and  Gain, 

For  increase  in  value  of  property. 


15,000 


2>500 


Mortgage  Payable, 


S       Balance, 


S       Balance, 


Interest, 


S       Balance, 


3       Loss  AND  Gain, 
3 

3        Loss  and  Gain, 

3     I 

1 

S       Balance, 

4 

5       Commission, 
3 


Dr 

To  Balance, 

Amount  due  on  Mortgage. 


Dr.      . 

Amount  on  hand. 

Dr.      . 
Balance  on  deposit. 

Dr.      . 


To  First  National  Bank, 


To  Balance, 

Amount  due  from  us  to  date  on  Mortgage 


To  Interest,     , 
Amount  due  us  on  ^  F.  H.  Wells'  note. 


To  Interest, 
Cost  over  proceeds  of  Interest. 


To  Expense, 
Balance  of  Expense  Account. 


To  Bills  Receivable, 

Note  on  hand  (F.  H.  "Wells). 


To  Loss  AND  Gain, 


Gain  on  Commission. 


4.575  09 


21,337 


iSo 


1S37 


146  Sj 


2,500 


4.500 


4.575 ,09 


3M37SO 


^^37 


146 

S2 

213 

■S 

2'3 

'S 

1 

ISO 

ISO 

S.ooo 

5,000 

434  :;5 


53.87s 


43425 


S3.87S|iS 


^ 


\ 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


19s 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (8.) 

St.  Louts,  May  ji,  i8Sj. 


Amounts  brought  forward. 


Bills  Payable, 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 


S3>S75  ■«,      S3.S7S  '"< 
10,781  I 

10,781 


5       Peter  Curtis, 


J.  G.  Holland, 


Our  outstanding  Notes. 

Dr 

To  Balance 

Amount  due  him. 

Dr 

To  Balance, 

Amount  due  him. 

Dr 

To  Ste.vmer  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 
Valuation  of  our  interest  in  Steamer  Missouri  Belle. 


5.340O' 


1.954  W 


Balance, 


Balance, 


I-oss  AND  Gain, 


To  Steamer  Missol'RI  Belle, 


4       Loss  AND  Gain, 


Charges, 


Dr.      . 

Amount  due  US. 

Dr.  . 
Balance  due  us. 

Dr.  . 
Our  loss  on  shipment. 

Dr.  . 
Cost  of  insurance. 

Dr 

To  Loss  AND  Gain, 
Gain  on  storage,  advertising,  etc. 


To  Watson  Weed, 


To  SlIIl'MENT  IN  Co.   I 


To  Inslrance, 


Geo.  Emerson  &  Co.,  Dr. 

.•\mount  due  them. 
Dr.      . 


M.  S.  Clay  &  Co., 


To  Balance, 


To  Balance, 


Amount  due  them. 


3       Loss  AND  Gain, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Net  gain  carried  to  Partners*   ^  . 

To  John  Adams,  His  ^  net  gain 

"  Arthur  Astor,  .>...■.. 

John  Adams,  Dr 

To  Balance, 

For  amount  his  net  capital. 


Arthur  Astor, 


To  Balance, 
For  amount  his  net  capital. 


5,34001 


'  .9.54  99 


250 


'.709 


109 


■.709, 


37  5° 


'50 


4,254  16 


37  5" 


150 


.'54  17 


:,oSo 


:>»  40 


1,34"  i" 
1,34"  -o 


'3,>30 


57 


^3,n°s 


121,311  la.  iaa,3ii  12 


/ 


\ 


-o  V 


,*- 

n 

i 
—       0 

i-  , 

• 

< 

\ 

196 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

/ 

Br. 

SET  II.     LEDGER.     (1.) 

yohn  Adams. 

Cr. 

1S83. 

Afr. 

3' 

To  Balance, 

To  J.  A.,  Private, 
"  Balance, 

I 

'4,639 

2b 

1883. 
Apr. 

2 
30 
30 

By  Cash, 
*'    Loss  and  Gain, 

By  Balance, 
"     Interest, 
"     Loss  and  Gain, 

1 

4      , 
L3 

10,000 

2,6SS 
1.940 

90 
36 

14,629 

26 

14,629 

26 

May 

1 
8 

200 

1S.7SS 

H 

May 

1 
31 
31 

Li 

7 

8 

14,629 

■5 

1,340 

26 

68 
20 

H 

1S.98S 

■4 

i        1S.9SS 

. 

Dr. 

Arthur  As/or. 

Cr 

Afr. 

31 
3" 

To  Balance, 

To  A.  A.,  Private, 
**    Balance, 

Li 

11,9^0 

J7 

1SS3. 
Apr. 

2 
30 

By  First  National  Bank, 
"    Loss  and  Gain, 

By  Balance, 
"    Loss  and  Gain, 

I 
L3 

10,000 
1,940 

37 
37 
37 

20 

11,940 

37 

!      ".940 

May 

1 
s 

ISO 
I3>i30 

57 

May 
If 

I 
31 

Li 

8 

11,940 
■.340 

■3,2Sos7 

13.2S057 

1 

Dr. 

5/1?^^  and  Fixtures. 

Cr 

1S.S3. 

Apr. 

2 

JO 

1 
3" 

To  Sundries, 
"    Loss  an^l  Gain, 

To  Balance, 
**    Loss  and  Gain, 

1 

12,500 
/,S00 

ISS3. 

Apr. 

1 
j 

May 

2S 
31 

By  Cash, 
"   Balance,  Inventory, 

By  Balance, 

3 

Li 

1,500 

I2,yZ'^> 

14,000 

= 

14,000 

- 

May 

Li 
7 

12,500 
2,500 

7 

1 

15,000 

15,000 

15,000 

= 

Dr. 

Mortgage  Payable. 

Cr 

1SS3. 

May 

11 
3' 

To  First  National  Bank, 
"    Balance, 

5 
7 

4.S00 
4,500 

;  ■SS3. 

!  Apr. 

2 

By  Store  and  Fixtures, 

I 

9,000 

— 

9,000 

9,000 

( 

\ 

tJ 

^ 

\ 

9 

■? 

to            »■ 

- 

"•        0 

• 

■^  ^ 


~7\ 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


Dr. 


SET  II.     LEDGER.    (2.) 

Cash. 


Cr. 


1883. 

1 

!    1 

iS33. 

3,4»6' 

Apr. 

2 

To  John  Adams, 

1 

io,ood 

Apr, 

2         By  Store  and  Fixtures,                | 

I 

•' 

S 

"    Mdse.  Co.  A, 

I 

1,400 

" 

3 

'    Expense, 

I 

75: 

" 

9 

"    Mdse., 

2 

Soo 

*' 

3 

'    Mdse.  Co.  A, 

1 

1             "oo] 

" 

'3 

"    Mdse.  Co.  C, 

2 

3,000 

6 

'    Butler  &  Carlton, 

2 

id 

" 

'4 

"    Mdse., 

3 

900 

9 

'    Mdse.  Co.  C, 

2 

20o| 

" 

20 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

3 

995  73 

41 

12          ' 

'    Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 

3 

5,000 

" 

2S 

'•    Store  and  Fixtures, 

3 

1,500 

1 

t> 

16 

'    Mdse., 

3 

q 

" 

30 

"    John  Adams, 

4 

2,688 

90    , 

*' 

iS 

'    Sundries, 

3 

^^.^ 

1 

*' 

23 

'             " 

3 

H 

^^^"""^ 

" 

30 

'    Expense, 

3 

1              IS9| 

^^^-"""^ 

. 

1 

30 

'    Balance^ 

Lz 

ii,2t>g  1)3 

ai,a84J63 

21,284  *3 

May 

I 

To  Balance, 

L2 

11,26963    , 

May 

I         By  First  National  Bank, 

4 

8,5001 

" 

3 

"    Mdse.  Co.  D, 

4 

750 

" 

2 

*    Sundries, 

4 

iSi 

" 

S 

"    Mdse.  Co.  E, 

.■; 

2,376  53 

■' 

3 

'    Insurance, 

4 

3750 

" 

S 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

s 

3,300 

" 

.0 

*    First  National  Bank, 

5 

4,ooci 

" 

'4 

"    Mdse.  Co.  F, 

5 

4,750 

" 

17 

•    Hugh  Spencer, 

6 

6,5'S!6» 

" 

■S 

"    Henry  Green  &  Co., 

6 

2,60905 

" 

23 

'    First  National  Bank, 

6 

10,00c 

" 

'7 

"    Mdse.  Co.  F, 

6 

2,000 

" 

26 

'    Bills  Payable, 

6 

3,900 

" 

'7 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

6 

7,ooq 

" 

30 

•    J.  Wills  &  Co., 

6 

1,000 

" 

28 

"    James  Scott, 

6 

4,5a: 

2: 

3" 

*    Balance, 

7 

4,57^09 

38,54^ 

1        38,54621 

1 

i 

:i       1     1 

■■         1                .1 

Dr. 


First  National  Bank. 


Cr. 


18S3. 

- 

1                  1        1 

1  .883. 

- 

1                 1 

Apr. 

2 

To  A.  Astor, 

I 

10,000 

Apr. 

25 

25 

By  John  Adams, 
"    Butler  &  Carlton, 

3 

3 

200 

96S|75 

To  Balance, 

L2 

1    ■ 

JO 

"    Balance, 

By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

Lb 

4 

S,83l2j 

1         io,ood 

IO,OOC 

May 

X 

1           8,S3.i  25 

May 

I 

so 

(1 

1 

"    Cash, 

4 

8,50d 

5 

"    Expense, 

5 

■5t 

" 

10 

"        " 

5 

4,000 

7 

"    Mdse.  Co.  E, 

5 

Soc 

" 

23 

"        " 

6 

10,000 

7 

"    Mdse.  Co.  F, 

5 

Soc 

^^-^ 

1 

II 

"    Sundries, 

5 

4,65,  so 

^ — 

J2 

"    Bills  Payable, 

5 

4.'3i5-5 
21,33/150 

^^-^"^^ 

1 

I 

31 

"    Balance, 

7 

3i^>J2S   j 

31.331;  25 

1 

1 

1 

Dr. 


Interest. 


Cr. 


/■ 

1883. 

Apr. 

20 

3° 

To  Bills  Receivable, 

'*    Loss  and  Gain, 

To  Mdse.  Co.  E, 
"    First  National  Bank, 
"    Henry  Green  &  Co., 
"    John  Adams, 
"    Balance, 

3 

1 

1                427 

79  73 

18S3. 

Apr. 

2 

By  Store  and  Fixtures, 

By  Balance, 
*'    Loss  and  Gain, 

I 

7 

7 

84 

12347 

15750 
+4  95 
1^68   1 

1^37 

84 

May 

8 
11 
15 
31 
31 

S 

5 
6 

7 

7 

May 

31 
31 

.46 
213 

82 

15 

wcjgy 

35^ 

97 

\ 

I 

■ 

ra ,. 


rsT 


198 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


SET  II.     LEDGER.     (3.) 


Dr. 


Expense. 


Cr. 


ISS3. 

Apr. 

3 
iS 

30 

To  Cash, 
<-.      <. 

To  First  National  Bank, 

I 
3 

3     Ij 

V 

1 

75 
50 
■59 

I    'SS3- 

Air. 

?,■) 

\ 

A'v  7,>fv  nn.i  (7.7.-V, 

By  Loss  and  Gain,                • 

L3 

sX, 

284, 
150 

a8+ 

May 

S 

U^y 

31 

9 

•so 

.1 

' 

Dr. 


Butler  &  Carlton. 


Cr. 


.SS3. 

Apr. 

6     1 

" 

20     1 

2S       ' 

Dr. 


To  Sundries, 
*'    Loss  and  Gain, 
''    First  National  Bank, 


2  [I  2,915 

3  300 

3  96S75 

4,l53  75 


1SS3. 
Apr. 


By  Mdse.  Co.  B, 


Merchandise. 


4,000 

iS3!7S 


f«8j!7S 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

Apr. 


May 


Dr. 


3 
16 


To  John  A.  F.irgo  &  Co., 
"    Sundries, 

I 
3 

3,900 

i.Soo 

■  SS3. 
Apr. 

9 

■4 

n 

By  Sundries, 
"'  Cash, 
*'    Sundries 

cnior;  , 

2 

3 

3 

i,Soo 

900 

1,950 

L3 

6,450 
i,Soo 

By  Sundries, 

4 

6,450 

To  Balance, 

May 

2 

T,8oo 

1    -    - 

Loss  and  Gain. 


Cr. 


■f  &- 


i?S3. 

.SS3. 

Apr. 

30 

ToJ.  G.Holland, 

3 

■■5 

Apr. 

6 

By  Mdse.  Co.  A, 

I 

336'2S 

" 

30 

"    Expense, 

L3 

284 

" 

7 

•■    Md'.e.  Co.  B, 

2 

■83 

75 

■     "'r^hn  Adnms  {lift gain), 

Li 

'mo  J'' 

" 

13 

"    Mdse.  Co.  C, 

2 

340 

Ulor  {netffain). 

Li 

',W  ■■: 

** 

20 

"    Butler  &  Carlton, 

3 

300 

" 

.^0 

"    Store  and  Fixtures, 

Li 

1.500 

^^ 

" 

30 

"    Interest, 

L2 

79 

73 

y^ 

" 

30 

"    Mdse., 

L3 

750 

^-^ 

" 

30 

"    Storage  and  Adver., 

L4 

60 

^ 

(■ 

30 

'*    Commission, 

LS 

480 

To  Mdse.  Co.  F, 

73    1 
37~ 

30 

"    Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stoolt, 
By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

L6 

250 

4.279 

4.279 

73 

Xray 

'7 

6 

May 

3 

4 

61 

" 

31 

**    Interest, 

7 

»>3 

«S 

" 

8 

"    Mdse.  Co.  E, 

5 

254 

17 

** 

3> 

'*    Expense, 

7 

ISO 

" 

■S 

*'    Henry  Green  &  Co., 

6 

275 

" 

3> 

"    Shipment  in  Co.  I, 

8 

109 

" 

3' 

*'    Store  and  Fixtures, 

7 

2.500 

*' 

3' 

**    Insurance, 

8 

37 

SO    ,, 

•' 

3' 

**  Commission, 

7 

434 

2.'! 

3' 

"    Sundries, 

8 

2,6Sol 
3.674 

40    1 

42 

3' 

•'    Charges, 

8 

"SO 

3.674 

42 

\ 


V 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


199 


SET  il.     LEDGER.     (4.) 


Dr. 


Joint  A.  Fargo  &  Co. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

May         12  To  Bills  Payable, 


3.900 


.SS3. 

Apr.         3  By  Mdse., 


3.900 


Dr. 


Mdse.   Co.  A. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

Apr.         3  To  Sundries, 

6 


1SS3. 
3,900  Apr.  5  By  Cash, 

Soo  "  6  "  Bills  Receivable, 

4.700 


1,400 
3,300 

4.700 


Dr. 


James  A.  Wright  &  Co. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

.\pr.         9  To  Bills  Payable, 


1SS3. 
4,136  25  Apr.         3  By  Mdse.  Co.  A, 

6  "         "         "     " 

4.136  -S 


3.S00 

3362s 
4. "36  -^S 


Dr. 


Mdse.   Co.  B. 


Cr. 


.SS3. 

Apr.  4  To  Butler  i  Carlton, 

"  7  "  Sundries, 


1SS3. 
4,000  Apr.         7  By  J  ames  Scott, 

500 

4.500 


4.500 
4.500 


Dr. 


Bills  Receivable. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

Apr.  6  "To  Mdse.  Co.  .»i, 

"  9  **   Mdse., 

"  13  "   Mdse.  Co.  C, 


May  1  To  Balance, 

"        I     8     I      "   Mdse.  Co.  E, 


L4 

S 


3.300 
1,000 
7,000 


1SS3. 

Apr.         20         By  Sundries, 


By  Cash, 


11,300 

10,300 

5,000 

May 

S 
"7 
3' 

'5. 300 

Balance, 


11,300 

3.300I 

7.000 
5.000 

■5.30O 


Dr. 


Storage  and  Advertising. 


Cr. 


ias3. 

Apr.           6  Hv  Mdse.  Co.  A, 

7  ■'•        ••       •'    B, 

■3  C, 


30 
60 


v_ 


JM 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


Dr. 


SET  II.     LEDGER.     (5.) 

Commission. 


Cr. 


iS»3- 
Apr. 

J° 

To  Loss  and  Gain, 
To  Loss  and  Gain, 

1 
1-3 

7 

! 

1SS3. 
Apr. 

6 
7 
■3 

By  Mdse.  Co.  A, 
"     B, 

C, 

By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

"     E, 

F, 

1 

2 

2 

1 
i'7iSo 
11250 
230 

480 

4S0 

May 

3' 

434I25 

'      May 

i 

3 

S 

■7 

4 
S 
6 

78 

187:50 
16S7S 

43+ 2S 

43+25 

1 

Dr. 


Bills  Payable. 


Cr. 


1U3. 

Apr. 

30 

TV  Balanc; 

To  First  National  Bank, 
"    Cash, 
'*    Balance, 

I-S 

5 
6 
S 

1 

11,036 

ay 

18S3. 
Apr. 

6 

9 
12 

By  Butler  &  Carlton, 
"    J;i3.  A.  Wright  &  Co., 
"    Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 

By  Balance, 

**    John  A.  Fargo  &  Co., 
"    Geo.  Allen, 

2 

2 
2 

5 

6 

2,900 
4.136 
5.000 

12,036 

25 

12,036 

2S 
25 

25 

May 

12 
26 

31 

4.136 
3,900 
10,781 

May 

I 

12 
26 

12,036 
3.900 
2,881 

25 

18,817 

25 

18,817 

2S 

Dr. 


1SS3. 

Apr. 


7         To  Mdse.  Co.  B, 


Dr. 


yaiiics  Scott. 


4,500 


1S83. 

May  I     28         By  Cash, 


Mdse.   Co.   C. 


Cr. 


4.S00 


Cr. 


Apr.         9         To  Sundries, 
"      I     13  "  " 


Dr. 


1SS3. 

Apr.  I     23         To  Sundries, 
I     50     I       "     B»lanct^ 


May 


31  To  Balance, 


: 

1 
8,700 
1,300 

11 

10,000 

— ■ 

3 

Ls 


Apr.        13 


By  Sundries, 


Peter  Curtis. 


Ill     >8S3.  I 
j66  Apr.  9         ByMdse.  Co.  C, 

S,3^".•■'  "  "3    I      


6,00667 


5,34001    ,  ,    May 


By  Balance, 


Cr. 


Ls 


5,66667 
340 

6,oo6J67 


SJ40  0' 


\ 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


.» 


SET  II.     LEDGER.     (6.) 


/ 


Dr. 


I8S3. 

Apr. 
May 

»3 

JO 

3' 

To  Sundries, 
"  JSaiance, 


To  Balance, 


J.  G.  Holland. 


3     il  >.333]34 

/.ft  1 1         /.(y<|w 


8    I 


_3.2SSI35 
'.95+99 


>8S3. 

Apr.   I      9    !    By  Mdsc.  Co.  C, 


May 


30 


Loss  and  Gain, 


By  Balance, 


Cr. 


L6 


2.S33 
340 
"S 


3.>SS 


33 


'.9S4I99 


Dr. 


1SS3. 

Apr.         13         To  Sundries, 
"  ■   Loss  and  Gain, 


May   '       X         To  Balance, 


Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 


2  10,000 

10,250 

L6  '  10,0001 


1SS3. 

Apr.        2S         By  Steamer  Missouri  Belle, 
u  ^j  "   BalaHC£,  Inventory  . 


May    1     31         By  Balance, 


Cr. 


3 


8   1         10,000 


Dr. 

J.   Wills  &  C 

0. 

Cr 

18S3. 

May 

30 

To  Cash, 

6     [. 

1883. 

i,ooO|              Apr. 

16 

By  Mdse. 

3 

1,000 



1 

Dr. 


18S3. 

Apr.        as    I     To  First  National  B.ank, 


Dr. 


Dr. 

Arthur  Astor,  Private 

• 

Cr 

1SS3. 

Apr.        18 

To  Cash, 

18S3.   : 
3                     150               May        31 

By  A.  A.,  Stock, 

1 
7 

'S 

John  Adams,  Private. 


18S3. 

200  May 


31  By  J.  A.,  Stock, 


Steamer  Missouri  Belle. 


1SS3. 

Apr.    I     2S  To  Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock,  3 


«S<J 


18S3. 
May 


31     ]     By  Balance, 


Cr. 


Cr. 


S                 250 

;r         i 

Dr, 


1SS3. 

May 


To  Sundries, 


Mdse.   Co.  D. 


:      4 
4 

I '■■ 


■SS3.    !  I'     '  I 

1,460  May         3  By  Cash,  4 

i^fj6o  **  3  '*  Henry  Green  &  Co.,  4 


Cr. 


75° 
2.375 

3.'"[, 


^ 


^•v 

o 

ih^ 

^ 

171 

J- 

6\ 
1 

\ 

202 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

/ 

0 

1^ 

1 

/ 

Dk 

SET  II.    LEDGER.    (7.) 

George  Allett. 

Cr. 

\ 

18S3. 

May 

1 
26 

To  Bills  Payable, 

1    !!j  .S83.  1      1                               1 

6                2,8Si               May         i          By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 
"           3           "       "       "    " 

1 

4 
4 

1,410 

■,47" 

2,SSl 

Cr. 

'■709 
1,709 

Cr. 

800 
109 

009 

2,881 

- 

Dr. 

Watson   Weed. 

■SS3. 

May 

2 

25 

To  Sundries, 
"  Shipment  in  Co.  No.  i, 

'      \'''  .8S3. 

4                    909                May        31          By  Balance, 
6                    Soo 

8 

1,709 

ZPr. 

Shipment  in  Co.  No.  i. 

1SS3. 

May 

3 

To  Sundries, 

,&S3. 
4                    909                May        25          Py  ^Vatson  Weed, 
"          31           "  Loss  and  Gain, 

909 

6 

8 

£>r. 

Ins2irance. 

Cr. 

18S3. 

May 

3 

To  Cash, 

4                     37  JO     1      May     1    31         By  Loss  and  Gain, 

S 

ilS° 

Br. 

Henry 
4            2.370 

6                    275 
2.645 

Green  &  Co. 

Cr. 

1SS3. 

May 

3 

IS 

To  Mdse.  Co.  D, 
*'  Loss  and  Gain, 

lS?3. 

May         15         By  Sundries, 

6 

4 

S 
6 

2,64s 
2,64s 

Cr. 

so 
SO 
50 
'SO 

£>r. 

Charges. 

i 

■SS3. 
May 

3' 

To  Loss  and  Gain, 

'883. 

S                   150                May     1     3          Bv  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

"            S            '    E, 

■7          F, 

150 

1 

9 

"*7 

i5 

-- 

^^~ 

a 

\*" 

IV 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


"71 


203 


SET   II.     LEDGER.     (8.) 


Dr. 


Mdse.  Co.  E. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


Geo.  Emerson  &•  Co. 


I8S3. 

1SS3. 

J 

May 

7 
S 

To  Sundries, 

5 
S 

2,500 
5,000 

7,500 

May 

8 

By  Sundries, 

s 

7^ 

7.500 

c. 


■S83. 

May        31         To  Balance, 


4.254]  '6 

■SS3. 

Jlay 

7 

8 

By 

4.254  '6 

By  Mdse.  Co.  E, 


2,000 

2,-54  ■'^ 

4.?5(  "6 


Dr. 


Mdse.  Co.  F. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

May 

7 
17 

To  Sundries, 

5 
6 

ISS3. 

4,000  May         14         By  Cash, 

2,750  "  17  "       " 

6.750 


4.750 
2,000 


6,750 


Dr 


Hugh  Spencer. 


Cr. 


1S83. 

May 


17    1     To  Cash, 


■  SS3. 
6,515  62  May         7  By  Mdse.  Co.  F, 


6,51562 


3,500 
3.01562 

6,5.5  f'2 


Dr. 


■    M.  S.  Clay  &  Co. 


Cr. 


■SS3.  : 

May    ,    31         To  Balance, 


2.254 


1SS3. 
May 


By  Mdse.  Co.  E, 


2,2?4  •^ 


Dr. 


Balance. 


Cr. 


.883. 

1 

1 

!  JSS3. 

May 

31 

To  Store  and  Fixtures, 

15,000 

Mav 

3> 

By  Mortgage  Payable, 

7 

31 

"  Cash, 

4.575  09 

3" 

"   Interest  Payable, 

7 

3' 

■'  First  National  Bank, 

1      ' 

2>.337i5o 

3"  • 

"  Dills  Payable, 

8 

31 

*•  Interest  Receivable, 

!    7 

146!  82 

31 

"  Peter  Curtis, 

8 

3" 

'*  Bills  Receivable, 

~ 

5,ooJ 

3' 

"  J.  (J.  Holland, 

8 

3' 

"  Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock. 

8 

10,000 

3' 

■*  Ceo.  Emerson  &  Co., 

S 

3. 

**  Str.  Missouri  Belle, 

'        8     ; 

250 

3" 

"  M.  S.  Clay  &  Co., 

8 

3' 

"  Watson  Weed. 

'      8    1 

-.709 

31 

'*  John  Adams, 

8 

i           i 

1 

1 

3> 

*'  Arthur  Astor, 

8 

S8,oi8 

4. 

1               1 

4.500 
IS37 

10,781 

5.34001 

1.954  W 
4.254  16 
2.354  '7 
'S.7SS  '4 
i3."3o57 

58,01841 


-o  \ 


\ 


204 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


lA 


SET  II.    TRIAL  BALANCE,  APRIL. 


BALANCES. 


4,500 


9,750 

20c 
15c 

250 


i:,26g63 
8,831  25 


2S4 
1,05c 


S7,SS4|S8 


TOTAI. 
FOOTINGS. 


12,50a 

21,284  63 
10,000 

2S+ 

4,183  75 
5.700 

"S 

4,700 
4.13025 
4,500 
11,300 

4,Soc| 
10,00a 
666  66 

1.333  34 
10,00c 


20c 

15c 
25c 


505,807  90 


John  Adams  (Stock) 

Arthur  Astor  (Stock) 

Store   and  Fixtures 

Mortgage  Payable 

Cash 

First  National  Bank 

Interest 

Expense 

Butler  &  Carlton 

Merchandise 

-  Loss  and  Gain    - 
John  A.  Fargo  &  Co. 

-  Mdse.  Co.  A.     - 
J  as.  A.  Wright  &  Co. 

-  Mdse.  Co.  B.     - 
Bills  Receivable 

Storage  and  Advertising 
Commission 

-  Bills  Payable     - 

James  Scott 

-  Mdse.  Co.  C.     - 

Peter  Curtis 

-  J.  G.  Holland    - 
Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock 

-  J.  Wills  i-  Co.    - 

-  John  Adams   (Private) 
Arthur  Astor  (Private) 

-  Steamer  Missouri  Belle 


BALANCES. 


105,807  90 


79  73 


1.04= 
3,90c 


6c 

"483   ■ 
12,03d  25 


5..340  01 
1,954  99 


57.58488 


Inventory. — Property   Unsold,  April  jo. 


Store  and  Fixtures,  valued  at  cost . 
Mdse.  on  hand*. 


Steamer  Missouri  Belle,  at  cost  . 


12,500 
i.Soo 


SET  II.    TRIAL  BALANCE,  MAY. 


BALANCES. 

FOOTINGS.* 

-- 

FOOTINGS. 

BALANCES. 

20C            1 

John  Adams      -                 -                 •                 . 

14,644  04 

'4,444  04 

« 

15< 

Arthur  Astor 

11,94037 

11,79037 

i2,Soq 

1 

12,50(3 
38^54^  21 

Store  and  Fixtures 
Mortgage  Payable 

9,000 

4,50d 

4,575  09 

1          33.971  12 

21.33750 

31,331125 

First  National  Bank 

9,993  75 

3411  60 

341,60 

S,  37 

Interest 

. 

'5c| 

Expense 

105  80 

Loss  and  Gain 

'1               S90  17 

S,ooc 

15,30' 

Bills  Receiv,able 

li          10,300 

43-125 

1 

•      Commission 

i               434  25 

S.osd  25 

Bills  Payable 
-      Peter  Curtis      - 

iS,S.7  25 
5,34poi 

10,78  < 
5,340  01 

2S< 

25t 

Steamer  Missouri  Belle 

',70c 

1,709 

-    A\'atson  Weed    - 

IOC 

909 

Shipment  in  Co.  I 

Soo 

3750 

3750 

Insurance 

Charges 

Geo.  Emerson  &  Co. 

M.  S.  Clav  &  Co. 

150   ^ 
4.254  16 
2,25417 

150 

4.2S4  "6 
2.254  "7 

10,000 

-     J.G.Holland     - 

1,954  99 

1,95'  99 

10,000 

Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock 

1        i 

S6,ooc|69 

'        "24,44^  '8 

124,445  '^  i 

56,00; 

69 

- 

1        1 

*  The  amounts  in  this  column  do  not  comprise,  like  those  in  the  preceding  balances,  the  footings  of  a//  the  Ledger  accounts,  but  such  only 
as  do  not  balance  or  cancel.  The  footings  of  this  column  and  its  opposite  will  not,  therefore,  liaJ.'v  with  the  footings  of  the  Journal.  The 
method  here  adopted  is  the  one  most  in  use  with  accountants,  but  does  not  afford  so  sure  a  test  of  ths  i.;orrectness  of  the  Ledger. 


kL 


V 


\ 


UOOK.-KKEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


205 


<1 


1 


^ 


^ji  :  : 
«g  :  : 

X   m  5  M 


UJ 
Ul 

CO 


< 

oa 

CO 

oc 

o 
I- 
co 

< 

CO 

E 

.  < 

o 
< 


o  »o 


.a  13- 


8     I 


•  WII'-CO 

•  ly-l  r*;  — 


% 


8.: 


8S  II 


■  O  fO   ' 


S.5.  I  8, 


:  I 


■.•^ 


is 


-J-O     -  O   -   "^ 


.  r»  -  lowi  —    •    •    • 

-    -t-CLQ • • i— 

rr*0      •     •   Q 

,      _  n  -     TT       •        ■     O 

•  xo  f^  ■^X_  ro    •     'CO 

00"  irt  ;  ; 


je  tig  : 


8  Sv  8  8  •*  ^  -r  uvr'  I 


■  O   OvQM-^    • 

■  u->0   O  CJ    • 


I '2 


'^  1. 


•o.'/Ojf  '7 


I  w  N  «  f^c^-*»oui>oo  r»t^t^r-oocc*oo 


I 

as 

a 


« 


■    !  ^-^ 
•    :  3  rt    • 

:  ^  X  «  •« 


:  o-a  ' 


it" 


•a  ifl 


r 


K 


206 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY 


OLUMNAR 


OURNAL. 


Combining  in  one  bool(  the  Day-Boole,  Journal,  Cash-Book  and  Sales-Book, 


AND  INTRODUCING  THK 


COMBINED    STATEMENT, 


SHOWINO,  ON  ONE  SHEET,   TRIAL  BALANCE.   LOSSES  AND  GAINS,   ASSETS  AND   LIABILITIES. 


-^!^ 


A  GREAT  saving  of  space  and  time  is  effected  by  the  use 
of  the  Columnar  Journal.  This  plaji  essentially  com- 
bines four  books  in  one  :  Day-Book,  Journal,  Cash-Book 
and  Sales-Book,  and  the  classification  of  the  entries  obviates  the 
necessity  of  carrying  a  multiplicity  of  items  to  the  Ledger.  In 
the  pages  immediately  following,  the  transactions  of  Set  I.  are 
presented  in  the  shape  of  a  Six-column  Journal  —  so  called 
because  it  has  six  columns  for  figures  —  three  debit  and  three 
credit  columns.  Merchandise  and  Cash,  being  the  principal 
items  in  this  set,  are  given  special  columns,  and  are  posted  to 
the  Ledger  in  totals  at  the  end  of  the  month,  or  as  often  as  the 
Journal  is  to  be  posted.  All  the  amounts  that  pass  immediately 
to  the  Ledger  are  placed  in  the  General  column,  and  to  this 
column  must  be  added  the  footings  of  the  special  columns  when- 
ever the  Journal  is  to  be  fully  posted.  This  plan  may  be 
extended  to  suit  the  requirements  of  any  business,  and  instead 


of  six  columns,  eight,  ten,  or  even  twenty,  may  be  employed, 
the  most  frequently  occurring  items  being  given  special  columns. 
Besides  the  advantages  mentioned  above,  the  Columnar  Journal 
presents  a  monthly  summary,  by  which  the  business  of  a  month 
or  quarter  may  be  compared  with  that  of  others,  and  the  in- 
crease or  decrease  in  trade  may  thus  be  more  easily  and  defin- 
itely calculated. 

By  way  of  practice,  the  student  of  the  science  of  accounts 
will  do  well  to  write  up  a  Ledger  conforming  to  the  Six-column 
Journal  here  presented.  The  results  will  be  identical  with  the 
Ledger  of  Set  L,  except  that  the  Cash  and  Merchandise  entries 
will  be  posted  in  totals  at  the  end  of  the  month,  "  By  Sundries  " 
and  "  To  Sundries,"  when  the  footings  of  the  special  columns 
have  been  added  to  the  General  column.  When  this  set  is 
completed  Set  II.  will  furnish  material  for  further  study  and 
practice. 


pew  10  CJIHN6E  3lN6IiE  EnII^Y  B00Kg  INT0  DoOBItE  En¥^y. 


THE  difference  in  the  two  systems,  it  should  be  remembered, 
is  that  in  Double  Entry  you  introduce  Representative 
Accounts,  representing  the  firm  or  business  in  ever)' 
transaction  under  some  one  or  other  of  the  subdivisions 
adopted,  as  Stock,  Cash,  Merchandise,  Expense,  Bills  Payable, 
Bills  Receivable,  Interest,  Profit  and  Loss,  etc.  In  changing 
single  entry  books  into  double  entry  the  first  step  should  be  to 
make  an  inventory  of  stock,  etc.,  and  a  statement  of  all  accounts 
due  to  or  by  you,  on  separate  sheets  of  paper.  When  this  is 
done  proceed  to  make  the  following  entries  in  your  Journal, 
entering,  of  course,  the  proper  amounts  in  the  debit  and  credit 
columns  : 

STOCK,  DR.  TO  SUNDRIES. 

Bills  Payable, 

For  my  Notes  due  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
John  Jones, 

For  .imount  due  him  ;is  per  schedule  hereto. 
Phtrr  Smith, 

For  nmount  due  him  .is  per  schedule  hereto. 

(Antf  so  continue  the  iist  0/ /Parties  you  tr.ue  anything  to. ) 

SUNDRIES,  DR.  TO  STOt  K. 

Merchandise, 

For  amount  of  stock  on  h.ind^as  per  Inventory. 


Bills  Receivable, 

For  notes  due  me  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
Charles  Grey, 

For  amount  due  me  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
Robert  Brown, 

For  amount  due  me  as  per  schedule  hereto, 
(Anti so  cot:tin»e  the  whole  list.) 
Property  account  in  the  same  way,  if  you  have  any  ;  also  Mortgages  and 
Stocks. 

When  this  has  been  accurately  tlone  and  the  amounts  posted 
to  the  Ledger,  the  accounts  will  produce  a  positive  balance- 
sheet — that  is,  the  total  credits  will  be  equal  to  the  total  debits, 
for  the  following  reasons  : 

1 .  Sundries  is  no  actual  account,  but  is  used  <if  necessity, 
meaning  that  a  plurality  is  intended. 

2.  Stock  Dr.  to  .Sundries  means  that  it  is  Dr.  to  all  the 
accounts  named,  which  are  respectively  Cr.'s,  and  therefore 
must  be  equal. 

3.  Sundries  Dr.  to  Stock  means  that  all  the  names  and 
accounts  stated  are  Dr.,  and  Stock  is  Cr.  for  the  aggregate  of  the 
several  Debtors,  and  therefore  must  be  equal. 

Note. — The  balance  of  Stock  account  will  show  what  you 
are  worth,  or  have  in  your  business. 


olV 


\ 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


207 


A  SIX-COLUMN  JOURNAL.     (I.) 

(The  transactions  of  Set  I.    Written  up  in  the  form  of  a  Columnar  Journal.) 


Mdse.         Cash. 


General.  L.F. 


-SV.  Louis,  December  i,  rSSj 


6,000  00 


1,95000 


,75000 


1 ,050  00 


50000 


Soooo 


5000 


1,50000 


60000 


75000 


51500 


8,75000    5,35000    3,36500 


/ 


Cash,  To  Stock 

Commenced  business  this  day  with  S2,ooo  cash  un  liand. 


L.F. 


Merchandisk,           To  Armstrong  &  Co.,  . 
Bought,  on  acc't,  1,000  brls.  Flour,  (a)  $6.00. 
3    


Cash,  To  Merchandise,    . 

Sold  to  Jesse  Jameson,  300  brls.  Flour,  @  $6.50. 

s  : 

John  Williams,        To  Merchandise,    .     '.     . 
250  brls.  Flour,  (th,  $7.00. 

7    

Bills  Receivable,     To  Merchandise,    . 
Sold  \¥m.  Moore,  on  his  Note  @  30  days, 

150  brls.  Flour,  @  S7.00. 


Merchandise,  To  Bills  Payable,  .... 

Bought  of  Josepli  Wheelock,  on  our  Note  @  60  days, 
500  bu.  Wheat,  @  $1.00. 


Cash,  To  Merchandise,    . 

Sold  Albert  .St.  John, 

100  bu.  Wheat,  @,  51.25,      .      .       $125.00 
100  brls.  Flour,  "     6.75,  .        675.00 
14 

Expense,  To  Cash, 

Stationery  and  Books  for  use  of  Store. 
15 

Merchandise,  To  Cash, 

Bought  of  Edwin  EUerton,  300  brls.  Flour,  (Tii,  S5.00. 

17 

Cash,  To  Merchandise 

Sold  Peter  Potts,  100  brls.  Flour,  @  $6.00. 
18 


Merchandise, 


To  W.  1..  George,     .     . 

1,000  bu.  Oats,  (tt,  75c. 
20 


Bills  Receivahi.e,    To  Merchandise,    .... 
Sold  Sellers  &  Bro.,  on  their  Note  @  5  days, 

500  bu.  Oats,  @  80c.,    .      .      $400.00 
100  bu.  Wheat,  («'.  $1.15,    .         115.00 


General, 


2,OCX>00 


6,00000 


Cash.        Mdse. 


50000 


5000 


1.50000 


75000 


1,95000 


1,75000 


1,05000 


Soooo 


600  OD 


51500 


9,25000     i,55o;oo     6,66500 


J^J 


2o8 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


A  SIX-COLUMN  JOURNAL.    (2.) 


Mdse. 


8,750  Oo 


Cash.     General.  I  pL.F, 


i: 


Si.  Louis,  December  z2,  1883. 


Lf.1 


General. 


5.350  00     3.365  po 
2.73° 


Amounts  brought  forward,  .... 

Cash,  To  Merchandise,  .... 

Sold  Bernard  Blair, 

400  brls.  Flour,  (n)  g6.0O,  .    $2,400.00 

300  bu.  Wheal,    "      i.io,  .         330.00 

26 


9,25000 


Cash. 


1,550  bo 


Mdse. 

6,665  00 
2,730  loo 


8,25000 


6,00000 


515  00 


3.325  0° 


Merchandise,  To  Howard  Harrison, 

Bought,  on  acc't,  1,500  brls.  Flour,  @  S5.50. 


8,25000 


21 


A.  A.  McHattox,     To  Merchandise, 
I  000  brls.  Flour,  (J,  g6.oo. 

28- 


Cash,  To  Bills  Receivable,  . 

Sellers  &  Bro.'s  Note  paid  in  lull  this  day. 


515 


6,000  loo 


-29 


Cash,  To  Merchandise,    .... 

Sold  Patrick  Connolly, 

500  brls.  Flour,  ®  55-75,    .  $2,875.00 
500  bu.  Oats,    ■  "        .90,            450.00 
31 


3.325  °° 


17,00000    11,920100      9,465100 

11,92000 
17,00000 


Expense,  To  Cash, 

Paid  Clerk  Hire,   . 
"     Store  Rent,    .      . 


$60.00 
40.00 


Dr.  Cash,  Cr. 

Dr.   Merchandise,   Cr. 


38,385  oo|| 


18,015 

1,650 

18,720 


38.385 


1,650 


18,720  00 


COMBINED  STATEMENT.— Trial  Balance,  Assets  and  Liabilities,  Gains  and  Losses,  all  in  one. 


Gains. 


Debit 
Face  op 
Ledger. 


15000 


11,92000 

;,220  00     17,00000 

1.565  CO 

15000 
1,75000 

6,00000 


Credit. 

Face  of 
Ledger. 


Liabili- 
ties. 


Stock, 

Cash, 

Merchandise,     . 

Bills  Receivable, 

.    Bills  Payable,    . 

.    Expense,   . 


2,00000 

1,6501001 1 
18,720.00 
515.00 
50000 


,270100 
,50000 
,050  00 


^,0'^ 


Vz 


3,220  00    3,220 


38,385  OOi 


.\rmstrong  &  Co., 6,00000 

.  John  Williams,  ....           .1'  I 

.      W.    L.    (.lEOKOE 75000 

Howard  Harrison, 8,25000 

A.  A.  McHatton 


500 
6,000 


00 
00 


Stock  Investment, 
"       Gain,     . 

"       Worth    .      . 


.  $2,000 
3^070 


i,750i00i; 


6,000  00' 


38,385  00   20,570  00   20,570100 


75000 
8,250  00 


3<070\ 


A  COMPENDIUM   OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


209 


/ 


»     i<-        o        »     t<'       -o        ■»    i 


lOGRAPHY 


■>•)>'  •O'^o*'         >--p=A         ■•o^O"  ;^o  i  -.o^«' 


\ 


—  Lent^eUow's  Psalm  0/  Life, 


She  Gminent  F^isipoi^igal  ^bi^sonagbs  op  all  ^Iges. 


N  the  following  Biographical  Diction- 
ary the  most  salient  points  in  each 
career  have  been  touched,  and  par- 
ticular attention  has  furthermore  been 
paid  to  adapting  it  to  the  wants  of 
American  readers  and  of  the  present 
time.  It  will  be  found  that  many- 
names  are  included  of  persons  recently  brought 
into  prominence,  which  are  the  subject  of  daily 
enquiry  in  this  country,  but  of  which  no  men- 
tion can  be  found  in  the  more  pretentious  and 
bulky  volumes  devoted  exclusively  to  biogra- 
phy. The  great  extent  of  the  work  has  made 
it  impossible  within  the  pages  allotted  to  this 
department  to  do  more,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
than  answer  about  each  individual  named  the 
following  questions:  "Who  was  he?"  "What 
was  he?"  "Where  did  he  live?"  "What  did 
he  do?"  "When  was  he  born?"  "When  did  he 
die?"  These  queries  have  been  replied  to  in 
the  shortest  possible  manner.     It  has  been  the 


endeavor  of  the  editor  to  make  the  collection 
so  complete  that  this  biographical  information 
will  answer  every  demand  made  upon  it  by  the 
reader.  It  is  confidently  believed  that  no  name 
at  all  apt  to  be  met  with  in  an  ordinary  course 
of  English  reading  has  been  omitted. 


EXPL,AXATIOJr : 

The  figures  folloTving  the  name  indicate  the  years  ef  birth  and  death. 
After  the  names  of  some  of  the  Popes,  where  tlie  date  of  birth  is  un- 
knoztm,  the  first  figure  shoivs  the  year  of  accession  to  the  f>ontificate. 
An  interrogation  mark  indicates  that  the  date  is  d.iubtful  or  approx- 
imate. 
Assumed  names  or  sobriquets  art  printed  in  italics  immediately  fol- 

loTving  the  name. 
PI. — Plourishcd  or  lived, 
B.  C— Before  the  Christian  era. 
Am. — American, 
Dan, — Danish, 
Eng, — English, 
Fr. — French, 
Ger, — German, 
Gr.  —  Greek. 


It,— Italian, 
Nor, — Nor-wegian, 
Port. — Portuguese, 
Prus. — Prussian, 

Scot. — Scottish , 
S-w, — Stvedis  h , 


'A^  ACHEN,  Johann  van.     1552-1620      German  painter. 

Aaron.     1574-1451    B.C.      First  high  priest  of    the   Israelites. 

Brother  of  Moses. 
Aarschot,  PhiUppe  de  Croi,  Duke  of.      -'595-      Flemish 

general  and  statesman. 

Aarsens,  Franz  van.    1572-1641.     Dutch  diplomatist. 


\ 


\ 


A 


A  COMPEXDIUM  OF  EIOGRAPHV. 


Abati,  Bocco  degli.  Florentine  traitor  mentioned  in  Dante's 
Inferno.  In  1260,  in  a  battle  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines,  he 
caused  the  deieat  of  his  countrymen  by  striking  off  the  head  of  their 
standard-bearer. 

Abbas  I.      T/ie  Great.     1557-162S.     Shah  of  Persia. 

Abassides.  Fl.  749-125S.  The  most  famous  dynasty  of 
C.diphs  at  Bagdad  and  Damascus. 

Abbot,  George.     1562-1633.     English  prelate. 

Abbot,  Rev.  Jacob.     1803-1S79.     Am.  author.      Hoilo  Booh. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot.     1S05-1877.    American  historian. 

Abd-el-Kader,  1S07-18S3.  Emir  of  Algeria.  Led  the 
Arabians,  about  1830,  in  hostilities  against  the  French,  then  beginning 
to  invade  his  country.  After  a  brave  struggle  he  was  vanquished  in 
1847  and  imprisoned  in  France.  In  i860,  risking  his  own  life,  he  averted 
the  massacre  of  thousands  of  Christians  in  Syria.  He  was  noted  for 
his  devotion  to  the  Moslem  faith,  for  eminent  literary  attainments  and 
great  eloquence. 

Abdul-Aziz.     1S30-1876.     Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Abdul-Hamid  II.     1842- Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Abelard,  Picne.     1 079-1 142.     French  orator  and  philosopher, 

Abercrombie,  James.     1706-17S1.     Britishgeneral  in  America. 

Abercrombie,  John.     1781-1S44.     Scottish  metaphysician. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph.     1734-1801.     British  general. 

Abernethy,  John.     1764-1  S3 1.*   Eng.  physician  and  anatomist. 

About,  Edmond  Frant;ois  Valentin.      182S-....      Fr.  author. 

Abraham,  or  Abram.  Born  about  2000  B.C.,  and  died  at  the 
age  of  175.     Hebrew  prince  and  patriarch. 

Acier,  Michel  Victor.     1736-1799.     French  sculptor. 

Acilius  Glabrio,  Manius.     Fl.  191  B.C.  Consul  of  Rome. 

Acosta,  Jose  de.     l539?-l6oo.     Spanish  Jesuit,  missionary  and 

author. 

Adair,  John,     1757-1840.     American  general  and  statesman. 

Adam.     4000  B.C.     Father  of  the  human  race. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis.  1S07-....  American  statesman 
and  diplomatist.     Son  of  J.  Q.  A.     Negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Geneva, 

Adams,  John.  Born  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  1735;  died,  1826. 
American  statesman  and  diplomatist.  First  vice-president  and  second 
president  of  the  United  States  ;  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Great  Britain,  1782.  Defeated  by  Jefferson  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1800,  he  retired  to  private  life,  disliked  by  both  prevailing 
parties.  His  talents,  patriotism  and  public  services,  however,  entitle 
him  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
republic. 

Adams,  John  Quincy.  1 767-1848.  Son  of  J.  A.  American 
statesman  and  diplomatist.  Si.xih  president  of  the  United  States,  being 
elected  by  the  House,  not  one  of  the  four  candidates  in  1824  — Adams, 
Clay,  Jackson  and  Crawford,  all  members  of  the  same  party  —  having  a 
majority.  Defeated  by  Jackson  in  i8;S.  Elected  to  the  House  in 
1830,  his  orator>'  gained  for  him  the  title  "  Old  Man  Eloquent,'*  and  he 
was  distinguished  for  his  unremitting  devotion  to  public  business.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  until  1848,  in  which  year,  while  in  his  seat 
at  the  Capitol,  he  received  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  which  caused  his  death. 

Adams,  Samuel.  1722-1803.  Governor  of  Massachusetts; 
one  of  the  popular  leaders  of  the  Revolution  ;  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

Adanson,  Michel.     1727-1S06.     French  naturalist. 

Addison,  Joseph.  1672-1719.  English  poet,  moralist  and 
dramatist.  Requested  by  Lord  Godolphin  to  write  a  poem  on  the  battle 
of  Blenheim,  Addison  composed  "  The  Campaign,"  which  procured 
for  him  a  great  public  applause  and  a  lucrative  government  position.  He 
became  undcr-sccrctary  of  state  in  1705.  and  was  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1708.  Dr.  Johnson  says  of  him  :  "  He  not  only  made  the  proper  use 
of  wit  himself,  but  taught  it  to  others.  *  *  •  He  h;is  restored  virtue 
to  its  dignity,  and  taught  innocence  not  to  be  ashamed."     His  contribu- 


tions to  the  Tittiersind  the  Spectator  are  e.xamples  of  his  graceful  style 
and  genial  spirit. 

Adelaide.  1792-1849.  Consort  of  William  IV.  of  England. 
Adelung,  Johnnn  Christoph.  1732-1806.  German  philologist. 
Adrian  I.  Pope,  from   772-795.    II.,  S67-S72.  III.,  8S4-885. 

IV.,  1154-1159.     v.,  1276;  died  same  year.    VI.,  1521-1523. 
^schines.      39S-314  B.C.      Athenian   orator;    rival  of  De- 

mnslhenes. 

^sop.     6i9?-564   B.C.      Greek    fabulist.     Being  a  slave,  he 

was  liberated  by  his  master  on  account  of  his  talents. 
^sopus,     Fl.  1st  century  B.C.     Roman  tragedian. 
.^tion.     Fl.  end  of  4th  century.     Greek  painter. 
Affre,    Denis   Auguste.       1793-184S.      Archbishop    of  Paris. 

Killed  during  the  insurrection  of  June,   1S48,  in  an  effort  to  arrest  the 

carnage. 
Aga,  Mohammed.     1 734-1 797.     Founder  of  the  reigning  Per- 
sian dynasty;  assassinated. 
Agamemnon — . . . .     Generalissimo  of  the  Greek  Jbrces 

during  the  Trojan  war. 
Agassiz,  Louis.      1807-1873.      Swiss    naturalist;  professor  at 

Har\'ard ;    founder  of  museum   of  comparative   zoology,   Cambridge, 

Jifscafc/tes  on  J^ossil  Pishes. 

Agatharchus.  Fl.  480  B.C.  Greek  painter,  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  adopt  the  rules  of  perspective. 

Agnesi,  Maria  Gaetana.  1718-1799.  Italian  lady  possess- 
ing rare  talents  for  languages  and  mathematics. 

Agricola,  Cn^^us  Julius,  37-93-  Roman  general ;  built  a  line 
of  fortresses  across  Scotland. 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius.     63-12  B.C.     Roman  soldier  and 

<^t:itLsm.Tn. 

Agrippina  Augusta -60  a.d.     Mother  of  Nero;  noted 

for  her  cruelty  and  immorality  ;  poisoned  her  uncle  and  second  hus- 
band, the  Emperor  Claudius  ;  executed  by  order  of  Nero, 

Aiken,  John.  1 747-1822.  English  writer.  General  Biog- 
raphy. 

Ainsworth,  Robert.     1 660-1 743.     English  classical  scholar. 

Ainsworth,  William  Harrison.  1805-1S82.  English  novelist. 
Jack  Shtppard,  Guy  Ftnukes,  etc. 

Airy,  Sir  George  Biddell.  iSoi— . . . .  Astronomer  Royal  of 
England. 

Akbar.     1542-1605.     Most  illustrious  of  the  Mogul  emperors. 

Akenside,  Mark.  1721-1770.  English  physician,  poet  and 
classical  scholar.    Pleasures  oftkc  Imag-inatior:. 

Aladdin.  Fl.  1375.  Son  of  Osman  and  organizer  of  the 
Janissaries. 

Alaric.     350?-4io.     King  of  the  Visigoths;  conquered  Rome. 

Albert,  or  Albert  Francis,  Augustus  Charles  Emmanuel,  Prince 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.     18:9-1861.    Consort  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales.  1S41-. . . .  Heir-apparent 
to  the  British  Crown. 

Alboin -573-     Ri^g  of  the  Lombards.     Assassinated  at 

the  instigation  of  his  wife,  whom  he  had  requested  to  drink  wine  from 
the  skull  of  her  father. 

Alboni,  Marietta.  1824-....  Italian  vocalist;  married 
Count  Pepolo  ;  retired  from  the  stage,  1863. 

Albuquerque,  Alfonso,  Marquis  de.  The  Great.  1453-15 15. 
Portuguese  conqueror. 

Alcibiades.     450-404  B.C.     Athenian  general.      Assassinated. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson.  1799-....  American  philosopher 
and  teacher. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May.  1S33-....  American  authoress;  acted 
as  hospital  nurse  during  the  civil  war.  Little  Women:  An  Old-Fash- 
ioned Girl,  etc. 


_N 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  EIOGRAPHY. 


2H 


Aldrich,  Thomas  Daily.  1836-....  American  poet  and 
iiKvcIist.  Story  0/ a  Bad  Boy ;  Miirgery  Daw  :  Baby  Bell :  Pru- 
lifiice  Piil/rey,  etc.  , 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond  d'.     1717-1783.     French  geometer. 
Alexander.  *  The  Gnat.     356-324  B.C.      King  of   Macedon. 

'■  riic  youlh  who  all  things  but  himself  subdued." — Popf.  T.iughtby 
Aristotle.  Ascended  the  throne  of  Macedon  336,  destroyed  Thebes  and 
was  chosen  commander  of  the  Greeks  against  Persia.  He  invaded  Asia 
Minor  in  334,  defeating  Darius  on  the  banks  of  the  Granicus.  In  333 
he  almost  annihilated  the  Persian  army  at  the  battle  of  Issus.  Cut  the 
Gordian  knot  and  caused  the -Ammonian  oracle  to  declare  him  the  son 
of  Jupiter  Ammon.  Captured  Tyre  in  332,  and,  having  invaded  Egypt, 
founded  Alcvandria.  In  331  he  defeated  Darius  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Arbela.  Becoming  elated  by  his  successes,  he  claimed  the  homage 
due  to  a  god,  st.abbing  his  foster-brother  Clitus,  for  refusal  to  pay  such 
homage.  Inv.aded  India  in  327,  advancing  as  far  as  the  Hyphasis.  Died 
at  Babylon  ofafeversaid  to  have  been  .aggravated  by  excessive  drinking. 

Alexander  I.  1777-1S25.  Emperor  of  Russia.  II.,  181S-1881; 

ass.issinated  by  the  Nihilists.     111.,  1S45-.,., 

Alexander  I.  Pope  from  108  to  117.  II.,  1061-1073.  III., 
1159-11S1.    IV.,  1254-1261.    v.,  1409-1410.    VI.,  1492-1503. 

Alexander  I -1124.    King  of  Scotland.    II.,  1198-1249. 

III.,  1241-1286. 

Alexander,  Archibald.     1772-1851.     Am.  author  and  divine. 

Alexander,  James  Waddell.  1804-1S59.  Son  of  A.  A.  Ameri- 
can author  and  divine. 

Alexander,  Joseph  .\ddison.  1S09-1859.  SonofA.A.  Ameri- 
can theologian  and  orientalist. 

Alexander,  William.  Lord  StirHn:;.  1726-1783.  American 
Revolutionary  general. 

Alfieri,  Vittorio.     1749-1803.     Italian  poet. 

Alfonso  XII.     1857- King  of  Spain. 

Alfred.  The  Great.  849?-90l.  King  of  the  W.est  Saxons. 
Established  schools  and  a  system  of  police,  and  founded  a  navy. 

Algardi,  Alessandro.     l6oo?-i654.     Italian  sculptor. 

Alger,  William  Rounseville.   1823-....    Am.  author  and  divine. 

Allen,  Ethan.  1742-1789.  American  Revolutionary  com- 
mander. With  only  eighty-three  men,  in  1775,  he  captured  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point. 

Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara.     (Ulrich  Megerle).      1642 -1709. 

Ger.  pulpit  orator  ;  chaplain  at  the  court  of  Vienna. 
Abt,  Franz.     1819-1SS5.  Ger.  musician  and  composer.      When 

the  S'wallows  Homeward  Fly ;     Oh,   Ye   Tears;      Over    The   Stars 

is    I'otir  Rest. 
Albani,  Emma.     1850-. . . .     American  vocalist. 
Allen,  William  F.     1847-....     American  perfecter  of  the  new 

system  of  standard  time. 
Allen,  William   Henry.     1784-1813.     Am.  naval  commander. 
Allibone,  Samuel  Austin.     1816.     American  author.     Critical 

Dictionary  0/  English  Literature . 
Allison,  William  R.     1829-....     Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 
Allston,  Washington.     1779-1843.     American  painter. 
Alma-Tadema,  Lawrence.     1836.     Belgian  painter. 
Alva,   Fernando    Alvarez   de   Toledo,  Duke  of.     150S-1582. 

Spanish  commander  in  the  Netherlands,  infamous  for  his  cruelties. 

Ambrose,    .Saint.     340?-397.      One  of   the   fathers  of   the 

church. 
Ames,  Fisher.     175S-1808.     Am.  orator  and  statesman. 
Amherst,    Jeffrey.     Lord    Amherst.       1717-1797.       British 

general  and  field-marshal  and  governor  of  Virginia. 

Ampere,   Andre  Marie.     1775-1836.     French  mathematician 

and  natural  philosopher. 


Anacreon.     B.C.  560  ?-478.     Greek  poet.     Many  of  his  poems 

have  been  rendered  into  English  by  Moore. 

Anaxagoras.      B.C.   500-428.      Greek   philosopher.      "  The 

f.ithcr  of  modem  science." 
Andersen,  Hans  Christian.     1805-1875.     Danish  author  and 

novelist, 

Anderson,  Maj.  Robert.   1805-1861.     Defender  of  Ft.  Sumter. 

Anderson,  Mary.     1859-....     American  actress. 

Andrassy,  Julian,  Count.     1823-....      Hungarian  statesman. 

Andre,  John.  1751-1780.  English  spy;  hanged  for  his  con- 
nection with  the  contemplated  treason  of  Arnold. 

Andrew,  John  Albion.  1818-1867.  .American  statesman  and 
abolitionist :  governor  of  .Massachusetts. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund.     1637-1714.     British  colonial  governor 

of  New  England. 

Anjou.     Famous  noble  house  of  France. 
Anne  of  Austria.     1601-1666.     Queen  of  France.  ' 

Anne.     1664-1714.     Queen  of  England  ;  last  of  th;  Stuarts. 
Anthon,  Charles.     1797-1867.     American  classical  scholar. 
Anthony,  St.       251-356?     Egyptian  founder  of  monachism. 
Anthony,  Henry  B.     1815-. ...      U.  S.  Senator. 
Anthony  of  Padua,  St.    1195-1231.    Monk  of  Franciscan  order. 
Anthony,  Susan  B.     1820-. . . .     American  "  woman's  rights" 

advoc.ite. 

Antigonus.     Cyclops.     8.0.3827-301.     General  of . Alexander 

the  Great. 
Antiochus  I.      King  of  .Syria  and   Babylonia ;    reigned    B.C. 

280-261.     II.,   reigned  B.C.  261-246;  poisoned  by  his  queen,  Litodice. 

111.  {The  Great),  reigned  B.C.  223-187. 
Antisthenes.     Fl.     400  B.C.     Greek  philosopher;  regarded  as 

the  fouiuier  of  the  Cynic  school. 

Antoinette,  Marie.      1755-1793-    Queen  of   Louis  XVL   01 

France ;  guillotined. 
Antonelli,  Giacomo.      1S06-1876.     Italian  cardinal. 
Antonius,    Marcus.     Mark  Antony.      B.C.  93  ?-30.      Roman 

general  and  statesman. 

Applegarth,  Robert.     1831- Leader  of  the  workingmen 

of  England. 

Aquinas,  Thomas.  Saint.  The  Angelic  Doctor.  1 224-1 274. 
Theologian,  teacher  and  writer;  member  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic. 

Arabi  Pasha.     1834-....      Egyptian  revolutionist. 

Aram,  Eugene.  1704-1759.  English  scholar;  noted  for  his 
learning  no  less  than  for  his  tragic  fate.  Executed  for  the  murder  of  one 
Daniel  Clark,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  kilted  to  procure  means  for  prose- 
cuting his  studies.    The  chief  character  in  one  of  Bulwer's  novels. 

Arbuthnot,    John.        1675-1735.       Scottish     physician. 

Archimedes.  B.C.  287?-2l2.  Greek  mathematician  and 
natural  philosopher. 

Argyll  (or  Argyle),  Archibald  Campbell,  eighth  earl.  1598- 
1661.  Scottish  Covenanter ;  defeated  by  Montrose  ;  executed  for  treason. 

Argyll  (or  Argj-Ie),  George  Douglas  Campbell,  seventh  duke. 
i8-'3- English  statesman  and  author.     The  Keign  0/ Law, 

Ariosto,  Ludovico.  1474-1533.  Italian  poet.  Orlando 
Purioso. 

Aristides.     B.c -468  ?     Athenian  general  and  statesman. 

Aristophanes.     B.C.  444 ?-38o  ?     Greek  comic  poet. 
Aristotle.     The  Stagi rite.    B.C.  384-322.    Greek  philosopher; 

tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great.    Ethics. 
Arius.     2557-336?     Patriarch  of  -Vlexandria  and  founder  of 

the  .\rian  schism. 

Arkw^right,  Sir  Richard.     1732-1792.     English  manufacturer 

and  inventor  of  the  spinning-jenny. 


Vl 


\\ 


K" 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Arminius.     B.C.  16-21  a.d.     Ger.  hero 
Arminius,  Jacobus    (Jacob    Harmen). 

founder  of  the  Arminiiin  theology. 

Armitage,  Edward.  1817-... 
Armstrong,  John.  1709-1779. 
Armstrong,  Sir  William  George 

tor  of  the  .Armstrong  gun. 
Arnaud,  Henri.     1641-1721.     Leader  of  the  Waldenses. 
Arndt,  Ernst  Moritz.       1769-1860.       German  poet  and  writer, 


See  Hermann. 
1560-1609.      Dutch 

Eng.  historical  painter. 
Scottish  poet  and  physician. 
1810-....      English  inven- 


German  general 
1879        Prussian 


1822-. . . .     English  author, poet  and  critic. 

.-    The  Strayed  Reveller  :  Essays  on  Criticism,  ^Xc. 

1 795- 1 842.     English  historian  and  master 


Arnheim,  Johann  Georg  von.      1581-1641. 

.ind  diplomatist. 

Arnira,    Harry    Carl    Edward     von.       1824- 
diplomatist. 

Arnold,  Benedict.  1740-1801.  American  general  and  traitor. 
His  plot  to  betray  West  Point,  one  of  the  most  important  of  American 
fortresses,  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  was -betrayed  by  the  capture  of 
M^or  Andre,  and  he  barely  escaped.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the 
British  army,  and  is  said  to  have  received  ;£6,3i5  from  the  British  as 
indemnity'  for  the  loss  he  sustained  by  his  treacherj'. 

Arnold  of  Brescia  (or  Arnaldo) -1155.  Italian  re- 
former, orator  and  popular  leader. 

Arnold,  Edwin.  1832-. . . .  English  journalist  and  poet. 
Light  0/ Asia. 

Arnold,  Matthew. 
G<nl  and  the  Bible , 

Arnold,  Thomas. 

of  Rugby.     History  of  Route. 

Arnold   von  Winkelried -1386.     Swiss  patriot,   who 

brolic  the  Austrian  phalanx  at  the  battle  of  Sempach  by  throwing  him- 
self against  the  points  of  their  spears,  gathering  in  his  arms  all  the  spears 
within  reach.  He  was  mortally  wounded,  but  his  brave  action  decided 
the  fate  of  the  battle  in  favor  of  his  countrymen. 

Artemisia.  Fl.  480  B.C.  Queen  of  Halicarnassus.  Joined 
the  fleet  of  Xerxes  against  Greece,  and  commanded  her  own  ship  in  the 
battle  of  Salamis  with  courage  and  ability. 

Artemisia.  Fl.  350  B.C.  Consort  of  Mausolus,  Prince  of 
Caria,  and  after  his  death  erected  in  his  honor  a  tomb  numbered  among 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

Artevelde,  Jacob  van.     I300?-I345.     Leader  of  the  people  of 

(,hcnt. 

Artevelde,  Philip  van,  son  of  J.  v.  A.  1340-1382.  Leader 
of  the  insurrection  in  Flanders. 

Arthur,  Chester  Allan.  1831-. ...  Twenty-first  President  of 
the  United  States.  Born  at  St.  Albans,  Vermont ;  read  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  practice  in  New  York  city  ;  i860,  quarter- 
master-general on  the  staff  of  Gov.  Morgan  ;  1871,  collector  of  the  port 
of  New  York,  but  superseded,  1878,  by  Gen.  Merritt  ;  1880,  placed  in 
nomination  for  vice-president  by  the  republican  parly  and  elected  ;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency  on  the  death  of  Garfield,  Sept.  19,  i88i. 

Arthur,  Timothy  Shay.  1809-1841.  American  author. 
Lights  and  Shadows  0/ Real  Li/e :    Ten  Nights  in  a  Bar-Room,  etc. 

Ascham,  Roger.     1515-1568.     English  scholar  and  author. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord.  1774-1S48.  English 
diplum.itist      (.\shburton  treaty.) 

Aspasia  of  Miletus.     B.c -432?      Mistress  of  Pericles, the 

Athenian  law  not  permitting  .a  citizen  to  marry  a  foreigner.  Socrates 
called  himself  one  of  her  disciples. 

Astor,  John  J.acob.  1763-1848.  Wealthy  .American  merchant, 
n.itivc  of  Heidelberg,  Germany.  Settled  in  New  York  city,  and  entered 
the  fur  trade  with  great  success,  csLtblishing  trading  posts  in  the  north- 
west as  far  as  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  founding  Astoria  in  i8n.  He 
next  made  extensive  investments  in  real  estate,  and  when  he  died  his 
property  was  estimated  at  twenty  miUions.    Founded  the  AsCor  Library. 

Atahualpa -'533'     I-ast  Inca  of  Peru. 


. .  .-453.     King  of  the  Huns. 
Mulatto  leader    of  mob   in 

1784-1S71.     French   com- 


Athanasius.     296  ?-373.     Greek  father  of  the  church. 

Athelstan.     895?-94i.     King  of  England. 

Athenagoras.     Fl.  168.     Greek  Christian  philosopher. 

Atterbury,  Francis.     1 662-1 732.     Eng.  prelate  and  politician. 

Attila.     The  Scourge  of  God. 

Attucks,    Crispus -1770. 

Boston  massacre. 

Auber,    Daniel   Francois   Esprit, 
poser.     Fra  Diaz'olo  ;  Masaniello. 

Audubon,  John  James.     i7§o-i85l.     American  ornithologist. 

Auerbach,  Berthold.  1812-1882.  German  Jewish  author 
and  poet.      The  Country  House  on  the  Rhine. 

Augereau,  Pierre  Francois  Charles,  Due  de  Castiglione.  1757- 
1816.  French  general.  The  son  of  a  mechanic,  he  received  but  little 
education.  Enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  French  army  in  1792,  but  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  at  the  end  of  a  year  had  attained  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division.  Throughout  his  successful  military  career  he  ex- 
hibited remarkable  valor  and  ability. 

Augustine,  Saint.     354-430.     Latin  father  of  the  church. 

Augustus  I.  1670-1733.  King  of  Poland  and  elector  of 
Sa.xony. 

Augustus  Csesar.      B.C.63-A.D.  14.      First  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Aumale,  Henri  Eugene  Philippe  Louis  d'Orleans,  Due  d'. 
1822-1B83.     French  general.     Son  of  King  Louis  Philippe. 

Aurelianus.     212-275.     Roman  emperor. 

Aurelius  Antoninus,  Marcus.     Marcus  .-lurelius.     121-180. 

Roman  emperor  and  philosopher 

Aurung-Zebe.     161S-1707.     Emperor  of  Hindostan. 

Ausonius.     310-394?      Latin  poet. 

Austen,  Jane.     1775-1817.     English  author. 

Austin,  Saint.     Fl.  597.     The  apostle  of  England. 

Austin,  Stephen  F -1S36.     Founded  the  first  colony  in 

Texas. 

Avicenna.     980-1037.     Arabian  physician. 

Aytoun,  William  Edmondstoune.     1813-1865.     Scottish  poet. 

T>ABER,   Mohammed.        1483?-!  530.       Founder    of    the 

tf^""^     Mogul  empire  in  India. 

Baccio  della  Porta.  Fra  Bartolommeo  di  San  Marco. 
1469-1517.  Italian  painter  .  member  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic.  Last 
Judgment ;  Marriage  0/  St.   Catherine ;    Virgin  on  a  Throne. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian.  1685-1750.  German  composer  and 
musical  director,  distinguished  also  for  his  skill  as  a  performer  on  the 
organ  and  the  piano.      The  Nativity. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas.  1S06-1867.  American  philoso- 
pher and  savant ;  great-grandson  of  Dr.  Franklin. 

Bache,    Franklin.      1792-1S64.      Am.  physician  and  chemist. 

Back,  Sir  George.     1796-1878.     English  .\rctic  navigator. 

Bacon,  Francis,  Baron  Verulam,  Viscount  St.  Albans.  Lord 
Bacon.  1561-1626.  English  statesman,  jurist  and  philosopher.  Son 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  keeper  of  the  great  seal  under  Elizabeth.  His 
youthful  precocity  caused  Queen  Elizabeth  to  call  him  her  "  little  lord 
keeper."  Studied  at  Trinity  College,  and  at  15  began  to  oppcse  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle.  Called  to  the  bar,  and  made  queen's  counsel 
at  28.  Solicitor-general,  1607:  judge  of  the  marshal's  court,  1611; 
attorney-general,  1613:  lord  keeper,  1617;  lord  high  chancellor,  1619. 
Charged  with  gross  bribery  and  corruption  in  Parliament,  1621,  he 
pleaded  guilty,  and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  .jC^OjOoo,  and  to  be 
imprisoned  during  the  royal  pleasure,  and  incapacitated  from  holding 
public  office.  He  regained  hLs  liberty  after  two  days'  imprisonment,  his 
fine,  too,  being  remitted  by  King  James,  who  also  allowed  him  a  pension 
of  .;£i,2ooper  annum.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement, 
diligently  pursuing  the  study  of  literature  and  science.       The  dark  side 


-^ 


^ 


IV 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


213 


of  Bacon's  character  was  shown  in  his  obsequiousness  to  the  crown,  and 
his  enmity  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  also  in  his  base  ingratitude  to  the 
Earl  o(  Essex,  voluntarily  assisting  in  the  prosecution  of  that  unfortu- 
nate nobleman.      The   Wisdont  of  the  Ancients;  Ntrz-um  Organum. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel.  l630?-l677.  Virginia  patriot,  born  in 
England. 

Bacon,  Roger.  The  Admirable  Doctor,  1214-1292.  Eng- 
lish philiisopher.     Opus  Afaj'us, 

Baconthorp,   John.        T/ie    Jyesolute  Doctor.         , , .  .-1346? 

English  monk  and  philosopher. 

Baffin,  William.   1580-1622.  English  navigator,   (Baffin's  Bay.) 

Bailey,  Philip  James.  1816-. , . .  English  lawyer  end  poet. 
J-'cslus:    The  ^lysttc. 

Baillie,  Joanna.  1762-1851.  Scottish  poetess.  The  Family 
Legend  :  Plays  on  the  Passions. 

Baillie,  Matthew.      1761-1823.     Scottish  physician. 

Baillie,  Robert.   i6o2?-i662.    Scottish  theologian. 

Bailly,  Jean  Sylvain.  173^1793-  French  astronomer  and 
philosopher.  1789,  first  president  of  the  Stales-General ;  mayor  of  Paris 
same  year.  Endeavoring,  with  Lafayette,  to  curb  the  violence  of  the 
revolutionists,  he  caused  the  National  Guard  to  fire  on  a  riotous  mob  in 
the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  1791,  thus  incurring  the  enmity  of  the  people. 
Executed  by  the  Jacobins. 

Baily,  Edward  Hodges.     17S8-1867.     English  sculptor. 

Baily,  Francis.     1774-1844.     English  astronomer. 

Bainbridge,  William.     1 774-1 833.     Am.  naval  commander. 

Baird,  Sir  David.     1757-1829.     Scottish  general. 

Baird,  Spencer  F.     1823-  ....     American  naturalist. 

Bajazet  (or  Bayazeed).  1347-1403.  Sultan  of  the  Ottomans. 
Subjugated  Bulgaria,  Asia  Minor,  and  a  portion  of  Greece,  and  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Hungarians,  French  and  Poles  at  Nicopolis,  in  1396, 
Defeated  and  captured  in  1401  by  Tamerlane,  by  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  been  confiued  in  an  iron  cage. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White.  1821-  ....  English  African 
explorer,  and  author  of  geographical  and  literary  works.  In  1847  he 
established  a  sanatorium  and  prosperous  agricultural  settlement  in  the 
mountains  of  Ceylon,  6,200  feet  above  sea  level,  whither  he  conveyed 
emigrants  and  the  best  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle.  In  1861-4  explored, 
at  his  own  expense,  the  region  lying  around  the  sources  of  the  White 
Nile  ;  discovered  and  named  Lake  Albert  N'yanza,  and  found  the  exit  of 
the  Nile.  In  1869,  the  sultan  of  Turkey  placed  at  his  disposal  1,500 
troops,  with  which  another  expedition  was  made  to  the  great  African 
lakes. 

Baker,  Valentine,  Pasha.  English  officer  and  commander  of 
Eg>'plian  troops  in  the  Soudan. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de.  I47S?-I5I7.  Spanish  discoverer. 
Discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  1513.  The  jealousy  of  his  superior  offi- 
cers caused  his  conviction  on  a  charge  of  treason,  for  which  he  was 
executed. 

Baldwin  I.  1058-1118.  King  of  Jerusalem;  brother  of 
C.odfrcy  de  Bouillon. 

Balfe,  Michael  William.  1808-1S70.  Irish  composer.  The 
Bohcntian   Girl. 

Baliol,  Edward -1363-     King  of  Scotland. 

baliol,  John -1269.     English  baron;  father  of  Edward 

Baliol. 

Baliol,  John  de.  I259?-I3I4.  Son  of  the  preceding.  King 
of  Scotland  ;  rival  of  Bruce. 

Ballou,    Hosea.     1771-1852.     American  theologian;  founder 

of  the  denomination  of  UniversaUsts. 
Balmes,  Jaime  Lucio.     i8lo-li 

theologian. 

Balzac,  Honore  de.     1799-1850      French  novelist. 


1848.     Spanish  philosopher  and 


Bancroft,  George.  1800-. . . .  American  historian  and  diplo- 
matist. Minister  to  Germany  and  to  England;  secretary  of  the  navy. 
History  0/  the  United  States,  which  has  been  translated  into  all  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe. 

Baner  (or  Banier),  Johan.  1 595-1641.  Swedish  general. 
Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss.  1816-. . , .  American  general  and 
politician.  Native  of  Massachusetts;  worked  during  boyho(»d  in  a  col- 
ton  factory ;  learned  the  machinist's  trade ;  edited  a  country  newspa- 
per; admitted  to  the  bar;  elected  to  Legislature  of  his  native  state  in 
1849,  and  three  years  later  bectme  speaker.  Sent  to  Congress  in  1852  as  a 
Democrat,  and  in  1854  re-elected  by  the  American  and  Republican  par- 
lies. Speaker  of  House  in  1855,  Served  three  terms  as  Governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers. 
After  the  war  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1866,  1868  and  1870.  Supported 
Horace  Greeley  for  presidency  in  1872.  Re-elected  to  Congress  in  1876 
by  Democrats  and  disaffected  Republicans. 
Banks,  Thomas.     1735-1805.     British  sculptor. 

Banneker,  Benjamin.  1731-1806.  American  negro  mathe- 
matician. 

Barbarossa,  Hadher.     1476?-!  546,      Corsair  king  of  Algiers. 

Barbaroux,  Charles  Jean  Marie.'  1767-1794.  French  rep- 
resentative and  Girondist;  beheaded  by  the  Jacobins. 

Barbauld,  Anna  Letilia.     1743-1S25.     English  authoress. 

Barbour,  John.     I320?-I395?     Scottish  poet.      The  Bt-uce. 

Barclay    de   Tolly,   Michael,  Prince.     1755-1818.     Russian 

field-marshal. 
Barclay,  Robert.     1648-1690.     Scottish  Quaker  author. 

Barham,  Richard  Harris.  1788-1845.  English  divine  and 
humorist,     /ngoldsfiy  Legends. 

Barebone,  Praise  God -1680.     English  fanatic. 

Baring,  Sir  Francis.     1740-1810.     English  capitalist. 
Barlow,  Joel.      ^755-1812.     American  patriot  and  poet. 
Barnard,  John  i.       1815-1882.     American  general  and  writer. 
Barmecides.     Famous  Persian  family,  noted  for  its  tragic  fate. 

Barnes,  Albe.t.     1798-1870.     American  theologian  and  com- 
mentator. 
Barneveldt,  Johan  van  Olden.    1549-1619.    Dutch  statesman, 

Barnum,  Phineas  T.  1S10-.  . . .  American  showman;  na- 
tive of  Connecticut.    Humbugs  0/  the  World. 

Barras,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicola,  Count  de.  1 755-1829. 
French  statesman. 

Barry,  James.     1 741-1806.     Irish  painter. 

Barry  Cornwall.     See  Procter. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  Jules.  1805-. . .  .  French  states- 
UKin  and  writer. 

Baxter,  Richard.  1615-1691.  English  Dissenting  minister 
and  writer.      The  Saints'  Everlasting  Rest :   Call  to  the  Unconverted. 

Bayard,  Pierre  du  Terrail  de.  1475-1524.  French  warrior, 
whose  bravery  earned  for  him  the  sobriquet  "The  cavalier  without 
fear  and  without  reproach."  Fntncis  I.  showed  the  universal  reverence 
for  Bayard's  character  by  choosing  to  be  knighted  at  his  hands.  Mor- 
tally Wduntietl  at  Romagnano,  Bay.^rd  would  not  alh»w  himself  to  be 
carried  from  the  field  of  battle,  refusing  to  "  turn  his  back  to  the  enemy 
for  the  first  lime." 

Bayle,  Pierre.     1647-1706.     French  philosopher  and  critic. 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille.  1811-....  French  general.  Made 
general  of  division  during  the  Crimean  war;  held  a  command  in  the 
French  expedition  to  Mexico,  in  1862,  wiih  great  distinction,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  supreme  command  in  1863.  Created  a  marshal  of  France  in 
1864.  Inlhe  Franco-German  war  he  surrendered  the  fortress  of  Meiz,with 
173,000  men,  6,000  officers,  50  generals  and  3  marshals,  and  fled  lo  Eng- 
land. He  was  court-martialed  and  sentenced  to  degradation  and  death, 
but  the  sentence  w;is  commuted  lo  twenty  years'  imprisonment.  Con- 
fined at  the  isle  Sainle  Marguerite,  he  escaped  in  nine  months  and 
settled  in  Madrid. 


VL 


Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of.  1S04-1SS0.  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  novelist.  His  first  novel,  ViT/ian  Grey,  was  pub- 
lished at  the  age  of  21.  Entered  Parliament  in  1837,  and  became  the 
leader  of  the  Conservative  party.  Acted  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
a  number  of  years,  and  in  i863  was  prime  minister  of  England  for  a  few 
months.  Was  again  called  to  the  premiership  in  1S74,  and  was  raised 
to   [he  peerage.     Was  succeeded  in  1880  by  William  E.  Gladstone. 

Beaton  (or  Beatoun),  David,  Cardinal.  1494-1546.  Primate 
of  Scotland. 

Beattie,  James.     1735-1803.     Scottish  poet  and  philosopher. 

Beauharnais,  Eugene  de.  1781-1S24.  French  general;  son 
of  Ale.\ander  de  Beauharnais  and  Josephine,  afterward  Empress  of 
France. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Auguste  Caron  de.  1732-1799.  French 
dramatist. 

Beaumont,  Francis.  15S6-1615.  English  dramatic  writer; 
associate  of  John  Fletcher. 

Beauregard,  Peter  Gustavus  Toutant.      iSi6- American 

Confederate  general.  Born  in  Louisiana ;  graduate  of  West  Point  ; 
served  in  Mexico.  Entered  Ctyifederate  army  in  1861,  and  commanded  at 
Fort  Sumter  and  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  defeated  at  Shiloh  by 
Gen.  Grant  in  1862  ;  defended  Charleston  in  1863. 

Becket,  Thomas  a.  1117-1170.  Archbishop  of  Canterbuiy; 
high  chancellor  of  England.  Having  excommunicated  two  bishops  for 
complying  with  the  king's  will,  he  was  assassinated  by  four  bai»ns  of  the 
royal  household.     Canonized  in  1172. 

Bede.  T/ie  Venerabie.  673  ?-735.  English  monk  and 
ecclesiastical  writer.     Ecclesiastical  History  0/ the  English  Nation. 

Bedford,  John  Plantagenet,  Duke  of.  1390-1435.  English 
general.  Regent  of  France  and  protector  of  England  during  the 
minority  of  Henrj'  VI.     Defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward.  1813- American  divine  and  lec- 
turer. Born  in  Connecticut.  Pastor  of  Plymouth  Congregational  Church, 
Brooklyn,  since  1847.  Powerful  advocate  of  the  abolition  movement. 
Star  Pa/>ers  :  Sermons. 

Beecher,  Lyman,     1775-1S63,     American  divine.     Father  of 

H-  W.  B.     Views  on  Theology. 
Beethoven,   Ludwig  von.      1770-1827.      German   composer. 

Sin/onia  Eroica  ;  Lenore  ;  Fidelia  ;  Ninth  Sytnphony. 
Behring,  Vitus.     1680-1742  ?     Danish  navigator.    Discovered 

Behrings  Strait ,-  suffered  shipwreck  while  commanding  an  expedition 

to  the  northern  seas  and  died  on  Eehring's  Island. 
Belisarius.     505  ?-565.     Byzantine  general. 
Bell,  Sir  Charles.     1774-1842.     Scottish  physiologist. 
Bellini,  Vincenzo.     1802-1835.     Italian  composer.     La  Son- 

mtnibula:  I  Puriiani :  Norma. 

Belvedere,  Andrea.     1646-1732.     Italian  painter. 

Belzoni,  Giovanni  Battista.     1778-1823.     Italian  traveller. 

Bcndemann,  Edward.     181 1-.  . . .     German  painter. 

Benedek,  Ludwig  von.      1804-1878.      Hungarian  general. 

Benedict  L  Pope  from  575  to  578.  II.,  684-685.  III.,  855- 
85S.  IV.,  900-903.  v.,  chosen  pope  964  but  driven  from  Rome  by  Otho 
I.,  died  at  Hamburg  965.  VI.,  972-974;  killed  by  the  people  of  Rome. 
VII.,  975-984.  VIII.,  1012-1024.  IX.,  ascended  the  pontifical  chair  in 
1034,  but  was  driven  from  Rome.  X.,  1058-1059,  when  he  was  deposed 
on  .iccount  of  being  irregularly  elected.  XI.,  1303-1304.  XII,,  1334- 
1342.     XIII.,  1724-1730.     XIV.,  1740-1758. 

Benedict  XIII.  1334-1424.  Anti-Pope.  Original  name, 
Pedro  de  I.unn.  Chosen  pope  at  Avignon  in  1394,  while  Boniface  IX. 
reigned  at  Rome.  Both  were  deposed  in  1415  by  the  council  of  Con- 
stance. 

Benedict,    Sir   Julius.     1804- German    musician     and 

C(»inposcr,  residing  in  England  since  1835. 

Benezet,  Anthony.     1713-1784.     French  philanthropist. 


Bennett,  James  Gordon.       1800-1S72.     American  journalist; 

natue  of  Scotland;  founded  ihe  Ne-w   York  Herald. 
Benjamin,  Park.     1S09-1864.     Am.  journalist  and  poet. 
Bentham,  Jeremy.     1748-1832.     English  jurist  and  utilitarian 

philoiriopher. 
B^ntinck,    William    Charles  Cavendish,   Lord.       1774-1839. 

British  general;  governor-general  of  India. 
Bentley,  Richard.     1662-1742.     English  classical  scholar  and 

divine.      The  Epistles  0/ Phalaris. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart.  17S2-1858.  American  statesman. 
Born  at  HJllsboro,  N.  C.  ;  removed  to  Tennessee,  where  he  studied 
law,  and  commenced  practice  at  29.  Commanded  a  regiment  under 
Gen.  Jackson,  who,  in  a  quarrel,  atfbmpted  to  strike  Benton  with  aliorse- 
whip,  causing  Benton's  brother  to  severely  wound  Gen,  Jackson  with  a 
pistol.  Benton  shortly  after  removed  to  St.  Louis,  where  he  published 
a  political  paper.  Elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1820,  he  con- 
tinued a  member  of  that  body  for  thirty  years,  being  defeated  in  1850  by 
a  division  in  the  Democratic  party  on  the  slavery  question.  His  advo- 
cacy of  a  gold  and  silver  currency  during  his  second  term  in  the  Senate 
earned  for  him  the  sobriquet  of  "  Old  Bullion."  Elected  in  1852  to 
the  National  House  of  Representatives,  he  earnestly  opposed  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  Defeated  for  the  governorship  of  Missouri  in 
1856.  Favored  Buchanan  for  the  presidency  in  opposition  to  his  son- 
in-law,  Fremont.     A    Thirty   Years'    I'iczv. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de.       1780-1857.      French  lyric  poet. 

Bergerac,  Cyrano  de.     1620-1655.     Fr.  dramatist  and  duelist. 

Beriot,  Charles  Auguste  de.  1802-1S70.  Belgian  violinist 
and  composer. 

Berkeley,  George.  1684-1753.  Irish  Protestant  prelate  and 
metaphysician.     The  Principles  oj"  Human  Knowledge. 

Berlichingen,  Gotz  von.  Of  the  Iron  Hand,  1480-1562. 
German  warrior;  hero  of  one  of  Goethe's  dramas. 

Berlioz,  Louis  Hector.  1803-1869.  French  composer.  The 
Damnation  0/  Faust :  symphonies,  Harold,  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

Bernadotte,  Jean  Baptiste  Jules.  1764-1S44.  Klarshal  of 
Fr.'iiii:i' ;   King  of  Sweden  and  Norway  as  Carl  XIV.  Johan. 

Bernard,  Saint.  1091-1153.  French  ecclesiastic,  canonized 
1174.  Abbot  at  Clairvaux,  refusing  other  ecclesiastical  preferment,  but 
exerting  great  power  over  Europe. 

Bernard  de  Menthon,  Saint.      923-1008.       Founder  of   the 

hospices  of  St.  Bernard. 

Bernardo  del  Carpio.      P'l.  9th  century.     Spanish  soldier. 
Bernhardt,  Sara  (Mme.  Damala).   1S50-. . . .  Fr.  tragedienne. 
Bert,  Paul.     1833-  ....     French  physician  and  politician. 
Berthier,  Louis  Alexandre,   Prince  of  Wagram.       1753-1815. 

Marshal  of  France. 
Berthollet,  Claude  Louis.      1748-1822.     French  chemist. 
Berwick,  James  Fitz-James,  Duke  of.     1 660-1 734.       Marshal 

of  France  ;  natural  son  of  James  II.  of  England. 
Bessel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm.       1784-1846.      Prus.  astronomer. 
Bessemer,  Henry.    1813— . . . .     English  engineer.     {Bessemer 

process.) 

Beust,  Friedrich  Ferdinand  von.  Count.    1S09-.  .  ..     German 

statesman. 
Beza,  Theodore.      1519-1605.     Yx.  Calvinistic  theologian. 
Biddle,  John.     The  father  of  English  Unitarians.     1615-1662. 

English  theologian. 
Biddle,  Nicholas.     1786-1S44.     American  financier. 

Bierstadt,  Albert.     1829-1882.     American  landscape  painter, 

native  of  Germany. 
Billings,  William.     1746-1800.     .\merican  musical  composer, 
Binney,  Amos.     1S03-1847.     American  naturalist. 
Binney,  Horace,     17S0-1S75.     American  lawyer. 


/ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


215 


-y 


Birney,  James  G.     1792-1857.     American  politician. 
Bird,  Robert  Montgomer>'.     1803-1854.     American  author. 
Bismarck-Schonhausen,    Karl    Otto,    Prince.       1815-.... 

(Icrm.in  statesman  :  chancellor  of  the  German  i'^nipire. 
Bjornson,    Bjornstjerne.      1S32- Norwegian   poet   and 

novelist. 

Black  Hawk.     17O7-1838.     American  Indian  chief. 

Black,  William.     1841- Scottish  author.     .-/  Princess  of 

ThulL-:  Mac Uod  0/  Dare :  A  Daughter  0/  Heth. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  Clay  Sliles.     1838- Am.  statesman. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William.  1723-1780.  English  jurist.  Com- 
if/oiftzr/es  on  the  Laius  0/  England, 

Blackwood,  William.  1776-1817.  Scottish  publisher.  Black- 
ivood's  Magazine. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie.  1830-....  American  statesman. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania;  removed  to  Maine,  where  he  edited  the  Fort- 
iand Ad-.-ettiser:  served  four  terms  in  the  Legislature;  in  Congress 
from  1862  to  1876,  and  speaker  for  three  terms.  Prominent  candidate  fur 
the  Republican  nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1876  and  1B80.  Chosen 
United  States  senator  in  1877,  but  resigned  to  accept  the  secretaryship 
of  state  under  Garfield. 

Blair,   Hugh.     1718-1S00.     Scottish  divine  and  rhetorician. 

Blake,  Robert.  1599-1657.  British  athniral,  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  England's  naval  supremacy. 

Blake,  William.     1757-1828.     English  poet  and  artist. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis.  1813-1883.  French  journalist, 
historian  and  politician. 

Blanchard,  Thomas.     1788-1864.     American  inventor. 

Blennerhasset,  Harman.  1770-1831.  Friend  and  accom- 
plice of  Aaron  Burr. 

Blessington,  Margaret,  Countess  of  (nee  Power).  1789-1S49. 
Beautifid  and  accomplished  Irish  lady. 

Blind,  Carl.     1820-. . . .     German  radical. 

Bloomfield,  Robert.  1 766-1823.  English  poet.  A  tailor's 
son  and  a  shoemaker's  apprentice.      The  Farmer's  Boy, 

Blucher,  Gebhard  Lebrecht  von.  Marschall  J'onoaris.  1742 
-1S19.     Prussian  field-marshal.     Decided  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

Blumenthal,  Leonard  von,  1810-.  . . .  Prussian  general  and 
strategist. 

Boabdil -i  536  ?     Last  Moorish  king  of  Granada. 

Boadicea -62.     British  queen. 

Bobadilla,   Francisco  de.     Fl.   1500.     Spanish    administrator 

who  sent  Columbus  in  chains  to  Spain. 
Boccaccio,  Giovanni.     1313-1375.     It.  novelist.    Decameron. 
Bodenstedt,  Friedrich  Martin.     1S19-.  .  .  .     German  poet  and 

author. 
Boerhaave,    Herman.        166S-1738.       Dutch    physician   and 

philosopher, 

Boethius,  Anicius  Manlius  Torquatus  Severinus.  475-525  ? 
Roman  statesman  and  philosopher.  Falsely  charged  with  treason,  he 
was  beheaded.     Dc  Consolationc  FhilnsophitB. 

Bogardus,  James.     1S00-1874,     American  inventor. 

Bohn,   Henry  George.     1800- English  publisher. 

Boileau-Despreaux,  Nicolas.  1636-1711.  French  poet  and 
satirist, 

Boleyn,  Anne.  1507  ?-i536.  Second  ([ueen  of  Henry  VIIL 
of  Kngland.     Belieaded. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount.  1678-1751.  English 
author,  orator  and  politician.     Dissertation  on  Farties. 

Bolivar,  Simon.  1783-1830.  Liberator  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can colonies. 


Bonaparte,  Charles  Louis  Napoleon.  Napoleon  III.  1808- 
1873.  Son  of  Louis  Bonaparte.  Emperor  of  the  French.  As  claimant 
to  the  throne  of  France,  he  attempted  in  1836  to  take  Strasburg,  but 
was  banished.  In  1840  he  was  imprisoned  in  Havre  for  an  attempted 
insurrection  at  Boulogne,  but  escaped  to  England  in  1846.  Returning  to 
France  after  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  w;is  elected  president.  He  gained 
the  support  of  the  army,  and  abolishing  popular  represcnLition  by  the 
coup  d'etat  of  1 85 1 ,  was  declared  emperor.  In  1853  he  married  Eugenie, 
Conntess  dc  Teba.  Having  surrendered  at  Sedan,  after  the  decisive 
battle  of  the  Franco-German  war,  he  was  deposed  and  retired  to  Chisel- 
hurst,  in  England,  where  he  died. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome.  1784-1860.  Youngest  brother  of  Napo- 
leon I.    King  of  Westphalia. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph.    1768-1844.    Eldest  brother  of  Napoleon 

I.    King  of  Spain. 

Bonaparte,  Louis.  1778-1846.  Brother  of  Napoleon  L 
King  of  Holland. 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  Prince  de  Canina.  1 775-1840.  Brother 
of  Napoleon  L 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon.  Napoleon  I.  1769-1821,  Emperor 
of  the  French.  Born  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica.  Attended  a  military  school 
from  1779  to  1784,  and  showed  particular  aptitude  for  history  and  mathe- 
matics. Entered  the  army  as  sub-licuicnant  in  1785,  and  in  1792  had 
risen  to  the  rank  of  captain  of  artillery.  In  1793  he  submitted  a  plan 
for  the  reduction  of  Toulon,  held  by  the  English  and  Spaniards,  and  was 
entrusted  with  its  execution.  His  success  in  this  undertaking  won  for 
him  a  commission  as  brigadier-general.  In  1794,  on  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre, Napoleon  was  suspended  and  put  under  arrest,  his  detention, 
however,  being  of  short  duration.  In  the  spring  of  1795,  on  the  remodel- 
ling ot  the  army,  he  was  again  suspended,  and  placed  upon  half-pay,  the 
only  reason  given  by  the  authorities  being  that  he  w.-is  too  young  to  com- 
mand the  artillery  of  an  army.  In  the  fall,  on  the  breaking  out  of  a  for- 
midable insurrection  led  by  the  National  Guard,  the  whole  force  of 
insurgents  numbering  more  than  30,000,  the  convention  recalled  Napo- 
leon, who,  with  only  5,000  regulars  and  1,500  volunteers,  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  after  a  brief  but  sanguinary'  engagement.  This  victory 
made  him  v-irtually  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  interior.  In 
1796  he  was  appointed  to  the  comniand-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy,  and 
in  the  same  year  married  Josephine  de  Beauharnais,  In  his  very  first 
campaign  Napoleon  appeared  a  consummate  general.  His  peculiar 
mode  of  attack  consisted  in  precision  of  movement,  concentration  of 
forces  and  formidable  charges  upon  a  determinate  point.  In  a  few  weeks 
he  gained  four  victories,  conquered  Lombardy  and  laid  siege  to  Mantua, 
which  he  captured  after  almost  annihilating  three  Austrian  armies. 
Napoleon  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Pope,  compelling  him  to  pay 
30,000,000  lires  and  surrender  many  valuable  works  of  art.  After 
defeating  another  Austrian  army  sent  to  Italy,  Napoleon  concluded  a 
treaty  securing  his  brilliant  success.  In  1798  he  was  given  command  of 
:i  powerful  expedition  into  Egypt,  the  intention  being  to  strike  at  the 
power  of  Great  Britain,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Mamelukes 
and  Turkish  auxiliaries  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  and  another  at 
Aboukir,  Returning  to  France,  he  overthrew  the  Directory  and  was 
elected  first  consul,  In  1800  he  gained  the  great  victory  of  Marengo, 
Made  peace  with  England  1802,  granted  general  amnesty,  established 
public  order,  re-established  the  Catholic  faith,  and  produced  his  Ciz'il 
Code.  Napoleon  became  emperor  in  1804,  and  engaged  in  war  with 
England,  Russia,  Sweden  and  Prussia.  Divorced  from  Josephine  ia 
i8og,  he  married  Maria  Louise,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  in 
1810.  tn  1812  occurred  the  ill-fated  Russian  campaign,  Napoleon's 
loss  being  estimated  at  450,000  men.  Beaten  at  Leipzig,  1813,  he  made 
a  disastrous  retreat.  In  1814  the  allies  entered  Paris,  compelled  Napo- 
leon to  abdicate,  and  sent  him  to  Elba,  granting  him  the  sovereignty 
of  that  isbnd,  with  a  yearly  pension  of  6,000,000  francs.  Returning 
again  to  France,  he  was  cnthusi.istically  received  and  raised  an  army  of 
about  125,000,  but  was  completely  defeated  at  Waterloo,  1815.  He 
abdicated  again,  and,  unable  to  carry  out  his  intention  of  embarking  for 
America,  he  surrendered  to  the  captain  of  a  British  man-of-war.  Carried 
to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  he  died  there  in  1821  after  nearly  six  years' 
confinement. 


\ 


o    r 


V 


2l6 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul.  Prince  Napoleon. 
1S22-...,     Son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria  Theresa. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Francpois  Charles  Joseph.  Napoleon  II. 
1811-1832.    Son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria  Theresa 

Bonaventura,  Saint.  The  Seraphic  Doctor.  1221-1274. 
iL-ilian  theologian. 

Bonheur,  Rosa  (or  Rosalie),  1S22-....  French  painter  of 
animals. 

Boniface  I.  Pope,  ruling  from  419  to  422.  II.,  530-532. 
III.,  elected  607  and  died  same  year.  IV.,  60S-615.  V.,  619-624;  dis- 
tinguished for  his  eTorts  to  convert  the  Britons  VI.,  died  in  895,  fif- 
teen days  after  his  election  to  the  Papacy.  VII.  (Anti-Pope),  elected 
974,  during  reign  of  Benedict  VI. ;  driven  from  Rome,  but  returned  in 
985,  imprisoning  John  XI V. ,  who  is  said  to  have  been  starved  to  death ; 
died  985      VIII.,  1294-1303.     IX.,  1389-1404. 

Boniface,   Winfred,   Saint.     Apostle  of  Germany.     680-755  ? 

Bonner,  Edmund.  Bloody  Bonner.  I490?-I569.  Bishop 
of  London,  noted  for  his  persecution  of  the  Protestants. 

Bonneville,  Benjainin  L.  E.  1 795?-!  878.  American  soldier 
and  traveller. 

Bonnivard,  Frantjois  de.  1496-1570.  The  hero  of  Byron's 
Prisoner  0/  Chilton. 

Boone,  Daniel.  1735-1820?  American  pioneer.  Born  in 
Pennsylvania,  but  removed  in  boyhood  to  North  Carolina.  Visited 
Kentucky,  hitherto  unexplored,  in  1769,  and  emigrated  to  that  State 
with  his  own  and  five  other  families  in  1773,  constructing  a  fort  at 
Boonsborough  in  1775.  Captured  by  the  Indians,  he  was  adopted  by 
them,  but  escaped  and  returned  to  the  fort,  which  was  shortly  after  at- 
tacked by  Indians  under  the  British  flag.  The  fort  was  ably  de- 
fended, two  of  Boone's  sons,  however,  being  killed.  Boone  lost  his 
lands  in  Kentucky  in  consequence  of  a  defective  title,  and,  removing  to 
Missouri,  pursued  the  occupation  of  a  hunter  and  trapper. 

Booth,    Edwin.     1833- Son   of  Junius    Brutus    Booth. 

American  tragedian. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes.  1835-1865.  Son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth. 
American  actor,  who  became  infamous  as  the  assassin  of  Abra'nam 
Lincoln,  whom  he  shot  at  the  theatre  on  the  evening  of  April  14th,  1865. 
Effected  his  escape,  but  was  traced  into  Virginia,  where,  refusing  to  sur- 
render, he  was  shot. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus.     1796-1852.     English  tragedian. 

Borden,  Simeon.     1 798-1 856.     American  civil  engineer. 

Borg^,    Giovanni.     1735-1S02.      Italian   founder    of    ragged 

schools. 
Borgia,   Cesare,  Due  de  Valentinois.       1457-1507.     Natural 

son  of  Alexander  VI.    Italian  cardinal  and    military  leader.    Made 

cardinal  in  1492,   but  afterwards    secularized.     Notorious  for  cunning, 

perfidy  and  cruelty. 

Borgia,  Francisco.     See  Francis,  Saint. 

Borgia,    Lucrezia,    Duchess    of    Ferrara -1523.     Sister 

of  Cesare  Borgia.  Distinguished  for  beauty  and  talents,  and  a  patron  of 
learning,  but  contemporaneous  writers  differ  in  their  estimation  of  her 
character. 

Borromeo,  Carlo,  Saint.     153S-1584.     Italian  cardinal,  noted 

for  benevolence  and  care  of  the  sick. 
Borrow,  George.     1S03-18S1.     English  author   and  traveller. 
Bos,  Hieronymus.     I450?-I5oo.     Dutch  painter. 
Boscawen,  Edward.     1711-1761.     English  admiral. 

Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne.  1627-1704.  French  prelate,  ora- 
tor and  controversialist, 

Boswell,  James.  1740-1795.  Scottish  lawyer ;  biographer  of 
Dr.  Johnson. 


Bothwell,  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of.     I526?-I577?     Scottish 

conspirator;  husband  of  Mary  of  Scotland. 

Bottcher,  Johann  Friedrich.  1682-1719.  Inventor  of  Dres- 
den china. 

Boucicault,  Dion.  1822-....  Irish  dramatist,  residing  in 
New  York  since  1876.     Colteen  Bawn ;   The  Octoroon. 

Boudinot,  Elias.     1740-1821.     Am.  philanthropist  and  patriot. 

Bouillon,  Godfrey  de.  1060  ?-l  100.  Leader  of  the  first 
Crusade. 

Bourbaki,  Charles  Denis  Sauter.     1816-....    Fr.  general. 

Bourbon.  The  name  of  a  famous  dynasty  reigning  in  France 
irom  1589  to  1848,  excepting  the  republic  and  the  empire  of  the  first 
Napoleon. 

Bourbon,  Charles,  Due  de.  Constable  Bourbon.  1490-1527. 
French  general.  Killed  after  mounting  the  wall  of  Rome  at  the  head  of 
his  troops.  A  prominent  character  in  Byron's  The  Deformed  Trans- 
/ormed. 

Bourdaloue,  Louis.     1 632-1 704.     French  Jesuit  orator. 

Bourdon,  Sebastien.     1616-1671.     French  painter. 

Bourne,  Hugh.  1772-1852.  English  founder  of  Primitive 
Methodism. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel.  1773-1838.  American  mathematician; 
son  of  a  cooper.     Navigation. 

Bowdoin,  James.     1 727-1 790.     American  statesman. 

Bowles,  Samuel.     1826-7878.  American  journalist. 

Bowles,  William  Lisle.     1762-1850.     English  poet. 

Bowring,  Sir  John.     1792-1872.     Eng.  scholar  and  statesman. 

Boyce,  William.     1710-1779.     Eng.  organist  and  composer. 

Boydell,  John.    1719-1804.    Eng.  engraver  and  art  publisher. 

Boyle,  Robert.  1626-1691.  Irish  experimental  philosopher 
and  philanthropist.     Disquisition  on  Final  Causes. 

Bozzaris,  Marcos.  1790-1823.  Patriotic  leader  in  the  Greek 
war  for  independence.     Slain  in  a  night  attack  upon  the  Turks. 

Braddock,  Edward.  I7I5?-I75S-  English  general  in  Amer- 
ica.    Killed  by  Indians. 

Braddon,  ^L^ry  Elizabeth.    1837- English  novelist;  editor 

of  Belgravia.  Lady  Audtey's  Secret ;  Dead  Sea  Fruit ;  An  Open 
Verdict. 

Bradford,  William.   1590-1657.  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony. 

Bradford,  William.   1660-1752.    First  printer  in  Pennsylvania. 

Bradshaw,  John.     1586-1659.  English  republican  judge. 

Bradstreet,  Anne.     1612-1672.     American  poetess. 

Bradstreet,  John.     1711-1774.     American  majorgeneral. 

Bragg,  Braxton.     1S15-1S76.     Confederate  general. 

Brahe,  Tycho.     1545-1601.     Swedish  astronomer. 

Brainerd,  David.     1718-1747.     American  missionary. 

Bramante  d' Urbino.  Donate  Lazari.  1444-1514.  Italian 
architect  of  St.  Peter's. 

Brandt,  Joseph.  Thayendanega.  l742?-l8o7.  Half-breed 
chief  of  the  Mohawks. 

Breckenridge,  John  Cabell.  1S21-1875.  American  states- 
man and  Confederate  general.  Born  in  Kentucky.  Vice-president 
1857-61.  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  i860.  Elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  from  Kentucky  in  1861,  but  resigned  to  enter 
the  Confederate  army.   Confederate  secretary  of  war,  1865. 

Bremer,  Fredrika.  1802-1865.  Swedish  novelist.  The  Neigh- 
bors: The  Homes  0/  the  New  World. 

Brentano,  Clemens.     1777-1842.     German  novelist  and  poet. 

Brenghel,  Jan.     1569-1625.     Flemish  painter. 

Brewster,  Sir  David.    1781-1S68.    Eng.  optician  and  physicist. 


i/— 


IV 


A  COMPENDIUM   OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


217 


Brian  Boru  {ox  Boroihme).      727?-ioi4.     King  of  Ireland. 
Bridget,  Saint.     1302-1373.     Patroness  of  Ireland. 
Bridgman,  Laura.       1829-. . . .       American  blind  deaf-mule, 

noted  for  her  mental  acquirements. 
Bright,  John.     181 1-. . . .     English  statesman  and  orator. 
Bright,  Richard.     17S9-1S5S.    English  physician. 
Brillat-Savarin,   Anthelme.        1755-1826.       French    author. 

Physiology  0/  the   Taste. 

Brissot  de  Warville,  Jean  Pierre.  1754-1793.  French  leader 
of  the  Girondists;  beheaded. 

Broglie,  Charles  Jacques  Victor  Albert,  Due  de.  1821-.  . . . 
French  st.itesman  and  writer, 

Bronte,  Charlotte.  Currer  Bell.  1816-1S55.  English  novelist. 
Jane  Eyre;  Shirley:   ViUette. 

Brooks,  James.     1810-1873.     American  journalist. 

Brougham,  Henry,  Lord.  1 779-1868.  British  author,  states- 
man and  orator. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden.       1771-1S10.     Am.  novelist. 

Brown,  Hablot,  Knight.  Phiz.  1815-1882.  English  comic 
designer. 

Brown,  John,  Captain.  1800-1859.  Born  in  Connecticut,  and 
a  tanner  by  trade.  Removed  to  Kansas  and  became  prominent  as  an 
abolitionist,  and  gained  the  title  of  "  Ossawatomie"  by  a  victory,  in 
1856,  over  a  company  of  Missourians  vastly  exceeding  his  own  force  in 
number.  In  pursuance  of  a  plan  for  the  invasion  of  Virginia  and  the 
emancipation  of  slaves,  he  surprised  Harper's  Ferry  in  1859,  and  took 
the  arsenal  and  armory  and  forty  prisoners.  Attacked  the  nev  day  by 
the  United  States  marines  and  the  Virginia  militia,  two  of  his  soi..  -^nd 
most  of  his  company  of  twenty  men  were  killed,  and  he  himself  was 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  He  was  tried  and  hanged  at  Charlestown, 
Virginia,  the  same  year. 

Brown,  Thomas.     1778-1820.     Scottish  metaphysician. 

Browne,  Charles  F.  Artemtts  Ward.  1S35-1867.  Ameri- 
can humorist. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas.  1605-1682.  English  physician,  phil- 
osopher and  author.  Religio  Medici;  Enquiries  into  Vulgar  and 
Common  Errors. 

Browning,     Elizabeth  Barrett.     1809-1861.     Wife  of  Robert 

Browning.     English  poetess.    Aurora  Leigh;   Casa  Guidi  U'indozus, 
Browning,  Robert.     i8i2-....        English  poet.        The  Ring 
and  the  Book ;  Strafford ;    Men  and  Women  ;    Fi/ine  at  the  Fair ; 
A  Soul's  Errand. 

Brownlow,  William  Gannaway.     Parson  Broionl(nv.     1S05- 

1877.      American  politician. 
Brownson,  Orestes  Augustus.-     1803-1876.     Am.  theologian. 
Bruce,  James.     1 730-1 794.     Scottish  traveller;  discovered  the 

source  of  the  Blue  Nile. 
Bruce,  Robert.       1274-1329,       King  of  Scotland.      Defeated 

Edward  H.  at  Bannockbum,  in  1314.       The  greatest  of  the  rulers  of 

Scotland. 
Brummel,    George    Bryan.       Beatt  Bmmmel.       177S-1840. 

English  man  of  fashion. 
Brunei,  Isambard  Kingdom.      1806-1859.     Eng.  engineer. 
Brunei,  Sir  Mark  Isambard.     1769-1S49.     English  engineer, 

born  in   France.     Built  the  Thames  tunu*l. 

Brunelleschi,  Filippo.  1377-1444.  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor. 

Bruno,  Saint.  1040?-!  191.  Gennan  founder  of  the  Car- 
tliusians. 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius.  Fl.  500  B.C.  Roman  patriot;  over- 
threw Tariiuin. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius.  80-36  B.C.  One  of  Caesar's  assas- 
sins; committed  suicide  after  his  defeat  at  Philippi. 


Bryant,  William  Cullen.  1794-1878.  American  poet  and 
journalist;  born  in  Massachusetts.  At  13  composed  The  Spanish  Rev- 
olution and  The  Embargo^  Entered  Williams  College,  read  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816.  Published  Thanatopsis  in  1816.  Became 
editor  of  the  Neiu  York  Evening  Post  in  1826.  He  was  a  firm  oppo- 
nent  of  slavery. 

Buchanan,  George.     1506-1582.     Scottish  historian  and  jx)et. 

Buchanan,  James.  1791-1868.  Fifteenth  president  of  the 
United  States.  Bom  in  Pennsylvania.  Admitted  to  the  bar,  iSia  ; 
member  of  Congress,  1821-31;  minister  to  Russia,  1832-4;  U.  S. 
senator,  1834-5;  secretary  of  state,  1845-9;  niinistcr  lo  England, 
1853-6;  signed  Ostend  manifesto  in  1854;  presiJenI,  1857-61.  In 
his  last  message,  President  Buchanan  censured  the  Northern  people  for 
the  imminent  disruption  of  the  Union,  holding  that  neither  the  executive 
nor  Congress  had  power  to  coerce  a  state. 

Buckland,  William.     1 784-1 856.     English  geologist. 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas.  1822-1862.  English  writer.  History 
0/  Ciznlization. 

Buddha  [or  Booddha)^  Gautama.  624-523  B.C.  Hindoo  re- 
former; founder  of  Buddhism. 

Buell,  Don  Carlos.     1818?-. , . .     American  general. 
Buffon,  Georges  L^uis  Leclerc  de,  Comte.  1707-1788.  French 

naturalist  and  philosopher.    Natural  History  ;  Epochs  oj" Nature. 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann.     1810-18S2.     Norwegian  violinist. 

Bulow,  Bernhard  Ernst  von.     1815-, . , .     German  statesman. 

Bulow,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von,  Count.  1775-1816.  Prussian 
general. 

Bulow,  Hans  Guido  von.     1830-. . . .      German  pianist. 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Edward  George  Earle  Lytton,  Baron  Lytton, 
1805-1873,     English  novelist, 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Edward  Robert,  Baron  Lytton.  Owen 
Meredith.     1831-. . . ,     Son  of  the  preceding.     English  poet, 

Bulwer,  Sir  Henry  Lytton  Earle.  1S04-1872.  English  author 
and  diplomatist, 

Bunsen,  Christian  Karl  Josias  von,  Baron.  1791-1860.  Ger- 
man philologist  and  diplomatist. 

Bunyan,  John.  1628-1688.  English  author.  Tlic  son  of  a 
tinker,  he  followed  that  vocation  and  led  for  many  years  a  dissipated, 
wandering  life  ;  served  in  the  Parliament.-iry  army;  juined  the  Anabap- 
tists in  1654,  and  in  1655  became  a  Baptist  minister  ;  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  life  on  a  charge  of  promoting  seditious  assemblies,  but 
sentence  not  enforced  ;  w.as,  however,  imprisoned  for  more  than  twelve 
years,  and  during  this  time  wrote  his  Pilgrim's  Progress,  After  his 
release  he  was  minister  of  the  gospel  at  Bedford,  and  became  very 
popular.  Among  his  other  works  are  The  Holy  City  and  The  Holy 
War. 

Burckhardt,  Johann  Ludwig.     17S4-1817.     Swiss  traveller. 

Burdett-Coutts,  Angela  Georgina,  Baroness.  1814-. . . . 
English  philanthropist. 

Burger,  Gottfried  August.   1748-1794.    German  poet. 

Burgoyne,  John.  1730-1792.  English  general  and  dijamatist. 
Surrendered  at  Saratoga, 

Burke,  Edmund.  1730-1797.  English  (Irish)  orator,  states- 
man and  writer.  Prominent  as  the  ablest  member  of  the  Commons  to 
oppose  the  ministry's  American  policy.  Impeached  Warren  Hastings 
in  1788.     Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France, 

Burke,  Thomas  N.     1830-18S3.     Irish  Dominican  orator. 

Burleigh,  William  Cecil,  Lord.     1520-1598.     Eng.  statesman. 

Burlingame,    Anson.       1822-1870.      American   diplomatist; 

negotiator  of  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  China, 

Burnet,   Ciilbert.     1643-1715.     British  prelate  and  historian. 

History  0/  My  Own    Times. 


-M 


Q ^ 


K~ 


218 


/ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Burns,  Robert.  1759-1796.  Scotch  lyric  poet.  Born  at 
Ayr ;  the  son  of  a  poor  farmer.  Bums  worked  hard  on  his  father's 
farm  and  had  little  opportunity  for  education.  Began  rhyming  at  the 
age  of  16,  and  studied  mensuration  and  surveying.  His  poems  brought 
him  into  society,  where  he  acquired  dissipated  habits.  Formed  a  iiai- 
so?:  in  17S5  with  Jean  Armour,  whom  he  married  in  1788.  Intended  to 
emigrate,  but  the  popularity  of  his  poems,  published  in  full  in  1787,  in- 
duced him  to  remain  in  Scotland.  He  afterward  became  an  officer  of 
the  excise.  The  principal  characteristics  of  Burns'  poems  are  beauty 
and  independence  of  thought  and  intensity  of  feeling.  T/ie  Cotter's 
Saturday  Night ;  Tani  O' Shunter;  To  the  Unco'  Gitid ;  Halloween  : 
Holy  U'illie's  Prayer. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett.     1824-1881.     American  general. 

Burr,  Aaron.  1756-1836.  American  statesman  and  lawyer. 
In  1800  Burr  and  Jefferson  were  the  Democratic  candidates  for  presi- 
dent and  vice-president.  Receiving  the  same  number  of  votes,  the 
House  gave  the  higher  office  to  Jefferson.  Burr's  course  in  endeavor- 
ing to  supplant  Jefferson  lost  him  the  regard  of  his  party.  Unsuccessful 
as  candidate  for  governor  of  New  York  in  1804,  Burr  attributed  his 
defeat  to  Alexander  Hamilton,  whom  he  killed  in  a  duel.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  as  vice-president,  Burr  was  tried  for  treason, 
charged  with  the  subversion  of  federal  authority,  and  with  raising  an 
expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  but  acquitted. 

Burritt,  Elihu.  T/w  Learned  Blacksmith.  1S10-1S79.  Am- 
erican scholar  and  journalist.  The  son  of  a  shoemaker,  and  appren- 
ticed to  a  blacksmith,  he  devoted  all  his  spare  time  to  study,  and  event- 
ually mastered  eighteen  foreign  languages.  He  became  a  successful 
lecturer  and  advocated  many  reforms. 

Burton,    Richard    Francis.       1821-. . . .      Irish    traveller    in 

Africa. 

Burton,  Robert.  1576-1640.  English  philosopher.  Anatoviy 
0/  Melancholy. 

Bushnell,  Horace.     1S02-1876.     American  divine. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin.  1818-. . . .  American  politician, 
lawyer  and  general.  Born  in  New  Hampshire.  Butler  applied  the 
term  "contraband  of  war"  to  the  slaves  who  sought  ,jrotection  at 
Fortress  Monroe  while  he  was  in  command  there.  Military  governor 
of  New  Orleans  in  1862,  ruling  with  vigor  and  efficiency  and  preserving 
the  city  from  the  yellow  fever.  Went  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  in 
1866,  and  was  re-elected  for  several  terms.  Elected  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1882  by  the  Democrats,  but  defeated  for  the  same  office  a 
year  later. 

Butler,  Joseph.     1692-1752.     English  theologian. 

Butlf-r,  Samuel.     l6i2?-l68o.      English  poet.     Hudibras. 

Byng,  John.     1 704-1757.     Eng.   admiral,  shot  for  cowardice. 

Byron,  George  Gordon  Noel,  Lord.  17SS-1S24.  English 
poet.  Born  in  Lond.m  and  educated  in  Scotland.  Travelled  1809-11, 
and  on  returning  produced  the  first  cantos  of  Childc  Harold,  (jtaour 
and  Bride  o/Aiydos,  1^12',  Corsair,  1814.  In  1815  he  married  Anne 
Isabel  Millbank,  but  separated  from  her  and  left  England  in  1816.  In 
Italy  he  formed  a  liaison  with  the  beautiful  Countess  Guiccioli.  Espous- 
ing the  cause  of  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  liberty,  he  left  for 
Greece  in  1823,  and  died  the  following  year  at  Missolonghi  from  the  ef- 
fects of  exposure  while  preparing  for  the  siege  of  Lepanto.  Byron's 
poetry  is  characterized  by  intense  emotion,  and  by  rare  taste  and  mar- 
vellous felicity  in  composition,  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage;  Don 
yuan. 

y^ABALLERO,  Fernan.     1787-1877.     Pseudonym  of  the 

V^     Spanish  novtilist  Cecilia  Bohl  dc  Fabcr. 

Cabanel,  Alexandre.     1823-. . . .      French  historical  painter. 
Cabanis,  Pierre  Jean  George.     '1757-1808.     French  physician 

and  philosopher. 

Cabot,  George.  1751-1823.  President  ui  the  Hartford  Con- 
vention, 


Cabot,  John -1498?     Venetian  navigator  in  the  service 

of  England.     Discovered  North  American  continent  in  1497. 

Cabot,  Sebastian.  I477?-I557-  Son  of  preceding.  English 
navigator. 

Cade,  John.    Jack  Cade -I450.     Irish  rebel. 

Cadoudal,  George.  1 769-1 804.  French  Bourbon  general. 
Executed  for  plotting  the  dethronement  of  Napoleon  I. 

Cadvi^alader,  George -1879.     American  general. 

Cadwalader,  John.     1743-1786.     American  general. 

Caedmon -6S0?     Anglo-Saxon  poet.      Tke  Ci-eaiion. 

Csesar,  Gains  Julius.  100-44  ^-C  Roman  general  and 
statesman.  Elected  Consul  60  B.C. ;  formed  a  secret  alliance  with 
Pompey  aiid  Crassus  known  as  the  first  triumvirate.  It  is  said  that 
during  his  Gallic  wars  a  million  of  men  were  slain,  eight  hundred  cities 
and  towns  captured  and  three  hundred  tribes  subdued.  Pompey  having 
become  Caesar's  enemy  through  jealousy,  the  latter  crossed  the  Rubicon, 
49  B.C.,  and  in  a  short  time  became  master  of  Italy.  Haviug  conquered 
all  his  enemies,  and  subdued  Spain  and  Africa,  Caesar  was  made  per- 
petual dictator,  and  received  from  the  Senate  the  title  of  Imperator. 
Although  beloved  by  the  masses,  the  patricians  feared  and  hated  him, 
and  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  of  Cassius,  Brutus  and  others  was  his 
assassination. 

Cagliari,  Paolo.  Paul  Veronese.  I530?-I5S8.  Italian 
painter. 

Cagliostro,  Alexandre  (Joseph  Balsamo).  1743-1795-  Italian 
impostor  and  adventurer,  physician  and  alchemist, 

Caille,  Nicolas  Louis  de  la.     1713-1762.     French  astronomer. 

Caillet,  Ciuillaume -^359-     French  insurgent  leader. 

Cajetan,  Thomas  de  Vio.      1469-1534.     Italian  prelate. 

Calderon  de  la  Barco,  Don  Pedro.  1600-16S3.  Spanish 
poet  and  dramatist.  Produced  his  first  drama  at  the  age  of  13. 
Served  as  a  soldier,  but  took  orders  in  1652,  after  which  he  wrote  only 
sacred  dramas.     He  wrote  some  five  hundred  plays. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell.  1783-1850.  American  statesman. 
Born  in  South  Carolina;  elected  to  Congress,  1810;  secretary  of  war, 
1817;  vice-president,  1825-1832,  resigning  to  enter  the  Senate;  secre- 
tary of  slate,  1844;  returned  to  the  Senate,  1845.  Calhoun  was  an 
avowed  champion  of  slavery  and  state's  rights, 

Caligula,  Caius  Csesar.  12-41.  Emperor  of  Rome,  noted 
for  cruelty  and  sensuality.    Built  a  temple  to  himself.    Assassinated. 

Calonne,  Charles  Alexandre  de.     1734-1802.     Fr.  statesman. 

Calvert,  Cecilius,  second  Lord  Baltimore -1676.     First 

proprietor  of  Maryland,  residing  in  England. 

Calvert,  George,  first  Lord  Baltimore.  i5S2?-i632.  Father 
of  the  preceding.     Founder  of  Maryland. 

Calvert,  Leonard.  l6o6?-l647.  Brother  of  Cecilius.  First 
governor  of  Maryland. 

Calvin,  John.  1509-1564.  French  theologian.  Established 
the  Presbyterian  form  of  church  government.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  his  theology  is  that  of  predestination  to  eternal  happiness  or 
misery  by  the  absolute  decree  of  God. 

Cambaceres,  Jean  Jacques  Regis  de.  1 757-1824.  French 
statesman. 

Cambyses -522  B.C.     King   of   Persia;    conqueror   of 

Egypt. 

Cameron,  Richard -1680.     Scottish  Covenanter. 

Cameron,  Simon.  1799-  . .  •  •  American  politician;  senator 
from  Pennsylvania,  secretary  of  war  and  minister  to  Russia. 

Camillus,   Marcus   Furius -364  B.C.      Roman  general 

and  dictator. 


\ 


A  COMPKNDILM  OF  UIOURAPHY, 


219 


■Tf 


Camoens,  Luis.  1517-1579.  Portuguese  poet.  Served  in 
Moroccii  ;is  a  volunteer,  .ind.  failing  to  procure  advancement  at  court  on 
his  return,  went  to  India.  There  he  was  banished,  on  account  of  his 
satire,  Follifs  in  India,  from  Go.1  to  Macao,  where  he  wrote  the  Lttsiad, 
the  greatest  of  his  works.  Recalled  to  Goa,  he  suffered  shipwreck,  and 
saved  the  Lusiad  by  holding  it  ibove  the  waves  as  he  swam  ashore.  He 
died  ill  great  poverty. 

Campanini,  Italo.     Italian  tenor  singer. 

Campbell,  Alexander.     1788-1866.     Irish    founder  of  the  de- 
nomination of  "Christians,"  or  "  Disciples  of  Christ." 
Campbell,  Colin,  Lord  Clyde.     1792-1863.      British  General. 
Campbell,   John,    Lord.     1779-1861.      Lord    chancellor    of 

England.     The  Lircs  of  ike  I^rd  Chancellors. 

Campbell,  Thomas.  1 777-1844.  Scottish  poet.  .Son  of  a 
Glasgow  merchant.  Published  Pleasures  of  Hope  in  1799.  Among  his 
other  poems  are  The  Exile  0/  Erin,  Lochiefs  Warning,  Gertrude  0/ 
Myomingiind  O^ Connor  s  Child.  Also  wrote  biographies  of  Petrarch, 
Mrs.  Siddons  and- Frederick  the  Great. 

Canby,  Edward  Richard  -Sprigg.  1819-1873.  American 
general. 

Canisius,  Petrus.     (Ue  Hondt.)      1521-1597.      Dutch  Jesuit 

theologian. 
Canning,  (leorge.     1770-1827.     P'nglish  statesman  and  orator. 
Canova,  .\ntonio.     1757-1822.     Italian  sculptor.      Venus  I'iir- 

torioHs;    Venus   and  Adonis :   Theseus  and  the  Minotaur ;    Da-da- 

ius  and  Icarus :     The  Graces,     He  executed  statues  of  Washington 

and  Napoleon. 
Canrobert,    Francois    Certain,      1809-....      French    marshal 

and  senator. 

Cantacuzenus,    John -141 1?       Greek    emperor    and 

historian. 
Canute    IL     990-1035.       King    of  Denmar'K ;    conqueror  of 

F.ngland. 
Capet,  Ilugli.     g40?-996.     Founder  of  the  Capctian  dynasty. 
Caracalla.     188-217.     Emperor  of  Rome,  noted  for  cruelly. 
Caracci,  Agostino.     1558-1602.     Italian  painter  and  engraver. 
Caracci,  Annibal.     1560-1609.     Italian  painter. 
Caracci,  Ludovico.     1555-1619.     Italian  painter. 
Caravaggio,  Michel  Angelo  da.     1569-1609.     Italian  painter, 
Cardigan,   James    Thomas    Bnidenell,    Earl  of.     1797-186S. 

English  general. 
Carducci,  Bartolommeo.     1560-1610.     Florentine  painter. 
Carey,  Henry  Charles.     1793-1879.     Am.  political  economist. 
Carlisle,  John  G.     1829-.  . . .     American  statesman. 
Carlos,  Don,  Duke  of  Madrid.     (Carlos  Maria  de  los  Dolores 

Juan  Isidore  Josef  Francesco  Quirino  Antonio  Miguel  Gabriel  R.afael.) 

1848-....     Claimant  to  the  Spanish  throtie.     Nephew  of  Charles  VI. 

Carlyle,  Thomas.  1795-1881.  Scottish  essayist,  biographer 
and  historian.  The  son  of  a  small  farmer :  educated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  Taught  mathematics  for  some  time,  but  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits  and  became  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  literature  of  Germany.  Married  Jane  Welch  in  1827,  and  set- 
tled on  ;i  farm.  Besides  his  best  known  works  and  several  translations, 
he  produced  biographies  of  Schiller,  Frederick  the  Great  and  John 
Sterling.  Sartor  Rcsarttts  first  appeared  in  Fraser's  Magazine  in 
1833:  French  Kez'olution,  1837:  Chartism,  1839:  Heroes  and  Hero 
ll'orsliip,  1Z40;  LAitter-Day  Pamphlets  and  Crom-iuelCs  Letters  and 
Speeches,  1845. 

Carnarvon,  Henry  II.  M.  Herbert,  third  Earl  of.  1831-.  . . . 
English  statesman. 

Carnot,  Lazar  Nicolas  Marguerite.  1753-1823.  French  strate- 
gist and  niilitarj-  administrator. 

Carroll,  Charles  (of  Carrollton).     1737-1S32.     .\m.  patriot. 


Cartier,  Jacques.     1494-1555?     French  navigator. 
Cartwright,  Edmund.     1743-1823.     English  inventor. 
Cary,  .Mice.     1S22-1870.     American  poetess. 
Cary,  Henry  Francis.      1722-18S4.      Eng.  translator  of  Dante. 
Casas,   Bartolopie  de  las.      1474-1566.      Spanish  missionary 
and  historian.     History  o/ the  Indians. 

Casaubon,  Isaac.     1559-1614.     Swiss  scholar  and  critic. 
Casimir  I.       The  Pacific -1058.      King    of    Poland. 

II.,  1137-1194.    III.,  The  Great, -1370.    IV.,  1425-1492.    V.,  1609- 

i67.>. 
Cass,  I^wis.     1782-1866.     .Vm.  sLalcsman  and  diplomatist. 
Castelar  y  Rissol,  Emilio.     1S32- .Spanish  republican 

orator  and  statesman. 

Castlereagh,  Robert  .Stewart,  Viscount.  1769-1822.  Second 
marquis  of  Londonderry,  British  statesman,  prominent  in  suppressing 
the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798,  and  to  him  is  attributed  the  union  of  Ireland 
with  Great  Britain.     Opposed  Bonaparte      Committed  suicide. 

Castro,  Joao  de.     1500-1548.     Port,  general  and  navigator. 

Catherine,  Saint.  1347-1380.  Italian  nun  at  Siena.  Mediator 
between  the  rival  popes  in  the  great  schism. 

Catherine  I.  1682-1727.  Empress  of  Russia;  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  her  husband,  Peter  t'-e  Great,  II.,  1 729-1 796; 
notoriously  inunoral. 

Catherine  of  Aragon.     14S6-1536.    Queen  of  Henry  VHI.  of 

England  ;   divorced. 

Catherine  de,  Medici.  1510-1589.  Queen  of  Henry  II.  of 
France  ;  opponent  of  the  Huguenots. 

Catiline,  Lucius  Sergius.     io8?-62  B.C.     Roman  conspirator. 

Cato,  Dionysius.     Fl.  3d  century.     Latin  poet. 

Cato,  Marcus  Portius.       T/ie  Elder.       234-149  B.C.     Roman 

statesman  and  anther. 
Cato,  Marcus  Portius.     The  Younger.     95-46  B.C.     Opponent 

of  Carsar  ;  famed  for  purity  and  nobility.     Committed  suicide. 
Catullus,  Cains  Vallerius.     77  ?-45  ?  B.C.     Latin  poet. 
Caulaincourt,  Armand  A.  L.  de.     1 773-1827.      Fr.  diplomat. 
Cavaignac,  Louis  Eugene.     1802-1857.     French  general  and 

st.itesnian.     Put  down  the  insurrection  of  1848. 

Cavour,  Camillo  Benso  di.  1818-1861.  First  prime  minister 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Caxton,  WilUam.  1412  7-1492.  English  scholar  and  mer- 
chant.    Introduced  printing  into  England. 

Cecil,  William,  Lord  Burleigh.  1520-1598.  Lord  treasurer 
of  England. 

Cecilia,  .Saint.  Fl.  2d  century.  Roman  martyr;  patroness  of 
music. 

Cenci,  Beatrice.  The  beautiful  Parricide.  15837-1599. 
Roman  lady,  f  inious  for  her  beauty  and  tragic  fate. 

Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel  de.  1547-1616.  Spanish  novel- 
ist.    Von  Quit-ole. 

Cesnola,  Louis  Palma  di.     1832- Born  in  Italy  ;  colonel 

in  U,  S,  army  during  the  civil  war :  appointed  1865  consid  to  Cyprus, 
and  became  famous  for  his  excavations  in  that  island. 

Chalmers,  Thomas.  1780-1847.  Scottish  divine;  founderof 
the  "  Free  Church."     .-Istronomy  in  its  Connection  with  HcligictH. 

Chambers,  William.     1800-1883.     Scot,  editor  and  publisher. 

Chambord,  Henri  Charles  Ferdinand  .Maiie  Dieudonnti  il'Artois, 
Comte.     1820-1883.     Head  of  eider  branch  of  the  Bourbons. 

Chamisso,  Adelbert  von.      1781-1838.     German  traveller. 

Champollion,  Je.m  Frangois.  1791-1832.  French  Egyptolo- 
gist,    Hieroglyphic  Dictionary. 

Changarnier,  Nicolas  A.  T.     1793-1877.     French  general. 


K 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Channing,  William  EUery.     1780-1842.    American  divine  and 

author;  opponent  of  slavery. 

Chantroy,  Sir  Francis.     1782-1841.     English  sculptor. 

Chapin,  Edwin  Hubbell.     1814-1881.     American  divine. 

Charlemagne.  Charles  the  Great,  or  Charles  I.  742-814. 
Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  France.  Crowned  emperor  of  the 
West,  with  the  title  of  Csesar  Augustus,  by  Pope  Leo  III.,  800.  The 
most  powerful  and  enlightened  monarch  of  his  time.  His  empire  extended 
from  the  Elbe  to  the  Ebro,  and  from  Calabria  to  Hungary.  Founder  of 
the  Carloviogian  dynasty. 

Charles  II.  The  Bald.  (Charles  II.  of  France.)  S23-S77. 
Emperor  of  Germany.  Invaded  Italy  and  was  crowned  Emperor.  III., 
The  Fat,  832?-888.  IV.,  1316-1378.  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King 
of  Bohemia.  V.,  1500-1558.  Emperor  of  Germany.  King  of  Spain 
as  Charles  I.  Ascended  the  Spanish  throne  in  1516  and  became  Emperor 
of  Germany  in  1519.  In  1521  summoned  the  Diet  of  Worms  to  check  the 
progress  of  Luther's  doctrines.  In  1527,  warring  with  Francis  I.  of 
France,  and  Pope  Clement  VII.,  Rome  was  sacked  and  the  pope  made 
prisoner.  Convened  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  to  suppress  the  Reformation, 
but,  the  Protestants  having  united,  liberal  terms  were  granted  them.  In 
1535,  defeated  Barbarossa  and  captured  Tunis,  liberating  thousands  of 
Christian  slaves.  Defeated  in  1552  by  the  Protestant  forces  under 
Maurice  of  Sa.xony,  he  signed  the  treaty  of  Passau,  establishing  the 
Protestant  church  on  a  firm  basis.  Three  years  later  he  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  St.  Yuste.  VI.,  1685-1740.  VII.  (Karl  Albrecht), 
1697-1745. 

Charles  II.      The  Bald.  (Charles  II.  of  Germany.)    823-877. 

King  of  France.     IV.,    The    Fair.     11294-328.     V.,    The    Wise,  1337- 

1380,    VI.,    T/tf  Mad  or  The  Beloved,  1368-1422.      Became  insane  in 

1392.    VII.,    The   I'ictorious,   1 403-1461 ;    expelled  the  EngUsh.     IX., 

1550-1574.     X.,  1757-1836. 
Charles  I.      Charles  Stuart.     1600-1649.     King  of  England. 

Executed  after  ineffectually  attempting  to  subdue  his  rebellious  subjects. 

II.,  1630-1685 ;     witty,    but    careless     and     voluptuous,     the    Habeas 

Corpus  act  was  passed  during  his  reign. 
Charles  I.     (Charles  V.  of  Germany.)      1500-1558.     King  of 

Spain.      II.,  1661-1700.     III.,  1716-1788.      IV.,  1748-1819. 

Charles  IX.  1550-1611.  King  of  Sweden.  X.  (Gustavus), 
1622-1660,  XII.,  1682-1718;  ascended  the  throne  in  1697.  A 
league  being  formed  against  him  by  Russia,  Denmark  and  Poland,  in  1 700, 
he  besieged  Copenhagen,  forced  Denmark  to  make  peace,  and  beat  the 
Russians.  He  then  invaded  Poland,  compelling  King  Augustus  to 
resign.  Invading  Russia,  he  was  badly  defeated  at  Pultowa.  He  fled 
to  Turkey,  but  soon  returned.  Marching  into  Norway,  he  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Frederickshall.  XIII. ,  1748-1818.  XIV.  (Bernadotte), 
1714-1844.      XV.,    1826-1872.     King  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Charles  Edward  Stuart.     The  Young  Pretender.    1 720-1 7S8. 

English  prince. 

Charles  the  Bold.  I433-I477-  D»ke  of  Burgundy.  While 
still  Count  of  Charolais  and  before  succeeding  to  his  dukedom,  he  led 
a  successful  revolt  of  the  nobles  against  Louis  XI.  of  France.  Aspiring 
to  enlarge  his  dominions,  he  invaded  Lorraine,  but  was  defeated  by  Duke 
Rene's  Swiss  allies  and  killed  in  battle. 

Charles  Martel.     694?-74i.     King  of  the  Franks. 

Charron,   Pierre.     1531-1603.     French  moralist. 

Chartier,  Alain.     13S5-1455.     French  poet. 

Chase,  Salmon   Portland.      1808-1873.     American  statesman 

and  jurist.     Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  chief  justice. 
Chateaubriand,  Francois  Auguste  de,  Viscount.      1768-1848. 

French  author.     Genius  of  Christianity. 
Chatham,   William  Pitt,   Earl    of.        The    Great    Commoner. 

1708-1778.     English  statesman   and   orator.     Opposed   taxation   of  the 

American  colonies. 
Chatterton,  Thomas.     1752-1770.     Kiit^lish  literary  impostor. 


Chaucer,  Geoffrey.  !340?-i400.  English  poet,  styled  the 
"  Father  of  English  poetry."     Canterbury  Tales. 

Cheever,  George  Barrelle.     1807-..,.   American  divine. 

Cheke,  Sir  John.     1514-1557.     English  scholar. 

Chenier,  Andre  Marie  de.  1762-1794.  French  poet;  exe- 
cuted. The  Yon7ig  Captiz/e,  written  just  before  his  death,  is  called  by 
Lamartine   "  the  most  melodious  sigh  that  ever  issued  from  a  dungeon." 

Cherbuliez,  Victor.     1832-....   French  novelist. 

Cherubini,  Maria  Luigi  C.  Z.  S.     1760-1S42.     It.   composer. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of.  1694-1773. 
English  orator  and  wit,  distinguished  especially  as  a  man  of  fashion. 

Chevalier,   Michael.     1806-1879.     Fr.  political  economist. 

Chiabrera,  Gabriello.     1552-1637.     Italian  lyric  poet. 

Child,  Lydia  Maria.     1802-. . . .     American  philanthropist. 

Chillingworth,  William.       1602-1644.       English  theologian. 

The  Religion  0/  Protestants  a  Safe   Way  to  Salvation. 

Chitty,  Joseph.     1776-1841.     English  jurist  and  writer. 

Choate,  Rufus.  1799-1859.  American  lawyer  and  statesman, 
noted  for  his  eloquence.     Senator  from  Massachusetts, 

Choiseul,  Etienne  Francois  de.       1719-1785.       Fr.  statesman. 

Choris,  Louis.      1795-1828.      Russian  painter  and  traveller. 

Christian  I.  1425-1481.  King  of  Denmark.  II.,  1481-1556. 
Called  "The  Hero  of  the  North."  IIL,  1503-1559.  IV.,  1577-1648.  V., 
1646-1699.  VL,  1699-1746.  VIL,  1749-1808.  VIIL,  17B6-1848.  *IX,, 
1818-.... 

Christina.  1629-1689.  Queen  of  Sweden.  Daughter  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus.     Learned  and  eccentric.     Abdicated  1654. 

Chrysippus.     2S0-207  B.C.     Greek  Stoic  philosopher. 

Chrysostom,  John,  Saint.  350?-4C7.  Greek  father  of  the 
church. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin.     1826-. , . .     American  painter. 

Churchill,  Charles.     1 731-1764.     English  poet  and  satirist. 

Cialdini,  Enrico.     1811-....     Italian  general. 

Cibber,  Colley.      1671-1757.      English  actor  and  dramatist. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius.  106-43  ^■^"'  Roman  author,  states- 
man and  orator.  While  consul,  suppressed  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
Exiled  58  B.C.,  but  recalled  and  enthusiastically  received.  Was  an  ad- 
herent of  Pompey.but  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Julius  Caesar.  Killed  by 
the  soldiers  of  Antony.  Cicero  is  regarded  as  an  orator  second  only  to 
Demosthenes. 

Cid  Campeador.  (Ruy  Diaz  de  Bivar.)  I040?-I099.  Cas- 
tilian  hero. 

Cimabue,  Giovanni.      1140-1300?     Italian  painter. 

Cimon.     500-499  B.C.       Athenian  general  and  statesman. 

Cincinnatus,  Lucius  Quintus.  520-438  e.c.  Roman  patriot 
and  Dictator.  Elected  consul  while  cultivating  a  farm,  having  lost  his 
property.  Conquered  the  .^qui.  Twice  chosen  dictator,  and  at  the 
expiration  of  each  term  of  office  he  returned  to  the  plow. 

Cinna,    Lucius  Cornelius -84  B.C.      Roman  demagogue. 

Cinq-Mars,   Henri  C.    de    Ruze,   Marquis    de.     1620-1642. 

Frcncli  conspirator. 

Civilis,  Claudius.      Fl.  70.     Chief  of  the  Batavi. 
Clarendon,    Edward  Hyde,    Flarl    of.     1 60S- 1674.     English 

historian  and  statesman. 
Clarke,    At^lam.     1762-1832.      Irisli    Methodist    Bible    com- 

niLMitator, 

Clarke,  John  S.     1S35-. . . .      American  comedian. 

Clarke,    Mary    Cowden.      1809-. . . .      English    writer.     Con- 
cordance 0/  Shakspere. 
Claude  Lorraine.     i(')oa-i6S2.     French  painter. 


v_ 


\ 


V 


'7] 


A  COMPENDIUM   OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


221 


Claudian  (Claudius  Claudianus).     365  ?-4oS  ?     Latin  poet. 
Claudius  (Tiberius  Claudius  Drusus  Nero),     H.c.    IO-54  A.n. 
Roman  emperor;  invaded  Britain. 

Claudius,  Marcus  Aurelius.     214-270.     Roman  emperor. 

Clay,  Henry.  1777-1852.  American  statesman  and  orator. 
Born  in  Virginia;  removed  to  Kentucky  1797;  practiced  law;  elected 
to  Kentucky  Legislature  in  1804,  and  two  years  later  chosen  to  fill  a 
short  term  in  the  U.  S.  Senate;  re-elected  to  the  Senate  1809,  and  to 
the  House  of  Representatives  iSii,  of  which  body  he  was  made 
speaker;  re-elected  speaker  :8i3  ;  signed  treaty  of  Ghent,  1815;  re- 
elected speaker  four  times;  advocated  Missouri  Compromise.  Not 
one-of  his  decisions  as  speaker  was  reversed.  In  1824,  he  was  one  of 
four  candidates  for  the  presidency,  receiving  thirty-seven  electoral 
votes.  When  the  election  devolved  on  the  House  of  Representatives, 
his  influence  decided  the  contest  in  favor  of  Jackson.  A  bloodless 
duel  between  Clay  and  Randolph,  in  1826,  was  the  result  of  charges 
against  Clay  growing  out  of  this  election.  Re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
1831  for  six  years;  and  in  1832  was  defeated  for  the  presidency  as  the 
candidate  of  the  anti-Jackson  party.  Again  elected  to  the  Senate  m  1836, 
but  resigned  in  1842.  Whig  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1844,  Re- 
elected Senator  1848.  Clay  is  generally  given  credit  fur  the  compro- 
mise of  1850,  believed  to  have  postponed  for  ten  years  the  civil  war. 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhome.  Mark  Twain,  1 835-. . . . 
American  humorist.  Learned  the  printer's  trade,  and  became  a  pilot 
on  the  Mississippi.  Tke  Innocents  Abroad:  The  Jumping  Frog; 
Roughing  It :    The  Gilded  Age  i    Tlie  Tramp  Abroad, 

Clement  I.   30?-ioo.  Pope.   IV.,  ...-628.   V.,  I264?-I3I4, 

VII.  (Giulio  de  Medici),  i475?-i534.  VIII.,  1605.  XI.,  1649-1721. 
XIV..  I  705-1774. 

Clement  of  Alexandria.     i5o?-22o?    Father  of  the  church. 

Cleon -422  B.C.     Athenian  demagogue  and  general. 

Cleopatra.  69-30  B.C.  Queen  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for 
beauty  and  accomplishments. 

Cleveland,  Grover.  1837- ....  American  statesman. 
Born  at  Caldv/ell,  N.  J.,  the  son  of  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who 
removed  to  FayetleviUe,  N.  Y.,  in  1840.  First  worked  in  a  country 
store,  secured  an  education  and  became  a  teacher  in  the  N.  V.  Blind 
Asylum.  Studied  law  in  Buffalo;  admitted  to  tlie  bar  in  \%(^^,  and 
became  assistant  district  attorney ;  afterwards  sheriff.  Mayor  of 
Buffalo,  1881,  and  then  elected  Governor  of  New  York  by  1^2,000 
majority.     DemiKTatic  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1884. 

Clinton,  De  Witt.  1769-1828.  American  statesman;  pro- 
moter of  the  Erie  Canal.  Governor  of  New  York,  United  States  Sena- 
tor, and  Federal  candidate  for  the  Presidency, 

Clinton,  George.     1739-1812.     Vice-president  of  the  U.  S. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry.     1738-1795.    English  general  in  America. 

Clive,  Robert,  Lord.  1 725-1 774.  English  general  and 
founder  of  the  British  empire  in  India.     Committed  suicide. 

Clodius,  Publius.      52  B.C.     Roman  tribune   and  demagogue. 

Clootz,  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron.  Anacharsis  Clootz.  1753-1794. 
Prussian  traveller  and  French  revolutionist.     Guillotined. 

Clough,  Arthur  Hugh.     1820-1861.     English  poet. 

Clovis  (or  Chlodwig).  465-511.  King  of  the  Franks;  con- 
queror of  Gaul. 

Cobbett,  William.     1762-1S35.     English  political  writer. 

Cobden,     Richard.       1804-1S65.       English     statesman     and 

economist.    Leading  orator  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League. 
Coke  (or  Cook),  Sir  Edward.     1552-1633.     English  jurist. 
Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste.     1619-1683.     French  statesman. 
Cole,  Thomas.     1801—1848.     English  landscape  painter. 

Colenso,  John  William.    1814-. , . .     Eng.  theologian.    Bishop 

of  Natal.     The  Pentateuch  and  Book  0/  Joshua  Criticaliy  Examined. 

Coleridge,  Hartley.     1796-1849.     Son  of  S.  T.  C.     Eng.  poet. 


Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor.  1772-1834.  English  poet  and 
critic.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  Intimate  friend  of  Robert  Southey, 
with  whom  he  intended  to  emigrate  to  America  for  the  purpose  of  found- 
ing a  democratic  community.  In  company  with  Wordsworth  he  studied 
German  literature  and  wrote  the  Lyrical  Ballads.  In  1807  he  took  to 
wandering  habits,  and  left  his  family  dependent  on  his  brother-in-law, 
Southey.  His  health  failing  about  1825,  he  became  addicted  to  the 
opium  habit,  but  succeeded  in  overcoming  it.      The  Ancient  AMariner, 

Colfax,  Schuyler.     1823- 1885.    Am.  politician  ;  vice-president. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de.  15 17-1572.  French  admiral.  Leader 
of  the  Huguenots,  and  kil'ed  in  the  massacre  ol  St.  Bartholomew. 

Collier,  Jeremy.     1650-1726.     English  theologian. 

Collingwood,  Cuthbert,  Lord.  1750-1810.  English  lord  high 
admiral ;  second  in  command  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 

Collins,  Anthony.     1676-1729.     Eng.  author  and  free-thinker. 

Collins,  William.      1 720-1 756.     Eng.  poet.      Thg  Passions. 

Collins,    William    Wilkie.       1824- English    novelist. 

After  Dark;  Armadale ;    Tke   Woman  in    Ultite ;  Man  and  U'i/e, 

Colman,  George.      Tke  Eider.     1733-1794.     Eng.  dramatist. 

Colman,  George.  The  Younger.  1762-1836.  English  dra- 
matist.   John  Bull. 

Colonna,  Vittoria.     1490-1547.     Italian  poet. 

Colt,  Samuel.    1814-1862.   Am.  inventor  of  the  revolving  pistol. 

Columba,  Saint.     521-597.     The  apostle  of  Caledonia. 

Columbus,  Christopher.  1436-1506.  Genoese  navigator  and 
discoverer  of  America.  Became  a  sailor  at  14.  Studied  mathe- 
matics at  the  University  of  Pavia.  Removed  to  Lisbon  at  the  age  of 
thirty,  and  was  employed  in  several  expeditions  to  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  Columbus  meditated  reaching  Indi.a  by  a  western  route.  He 
unsuccessfully  solicited  the  aid  of  John  II.  of  Portugal,  but  finally 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  furnished  him  two  small  vessels,  and 
another  was  added  by  the  efforts  of  his  friends.  With  these  ships  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty  men  he  set  sail  from  Palos,  August  3,  1492,  and 
after  a  long  voyage,  during  which  he  was  threatened  with  death  by  his 
mutinous  crew,  he  discovered  the  island  of  San  Salvador,  October  12  of 
same  year.  Supposing  that  he  had  reached  India,  he  called  the  natives 
Indians.  After  visiting  Cuba  and  Hayti,  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he 
was  received  triumphantly.  In  1493  he  again  sailed  across  the  Atlantic, 
this  time  with  seventeen  ships,  and  discovered  Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico. 
In  1498  he  made  his  third  voyage,  with  six  vessels,  discovering  the 
mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  In  1499,  complaints  having  been 
made  to  the  court  of  the  conduct  of  Columbus  at  Hispaniola,  he  was 
carried  to  Spain  in  chains  by  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  whose  action  was, 
however,  repudiated  by  the  king  and  queen.  Columbus'  last  voyage 
to  America  was  made  in  1502,  to  Honduras.     He  died  neglected. 

Combe,  George.    1788-1858.    Eng.  educator  and  phrenologist, 

Comines,  Philippe  de.    1445-1509.   Fr.  statesman  and  historian. 

Commodus,  Antoninus.     161-192,     Emperor  of  Rome. 

Comonfort,  Ignacio.     i8io?-i863.     President  of  Mexico. 

Comte,  Auguste,    1 798-1857.    French  philosopher.  Positivism, 

Conde,  Louis  IL,  Prince  de.  The  Great  CondL  1621-1686. 
French  general.  Victorious  over  the  Spaniards  at  Rocroi,  1643,  and 
over  the  Germans  at  Nordlingen,  1645.  Again  defeated  the  Spanish  at 
Lens  in  1648,  almost  annihilating  their  infantr>',  previously  regarded  in- 
vincible. Seeking  revenge  for  ha\'ing  been  imprisoned  by  the  orders  of 
Mazarin  or  the  queen,  he  warred  against  the  government,  and  next 
entered  the  ser\'ice  of  Spain.  Returned  to  France  in  1659,  -""^ 
defeated  William  of  Orange  in  1674. 

Condillac,  Etienne  Bonnot  de.  1715-17S0.  French  meta- 
physician. 

Condorcet,  Marie  Jean  A.  N.  C.  de.  1 743-1 794.  French 
mathematician  and    philosopher.     Imprisoned  in  1794,  he  committed 

suicide  by  poison. 


^ 


i\- 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


J-  . 


/ 


Confucius,  or  Kong-foo-tse.  551-478  B.C.  Chinese  phil- 
osopher. The  son  of  a  soldier,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  mandarin 
at  19  ;  superintendent  of  public  markets  and  public  fields.  Commenced 
public  teaching  at  22.  Became,  in  499  B.C.,  minister  of  crime,  and 
soon  after  retired  from  public  life,  devoting  his  time  to  study,  travel,  and 
the  dissemination  of  his  doctrines.  The  philosophy  of  Confucius  re- 
lates to  the  present  life  only,  the  useful  and  the  practical  forming  the 
chief  objects.  He  placed  great  importance  upon  outward  forms  of  po- 
liteness, being  the  first  to  enunciate,  in  substance,  the  Golden  Ride.  His 
object  was  to  promote  human  happiness.  His  influence  upon  posteritj- 
has  been  truly  enormous,  his  teachings  affecting  two-thirds  of  humanity 
for  uventj' -three  centuries. 

Congreve,  Sir  William.  1772-1828.  English  engineer.  (Con- 
greve  rocket). 

Congreve,  William.     1 670-1 729.     English  dramatist  and  wit. 

Conkling,  Ro.scoe.     1829- American   statesman,  lawyer 

and  orator.     U.  S.  senator  from  New  York. 

Conrad  I -918.   Emperor  of  Germany.    II.,  ....—1039. 

III.,  1093-1133.  IV.,  1228-1254.  v.,  1252-1268. 

Conscience,  Hendrik.     1812-18S3.     Flemish  novelist. 

Constaiis   I.      32o?-350.     Emperor  of  Rome.    II.,  630-668. 

Constantine  I.  The  Great.  272-377.  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Embraced  Christianity*,  and  transferred  his  court  from  Rome  to  Byzan- 
tium, thenceforth  called  Constantinople.  II.,  312-340.  III.  (emperor 
of  the  East),  612-641.    IV.,  ....-6S5.     V.,    719-775.    VI.,    771-797. 

VII.,  905-959:  poisoned  by  his  son,  Romanus  II.    VIII ^46. 

IX.,    961-1028.      X.,    ..,.-1054.    XI -1067.    XII -1071. 

XIII.  (Palaeologus),  1394-1543  ;  killed  while  defending  Constantinople 
against  the  victorious  Mahomet  II.    Last  emperor  of  the  East. 

Constantius  I.  250-306.  Emperor  of  Rome.  II.  (emperor 
of  the  West),  317-361.     III., -421. 

Conti,  Frangois  Louis  de.  Prince.     1664-1709.     Fr.  general. 

Cook,  Eliza.     1S17-. . . .     English  poetes-s. 

Cook,  James,  Captain.  1 728-1 779.  English  discoverer,  and 
circumnavigator  of  the  globe.  Killed  by  natives  inthe  Sandwich  Islands. 

Cooke,  George  Frederick.     1755-1812.     English  actor. 

Cooper,  Sir  .\stley  Paston.     1 768-1 S41.     English  physician. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore.  1779-185 1.  American  novelist. 
Having  studied  at  Yale  College,  he  entered  the  na\-y  in  1806  as  mid- 
shipman,but  left  the  service  in  iSii.  His  first  novel.  Precaution,  ap- 
peared in  1809,  but  was  not  a  success.  His  next.  The  Spy,  was  enthu- 
siastically received.  His  sea-stories  are  considered  the  best  of  his 
numerous  productions. 

Cope,  Edward  Drinker.     1840- .\merican  naturalist. 

Copernicus  {Copernik  or  Kopernik),  Nicholas.  1473-1543. 
German  astronomer.  Disproved  the  Ptolemaic  theory.  In  his  great 
work,  Tke  Revolution  0/  the  Celestial  Orbs,  the  first  copy  of  which 
was  handed  to  him  on  the  day  of  his  death,  he  demonstrated  that  the 
sun  is  the  centre  of  the  imiverse. 

Copley,  John  Singleton.  1737-1815.  English  painter,  bom 
in  Massachusetts. 

Corday,  Charlotte.  (Mariane  Charlotte  Corday  d'.\rmans). 
1763-1753.     French  heroine  ;  assassinated  Marat. 

Coriolanus,  Cneius  Marcius.     Fl.   490   B.C.     Roman  hero. 

Corneille,  Pierre.     1606-1684.     Founder  of  the  Fr.  drama. 

Cornelius,  Peter  von.     1787-1867.     German  painter. 

Cornell,  Ezra.     1807-1874.    American  philanthropist. 

Comwallis,  Charles,  Earl.     173&-1805.     British  general. 

Corot,  Jean  Baptiste  Camille.     1796-1875.     French  painter. 

Correggio,  .\ntonio  .\llegri  da.  1494-1534.  Italian  painter. 
Extremely  skilful  in  foreshortening  and  in  the  use  of  chiaroscuro.  The 
Assumption  0/  the  Virgin ;  Ecce  Homo ;  Penitent  Stagdalen  ;  St. 
Jerome  :  La  Vierge  au  Panier. 


Cortez,  Hernando.    1485-1547.    Spanish  conqueror  of  Mexico. 

Corvinus,  Matthias.     1443-1490.     King  of  Hungary. 

Corwin,  Thomas.     1 794-1865.     American  statesman. 

Cotton,  John.     1585-1652.     Puritan  minister  in  Boston. 

Cottin,  Sophie  Ristaud.     1773-1807.     French  novelist. 

Cousin,  Victor.     1792-1867.     French  philosopher. 

Cowley,  .\braham.     1618-1667.     Eng.  poet.     Pindaric  Odes. 

Cowper,  William.  1 731-1800.  English  poet.  Studied  at 
Westminster  school,  and  became  a  fine  classical  scholar.  Admitted  to 
the  bar,  but  never  practiced,  his  morbid  sensitiveness,  nervousness  and 
diffidence  making  him  unable  to  occupy  a  conspicuous  position.  Became 
temporarily  deranged,  and  made  several  attempts  at  suicide.  In  1784  he 
commenced  his  translation  ol  Homer.  T/ie  Task  was  published  in  1785. 
Cowper's  letters  are  considered  among  tlie  best  in  the  language.  His 
poetry  is  by  turns  pla>-ful  and  pathetic,  tender  and  sarcastic — sometimes 
sublime. 

Cowper,  William.     1666—1709.     Enghsh  anatomist. 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan.     1824- American  statesman. 

Coxe,  .\rthur  Cleveland.     1818- Am.  bishop  and  poet. 

Cozzens,  Frederick  Swartwout.     1818-1869.     Am.  author. 

Crabb,  George.     1778-1854.     Eng.  philologist.     Synonyms. 

Crabbe,  George.  1754-1832.  English  poet.  Studied  surgery, 
but  abandoned  that  profession.  Was  befriended  by  Edmund  Burke,  and 
published  The  Library  in  1781.  Ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  1782.     The  Village,  his  best  work,  was  produced  in  1783. 

Craik,  Dinah  Maria  (Mulock).    1826- English  authoress. 

Oliz'e :  John  Halifax,  Gentleman;   A  Life /or  a  Life ;   A  H'oman's 
Thoughts  about  IVomen. 

Cranch,  Christopher  Pearse.     1S13-. . . .     Am.  artist  and  poet. 

Cranmer,  Thomas.  1489-1556.  English  reformer;  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.    Burned  to  death. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius.  io8?-53  B.C.  Roman  trium\-ir; 
immensely  wealthy.     Defeated  and  slain  by  the  Parthians. 

Creasy,  Sir  Edward  Shepherd.  1812-1878.  English  historian. 
Fifteen  Decisive  Battles. 

Crichton,  James.  The  Admirable  Crichton.  1560-1583. 
Scottish  prodigy.    Stabbed  by  his  pupil,  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordon.     1786-1863.     American  state-sman. 

Crockett,  David.     1786-1836.     American  backwoodsman. 

Croesus.     590-546  B.C.     King  of  Lydia,  famous  for  wealth. 

Croly,  George.     1780-1S60.     Irish  poet  and  pulpit-orator. 

Cromwell,  Oliver.  1599-1659.  English  general;  lord  pro- 
tector of  England.  Elected  to  ParUament  162B.  In  1637  resolved  to 
emigrate  with  his  cousin,  John  Hampden,  but  they  were  detained  by  an 
order  of  council.  Re-elected  to  Parliament  1640.  Entered  the  Parlia- 
mentary army  in  1642  as  captain  of  cavalry.  Rapidly  promoted,  and 
led  left  wing  at  Marston  Moor,  1644.  Commanded  right  wing  at  Naseby, 
1645,  and  became  leader  of  the  Independents.  Transferred  the  custody 
of  the  king  from  Parliament  to  the  army,  1647.  Won  the  battle  of 
Preston,  1648.  Signed  the  death  warrant  of  Charles  I.,  1649.  Made 
commander-in-chief,  1650,  and  defeated  the  Scotch  at  Dunbar  and 
Charles  at  Worcester.  Dissolved  Parliament  in  1653,  and  ivas  in  1654 
proclaimed  by  the  army  protector  of  the  commonwealth. 

Cropsey,  Jasper  Frank.     1823-. . . .     American  painter. 

Cruden,  Alexander.      1700-1770.      Scottish    bookseller  and 

author.     Concordance. 

Cruikshank,  George.     1792-1878.     Eng.  humorous  artist. 

Cumberland,  William  Augustus,  Duke  of.    1721-1765.    Con- 
queror at  Culloden. 
Cunningham,  .-\llan.     1 785-1842.     Scottish  author  and  critic. 
Curran,  John  Philpot.     1750-1817.     Irish  barrister  and  orator. 
Curtis,  Benjamin  Robb'-ns.     1S09-1874.     American  jurist. 


/ 


\' 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Curtis,  George  William.     1S24-.  . . .     Am.  author  and  editor. 
Gushing,  Caleb.      1800-1879.      American  law-j'er,  statesman 

and  diplomatist. 
Cushtnan,  Charlotte  Sanders.     1816-1876.     Am.  actress. 
Custer,  George  A.     1839-1876.     American  general,  killed  by 

the  Sioux. 

Cuvier,  Georges  C.  L.  F.,  Baron.   1769-1S32.  French  naturalist. 

Cyprian,  Saint.  20O?-258.  Latin  father;  bishop  of  Car- 
thage ;  martyr. 

Cyril,  Saint.     3i5?-386.     Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

Cyril,  Saint.     376  ?-444.     Bishop  of  Alexandria. 

Cyrus.      The  Great,  or  The  Elder -529    B.C.     King  of 

Persia ;  conquered  Babylon. 

Cyrus.  The  Younger.  . . .  .-401  B.C.  Hero  of  Xenophon's 
A  na&asis. 

T  \ABOLL,   Nathan.      1750-1818.      American  mathemati- 

Dacier,  Andre.     1651-1722.     French  scholar  and  critic. 
Dacier,    Anne    Lefevre.      1654-1720.     Wife    of   preceding. 

Translated  Homer. 
Daendels,  Hermann  W'illem.     1762-iSiS.     Dutch  general. 
DagTierre,  Louis  Jacques  Mande.     1 789-1 85 1.     French  artist ; 

inventor  of  the  daguerreotype. 

Dahlberg,  Eric.     1625-1703.     Swedish  general  and  engineer. 
Dahlgren,  John  Adolph.     1S09-1S70.     Am.  rear-admiral. 
Dallas,  .Alexander  James.     1759-1S17.      Am.  statesman. 
Dallas,  George  Mifflin.     1792-1S64.     Am.  statesman. 
Dalton,  John.     1766-1844.     English  chemical  philosopher. 
Damiani,  Peter.     990-1072.     Italian  ecclesia.stic. 
Damiens,  Robert  F.     1714-1757.     French  fanatic. 
Dampier,  William.    1652-1712.     Eng.  explorer  and  naWgator. 
Dana,  Charles  A.     1819-....     Am.  journalist. 
Dana,  Francis.     1743-1S11.     Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 
Dana,  Richard  Henry.    1787-1879.    American  poet  and  writer. 
The  Buccaneer. 

Dana,  Richard  Henry.     1S15-1SS2.     Son  of  preceding.     Am. 

author  and  lawyer.     Two  Years  Be/ore  the  .Mast. 
Dancer,  Daniel.     1716-1794.     English  miser. 
Dandelot,  Franijois  de  Coligny.     1521-1569.     French  general. 
Dandolo,  Enrico.     1I05?-I205.     Blind  doge  of  Venice  ;   took 

Constantinople  by  storm, 
Dane,  Nathan.     1752-1S35.     Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 

DanieL     Fl.  6th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  prince  and  prophet. 

Daniel,  Samuel.     1 562-1619.     English  poet. 

1 265- 1 321.     The  greatest  poet  of  Italy. 


A  leader  of  the  French 
Guillotined. 
1752-1840.      English 


Dante  AUighieri. 

Di'.'ina  Cotnittcdia, 

Danton,  Georges  Jacques.    1759-1794. 

revolution,  and  head  of  the  *'  Dantonists." 
D'Arblay,   J^Ime.    (Frances    Burney.) 
novelist.     Evelina;   Cecilia;   Cantilla. 

Darboy,  Georges.     1813-1871.     Archbishop  of  Paris. 
Darius  I.    (Darius  Hystaspis.)     -435  B.C.    King  of  Persia. 

II.,     -405  B.C.    III.    (Codomannus),    ....-330  B.C.;  defeated  by 

Alexander. 

Darius  the  Mede.     Supposed  to  be  Cyaxares  II. 
Darley,  FeUx  O.  C.     1822-. . . .     American  artist. 
Darling,  Grace.     1815-1S42.     English  heroine. 
Darnley,    Henry    Stuart,    Lord.     1545?-I567.     Husband    of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  ;  assassinated. 


Darwin,  Charles  Robert.  1S09-18S2.  English  naturalist  and 
originator  of  the  theory  of  evolution.  In  his  *'  Origin  of  Species  by 
means  of  Natural  Selection,"  published  in  1859,  he  propounds  the 
theory  that  all  forms  of  life,  animal  or  vegetable,  past  or  present,  have 
been  produced  by  a  series  of  gradual  changes  in  natural  descent.  In 
his  "  Descent  of  Man,"  he  infers  that  "man  is  descended  from  a  hairy 
quadruped  furnished  with  a  tail  and  pointed  ears,  probably  arboreal  in 
its  habits," 

Darwin,  Erasmus.     1731-1S02.     English   physician  and  poet. 

D'Aubigne,   Jean  Henri  Merle.    1794-1872.     .Swiss  historian. 

D'Aubigne,  Theodore.  1550-1630.  French  soldier,  poet 
and  historian. 

Daudet,  Alphonse.     1840-....     French  novelist.     Jack. 

Davenport,  Edwanl  L.     1816-1877.     -American  actor. 

David.      1090-1015  B.C.     King  of  Israel;  prophet  and  poet. 

David,  Saint.     490?-544.     Patron  of  Wales. 

David,  Jacques  Louis.     1748-1825.     French  historical  painter. 

David,  Pierre  J.     1789-1856.     French  sculptor. 

Daviess,  Joseph  Hamilton.  Jo  Daviess.  1 787-1 854.  Kra- 
erican  statesman. 

Da  Vinci,  Leonardo.     See  Vinci. 

Davis,  Henr)'  Winter.     1817-1S65.     American  politician. 

Davis,  Jefferson.  1808-....  American  statesman  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Confederacy,  Born  in  Kentucky  :  graduate  of  West  Point ; 
ser\'ed  in  the  Black  Hawk  war  and  Mexican  war;  elected  to  U.  S. 
Senate  from  Mississippi  in  1847;  secretary  of  war  1S53-7;  re- 
elected senator  in  1857  ;  inaugurated  proWsional  president  of  the  Con- 
federate States  in  1861,  and  elected  for  six  years  in  1862.  Imprisoned 
in  Fortress  Monroe  for  two  years  after  the  fall  of  Richmond.  History 
0/ the  Ci:il  War. 

Davoust  (or  Davout),  Louis  Nicholas,  Duke  of  Auerstadt  and 

Prince  of  Eckmiihl,     1770-1823,     Marshal  of  France. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey.  177S-1829.  English  chemist.  Dem- 
onstrated that  the  fixed  alkalies  are  metallic  oxides.  Inventor  of  the 
safety  lamp.    Researches  Chemical  and  Pliiloso/>hical. 

Dayton,  William  Lewis.     1807-1864.     American  statesman. 

Dearborn,  Henry.     1751—1829.     Am.  general  and  statesman. 

Decatur,  Stephen.  1779-1820.  American  naval  commander. 
Defeated  the  Algerines.     Killed  in  a  duel. 

De  Foe  (or  Defoe),  Daniel.     1 661-1 731.     English  novelist. 

Son  of  James  Foe,  a  butcher,  he  assumed  the  prefix  "  de,"  Took  part 
in  the  insurrection  against  James  II,  Imprisoned  and  pilloried  in  1702 
for  publishing  The  Shortest  IVay  with  Dissenters,  an  ironical 
pamphlet.  His  works  are  over  two  himdred  in  number,  and  show 
great  versatility  and  originality.  Eahinson  Crusoe:  The  TruC'horH 
Englishman  ;  The  History  of  the  Union;  Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier; 
Reli^ous  Courtship. 

De  Kalb,  John,  Baron.  1732— 1780.  German  general;  ac- 
companied Lafayette  to  America  in  1777,  and  served  under  Washington. 
Killed  at  the  battle  of  Camden. 

De  Haas,  Maurice  F.  H.    1830?- Dutch  marine  painter 

Delacroix,  Ferdinand  V.  E.     1799-1863.     French  painter. 
De  la    Rame,  Louisa.     Oitida.     1S40?-....      Eng.  novelist. 
Delaroche,  Paul.     1797-1856.     French  painter. 

Delaware,  Thomas  West,  Lord —1618.    Gov.  of  Virginia. 

Delmas,  Antoine  Guillaume.     176S-1813.     French  general. 
Delorme,  Marion.     1612-1650.    French  beauty  and  courtesan. 
Del  Sarto,  Andrea  Vannuchi.     1488-1530.     French  painter. 
Demetrius    Phalereus.     345?-284?    B.C.     Attic    orator  and 

philosopher, 

Demetrius    Poliorcetes.        335?-2S4?    B.C.        Macedonian 

general. 


VL 


\i 


K" 


224 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


J-  , 


-yi 


Democritus.  TAe  Laughing  Philosopher.  460-361  B.C. 
Greek  philosopher. 

Demosthenes.  385?-322  B.C.  Athenian  orator.  Conquered  an 
impediment  in  his  speech,  and  by  perseverance  and  determination  be- 
came the  greatest  of  orators.  Opposed  Philip  of  Macedon,  against  whom 
he  delivered  his  Philippics.  It  being  proposed  to  reward  his  public  ser- 
vices with  a  golden  crown,  a  bitter  contest  ensued  with  his  rivaK'Eschlnes, 
in  which  Demosthenes,  however,  was  triumphant.  This  led  to  the 
oration  On  the  Croivn,  considered  his  greatest  achievement.  Con- 
demned to  death  by  Antipater,  he  committed  suicide  by  poison.  He 
left  sixty  orations. 

Denis,  Saint 272.     Apostle  and  patron  of  France. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas.  1785-1859.  Eng.  author.  The  son 
of  a  wealthy  merchant.  Contracted  the  opium  habit  while  pursuing  his 
studies  at  Oxford —  a  habit  which  he  overcame,  in  1820,  after  a  severe 
and  prolonged  struggle.  His  Confessions  of  an  Opiui>:-£atfr,  wnttGn 
as  an  autobiography,  and  published  in  1821,  created  a  great  sensation. 
De  Quincey  was  a  brilliant  writer,  and  left  numerous  works. 

Derby,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith  Stanley,  Earl  of.  1799-1869. 
English  statesman  and  orator.     Translator  of  Homer's  Iliad, 

Derby,  Edward  Henry  Smith  Stanley,  Earl  of.  1826-.... 
English  statesman. 

Descartes,  Rene.  1 596-1 650,  Fr.  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician. Discourse  on  the  Method  of  Reasoning  Well,  and  of  In- 
vestigating Scientific  Truth  ;  Meditationes  de  Prima  Philosophia  ; 
Principles  of  Philosophy.     "  I  think,  therefore  I  am." 

Desfontaines,  Rene  Louiche.      1 752-1833.     French  botanist. 
De  Smet,  Peter  John.       1S01-1873.      Jesuit  missionarj-  to  the 

Indians. 

Des  Moulins,  Camille.     1762-1794.     Fr.  Jacobin  ;  guillotined. 

De  Soto,  Ferdinand.      1460-1542.       Spanish  explorer;  discov- 
ered the  Mississippi  river. 
Dessalines,    Jean   Jacques.     1760- 1806.      Negro  emperor  of 

Hayti. 

De  Vigny,  Alfred,  Count.     1 799-1863.    Fr.  novelist  and  poet. 

De  Witt,   Jan.     1625-1672.     Dutch  statesman. 

Diaz,  Portirio.      1830-.  .  . .      President  of  Mexico. 

Dibdin,  Charles.     1745-1814.     English  song  writer 

Dick,  Thomas.      1772-1S57.     Scottish  author. 

Dickens,  Charles.  181 2-1870.  English  novelist.  After  study- 
ing at  college,  he  was  articled  to  an  attorney,  but  found  the  study  of  law 
uncongenial,  and  became  a  reporter  for  the  press.  Sketches  by  Bos 
appeared  in  the  London  Morning  Chronicle  in  1836.  Pickwick  Papers: 
Oliver  Twist;  Dombey  67^  Son ;  Bleak  House :  Hard  Times  ;  Nicho- 
las Nickleby  ;  David  Copperfeld ;  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities  :  Great 
Expectations,  etc. 

Dickinson,  Anna  Elizabeth.     1S42-. . . .     Am.  lecturer. 

Diderot,  Denis.     1712-1784.     Fr.  philosopher  and  novelist 

Dilke,  Sir  Charles  Wentworth.       1843-....       English  states- 
man, editor  and  author.     Greater  Britain. 
Diocletian.       284-305.     Roman  emperor. 
Diogenes.     Died  323  B.C.     Greek  Cynic  philosopher.     Lived 

ill  a  tub,  affecting  great  contempt  for  the  comforts  of  life. 

Dionysius.      The  Elder.     430?-367  B.C.     Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
Dionysius.       The  Younger.       398-340?      Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
Dionysius  of  Ilalicarr.assus.     70?-7?  B.C.     Cireek  historian. 
Disraeli,  lienjamin.     See  Beaconsfield. 
Disraeli,  Isaac.     1766- 1848.     Father  of  preceding.       English 

litterateur;  bom  of  a  Jewish  family.     Curiosities  of  Literature. 

Dix,  John  Adams.       1798- 1 879,       Am.  general  and  statesman. 

Dixon,  William  Hepworth.  1821-1879.  English  traveller 
and  historian. 

Dodge,  Mary  Abigail.  Gaii  Hamilton.  1838?-. . . .  Ameri- 
can authoress. 


1637-1706. 

1536-1608. 


English  poet 
English  poet 


American  surgeon. 

.-1 5 14?     *'  The  great 


Dodsley,  Robert.  1 709-1 764.  English  author  and  bookseller. 
For  some  time  employed  as  a  footman.      The  Footjnan  s  Miscellany. 

Doellinger,  John  Joseph  Ignatius.  1799-. . .  -  German  theolo- 
gian and  historian  ;  leader  of  the  "  Old  Catholic"  movement. 

Domcnichino.     (Zampieri).      1581-1641.      Italian  painter. 

Dominic,  Saint.   1170-1221.  Spanish  preacher,  and   founder  of 

the  order  of  Dominicans 
Domitian.     5i?-96.     Rom.  emperor.  Cruel  and  depraved. 
Donatus.     Fl.  300.     Founder  of  the  Donatists. 
Donizetti,  Gaetano.     179S-184S.       Italian  composer.     Lucia 

di  Lavtmermoor;    Lucrezia  Borgia. 

Donne,  John.     1573-1631.     English  poet  and  divine. 

Dore,  Paul  Gustave.     1832-1883.     French  artist. 

Doria,  Andrea.     146S-1560.     Genoese  patriot  and  commander. 

Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson.     1805- 1854.     American  politician. 

Dorset,  Charles  Sackville,  Earl  of. 
and  wit. 

Dorset,  Thomas  Sackville,  Earl  of. 

and  statesman. 
Dorsey,  John  Syng,     1783-1818. 

Douglas,  Archibald     Beii-lhe-Cat. 
earl  of  Angus."     Lord  chancellor. 

Douglas,  James,  Earl  of.      ...  .-1 330.     Scottish  patriot. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold.  The  Little  Giant.  i8i7?-lS6i. 
American  statesman.  Native  of  Vermont,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New 
York  ;  removed  to  Illinois  and  gained  destinction  as  an  orator.  Judge 
of  Illinois  Supreme  Court  1841  .  elected  to  Congress  1843  ;  senator  1847. 
Supported  the  compromise  measures  of  Henry  Clay,  and  advocated  the 
doctrine  known  as  "squatter  sovereignty"  Re-elected  to  the  Senate 
1853,  ^"*^  reported  the  bill  repealing  the  Missouri  compromise.  Candi- 
date for  the  Democratic  nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1856  De- 
feated Lincoln  for  the  U.  S.  senate  in  1858,  they  canvassing  the  state  to- 
gether- Candidate  of  one  wing  of  the  Democratic  party  for  president  in 
i860.     Supported  the  Union  party  in  1861. 

Douglass,  P'rederick.  1817?-.  ...  Am.  orator;  formerly  a 
slave  ;  native  of  Maryland  His  father  was  a  white  man  and  his  mother 
a  negro  slave.  Sold  to  a  shipbuilder  in  1832,  but  escaped  to  Massachu- 
setts and  assumed  the  name  of  Douglass.  Exhibiting  rare  powers  as  an 
orator,  he  was  aided  by  Wm.  L.  Garrison  and  others,  and  employed,  in 
1841,  by  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society. 

Dow,  Lorenzo.     1 777-1 834.     American  preacher. 

Downing,  Andrew  J.     1815-1852.     Am.  landscape  gardener. 

Draco  (or  Dracon).     Fl.  624   B.C.     Athenian  lawgiver. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis.  1 540-1 595-  English  naval  hero;  first 
English  circumnavigator  of  the  globe,  captured  or  destroyed  one  hundred 
vessels  in  the  port  of  Cadiz  in  1587,  and  contributed  in  1588  to  the  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman.     1 795-1 820.     American  poet. 

Draper,  John  Williant.     iSii-1882.     American  scientist. 

Drayton,  Michael.      1563-1631.      English  poet. 

Dreyse,  Joliann  Nikolaus  von.     17S7-1867.    Prussian  inventor 

of  the  needle-gun. 

Drusus,  Claudius  Nero.     3S-9  B.C.     Roman  general. 

Dryden,  John.  1631-1700.  English  poet,  critic  and  dram- 
atist. Educated  at  Cambridge.  Wrote  some  spirited  heroic  stanzas  in 
memory  of  Cromwell.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  II.,  he  became  a 
staunch  royalist.  His  first  drama.  The  Wild  tJaZ/aw^,  was  published 
in  1662;  Annus  Mirabilis  and  The  Indian  Emperor,  \66t.  Appointed 
poet-laureate  in  1668.  He  next  wrote  his  Essay  on  Dramatic  Poetry 
and  several  comedies  and  tragedies.  Absalom  and  Achitophcl,  1681. 
Became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1686  and  wrote  The  Hind  and  Panther, 
a  poetical  allegory.  His  ode  on  Alexander* s  Feast,  considered  the 
finest  English  lync,  appeared  in  1696,  after  he  had  completed  his  trans- 
lation of  Virgil.  Lord  Macaulay  calls  Dryden  "  an  incomparable  rea- 
soner  in  verse." 


V- 


\ 


Q ^ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


225 


/ 


Du  Chaillu,  Paul  Belloni.     1S35- French   traveller. 

Dudevant,  Mme.  Aniantine  Lucille  Aurore  {  nie  Dupin). 
George  Sand.  1804-1876.  French  novelist.  Married  at  the  age  of  18 
to  a  retired  army  officer,  she  separated  from  him  ten  years  later.  She 
was  at  one  time  a  zealous  Catholic,  but  later  adopted  most  liberal  views, 
adopting  man's  attire  and  denouncing  the  marriage  system.  She  edited 
a  democratic  paper  during  the  revolution  of  1848.  She  has  left  numer- 
ous novels  and  several  dram.as. 

Dudley,  Benjamin  Winslow.     1785-1870.     Am.  physician. 

Dudley,  Charles   Eilward.     1 780-1841.     American  senator. 

Dufaure,  Jules  Armand  Stanislas.     1798-. ...      Fr.  statesman. 

Dufferin,  Frederick  Temple  Hamilton  Blackwood,  Earl  of. 
1826-. . . .     English  statesman.     Governor-general  of  Canada. 

Dumas,  Alexandre.      1803-1870.     French  novelist. 

Dumas,  Alexandre.     1824-....      Son  of  above.    Fr.  novelist. 

Dumouriez,  Charles  Francois.     1739-1823.     French  general. 

Duncan  I -1040.     Scottish  king.     Killed  by  Macbeth. 

Dundonald,  Thomas  Cochrance,  Earl  of.     1 775-1 860.     Brit- 

isli  admir.il. 

Dunglison,  Robley.  179S-1869.  American  physician.  Medi- 
cal Pictiontiry. 

Dunois,  Jean  de.  Bastard  of  Orleans.  1402-1468.  French 
national  hero.  Natural  son  of  the  Dulce  of  Orleans.  Defeated  the 
English  at  Montargis  in  1427,  and  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Orleans  in 
1429.  Expelled  the  English  from  Normandy  and  Guienne,  and  was 
created  Count  d'Orleans. 

Duns  Scotus.      The    Subtle    Doctor.     1265?-! 308.     Scottish 

theologian, 

Dunstan,  Saint.     925-988.     English  prelate. 
Dupanloup,  Felix  Antoine  Filibert.     1802-1878.    Fr.  prelate, 
Dupleix,  Joseph,  Marquis.    1695-1763.    Fr.  governor  in  India. 
Dupont,  Samuel  Francis.     1803-1865.     Am.  rear-admiral. 
Duquesne,  Abraham.     1610-1688.     Fr.  naval  commander. 
Durer,  Albrecht.     1471-1528.     German  painter  and  engraver. 

Crucifixion;  Adoration  0/ the  Alagi ;  Tlie KnigJtt  and  Death;  Rez'e- 

i.ition  0/ St.  yohn. 
Dwight,  Timothy.     1752-1817.     Am.  author  and  divine. 

>;7:ARLY,  Jubal  A.     1818?- Confederate  general. 

Eastlake,   Sir  Charles    Lock.      1793-1865.     English  painter. 

Eaton,  Amos.     1777-1842.     American  naturalist. 

Eaton,  William.     1 764-181 1.     American  soldier. 

Eble,  Jean  Baptiste.      1758-1812.     French  general. 

Edes,  Benjamin.     1732-1S03.     Am.  patriot  and  journalist. 

Edge  worth,  Maria.     1 767-1 849.     English  novelist. 

Edge  worth,  Richard  Lovell.     1 744-1 8 1 7.     English    author; 

father  of  preceding. 
Edison,  Thomxs  Alva.      1847-....    American  electrician  and 

inventor. 
Edmund   I.     9227-946.     Anglo-Saxon   king.     II.,    Ironside, 

989-1016. 
Edmunds,    George    F.     1828-. . . .     American    lawyer  and 

statesman.     Bom  in  Vermont;  admitted  to  the  bar  1849  ;  became  U.  S. 

senator  in  1866  to  fill  an  imexpired  term,  and  has   since  been  three  times 

re-elected.     Elected  president  of  the  Senate  in  March,  1883. 
Edward    I -925.     King    of    the    Anglo  Saxons.     II., 

Tlte  Martyr,  96o?-978  ;  assassinated  by  order  of  his  stepmother.     III., 

The  Confessor ,  1004-1066. 
Edward    I.     Longshanks.     1239-1307.     King  of    England; 

conquered  Wales  and  Scotland.     II.,    1284-1327  ;  defeated  by  Bruce  at 

Bannockbum  ;  dethroned    by  the  Queen   and  her    favorite.    Roller  de 


Mortimer,  in  1326;  was  murdered  the  following  year.  III.,  1312- 
'377;  son  of  Edward  II.  ;  proclaimed  king  in  1327  ;  executed  Mortimer, 
and  imprisoned  the  queen-mother;  carried  on  war  with  France  and 
won  the  great  victory  of  Crecy.  IV,,  1441-1483.  V.,  1470-1483  ; 
a.sccnded  the  throne  at  the  age  of  13,  but  assassinated  two  months  later. 
VI.,  i537-'353- 

Edward,  I'rince  of  Wales.  The  Black  Prince.  1330-1376. 
Son  of  Edward  III.  Participated  in  the  invasion  of  France,  command- 
ing the  main  body  of  the  English  at  Crecy.     Won  the  battle  of  Poitiers. 

Edward  the  Confessor.     1004-1066.     King  of  England. 

Edwards,  .\mclia  Blandford.     1831-....      English  novelist. 

Edwards,  Jonathan.  1703-1758.  American  theologian  and 
metaphysician.     Freedom  0/ the  li  'ill. 

Edwin.     5867-633.     King  of  Northumbria. 

Edwy.     938-958.     King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Effingham.     See  Haiuard,  Charles. 

Egbert.      The   Great.     77S?-838.     Saxon  king  of  Wessex. 

Egmont,  Lamoral,  Count.  1 522-1 568.  Flemish  statesman 
and  soldier.    Tried  for  treason  and  executed. 

Elbee,  Gigot  d'.     1752-1794.     Vcndean  general. 

Eldon,  John  Scott,  Earl    of.     1751-1S38.     English  statesman. 

Elgin,  James  Bruce,  Earl  of.  1811-1863.  British  statesman. 
Governor-general  of  Canada. 

Elgin,  Thomas  Bruce,  Earl  of.  1777-1S41.  British  diplo- 
matist. The  "  Elgin  Marbles,"  in  the  British  museum,  were  obtained 
by  him  at  Athens  and  sold  to  the  government  for  ;£35,ooo. 

Eliot,  George.     See  Evans,  Mai  ian  C. 

Eliot,  John.  Apostle  of  the  Indians.  1604-1690.  English 
ctijrgyman.     Ttranslated  the  Bible  into  the  Indian  language. 

Eliot,  Sir  John.     1590-1632.     Eng.  orator  and  statesman. 

Elizabeth.  1 533-1 603.  Queen  of  England.  Daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.  Proclaimed  Queen  1558  ;  restored  the  Protestant  religion. 
During  her  reign  the  Spanish  Armada  was  repulsed,  and  Mary  Stuart 
executed.     Essex,  Leicester  and  Raleigh  were  .among  her  favorites. 

Elizabeth  Petrovna.  1 709-1 762.  Empress  of  Russia. 
Daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  Ascended  the  throne  in  1741;  took  up 
arms  against  Frederick  the  Great,  and  her  armies  in  1760  captured 
Berlin.     Though  unmarried,  she  was  the  mother  of  a  large  family. 

Elizabeth,  Saint.     1207-123 1.     Queen  of  Hungary. 

EUenborough,  Edward  Law,  Lord.  174S-1S18.  English 
chief  justice. 

EUenborough,  Edward  Law,  Earl  of.  1790-1871.  English 
statesman. 

Ellery,  William.     1727-1820.     .American  patriot. 

Elliot,  George  Augustus,  Lord  Heathfield  of  Gibraltar.  1718- 
1790.    British  commander. 

Elliott,  Ebenezer.  The  Com  Law  Rhymer.  1781-1S49. 
English  poet. 

Elliott,  Jesse  Duncan.     17S2-1845.     American  commodore. 

Ellsworth,  Ephraim  Elmer.     1837-1861.     .-Vmerican  officer. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver.     1745-1807.     Am.  jurist  and  statesman. 

Ellwood,  Thomas.     1639-1713.     English  Quaker  author. 

Elssler,  Faimy.     181 1-....     Viennese  dancer. 

Elzevir.     A  celebrated    family  of  printers   and   publishers  at 

Lcyden,  157:^1680. 

Emerson,    Ralph    Waldo.     1803-1882.     American    essayist, 

philosopher  and  poet.  Born  in  Boston;  graduate  of  H.arvard;  or- 
dained Unitarian  minister  in  1829,  but  retired  from  the  ministry  in 
1832  ;  travelled  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  began  lecturing.  The 
first  volume  of  his  Essays  appeared  in  1841 ,  and  his  Representative  Men, 
regarded  by  some  as  his  greatest  work,  in  1850. 
Emmanuel.      The  Great.     1469-1521.     King  of  Portugal. 


k- 


A 


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226 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Emmet,  Robert.  1 780-1 803.  Irish  patriot  and  orator. 
Early  in  life  became  a  leader  of  the  "  United  Irishmen,"  and  in  1803 
became  implicated  in  the  killing  of  Lord  Kilwarden,  chief  justice  of 
Ireland,  and  others.  Although  defending  himself  with  great  eloquence, 
he  was  sentenced  to  death  and  executed. 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis.  1764-1827.  Brother  of  the  preced- 
ing. A  leader  of  the  "United  Irishmen,"  and  imprisoned  from  1798 
till  iSoi.  Removed  to  America  in  1804,  and  was  in  1812  elected  at- 
torney-general of  New  York. 

Empedocles.     475-. B.C.     Greek  philosopher. 

Encke,  Johann  Franz.     1791-1865.     German  astronomer. 

Endicott,  John.     1589-1665.     Colonial  governor  of  Mass. 

Enghien,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bourbon,  Due  d'.  I77-- 
18  ?4.  French  prince.  Charged  with  conspiracy,  and  executed  by  order 
of  Napoleon. 

Ennius,    Quintus.     239-169  B.C.     Roman  epic  poet. 

Enoch  (or  Henoch).  3378-. ..  .B.C.  Father  of  MethuseLih. 
Translated  at  the  age  of  365. 

Epaminondas.  412  7-362  B.C.  Theban  statesman,  orator  and 
general.  Defeated  the  Spartans  at  Leuctra  ;  died  after  his  victory  at 
Mantinea,  from  a  wound  received  in  battle. 

Epictetus.     60-....     Greek  Stoic  philosopher.    Enchiridion. 

Epicurus.  3407-270  B.C.  Greek  philosopher ;  founder  of  the 
Epicurean  school. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius.     1465-1536.     Dutch  scholar. 

Erastus,  Thomas.       1524-1583.       Ger.  physician  and  writer. 

Eratosthenes.  276-196?  B.C.  Greek  geometer.  Considered 
the  founder  of  the  science  of  astronomy. 

Eric   XIII.     13S2-1450.      King   of  Sweden    (VII.  or  VIII. 

of  Denmark).     XIV.,   1535?-I577. 

Eric  the  Red.  Fl.  1000.  Scandinavian  navigator;  discov- 
ered Cjreenland. 

..   Swedish  engineer  and  inventor. 
■  which  destroyed  the  Confederate  iron-clad 


Ericsson,  John.     1803-. 

Constructed  the  "  Monitor" 

Merrimac, 
Erigena,  Joannes  Scotus. 
Emesti,  Johann  August. 


Fl.  850.     Irish  philosopher. 
1707-1781.       German    scholar. 
Erskine,   Ebenezer.     1680-1754.     Scottish  theologian. 
Erskine,  Henry.     1746-1817.     Scottish  lawyer  and  orator. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  Baron.  1750-1823.  Scottish  lawyer  and 
orator.  Recognized  as  the  greatest  advocate  of  his  time.  "  He  spoke 
as  his  clients  would  have  spoken,  being  endowed  with  his  genius." 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1778  ;  successfully  defended  Lord  George  Gor- 
don in  1781  ;  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  17S3,  and  again  in 
1790 ;  secured  the  acquittal  of  Hardy  and  John  Home  Tooke  in  the 
state  tri.als  of  1794;  was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  created  a  peer  in 
1806  ;  retired  from  office  in  1807. 

Escobar  y  Mendoza,  Antonio.  1589-1669.  Spanish  Jesuit 
and  casuist.     Cases  of  Conscience. 

Espartero,  Joaquin  Baldomero,  Duke  de  la  Vittoria.  1 792- 
1879.     Spanish  statesman  and  general ;  defeated  the  Carlists. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl  of.  1567-1601.  Favor- 
ite of  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  beheaded  for  high  treason. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  third  Earl  of.  1592-1647.  English 
Parliamentary  general. 

Estaing,  Charles  Hector,  Count  d'.  1729-1794.  French 
admiral ;  beheaded. 

Esterhazy  de   Galantha,  Paul.       1635-1713.        Hungarian 

governor-general. 

Ethelbeld -860?     King  of  Wessex. 

Ethelbert.     4557-616.     King  of  Kent. 

Ethelbert -S66.     King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 


Ethelred  I -871.       King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.       II., 

The  Unready,  968-1016;  ordered  massacre  of  Danes  in  1002. 

Ethelwulf.      -S58.     King  of  Wessex. 

Euclid  of  Alexandria.    Fl.  300  B.C.      Greek  mathematician. 

Eudoxie  (or  Eudocia).      3947-461.     Roman  empress. 

Eugene  of  Savoy.  (Prince  Frantjois  Eugene  de  Savoie- 
Carignan).  1663-1736.  Austrian  general.  Defeated  the  Turks  at  Zenta  ; 
associated  with  Marlborough  at  Blenheim,  Oudenard  and  Malplaquet; 
defeated  the  Turks  at  Peterwaradin  in  1716,  and  at  Belgrade  in  1717, 

Eugenie  Marie  de  Montijo.  1826-. . . .  Empress  of  the 
French  ;  wife  of  Napoleon  III. 

Eugenius  I.  Pope;  ruled  from  654  to  65S.  II.,  824-S27. 
III.,  1145-1153.     IV.,  1431-1438;  deposed;  died  in  1447. 

Euler, Leonard.     1707-1783.     Swiss  mathematician. 

Euripides.     480-406?  B.C.     Greek  tragic  poet. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia.     Fl.  325.     Arian  prelate. 

Eusebius  Pamphili.  266-340?  Ecclesiastical  historian,  and 
bishop  of  Cassarea. 

Evald,  Johannes.     1 743-1 781.     Danish  poet. 

Evans,  Marian  C.  George  Eliot.  1820-1881.  English  nov- 
elist. The  daughter  of  a  clergyman.  Lived  with  George  H.Lewes,  as 
his  wife,  for  several  years,  and  after  his  death  married  J.  W.  Cross. 
Adam  Bede ;  Komola;  Middlemarch;  Daniel  Deronda. 

Eustachi,  Bartolommeo.     1510-1574.     Italian  anatomist. 

Evarts,  William  Maxwell.  1816-....  American  lawyer  and 
statesman  Leading  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  impeachment  trial 
of  President  Johnson .  attorney-general  1868-9 .  counsel  for  the 
United  States  in  1872  before  the  Geneva  Arbitration  Tribunal. 

Evelyn,  John.     1620-1706.     English  author.     Sylva. 

Everett,  Edward.  1794-1865.  American  scholar,  orator  and 
statesman.  Graduated  at  Harvard,  i8ii,  and  ordained  a  minister  in 
1814.  Appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Harvard  1815,  but  did  not  occupy 
the  chair  until  1819,  after  completing  a  course  of  study  at  Gottingen  and 
travelling  extensively  in  Europe.  Elected  to  Congress  in  1824,  remain- 
ing in  that  body  for  ten  years,  and  in  1835  became  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Minister  to  England,  1841-5.  Secretary  of  state,  1852. 
Elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  1853,  l^tit  resigned  on  account  of  ill- 
ness. Defeated  for  the  vice-presidency  in  i860.  Supported  the  Federal 
government  during  the  civil  war. 

Ewing,  Thomas.     1789-1871      American  .statesman. 

Exmouth,  Edward  Pellew,  Viscount.       1757-1S33.      English 

admiral 
Eyck,  van,  Hubert.     1 366-1426      Flemish  painter. 

Eyck,  van,  Jan.    John  of  Bruges.     13907-1440?     Brother  of 

preceding.     Flemish  painter      Adoration  o/the  Magi. 
Eyre,  Edward  John.     1818?-. . . .     Eng.  explorer  in  Australia. 

Ezekiel.     Fl.  7th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet 

Ezra.     Fl.  5th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  law-maker. 

'TTABER,  Frederick  William.      1815-1S63.     English  priest 

^^        and  writer. 

Fabius  Maximus,  Quintus.      Cunctator.     203  r  C.      Roman 

consul  and  general.      As  opponent    of    Hannibal  he  inaugurated  the 

"  Fabian  "  policy,  carrying  on  only  a  defensive  war. 
Faed,  Tliomas.     1826-  . . .     Scottish  painter. 
Fahrenheit,    Gabriel    Daniel.     16S6-1740       German    natur.il 

philosopher  and  inventor  of  the  Fahrenheit  thermometer. 
Fairfax,  Thomas,  Lord.     1611-1671.     Parliamentary  general 

As  commander-in-chief  in  1645,  wo  the  battle  of  Naseby. 
Falconer,  William.    17357-1709.    Scot.  poet.    The  Shifrn'reck. 
Faliero  lor  Falieril,  Marino.     1278-1350.     Doge  of  Venice ; 

the  hero  of  Byron's  tragedy. 


K 


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A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


227 


Faneuil,  Peter.     I7CX)-I743.     American  merchant. 
Faraday,  Michael.     1791-1867.     English  chemist  and  natural 

philosopher.     Founder  of  the  science  of  magnelo-elcctricily. 
Farnese,  Alessandro,  Duke  of  Parma.   1546-1593.  It.  general. 
Farquhar,  George.    1678-1707.    Irish  dramatist.    The  Beaux' 

Stratagem  ;    The  Constant  Couple, 

Fairagut,  David  Glascoe.     1801-1870.     American  admiral. 

Passed  the  New  Orleans  forts  and  captured  New  Orleans  in    1862,  and 

was  made  rear-admiral  same  year.     Congress  created  for  him  the  ofBce 

of  vice-admiral  in  1864,  and  he  was  made  admiral  in  1S66. 
Faust,  Karl.     1825—....     German  composer. 
Faust,  Dr.  Johann.     Fl.  1500.     German  necromancer. 

Faust,  Johann -1466?    One  of  the  inventors  of  printing. 

Fawkes,  Guy -1606.      English  conspirator;    executed. 

("  (.iiuipowdcr  plot.") 
Fearne,  Charles.       1749-1494.      English  jurist. 
Featherstonhaugh,  George  William -1S66.     American 

traveller  and  geologist. 
Fechter,  Charles  Albert.     1824-1879.     English  actor. 
Fenelon,    Francois   de   Salignac   de   la    Mothe.     1651-1715. 

French  prelate  and  author.     Telentachus. 

Fenwick,  Sir  John -1697.     English  conspirator. 

Ferdinand    I.       1503-1564.       Emperor  of   Germany.       II., 

1578-1637:  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.     III.,  ....-1657. 
Ferdinand  IV.     1751-1S25.       King  of  Naples.       (I.  of  the 

two  Sicilies.) 
Ferdinand  II.     1810-1859.     King  of  the  two  .Sicilies. 
Ferdinand  I.      The  Great.     1000-1065.     King  of  Castile.  V., 
The  Catholic  (II.  of  Aragon,      III.  of  Naples,       II.  of  Sicily),  1452- 

1516;  founded  the  Spanish  monarchy.  VI.,  The  Wise,  1713-1759.  VII., 

17S4-1833. 

1724-1816.     .Scottish  philosopher. 
1710-1776.     Scottish  astronomer. 
iSoS-....     Scottish  architect. 
Fl.  1446.   Portuguese  navigator. 
....-1576.     Spanish  navigator. 
Fernel,  Juan.     1497-1558.     French  physician  and  writer. 
Ferry,  Jules  Francois  Camille.     1832-....   Fr.  statesman. 
Fersen,  .^xel  von,  Count.     1755-1810.  Swedish  field-marshal. 
Fesch,  Joseph,  Cardinal.     1763-1836.     French  prelate. 
Fessenden,  William  Pitt.     1806-1S69.     Am.  statesman. 
Feuerbach,  Paul  Johann  Anselm.     1775-1833.    German  jurist. 

Reformer  of  the  criminal  law. 

Feuillet,    Octave.     1812- French  author. 

Fichte,  Immanuel  Hermann.     1797-1879.     Ger.  philosopher. 
Fichte,  Johann  Gottlieb.     1762-1814.     Ger.  metaphysician. 

Field,  Cyrus  West.  1819-....  American  merchant  and 
financier.  Established  the  first  telegraph  cable  between  America  and 
Europe,  via  Newfoundland. 

Field,  David  Dudley.     1805-....      American  jurist. 

Fielding,  Henry.  1 707-1 754.  Eng.  novelist  and  dramatist. 
Son  of  Edmund  Fielding,  a  lieutenant-general  under  Marlborough. 
Commenced  reading  law  at  l8,  but  discontinued  this  study  in  a  few 
years,  and  began  to  lead  a  dissolute  life.  About  this  time,  however,  he 
produced  several  successful  plays.  After  marrying,  and  squandering  his 
wife's  fortune,  he  resumed  the  study  of  law,  but,  gout  preventing  his 
practicing,  he  turned  his  mind  to  literature.  In  1749  his  great  novel, 
Tom  Jones ,  w.as  published.  In  1750  he  was  appointed  a  magistrate,  and 
endeared  himself  to  the  inhabitants  ot  the  London  suburbs  by  suppress- 
ing numerous  bands  of  robbers.  Among  Fielding's  novels,  besides 
Tof't  Jones,  may  be  mentioned  Amelia  3.ni  Joseph  Andrew's, 


Ferguson,  .Ulam. 
Ferguson,  James. 
Fergusson,  James. 
Fernandez,  Diniz. 
Fernandez,  luan. 


Corsican  conspirator ; 

Leader  in  a  conspiracy  to 


Fieschi,  Joseph  Marco.  1790-1836. 
inventor  of  the  so-called  infernal  machine, 
kill  Louis  Philippe.     Executed. 

Fiesco   (or  Fieschi),   Giovanni    Luigi,  Count  of    Lavagna. 

'525-1547.  Genoese  conspirator.  Having  sent  some  of  his  adherents  to 
capture  the  palace  of  the  Dorias,  he  made  a  night  attack  on  the  Doria 
galleys  in  the  harbor,  but  fell  while  passing  from  one  galley  to  another, 
and  was  drowned  before  help  could  reach  him. 

Fiesole,  Giovanni  da.    Fra  Angelica.    1387-I455.    It.   painter. 

Fillmore,  Millard.  1800-1874.  American  statesman ;  thir- 
teenth president  of  the  United  States.  Born  in  New  York  ;  learned 
fuller's  trade  ;  read  law  and  acquired  a  lucrative  practice  m  Buffalo. 
Elected  to  Congress  1832,  and  continued  a  member  of  that  body  till 
1842.  Elected  vice-president  1848,  and  became  president  on  the  death 
of  Taylor,  in  1850,  Approved  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  and  the  com- 
promise measures  of  Henry  Clay,  and  made  Daniel  Webster  secre- 
tary of  state. 

American  statesman. 
English  prelate  ;  executed.   Op- 


Fish,   Hamilton.      1S0S-. . . 
Fisher,  John.      I459-IS35- 

posed  the  Reformation. 
Fitch,  John.     1743-1798. 
Fitzgerald,  Edward,  Lord. 


Am.  inventor.     (Steamboat.) 
1763-1798.     Irisli  revolutionist. 

Flaminius,  Caius -217  B.C.     Rom.  general  and  consul. 

Flaminius,  Titus  Quintius.  230-174  B.C.  Roman  general 
and  consul. 

Flamsteed,  John.     1646-1719.     Eng.  astronomer. 

Flaxman,  John.     1 755-1826.     English  sculptor. 

Fleetwood,  Charles     . . .  .-1692.  Eng   Parliamentary  general. 

Fletcher, -Vndrew  (()/■  5a//o««).     1653-1716.    Scottish  author. 

Fletcher,  John.  1576-1625.  English  poet  and  dramatist ; 
associate  of  Beaumont.  The  Maid's  Tragedy :  The  Faithful  Shep- 
herdess, 

Flotow,  Frederick  Ferdinand  .'Vdolphus  von.  1812-1883. 
German  composer.     Martha. 

Fontenelle,  Bernard  de  Bovier   de.     1657-1757.     Fr.  author. 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull.     1806-1863.     American  rear-admiral. 

Foote,  Samuel.     1720-1777.     English  wit  and  comedian. 

Ford,  John       15S6-1639.     English  dramatist. 

Forrest,  Edwin.     1806-1872.     American  tragedian. 

Forster,  John.      1812-1876.     English  biographer. 

Forster,  William  Edward.     iSiS-....      English  statesman. 

Forsyth,  John.     17S0-1841.     American  statesman. 

Fortescue,  Sir  John.     i3g5?-l4S5?     English  jurist. 

Fortuny,  Mariano.     1 839-1 874.     .Spanish  painter. 

Foscari,  Francesco.     I373-I457-     Doge  of  Venice. 

Foster,  Birket.     1812-. . . .      English  engraver. 

Foster,  Stephen  Collins.     1826-1864.     Am.  song-writer. 

Fourier,  Francois  Charles  Marie.  1 772-1 837.  French  social- 
ist ;  founder  of   Fonricrism.     Theory  0/  Universal  Unity. 

Fowler,  Orson  Squire.     1809-....     Am.  phrenologist. 

Fox,  Charles  James.  1749-1806.  English  orator  and  states- 
man. Entered  Parliament  in  1768  as  a  Tory,  but  joined  the  opposition 
in  1773,  and  became  leader  of  the  Whigs,  in  which  capacity,  and  also  as 
foreign  secretary  and  secretary  of  state,  he  opposed  the  policy  of  Pitt, 

Fox,  George.  1624-1690.  English  founder  of  the  society  of 
Friends,  or  Quakers. 

Fox,  John.  1517-1587.  English  Protestant  clerg)'man  and 
author.     Book  0/  Martyrs. 

Foy,  Maximilian  Sebastian.  1775-1825.  French  orator  and 
general. 

Fra  Bortolommeo  di  San   Marco.     See  Baccio  della  For/a. 


^ 


J- 


Fra    Diavolo.     ( Michael    Rozzo. )      1 769-1 806.     Neapolitan 

brigand. 

Francia,  Jose  Caspar  Rodriguez.  i757?-iS40.  Dictator  of 
Paraguay;  adopted  a  policy  cutting  off  all  intercourse  with  other 
nations. 

Francis  I.     1494-1547.     King  of  France ;  defeated  at  Pavia. 

11.,  1543-1560. 
Francis   I.      1708-1765.      Emperor    of  Germany.      II.   (I.  of 

Austria),  1768-1835. 
Francis  II.     1836-. . . .      King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Francis  Borgia,  Saint!      1510-1572.       Duke  of  Gandia  and 

Viceroy  of  Catalonia  ;  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  became  a  zealous 

preacher;  elected  general  of  the  order  in  1565. 
Francis  de   Paula,    Saint.      1416-1507.     Italian    Franciscan 

monk  ;  founded  the  order  Fi-atres  Alinbni. 

Francis  de  Sales,  Saint.     1567-1622.     French  Jesuit,  writer 

and  orator  ;  bishop  of  Geneva.      Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  Saint.      1 182-1226.     Italian  founder  of  the 

Franciscan  order. 

Francis  Joseph  Charles.      1S30-. . . .      Emperor  of  Austria. 
Francis,  John  Wakefield.     17S9-1861.     Am.  physician. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip.  1 740-1818.  British  statesman  and 
writer.     Believed  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  yunius. 

Francis  Xavier,  Saint.     See  Xavier. 

Franklin,  Benjamin.  1 706-1 790.  American  statesman  and 
philosopher.  Born  in  Boston ;  the  youngest  of  .1  family  of  seventeen 
children.  His  father  was  a  tallow-chandler  and  soap-boiler.  Learned 
the  trade  of  a  printer  and  studied  diligently.  Removed  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  established  the  Pennsyl-vania  Gazette.  Began  the  publica- 
tion of /'.^^r  Richard's  Almanac  in  1735.  Discovered  the  identity  of 
lightning  and  electricity  jn  1752,  by  means  of  a  kite,  Franklin  occupied 
many  positions  of  public  trust  and  was  the  recipient  of  many  honors. 
He  was  deputy  postmaster-general  of  the  colony  ;  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress;  minister  to  France,  1776-85;  president  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1785-8  ;   member  of  the  convention  of  1787. 

Franklin,  Sir  John.  1786-1S47.  English  Arctic  explorer; 
perished  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

Fredegonde.     546?-596.     Wife  of  Chilperic  I.  of  France. 

Frederick  I.  Ba7-barossa.  1 121-1 190.  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. Crowned  by  Pope  Adrian  IV.  Reduced  Milan  in  1158,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  Lombards  near  Legnano.  Joined  the  third  crusade 
in  ii8g  with  150,000  men,  and  defeated  the  Turks  at  Iconium.  Died  in 
the  Holy  Land.  II.,  :i94-i25o.  Opposed  by  the  Guelphs  and  the 
pope  in  his  project  to  unite  Italy  and  Germany  in  one  empire.  Began  a 
criisade  against  the  Moslems  in  1227,  but  turned  back,  and  was  excom- 
municated by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  Resumed  the  crusade  in  1228,  cap- 
tured Jerusalem  and  made  peace  with  the  pope.  Defeated  the  Guelphs 
at  Cortenuova,  1237,  and  renewed  war  with  the  pope. 

Frederick  William.  The  Great  Elector,  1620-168S. 
Elector  of  Brandenburg ;  founder  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 

Frederick  I.  1657-1713.  First  king  of  Prussia.  II.  [Fred- 
erick the  Great^^  1712-1788.  Subjected  to  inhuman  treatment  in  youth 
by  his  father,  he  gave  but  little  promise  of  his  future  greatness.  As- 
cended the  Prussian  throne  in  1740,  and  invaded  Silesia,  which  was 
ceded  to  him  by  Maria  Theresa  in  1742.  An  alliance  having  been 
formed  against  him  by  Austria,  Russia  and  France,  he  began  the  Seven 
Years'  War  in  1756  by  invading  Saxony.  Gained  a  great  victory  at 
Prague  in  1757,  but  was  defeated  at  Kolin  soon  afterward.  His  affairs 
were  now  in  a  desperate  condition,  but  in  the  same  year  he  defeated  a 
French  army  twice  as  large  as  his  own  at  Rossbach,  and  won  a  brilliant 
and  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Leuthen.  In  1759  he  was  de- 
feated at  Kunnersdorf,  and  Berlin  was  captured  by  the  allies,  but  in  1760 
he  gained  the  victories  of  Liegnitz  and  Torgau,  and  peace  was  made  in 
1763,  Prussian  Poland  being  added  to  Frederick's  dominions.  Besides 
being  a  great  general  and  monarch,  Frederick  was  a  voluminous  writer. 


Frederick    'William     I.        1 68S-1 740.       King    of     Prussia. 

Father  of  Frederick  the  Great.    II,,  1744-1797.  Ill,,  1770-1840  ;  founded 
the  Zollverein.      IV.,  1795-1S61. 

Frederick  William  Nicholas  Charles.     1831-.  . . .     Crown 

prince  of  Prussia  and  of  the  German  empire. 
Frederick     VI.       176S-1839.     King    of    Denmark.     VII., 

1808-1863.  , 

Freeman,  Edward  Augustus.     1823-....     Englisli  historian. 

The  Nortuan    Conquest :    Historical  Essays:     History  0/  Federal 

Government, 
Freiligrath,  Ferdinand.      1810-1876.     German  lyric  poet. 
Frelinghuysen,  Theodore.     17S7-1862.     Am.  statesman. 
Frelinghuysen,  Frederick  Theodore.     1817-. ...      Nephew 

of  preceding.    American  statesman. 
Fremont,    John    Charles.      1813- American   politician, 

explorer  and  general.     Republican  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1856. 
Freytag,    Gustav.     1816-. ...     German    novelist.     Soil  und 

Haben. 

Froebel,  Frederick.  1782-1852.  German  educator ;  founder 
of  the  "Kindergarten." 

Froila  I.     722-768.     King  of  Spain. 

Froissart,  Jean.     1337-1410?     French  historian.     Chronicles. 

Froude,  James  Anthony.    1818-. English  historian.    Short 

Studies  on  Great  Subjects  ;  History  0/ Henry  VUL 

Fry,  Elizabeth  («f?  Gurney).   1780-1845.    Eng.  philanthropist. 

Fugger.  A  rich  .Augsburg  family.  Fl.  15th  and  l6th  centuries. 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  Countess  d'Ossoli.  1810-1850.  Am. 
authoress. 

Fulton,  Robert.  1765-1S15.  American  engineer  and  inven- 
tor of  the  steamboat.  Born  in  Pennsylvania.  After  spending  some  years 
in  London  as  an  artist,  he  turned  his  attention  to  civil  engineering  and 
inland  navigation.  In  1796  he  published  a  treatise  on  Canal  Navigation. 
Went  to  Paris,  and  there  invented  a  submarine  torpedo.  He  returned 
to  New  York  in  1801  and,  with  the  assistance  of  Robert  Livingston,  dis- 
covered steam  navigation.  In  1806  he  built  the  steamer  Clermont,  which 
made  regular  trips  between  Albany  and  New  York  at  a  speed  of  five 
miles  an  hour.  Although  he  spent  a  large  amount  of  money  on  his  inven- 
tion, the  patent  did  not  prove  of  pecuniary  value  to  him. 

Fuseli,  John  H.     1742-1825.     Swiss  historical  painter. 

y^ADSDEN,  Christopher.     1724-1805.     American  states- 

\0[[     man. 

Gadsden,  James.     17S8-185S.      American   statesman.     (The 

Gadsden  purchase.) 
Gage,  Thomas.     I720?-I787.     British  general  in  Ainerica. 
Gaines,  Edmund  Pendleton.     1777-1849.     American  general. 
Gaines,  Myra  Clark.   1805?- Wife  of  E.  P.  G.     American 

heiress. 

Gainsborough,  Thomas.     1727-1788.     English  painter. 
Galba,  .Scrvius  .Sulpicius.     B.C.  4  ?-A.D.  69.     Roman  emperor. 

Galen,  131-205?  Greek  physician,  medical  writer  and  phil- 
osopher, living  at  Rome.    De  Locis  Aj[fectis. 

Galerius,  Caius  Valerius   Maximianus — S".      Roman 

emperor. 

Galilei,  Galileo.  Galileo.  1564-1642.  Italian  astronomer. 
Discovered,  about  1584,  the  isochronismof  the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum, 
and  the  law  by  which  the  velocity  of  falling  bodies  is  accelerated. 
Adopted  in  astronomy  the  system  of  Copernicus,  and  constructed  his 
wonderful  telescope  in  1609.  Through  it  he  discovered  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter,  and  w.as  enabled  to  e.\plore  the  surface  of  the  moon  and  view 
the  phases  of  Venus.  He  also  ascertained  that  the  "milky  way"  was 
composed  of  myriads  of  stais.  In  1632  he  produced  his  Dialogues  on 
the  Ptolei/taic  and   Copernitan   Systems,  but  w.as   compelled   by  the 


-Ni 


^^ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


229 


Inquisition  to  abjure  the  theory  of  the  motion  of  the  earth.  He  was 
detained  in  prison  for  several  years,  but  it  does  not  seem  that  he  was 
severely  treated,  as  he  was  allowed  to  pursue  his  studies  until  prevented 
by  blindness. 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph.  175S-182S.  German  physician ;  founder 
of  phrenology. 

Gallatin,  Albert.  1761-1849.  American  statesman;  native 
of  Switzerland.     Secretary  of  the  treasury,  1801-13. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins.  17S7-1851.  American  clergy- 
man and  instructor  of  deaf-mules. 

Gallienus,  Publius  Licinius  Valerius.  233  ?-26S.  Roman 
emperor. 

Gallitsin,  or  Galitzin.  An  illustrious  family  of  Russian  princes. 

Gait,  John.     1779-1839.     .Scottish  novelist. 

Galvani,  Aloisio.    1737-1789.    Italian  discoverer  of  galvanism. 

Gama,  Vasco  da.     I450?-I524.     Portuguese  navigator. 

Gambetta,  Leon.  1S3S-1SS2.  French  radical  orator  and 
statesman. 

Gambler,  James,  Baron.     1756-1833.     British  admiral. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega.     1503-1536.     Spanish  poet. 

Gardiner,  Stephen.     1483-1555.     Eng.  prelate  and  statesman. 

Garfield,  James  Abram.  1831-1881.  Twentieth  president  of 
the  United  States.  Bom  in  Ohio;  worked  on  a  farm  in  boyhood,  and 
learned  the  trade  of  a  carpenter ;  afterward  became  driver  and  helms- 
man of  a  canal-boat ;  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1856 ;  appointed 
professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Hiram  College,  Ohio,  and  chosen 
president  of  that  institution  in  1858,  About  this  time  he  married  Miss 
Lucretia  Randolph,  and  occasionally  acted  as  a  Campbellite  minister. 
Elected  to  the  state  senate  in  1859,  and  in  iS6t  was  chosen  colonel  of  an 
Ohio  regiment ;  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  Elected  to 
Congress  in  1862,  and  remained  in  that  body  until  18S0,  when  he  was 
made  senator.  Nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  Republican  parly  in 
1880,  and  elected  the  following  November.  Shot  by  Charles  J.  Guiteau, 
in  Washington,  July  2,  1881,  and  died  on  September  19  of  same  year. 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe.     1807-18S2.     Italian  patriot  and  general. 

Garrick,  David.     1716-1779.     English  actor. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd.     1804-1879.     Am.  abolitionist. 

Garth,  Sir  Samuel.     16727-1719.     Eng.  physician  and  poet. 

Gascoigne,  George.     1535-1537.     English  poet. 

Gaskell,  Eliz.ibeth  Cleghorn.     1S10-1S65.     English  authoress. 

Gassendi,  Pierre.     1592-1655.     French  savant. 

Gates,  Horatio.  172S-1806.  American  Revolutionary  general; 
hum  in  England.     Captured  Eurgoyne's  army  at  Saratoga. 

Gatling,  Richard  Jordan.     1S1S-. . . .     American  mventor. 

Gauss,  Carl  Friedrich.      1777-1855.     German  mathematician. 

Gautama  Booddha.  624-543  ?  B.C.  Hindoo  reformer,  and 
founder  of  Buddhism.     See  Buddha. 

Gautier,  Theophile.     1811-1872.     French  poet  and  novelist. 

Gaveston,  Piers  de.  ....-1312.  Favorite  of  Edward  II.  of 
England;  executed  by  the  nobles. 

Gay,  John.     1688-1732.     English  poet. 

Gay-Lussac,  Joseph  Louis.  1778-1850.  French  chemist 
and  n.^tural  philosopher ;  discovered  cyanogen. 

Gellert,  Christian  Furchtegott.     1715-1769.     German  poet. 

Genevieve,  Saint.  4227-512.  French  religious,  said  to  have 
converted  Clovis  to  Christianity.     Patron  of  Paris. 

Genghis  Khan.  1163-1227.  Mogul  conqueror;  subdued 
China  and  Persia. 

Genseric.  4067-477.  King  of  the  Vandals.  Invaded  Africa, 
429 :  defeated  the  Romans  in  numerous  battles  ;  captured  Carthage, 
439  :  captured  and  sacked  Rome,  455 ;  defeated  the  navy  of  the  Emper- 
or Marjorian  in  457. 


Geoffroy  of  Monmouth.     iioo?-ii54.     Eng.  chronicler. 
George  I.     (Lewis.)     1660-1727,     KingofGreatBritain.il. 

(Augustus),  1683-1760.  Defeated  the  French  at  Dettingen  in  1743. 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  was  defeated  at  CuUoden,  1746,  by  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  wxs  marked 
by  victories  over  the  French  in  Canada,  in  India,  and  on  the  ocean.  III. 
(William  Frederick),  1738-1820.  Arbitrary  and  ignorant,  and  through 
his  obstinacy  lost  the  American  colonies.  Became  insane  in  1810,  IV. 
(Augustus  Frederick),  1762-1830.  "  The  First  Gentleman  of  Europe." 
Led  a  dissipated  life  and  incurred  an  immense  debt.  Married,  in  1786, 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert.  She  being  a  Roman  Catholic,  the  marriage  was  ille- 
gal. As  his  father  refused  to  pay  his  debts  unless  he  contracted  a  regu- 
lar marriage,  he  was  induced,  in  1795,  to  marry  his  cousin,  whom  he 
regarded  with  great  dislike,  a  separation  being  the  result.  Became 
regent  1811.  Took  little  interest  in  public  affairs.  One  year  before  his 
death,  an  act  was  passed  relievnig  Roman  Catholics  from  political  dis- 
abilities. 

George,  Saint.  Fl.  jd  century.  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Patron 
saint  of  England,  To  him  is  attributed  the  destruction  of  a  terrible 
dragon. 

Gerard-Thom,  or  Tenque.  1040  ?-l  121.  Founder  of  tlie 
Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

Germanicus,  Caesar.     B.C.  14-A.D.  19.     Roman  general. 

Gerome,  Jean  Leon.     1824- Fr.  painter. 

Gerry,  Elbridge.  1744-1812.  Am.  Revolutionary  statesman; 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Governor  of  Massachusetts, 
1810;  vice-president,  1812. 

Gessler -1307.     Austrian  bailiff  killed  by  Tell. 

Gesner,  Conrad.     1516-1565.     Swiss  naturalist. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo.     1378-1455.     Florentine  sculptor. 

Gibbon,  Edward.  1737-1794.  English  historian.  Educated 
at  0.\ford.  The  first  volume  of  his  great  work.  History  0/  the  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  appeared  in  1776  ;  the  next  two  in 
1781,  and  in  1783  he  retired  to  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  com- 
pleted the  last  three  volumes,  which  appeared  in  1788.  Gibbon  has 
been  justly  criticised  for  the  antagonism  to  the  Christian  faith  shown  in 
this  work. 

Gibson,  John.     1791-1866.     English  sculptor. 

Giddings,  Joshua  Reed.     1795-1864.     Am.  abolitionist. 

Gifford,  Sanford  Robinson.     1823-. . ..     American  painter. 

Gifford,  William.  1757-1826.  English  writer  and  critic; 
founder  of  the  Quarterly  Revieiu^  Studied  at  Oxford,  after  serving  five 
years  as  a  shoemaker's  apprentice. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey.     IS39-1583.     English  navigator. 

Gilbert,  Sir  John.     1S17-. . . .     English  artist. 

Gilbert,  William  Schwenck.  1836-....  English  humorous 
author  and  librettist.  Bab  Ballads  :  Pygmalion  and  Galatea:  Pina- 
fore: Patience  :  Pirates  of  Penzance  :  lolanthe  :  Princess  Ida,  etc. 

Giles,  Wm.  Branch.     1762-1830.     American  statesman. 
Gilray,  James.     17S5-1815.     English  caricaturist. 

Girard,  Stephen.   1750-1831.    American  merchant  and  banker, 

born  in  France.     Founded  Girard  College. 

Girardin,  Emile  de.     1S06- French  journalist. 

Giulio  Romano.     1492-1546.     Italian  painter  and  architect. 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart.     1809- English  statesman. 

Glauber,  Johann  Rudolph.     1604-1668.     German  chemist. 
Glendower,  Owen.     I349?-I4IS.     Welsh  chieftain. 
Gluck,  ChristophWilibald  von.      1714-1787.     Ger.  composer. 
Gobelin,  Gilles  and  Jean.     Fl.  1450.     French  dyers. 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.     io58?-lloo.     Leader  of  first  crusade. 
Godiva.      Lady  Godiva.     Fl.  1  ith  century.     English  heroine ; 

wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of  Leicester. 


VL 


230 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


/ 


Godman,  John  D.     1794-1830.    Am.  physician  and  naturalist. 

Godunoff,  Boris  Fedorovitch.        1552-1605.      Czar  of  Russia. 

Godwin,  William.   1756— 1836.  Eng.  novelist.   Caleb  Williams. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von.  1749-1832.  German  poet 
and  author,  dramatist,  scientist  and  statesman.  Faust:  M'ilkelm 
JMt'ister ;  Eg^ttont :  Sorrows  of  li'erthcr ;  Iphigenia  in  Tauris : 
West- Eastern  Divan, 

Goffe,  William.     l6o5?-i679.     Eng.  Puritan  and  regicide. 

Goldsborough,  Lewis  M.     1805-1876.     Am.  rear-admiral. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver.  172S-1774.  Irish  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer.  Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  afterward  studied 
medicine.  Squandered  in  dissipation  a  large  portion  of  the  funds  fur- 
nished for  his  education.  In  London,  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of 
Dr.  Johnson.  His  f'jrVar  ^  WaA^t"/i^  was  written  while  he  was  under 
arrest  for  debt.  The  Traveller ;  The  Deserted  Village :  She  Stoops  to 
Conquer, 

Gomez,  Sebastiano.  1616-1690.  Spanish  painter.  A  slave 
of  Murillo,  who  liberated  him  and  took  him  into  his  studio. 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  Hernandez.  The  Great  Captain. 
1443V-1515.     Spanish  commander. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold.  Peter  Parley.  1793-1S60. 
American  author. 

Goodyear,  Ch.irles.  1S00-1860.  American  inventor.  (Vul- 
canized india-rubber.) 

Gordon,  George,  Lord.     1750-1793.     English  agitator. 

Gorgey,  Arthur.     1818-. . . .      Hungarian  general. 

Gore,  Catherine  Grace.     1799-1861.     English  novelist. 

Gortschakoff,  Alexander  Michaelovitch,  Prince.  1798-1883. 
Russian  st.^tesman  and  diplomatist. 

Gottschalk,  Louis  Moreau.     1829-1869.      Am.  composer. 

Gough,  John  B.  1822-....  American  temperance  lecturer, 
born  in  England. 

Gould,  Augustus  Addison.      1S05-1866.     American  n.ituralist. 

Gould,  Hannah  Flagg.     1789-1865.     Ameiican  poetess. 

Gould,  Jay.     1836-....      American  railway  manager. 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois.  1818-.  ...  French  composer. 
Faust;  La  Reine  de  Stha  :  Romeo  and  yuliet. 

Gower,  John.     1320?-I402.     English  poet. 

Gracchus,  Caius  Scmpronius.     159-126  B.C.    Rom.  statesman. 

Graham,  John,  Viscount  Dundee.  Claverhouse.  1650?- 
1689.  Scottish  officer,  noted  for  merciless  severity  toward  the  Cov- 
enanters. 

Graham,  Sylvester.     1794-1851.     American  vegetarian. 

Granger,  Gideon.     1767-1822.     American  statesman. 

Grant,  James.     1 822-. . . .      Scottish  novelist. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson.  1822-1885.  Eighteenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Bom  in  Ohio  ;  graduated  at  West  Point, 
1843;  ser\'ed  in  Mexico;  became  a  captain  in  1853.  Resigned  in 
1854,  and  after  passing  some  time  in  St.  Louis,  removed  to  Galena,  III., 
in  1859,  ^"'^  engaged  'n  business.  In  1861  he  was  made  aide-de-camp 
to  the  governor  of  Illinois,  but  soon  after  was  chosen  colonel  of  the 
Twenty-first  Illinois  Volunteers,  and  in  July  of  same  year  was  made 
brigadier-general.  His  war  record  is  history.  Made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Union  armies  in  March,  1864.  Elected  to  the  presidency  in 
1868,  and  again  in  1872,  and  after  the  expiration  of  his  second  term  he 
travelled  e.>:tensively  in  Europe  and  Asia,  being  received  everywhere 
with  the  highest  honors.  He  was  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dential nomination  before  the  Republican  convention  in  1880. 

Grattan,  Henry.     1746-1820.     Irish  orator  and  statesman. 
Gray,  Asa.     1810- American  botanist. 

Gray,  Thomas.  1716-1771.  English  poet.  Declined  the 
position  of  poet-laureate.     Eleg}'. 


Greeley,  Horace.  1811-1S72.  American  journalist.  Bom  in 
New  Hampshire  ;  learned  the  printer's  trade,  and  worked  as  a  journey- 
man printer  in  New  York  for  one  year.  Founded  the  AVif  i'ork  Trib- 
une in  1841.  A  staunch  Whig  and  Republican,  he  favored  Fremont  for 
the  presidency  in  1856,  and  Lincoln  in  i860.  Accepted  the  Democratic 
nomination  in  1872,  but  was  defeated  at  the  election  by  Grant. 

Green,  John  Richard.  1 874-1 883.  English  historian.  S/iort 
History  0/  the  English  People, 

Green,  Seth.     1817-....     American  pisciculturist. 

Greene,  Nathaniel.     1742-17S6.    Am.  Revolutionary  general. 

Greenleaf,  Benjamin.     17S6-1864.    American  mathematician. 

Greenleaf,  Simon.     1 783-1853.     American  jurist. 

Greenough,  Horatio.     1805-1852.     American  sculptor. 

Gregory  I.  (.Saint.)  The  Great.  540-604.  Pope,  ascending 
the  pontifical  chair  in  590.  II.,  ruled  715-731.  III.,  731-741.  IV., 
827-S44.  v.,  997-999  VI.  1044-1047.  VII.  (St.  Hildebrand),  1073- 
1085;  excommunicated  Henry  IV.  VIII.,  1187;  diedsame  year.  XI., 
1227-1241 ;  excommunicated  Frederick  II.  X.,  1271-1276.  XI.,  1370- 
1378  ;  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe.  XII.,  1406-1409,  when  he 
and  the  anti-pope,  Benedict  XIII.,  were  deposed  by  the  council  of  Pisa  ; 
died  1417.  XIII.,  1572-15S5;  reformed  the  Julian  calendar.  XIV., 
1590-1591;  excommunicated  Henry  IV.  of  France.  XV.,  1621-1623. 
founded  the  Propaganda.     XVI.,  1831-1846;  succeeded  by  Pius  IX. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Saint.  332-394.  Greek  father  of  the 
church. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  Saint.  540-595.  French  prelate  and 
hi^torian. 

Gregory,  James.     1 638-1 674.     Greek  geometer. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  Saint.  326  ?-389.  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

Grenville,  George.    17x2-1770.    Eng.  statesman.  (Stamp  act.) 

Grevy,  Frangois  Paul  Jules.     1813-. . . .      French  president. 

Grey,  Charles,  Earl.     1764-1845      English  statesman. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane.    1537-1554.    Gifted  English  lady ;  executed. 

Grimm,  Fiiedrich  Melchior,  Baron.      1723-1807      Ger.  writer. 

Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwig  (i785-i863),and  Wilhelm  Karl  (1786- 
1859)      German  philologists  ;  brothers, 

Grisi,  Giulia.     1812-1869.     Italian  singer. 

Griswold,  Rufus  Wilmot.      1815-1857.     American  author. 

Grotius  (De  Groot),  Hugo.  15S3-1645.  Dutch  jurist  and 
theologian. 

Grouchy,  Emmanuel  de.  Marquis.     1766-1847.     Fr  general. 

Guarneri,  Giuseppe  A.     1683-1745.     Italian  violin-maker. 

Guatemozin.       1497-1525.       Last  .A.ztec  emperor  of  Mexico 

Guelph  I  or  \A^elf).      Noble  German  family,  originally  Italian. 

Guiccioli,  Teresa  Gamba,  Countess.  1S01-1S73.  Friend  of 
Byron. 

Guido  Reni.     1575-1645.     Italian  painter. 

Guillotin,  Joseph  Ignace.  1738-18 14.  '  French  physician; 
advocate  of  the  guillotine. 

Guiscard,  Robert.     1015-1085.     Norman  commander. 

Guise,  Charles  de.     1525-1574.     Cardinal  of  Lorraine. 

Guise,  Claude  de  Lorraine  de,  Duke.  1496—1550.  French 
general  and  statesman. 

Guise,   Frangois  de  Lorraine  de,  Duke.     15 19-1563. 

Guise,  Henry  I.  of  Lorraine  de,  Duke.      1550-15SS. 

Guizot,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume.  17S7-1874.  French 
statesman  and  historian. 

Gustavus  I.  (Gustavus  Vasa.)  1496-1559.  King  of  Sweden. 
II.  (Gustavus  Adolphus),  1594-1632.  Defeated  the  Polish  and  Russian 
armies  invading  Sweden.      Became  the  head  of  the  Protestant  league  in 


\ 


± 


K 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


231 


Germany  and  defeated  Tilly  at  Leipsic  in  1631,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lech  in  1632.  At  the  great  battle  of  Liitzen,  Wallenstein  now  com- 
manding the  imperial  army,  Gustavus  was  killed,  but  his  troops 
nevertheless  gained  a  complete  victory.  III.,  1746-1792;  assassinated. 
IV.,  1778-1837  ;  ascended  the  throne  in  1792,  but  was  deposed  in  1809. 

Gutenberg,  Johann.  (Gansfleisch.)  1400-1468.  German 
inventor  of  printing. 

Guzman,  Alfonso  Perez  de.   1258-1309.    Spanish  commander. 

HACKLANDER,  Friedrich   Wilhelm   von.       1816-1878. 
German  novelist.    Military  Life  in   Time  of  War. 

Hadrian  (or  Adrian).     76-138.     Roman  emperor. 

Hafiz,  Mohammed  Sherns  ed  Deen.  I300?-I390?  Persian 
poet.     Divan. 

Hagedorn,  Friedrich  von.     1 708-1 754.     German  poet. 

Hahnemann,  Samuel  Christian  Friedrich.  1755-1843.  Ger- 
man physician  and  founder  of  homcEopathy. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett.   1 822-. . . .   Am.  clergyman  and  author. 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew.     1609-1676.     English  jurist. 

Hale,  Nathan,  Captain.      1755-1776.     American  patriot. 

Halevy,  Jacques  F.  F.  E.     1799-1862.     French  composer. 

Haliburton,  Thomas  Chandler.  Sam  Slick.  i8o2?-i865. 
Nova  Scotian  jurist  and  humorous  writer. 

Halifax,  Charles  Montague,  Earl  of.  1661-1715.  English 
statesman. 

Halifax,  George  Saville,  Marquis  of.     1630-1695. 

Hall,  Charles  Francis.     1821-1871.     Am.  Arctic  explorer. 

Hall,  James.     181 1-. . . .     American  author  and  judge. 

Hall,  Mrs.  S.  C.     (Anna  Maria  Fielding.)       1805- Irish 

authoress.     Sketches  0/  Irish  Character;    The  Oiitlazo,  etc. 

Hallam,  Arthur  Henry.  1811-1833.  English  critic  and 
essayist. 

Hallam,  Henry.  1777-1859.  Father  of  preceding.  English 
historian  and  critic. 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greene.  1790-1867.  American  poet.  Alarco 
Bozzaris ;  Fanny, 

Halleck,   Henry  Wager, 
lawyer. 

Halley,  Edmund.      1656- 

Hamilcar   Barca. 
father  of  Hannibal, 

Hamilton,  Alexander.  1757-1S04.  American  orator,  states- 
man, financier  and  general.  Born  in  the  West  Indies.  Secretary  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  Washington  in  Revolutionary  war  ;  chosen  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  in  1782,  but  resigned  in  order  to  practice  law  ;  leading 
member  of  the  convention  of  1787;  secretary  of  the  treasury,  1789-95  ; 
became  recognized  leader  of  the  Federal  party.  Hamilton  died  from 
a  wound  received  in  a  duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  and  his  death  was  deeply 
deplored. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William.     1788-1856.     Scottish  metaphysician. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Rowan.     1805-1865.  Irish  astronomer. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal.     1809- American  statesman. 

Hampden,  John.  1594-1643.  English  statesman  and  re- 
former. Entered  Parliament  in  1620.  Denied  the  authority  of  the  crown 
to  levy  tonnage  without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  and  refused  to  con- 
tribute to  the  forced  loan  ordered  by  King  Charles,  for  which  he  was 
imprisoned.  Regaining  his  liberty  and  re-entering  Parliament,  he  ably 
and  firmly  resisted  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  crown.  Intending, 
with  his  cousin,  Oliver  Cromwell,  to  emigrate  in  1638,  they  were  detained 
by  order  of  council.  In  1640  he  was  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Long 
Parliament,  and  the  most  popular  public  man  in  England.  Impeached 
for  high  treason  in  1642,  together  with  four  other  members,  the  Commons 
refused  to  surrender  them,  the  king  himself  going  so  far  as  to  personally 
lead  his  guard  in  an  attempt  to  arrest  them  in  their  seats.      This  caused 


1714-1S72,     American  general  and 

1742.     English  astronomer. 

,-229   B.C.       Carthaginian   general; 


the  greatest  excitement  and  indignation,  so  that  the  Commons  were 
soon  enabled  openly  to  defy  the  regal  authority.  Hampden  afterward 
raised  a  regiment  for  the  Parliamentary  army,  and,  after  displaying  great 
courage  in  numerous  engagements,  was  slain  in  a  skirmish  with  Prince 
Rupert's  forces. 

Hampton,  Wade.     1755-1835.     American  general. 

Hampton,  Wade.     1S18- Confederate  general.  Elected 

governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1876,  and  U.  S.  senator  in  1878. 

Hancock,  John.  I737-I793-  American  statesman;  presi- 
dent of  the  Continental  Congress. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott.        1824- American  general; 

second  in  command  at  Gettysburg.  Democratic  candidate  for  president 
in  1S80. 

Handel,  George  Frederick.  1684-1759.  German  composer. 
Composed  sonatas  at  10  ;  produced  Almeria  at  18 ;  settled  in  England 
in  1712,  after  spending  some  years  in  Italy,  and  became  chapel-master  of 
George  I.  The  oratorio  of  Saitl  was  produced  1740,  and  his  greatest 
work.  The  Messiah^  \h^  greatest  of  oratorios,  in  1741,  Handel  was 
stricken  with  blindness  in  1751,  but  continued  to  conduct  his  oratorios. 
Buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Hannibal.  247-1S3  B.C.  Carthaginian  general.  Sworn  by 
his  father,  Hamilcar  Barca,  to  eternal  enmity  toward  Rome;  became 
commander  of  the  Carthaginian  forces,  221  b.c;  subdued  several  power- 
ful Spanish  tribes,  and  in  219  captured  Saguntum  ;  crossed  the  Alps,  218  ; 
defeated  the  Romans  near  the  Ticinus  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia  ; 
routed  Flaminius  at  Lake  Thrasymene,  217;  almost  destroyed  a  supe- 
rior Roman  army  near  Cannae,  216  ;  captured  Capua.  Recalled  to 
Carthage  to  repel  a  Roman  invasion  under  Scipio  Afiicanus,  he  was 
defeated  at  Zama  in  202.  Banished  from  Carthage  about  194,  through 
the  enmity  of  the  aristocracy.  Finally  ended  his  life  by  taking  poison, 
to  escape  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

Hans   Sachs.      1494-1576.     German  poet  and  shoemaker, 

Hardee,  William  J.     1S18-1873.     Confederate  general. 

Hardenberg,  Friedrich  von.     See  Noimlis. 

Hardicanute.     I0I7?-I042.     King  of  England  and  Denmark. 

Hardinge,  Henry,  Viscount.        1785-1856.      English  general. 

Hardwicke,  Philip  Yorke,  Earl  of.     1690-1764.     Eng.  jurist. 

Hardy,  Thomas.  1840-....  English  novelist.  Far  fro7)i 
the  Madding  Crowd :     Under  the  Greenwood  Tree. 

Harley,  Robert,  Earl  of  Oxford.    1661-1724.  Eng.  statesman. 

Harney,  William  Selby.     1798-.  .  . .     American  general. 

Harold  I.     Harefoot -1041       King   of  England.     H. 

. . .  .-1066      Defeated  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  slain. 

Haroun-al-Raschid.     766?-So9.     Caliph  of  Bagdad. 

Harrison,  William  Henry.  1773-1841.  American  general 
and  ninth  president  Born  in  Virginia  ,  entered  the  army  in  1 791 ;  aide- 
de-camp  to  Gen.  Wayne  in  Indian  war;  delegate  to  Congress,  1799; 
governor  of  Indiana,  1801-13 ;  defeated  the  Indians  at  Tippecanoe,  1811 ; 
was  made  major-general  in  1813,  and  defeated  the  British  in  Canada; 
elected  to  Congress,  1816  ;  senator,  1824;  minister  to  Colombia,  1828; 
Whig  candidate  for  presidency,  1836  ;  elected  president,  1840. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret.  1839-....  American  writer  and 
humorist.  Born  in  New  York  ;  removed  to  California  at  15,  where  he 
was  successively  miner,  school-teacher  and  editor.  Removed  to  Boston, 
and  was  appointed  in  1878  consul  to  a  German  port.  Heathen  Chinee  ; 
Luck  of  Roaring  Camp,  etc. 

Hartington,  Spencer  Compton  Cavendish,  Marquis  of.     1833- 

....     English  statesman. 
Harvard,  John.     i6o8?-l688.     Founder  of  Harvard  College. 

Harvey,  William.  1578-1657.  English  physician  and  anato- 
mist.   Discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Hasdrubal -207  b.c.  Punic  general ;  brother  of  Han- 
nibal.    Defeated  the  Scipios  in  Spain  ;  slain  at  the  Metaurus. 


\ 


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232 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Hastings,  Warren.  1732-1S18.  British  general  and  states- 
man ;  president  of  the  Council  of  Bengal,  and  governor-general  of 
India.  Defeated  Hyder  All,  king  of  Mysore.  After  perpetrating 
great  outrages  against  the  Rajah  of  Benares  and  the  Begiims  of  Oude, 
in  order  to  replenish  the  treasury',  he  resigned  in  1775  and  returned  to 
England.  Impeached  soon  afterward,  and  opposed  in  his  trial  by  Eurke, 
Sheridan  and  Fox,  but  acquitted. 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry.  1795-1S57.  British  general.  De- 
feated the  Sepoys  in  India,  and  relieved  Lucknow. 

Hawke,  Edward,  Lord.     1715-17S1.     English  admiral. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John.     1520-1595.     English  naval  officer. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel.  1804-1S64.  American  author. 
Tivice-toid  Tales:  Mosses yr of n  an  Old  Alanse ;  House  of  Sezcn  Ga- 
bles: Scarlet  Lette-^  :    The  Marble  Faun  ;    The  Blithedale  Romance, 

Haydn,  Joseph.  1732-1S09.  Germain  musical  composer. 
Born  of  extremely  poor  parents ;  served  seme  years  as  a  chorister  in 
Vienna  ;  appointed  in  1760  chapel-master  to  Prince  Esterhazj',  who 
became  his  patron  ;  visited  London  1791,  where  six  of  his  symphonies 
were  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  His  masterpiece,  the  oratorio  of 
The   Creation,  was  produced  in  179S. 

Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert.     1786-1S4S.     English  painter. 

Hayes,  Isaac  Israel.     1S32-1SS1.     American  Arctic  explorer. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard.  1S22-.  ...  Nineteenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Bom  in  Connecticut ;  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1S45  ;  brigadier- general  in  civil  war  ;  Congress,  1865-8;  governor  of 
OhiOj  1S6S-76.  Republican  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1876; 
inaugurated  president  in  1877,  the  electoral  commission  to  determine 
the  result  of  the  election  of  1876  having  decided,  by  a  vote  of  eight  to 
seven,  that  Hayes  had  received  185  electoral  votes  as  against  184  for 
Samuel  J.  Tilden,  the  Democratic  candidate. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young.  1791-1S40.  American  orator  and 
statesman  ;  opponent  of  Webster  in  discussing  the  constitution  ;  gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina. 

Heath,  William.     1737-1814.     Am.  Revolutionary  general. 

Heber,  Reginald.  1783-1826.  English  prelate  and  author; 
bishop  of  Calcutta.     Hymns  :  Jottrney  through  India, 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich.  1770-1831.  German 
philosopher,  metaphysician  and  pantheist.  His  system  of  philosophy 
is  developed  in  the  Encyclopedia  of  the  Philosophical  Sciences, 

Heine,  Heinrich.     1799-1S56.    German  lyric  poet  and  author. 

Heloise.       1101-1164.     French  nun ;    pupil    and    friend    of 

Abelard. 

Helps,  Sir  Arthur.     1817-1S75.     English  author. 

Heivetius,  Claude  Adrian.     1715-1771.     Fr.  philosopher. 

Hemans,  Felicia  Dorothea  (tiee  Browne).  1794-1S35.  Eng- 
lish poetess.  Published  her  first  volume  of  poems  in  1808,  and  in  1812 
married  Capt.  Hemans,  but  separated  from  him  in  1818,  she  retaining 
all  their  children.     Restoration  o/the  IVorksofArt  to  Italy 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews.     1819- Am.  statesman. 

Hengist -488.   Jutish  chief;  founded  kingdom  of  Kent. 

Hennepin,  Louis.     1640-1702?     French  Catholic  missionary 

and  explorer  of  the  Mississippi. 

Henrietta  Maria.     1609-1669.     Queen  of  England 

Henry  I.  Beaiiclerc.  1068-1135.  King  of  England.  Defeated 
his  brother  Robert  and  usurped  the  throne.  II.,  1133-1189;  first  of  the 
PlantageneLs  ;  Issued  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  which  were,  however, 
repealed  about  ten  years  later  ;  conquered  Ireland.  During  his  reign 
Thomas  i  Becket  was  killed.  III.  {0/  Winchester),  1207-1272  ;  warred 
with  the  barons.  IV.,  Bolingbroke,  1366-1413 ;  first  king  of  the  house 
of  Lancaster.  V.  {of  Monmouth'),  1388-1422  ;  conquered  France.  VI. 
{of  \Vindsor)yiJ^'z\--i^ix  ;  his  reign  was  made  memorable  by  the  war  of  the 
Roses.  VII.,  1456-1509 ;  founded  the  Tudor  dynasty,  VIII.,  1491-1547  ; 
defeated  the  French  at  Guinegaste  and  the  Scotch  at  Flodden,  1513  ; 
made  Thomas  Wolsey  Drime  minister  ;    applied  unsuccessfully  to   the 


pope  for  a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  his  wife ;  favored  the 
Reformation  ;  deposed  Wolsey  and  elevated  Thomas  Cranmer ;  had 
himself  declared  head  of  the  church  ;  married  Anne  Eoleyn  after  the 
convocations  of  York  and  Canterbury  had  declared  his  marriage  with 
Catherine  invalid  ;  declared  the  English  Church  independent  of  the  papal 
see  and  abolished  the  monasteries  ;  had  Anne  Boleyn  executed  in  1536,  and 
married  Jane  Seymour  the  day  after  the  execution  ;  excommunicated  by 
the  pope,  1538  ;  his  third  wife  having  died  in  1537,  he  married  Anne  of 
Cleves  in  1540;  was  divorced  from  her  the  same  year  and  married 
Catherine  Howard,  who  was  executed  on  a  charge  of  adultery  in  1542  ; 
married  Catherine  Parr  in  1543,  she  surviving  him. 

Henry  I.  ioo5?-io6o.  King  of  France.  II.,  1518-1559; 
married  Catherine  de'  Medici.  III.,  Henri  de  Valois,  1551-1589;  last 
of  the  Valois.  IV.,  Le  Grand,  1553-1610;  king  of  Navarre  ;  first  of  the 
Bourbons ;  assassinated. 

Henry  I.  The  Fowler,  876-936.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Defeated  the  Hungarians.  II.  (Saint),  972-1024.  III.,  T%€  Black,  or 
The  Bearded,  IC17-1056.  IV.,  1050-1106  ;  excommunicated  by  Gregory 
VII.  v.,  1081-1125:  last  of  the  Salic  line.  VI,,  1165-1197.-  VII., 
1262-1313. 

Henry,  Patrick.  1736-1799.  American  patriot  and  orator. 
Member  of  the  Continental  Congress  ;  governor  of  Virginia. 

Heraclitus.     Fl.  500  B.C.     Greek  philosopher. 

Herbert,  George.     1593-1632.     British  poet  and  divine. 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried  von.     1744-1803.     German  author. 

Hermann  (or  Arminius).  B.C.  16- a.D.  21.  Gennan  hero. 
Defeated  the  Romans  a.d   9,  near  the  Lippe. 

Herod.      The  Great.     B.C.  73 -A.D.  i.     Kingofjudea. 

Herodotus.     484?-4oS?  B.C.     Greek  historian. 

Herrick,  Robert.  1591-^1674.  Englibh  divine  and  poet. 
Hisperides,  or  Poems  Human  and  Divine. 

Herschel,  Sir  John  Frederick  William.     1790-1S71.     English 

astronomer  and  philosopher. 

Herschel,   Sir  William.     1738-1822.     Father   of    preceding. 

German  astronomer.     Born  in  Hanover,  but  removed  to  England  at  21  ; 

discovered  Uranus. 
Hesiod.     Fl.  800  B.C.     Greek  poet.      Works  and  Days. 
Hezekiah.     750-69S  B.C.     King  of  Judah. 
Hicks,  Elias.     1748-1830.     American  Quaker  preacher. 
Hildreth,  nichard.     1S07-1S65.    Am.  journalist  and  historian. 
Hill,  Sir  Rowland.     1795-1S79.     Author  of  the  English  penny 

post  system. 

Hipparchus-     Fl.  150  B.C.     Bithynian  astronomer. 
Hippocrates.    The  Father  of  Medicine.    460-360?  B.C.   Greek 

physician. 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie.    1826—. . . .    Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Hobart,  Augustus  Charles.  Hobart  Pasha.  1822-. . . . 
Turkish  naval  commander,  bom  in  England. 

Hobbes,  Thomas.     15SS-1679.     English  philosopher. 

Hoche,  Lazare.     1 768-1 797.     French  general. 

Hoe,  Richard  March.  1S12-. . . .  American  inventor  of  print- 
ing presses. 

Hofer,  Andreas.     1767-lSlo.     Tyrolese  patriot ;  executed. 

Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno.     1S06-.  .  . .     American  author. 

Hogarth,  William.     1 697-1 764.     Eng.  painter  and  engraver. 

Hogg,  James.  The  Ettrick  Shepherd.  1772-1S35.  Scottish 
poet. 

Hohenlohe,  Hohenstaufen,  Hohenzollern.  Princely  families 

of  Germany. 
Holbein,  Hans.    The  Younger.     1497-1554.    German  painter. 

The  Dance  of  Death  ;  Last  Supper,  etc. 
Holland,    Josiah    Gilbert.      1S19-1881.      American    author. 

Timothy  Titcovib's  Letters  ;    The  Bay  Path,  etc. 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


~y] 


233 


Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell.  iSog-....  American  physician, 
Author  and  poet.  The  Autocrat  p/  the  Brcnkfast'tabU  :  Elsie  Venner ; 
The  Guardian  Angel :    The  Poet  at  the  Brealcfast-table  :   Poems,  etc. 

Holt,  .Sir  John.     1642-1709.     English  judge. 

Homer.  Fl.  1000  B.C.  Greek  poet,  about  whose  life  .scarcely 
anything  is  known.  Regarded  as  the  greatest  of  poets.  Supposed  to  have 
been  blind  and  poor.  Some  doubt  his  existence,  maintaining  that  the 
///«(/ and  Oiiyssey,  the  two  great  epics  ascribed  to  him,  are  collections 
of  songs  from  various  poets. 

Honorius,  Flavius.     384-423.     Roman  emperor. 

Hood,  Thomas.  1799-1845.  English  poet  and  humorist. 
Si'ng  0/  tite  Shirt:  Bridge  0/  Sighs;  Dreatn  of  Eugene  Aram; 
Whints  and  Oddities. 

Hook,  Theodore  Edward.     17S8-1841.     English  author. 

Hooker,  Joseph.     1819-1879.     American  general. 

Hooker,  Richard.     1553-1600.     English  theologian. 

Hopkins,  Johns.     1795-1873.     American  philanthropist. 

Hopkinson,  Francis.  1738-1791.  American  author;  signed 
tile  Declaration  oi  Independence.      The  Battle  o/ilte  Kegs. 

Hopkinson,  Joseph.  1770-1842.  Son  of  V.  H.  American 
lawyer  ;  author  of  Hail  Colttniliia. 

Horace.  (Quintus  Horarius  Flaccus.)  65-  S  B.C.  Latin  poet. 
Odes  :  Epistles  ;  Satires. 

Hosmer,  Harriet  Goodhue.       1830-. . . .     American  sculptor. 

Houdin,  Robert.     1805-1871.     French  conjurer. 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine.     1741-1S2S.     French  sculptor. 

Houston,  Sam.  1793-1863.  American  general  and  states- 
man. Governor  of  Tennessee,  1827-9;  passed  a  number  of  years  wi.h 
the  Cherokee  Indians  ;  commander-in-chief  of  the  Texan  forces  in  re- 
volt against  Mexico,  and  defeated  and  captured  Santa  Anna  in  1836  ; 
elected  president  of  Texas  same  year,  and  re-elected  1841  ;  elected  sen- 
ator from  Texas  after  its  admission  to  the  Union,  in  1845,  and  governor 
in  1S59. 

Howard,  Henry,  Earl  of  Surrey.     1516-1547.     Eng.  poet. 

Howard,  John.     1726-1790.     English  philanthropist. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis.     1830-.  . . .     American  general. 

Howe,  Elias.       1819-1867.      American  inventor. 

Howe,   Samuel  Gridley.        1801-1876.       Am.  philanthropist. 

Ho  wells,  William  Dean.     1 837-. . . .     American  author. 

Howitt,  William.     1795-1879.     English  author. 

Hoyle,  Edmund.     1672-1769.     English  author.      Games. 


1813-1860.     Fr.  missionary. 
....-1611.     Eng.    navigator. 
English  author  and  barrister. 


Huck,  Evariste  Regis,  Abbe. 

Hudson,  Henry  (or  Hendrik). 

Hughes,  Thomas.     1S23-. . . . 
foni  Brovjn^ s  Scltool-days. 

Hugo,  \ictor  Marie,  Vicomte.  1S02-1885. French  poet,  novel- 
ist and  dramatist.    Lcs  Miserables ;  Notre  Dame. 

Hull,  Lsaac.     1775-1S43.     American  commodore. 

Hull,  William.     1753-1825.    American  Revolutionary  general. 

Humbert  IV.     1844-....     King  of  Italy. 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  von.  Baron.  17^9— 
1859.  German  scientist.  Cosmos  :  An  Essay  o/a  Physical  Description 
0/ the  Universe. 

Hume,  David.  1711-1776.  Scottish  historian  and  philoso- 
pher.     History  of  England, 

Hunt,  James  Henry  Leigh.  17S4-1859.  English  poet  and 
author.      The  Seer. 

Hunt,  William  Henry.  I790-1864.  English  painter  in  water- 
colors. 

Hunt,  William  Ilolman.     1S26-....     Enghsh  painter. 

Hunter,   David.     1S02-. . . .      American  general. 


Hunter,  John.     1728-1793.     Scottish  surgeon. 

Huss,  John.     1373-1415.    Bohemian  reformer.    Burned  at  the 

stake  by  order  of  Emperor  Sigisnunid. 
Huxley, Thoinas  Henry.  1825-.  . . .   Eng.  scientist.  Physiology. 
Hyacinthe,  Pere.     See  Loyson. 
Hyder-Ali.     1718-1782.     Hindoo  prince. 
Hypatia.     Fl.  500.     Female  philosopher  at  Alexandria. 

YbERVILLE,    Pierre  le    Moyne    d',    Sieur.      1661-1706. 
Canadian  military  and  naval  commander. 

Ibrahim  Pasha.     17S9-1848.     Viceroy  of  Egypt. 

Ibrahim  Bey.     I735?-I8i6.     Mameluke  chief. 

Ignatieff,  Nicholas   Pavlovitch.     1832- Russian  general 

and  diplomatist. 

Ignatius,  Saint.      Tlieophorus -107.   Bishop  of  Antioch. 

Ignatius,  Saint.     799-877.     Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

Ignatius  de  Loyola,  Samt.     See  Loyola. 

Inchbald,  Elizabeth,  Mrs.  1753-1821.  English  authoress 
and  actress. 

Ingelow,  Jean.     1830-. . . .      English  poetess  and  novelist. 

Ingersoll,  Jared.     1749-1822.     American  lawyer. 

IngersoU,  Robert  G.  1833-. . . .  Am.  lawyer,  author  and  lecturer. 

Ingres,  Jean  A.  D.     1781-1867.     French  painter. 

Inman,  Henry.     1801-1846.     American  portrait  painter. 

Inness,  George.     1825—. . . .      American  landscape  painter. 

Innocent  I.  Pope,  ruling  from  402  to  417.  During  his  reign 
Rome  was  sacked  by  Alaric.  II.,  1130-1143.  III.  (Lotharius.)  Born 
in  ii6i,and  chosen  pope  1198.  Put  France  under  the  ban,  1 190,  be- 
cause Philip  Augustus  had  repudiated  his  wife;  promoted  the  fourth 
crusade,  the  result  of  which  was  the  capture  of  Constantinople ;  de- 
posed Otho,  emperor  of  Germany,  transferring  the  crown  to  Freder- 
ick of  Sicily  ,  subjected  John  of  England  to  the  papal  see,  compelling 
him  to  pay  an  annual  tribute;  crushed  the  Albigenses  in  1214,  and 
died  two  years  later.  IV.  (Sinibaldo  de  Fieschi),  1243-1254.  V.,  as- 
sumed the  pontificate  in  1276,  and  died  same  year.  VI.,  1353-1362. 
VII.,  1404-1406.  VIII.,  14S4-1491.  IX.,  1591;  died  same  year.  X., 
1644-1655.     XI.,  1670-1686.    XII.,  1692-1700.    XIII.,  1721-1724. 

Iredell,  James.     1751-1799.      American  jurist. 

Irenseus,  Saint.     T40?-2Q2?     Bishop  of  Lyons  ;  martyr. 

Irene.     752?-8o3.     Empress  of  Constantinople. 

Irving,  Edward.     1792-1834.     Eloquent  Scottish  divine. 

Irving,  John  Henry  Brodribb.     1838-....      English  actor. 

Irving,  Washington.  1783-1859.  American  author.  Born 
in  New  York  city.  Read  law,  travelled  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literary  pur- 
suits. Kniciierbocker' s  History  of  New  York  was  published  in  1809. 
In  1815  he  sailed  for  Europe,  remaining  there  a  number  of  years  and 
becoming  an  intimate  friend  of  Walter  Scott.  About  this  time  Irving 
lost  all  his  property  by  the  failure  of  his  brother  in  New  York,  in  whose 
business  he  was  a  silent  partner.  The  Sketch-Book  was  written  in  Eng- 
land and  appeared  in  1818.  Secretary  of  legation  at  London,  1829  ; 
minister  to  Spain,  1842-6.  Bracebridge  Hall ;  Tales  of  a  Traveller; 
Conquest  of  Granada;  Life  of  Washington  ;  Columbus;  li'olfert's 
Roost,  etc. 

Isabella  I.  The  Catholic.  1451-1504.  Queen  of  Castile. 
Wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  :  patroness  of  Columbus.  II.  (Maria 
Isabel  Luisa),  1S30-....     Ex-Quecn  of  Spain. 

Isabelle  of  France.     1292-135S.     Queen   of  England,  wife 

of  Edward  II.,  whom  her  adherents  deposed,  and  with  whose  assassi- 
nation she  is  charged.  Her  son,  Edward  III.,  ascended  the  throne  and 
ordered  her  arrest,  and  she  died  after  twenty  years'  incarceration. 

Isaiah.     Fl.  740  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Iturbide,  Don  Augustin  de.   1790-1824.     Emperor  of  Mexico. 


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A 


234 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Ivan  III.  (Vasilievitch).  143S-1505.  Czar  of  Russia.  IV. 
(Vasilievitch),  The  Terrible,  1529-1584. 

VACKSON,  Andrew.  1767-1S45.  American  general  and 
J^^  ■  statesman;  seventh  president.  Born  in  South  Carolina:  son  of  an 
Irishman;  received  but  little  education;  served  against  the  British  in 
178:-  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Nashville,  17S8;  Congress,  1796; 
U.  S.  Senate,  1797  ;  judge  Tennessee  Supreme  Court,  1798-1804  ;  fought 
several  duels,  killing  Chas.  Dickinson  in  1S06;  defeated  the  Creek  Indians, 
1814,  and  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  ;  defeated  the  British  at 
New  Orleans,  1815;  successfully  carried  on  war  against  the  Seminoles, 
1817-18;  Senate,  1823,  and  nominated  for  the  presidency,  the  opposing 
candidates  being  Clay,  J.  Q.  Adams  and  \V.  H.  Crawford.  Although 
Jackson  had  the  highest  number  of  votes,  he  did  not  have  the  necessary 
majority,  and  Adams  was  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Clay'sadvocacy  of  Adams  in  this  contest  caused  a  bitter  enmity  between 
that  gentleman  and  Jackson.  Jackson  was  elected  to  the  presidency, 
however,  in  1S28.  He  was  the  first  president  to  remove  public  officers  on 
account  of  their  pohtics.  Re-elected  in  1832.  In  that  year,  the  conven- 
tion of  South  Carolina  having  declared  the  tariff  laws  of  1828  null  and 
void,  Jackson  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  his  intention  to  check 
by  force  of  arms  all  movements  tending  to  disunion. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan.  Stoneivall.  1 824-1 863.  Con- 
federate general,  native  of  Virginia  Defeated  Gen.  Banks  at  Cedar 
Mountain,  and  captured  Harper's  Ferry  with  10,000  prisoners,  1862. 
Killed  by  a  company  of  his  own  men,  mistaking  him  and  his  staff"  for 
Federal  cavalry. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie.     1752-1834.     French  inventor. 

Jamblichus.     Fl.  320.     Syrian  Neo-PIatonic  philosopher. 

Janies  I.  1566-1625  King  of  England  (VI.  of  Scotland). 
Executed  Raleigh.  A  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  under  his 
direction.     II.,  1633-1701.     (VII.  of  Scotland.)     Deposed  by  revolution. 

James  I.  1394-1431.  King  of  Scotland.  Assassinated.  II., 
1430-1460.  III.,  1453-1488.  IV.,  1473-1513;  defeated  and  slain  at 
Flodden.    v.,  1512-1542.     VI.  (I.  of  England).     VII.  (II.  of  England). 

James,  Henry,  Jr.     1843-. . . .     American  novelist. 
Jameson,  Robert.     1 774-1854. 
Janauschek,    Fanny.     1830-. .  . . 
Jansen,  Cornells.        1585-1638. 

of  the  Jansenists, 
Januarius,  Saint.     272-305.     Patron  saint  of  Naples. 
Jasper,  William.     1750-1779.     Brave  American  soldier. 
Jay,  John.       1 745-1829.      Am.  statesman;    first  chief  justice. 
Jeanne  d'Albret.     1528-1572.    Queen  of  Navarre. 
Jean  Paul.     See  Richter. 
Jefferson,  Joseph.     1829-.  . . .     American  actor. 

Jefferson,  Thomas.  1743-1826.  American  statesman; 
third  president.  Bom  in  Virginia;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1767  ;  elected 
to  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  17'x);  Continental  Congress,  1775  ;  draft- 
ed the  Declaration  of  Independence  ;  -jovernor  of  Virginia,  1779-81  ; 
minister  plenipotentiary,  1784,  to  negotiate  treaties  with  European 
powers;  minister  at  Paris,  1785-g  ;  secretary  of  state,  1789-93;  elected 
vice-president  1796,  and  president  in  1800,  holding  that  office  from  1801 
to  iiiog. 

Jeffrey,  Francis.     1 773-1850.     Scottish  critic  and  judge, 

Jeffreys,  George,  Lord.     1650-1689.    Infamous  British  judge; 

lord  high  chancellor  under  JamesII.;  died  in  the  Tower. 
Jenkins,  Edward.     1838-....     Eng  author.        Ginx's  Baby. 
Jenner,  Edward.     1749-1823.     English  physician ;  introduced 

vaccination. 
Jenner,    Sir  William.        1815-....        English   physician  and 

anatomist. 
Jerome,  Saint.     340?-420.     Latin  father  of  the  church. 


Scottish  naturalist. 

Bohemian  tragedienne. 
Dutch  theologian;    founder 


Jerome  of  Prague.  137S-1416.  Bohemian  religious  re- 
former ;  follower  of  Huss.     Burned  at  the  stake. 

Jerrold,  Douglas  William.  1803-1857.  English  humorist  and 
satirical  writer.  Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain  Lectures:  Chronicles  0/ 
Clovernook. 

Jervis,  John,  Earl  of  St.  Vincent.     1734-1823.    Eng.  admiral. 

Joan  of  Arc.  (Jeanne  d'Arc.)  The  Maid  of  Orleans.  141 1  ?- 
1431.  French  heroine.  Born  in  Lorraine,  of  an  humble  peasant  family. 
Believing  herself  commissioned  by  Heaven  to  liberate  France,  and  con- 
vincing Charles  VII.  of  her  divine  authority,  she  was  given  command 
of  a  considerable  force,  and  by  the  victories  she  gained  enabled  Charles 
to  be  crowned  at  Rheims.  Although  desirous  of  returning  home  and 
resuming  her  former  humble  peasant  life,  she  was  induced  to  retain  her 
command  in  the  army.  3he  was  captured  in  1430,  by  the  Eurgundians, 
and  delivered  to  the  English.  Charged  with  sorcery,  she  wasbureed  at 
the  stake  after  a  mock  trial. 

Joel.     Fl.  775  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

John  L  (Saint).  Pope,  ruling  from  523-526.  II.,  533-535.  III., 
560-573-  IV.,  640-642.  v., 685-687.  VI.,  701-705.  VII.,  705-707.  VIII., 
872-882.  IX., 898-900.    X.,9i5-92S.  XI., 931-936.  XII.,  956-964.  XIII., 

965-972.  XIV.,  984-985.  XV.,  died  in. 985,  only  a  few  days  after  his 
accession.  XVI., 9S6-996.  XVII.  (Rival  of  Gregory  V.  in  997.)  XVIII., 
1003.  XIX.  1004-1009,  XX.,  1024-1033.  XXI.,  1276.  XXII.,  chosen 
1316;  deposed  1327;  died  1334.    XXIII.,  chosen  In  1410;  deposed  1414. 

John,     1166-1216.    King  of  England;  granted  Magna  Charta. 

John  II.      The  Good,     1319-1364.     King  of  France. 

John  II.  (Casimir  V.)  1609-1672.  King  of  Poland.  III. 
(Sobieski),  1625-1696. 

John  I.      The  Great.     1357-1433.     King  of  Portugal. 

John.     1S01-1S73.     Ki"g  of  Saxony. 

John  of  Austria,  Don.     I547?-I57S.     Spanish  general. 

John  of  Gaunt  (Ghent).  1340-1399.  Duke  of  Lancaster. 
Son  of  Edward  III, 

John  the  Baptist.     B.C.  5-A.D.  28.     Prophet. 

John  the  Evangelist.     (St.  John.)      -100?     Apostle. 

Johnson,  Andrew.  1808-1875.  American  statesman ;  seven- 
teenth president.  BominN.C;  learned  the  trade  of  a  tailor  in  Tenn.; 
Congress,  1843-53;  governor,  1853-7  ;  senator,  1857  ;  miHtary  governor, 
1862;  elected  vice-president  in  1864,  and  succeeded  to  the  presidency  on 
the  death  of  Lincoln,  1S65.  Johnson  became  involved  in  a  bitter  quarrel 
with  the  leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  and  was  impeached  in  1868, 
but  acquitted,  although  thirty-five  senators  voted  or  conviction  to  only 
nineteen  against,  a  two-thirds  majority  being  necessary.  He  was  subse- 
quently elected  to   he  Senate  from  Tennessee  as  a  Democrat. 

Johnson,  Reverdy.     1796-1S76.     American  statesman. 

Johnson,  Richard  Mentor.  1780-1850.  Ninth  vice-president 
of  the  United  States. 

Johnson,  Samuel.   1709-1784.    Eng.  writer  and  lexicographer. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sydney.     1 803-1 S62.     Confederate  general. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eccleston.   1807-....    Confederate  general. 

Joliet,  Louis.     1645-1700?     Fr.  explorer  of  the  Mississippi. 

Jomini,  Henri,  Baron.     1770-1869.     Swiss  military  ^vriter. 

Jonah.     Fl.  800  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Jones,  Inigo.     1572-1652.     English  architect. 

Jones,   John    Paul.       1747-1792.       American  Revolutionary 

naval  commander  ;   bom  in  Scotland.     Captured  the  Serapis. 

Jones,  Sir  William.     1 746-1 794.     English  orientalist, 

Jonson,  Ben.  1574-1637.  English  poet  and  dramatist.  Too 
poor  to  graduate  at  Cambridge,  he  became  a  mason,  and  afterwara 
served  as  a  soldier  in  Flanders.  Returned  to  England  and  Joined  a  com- 
pany of  actors,  but  killed  one  of  them  in  a  duel  and  barely  escaped  death. 
Every  Man  in  Itis  Humor,  his  first  drama,  appeared  in  1598.   Appointed 


VL 


-^J 


N 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


lA 


^35 


poet-laureate  by  James  I.    Died  in  poverty.    Srjanus  ;  The  Alchemist : 

Catiline  s  Conspiracy. 

Joseffy,  RafTaele,   1852- Hungarian  pianist. 

Joseph  I.       1676-17H.      Emperor  of  Germany.     II.,  1741- 

1 790 ;  abolished  feudal  serfdom. 
Josephine.      (Marie  Josephe  Rose  Tascher   cle   la    Pagerie.) 

176J-1814.     Empress  of  France;  wife  of  Napoleon  Bon.aparte. 
Josephus,  Flavius.     37  ?-95  ?     Jewish  historian. 
Joshua.     1 537-1427  B.C.     Hebrew  leader. 
Jovian.     331-364.     Roman  emperor. 
Juarez,  Benito  Pablo.     1S06-1S72.     i.Iexican  Aztec  statesman. 

Judas  Maccabaeus -160  B.C.     Hebrew  leader. 

Judson,  A'loniram.     17S8-1S50.     Am.  Baptist  mi>sionary. 
Julian.      The  Apostate.     331-363.     Roman  emperor. 
Julius  I.     Pope,  336-352.    II.,  1503-1513.    III.,  1550-1555. 
Junot,  Andoche,  Due  d'Abrantes.     1771-1S13.     Fr.  geneml. 
Justin.      T/ie  Martyr.     103-165?     Church  father  in  Palestine. 
Justin  I.     450-527.     Byzantine  emperor.     II.,  .  . .  .-578. 
Justinian  I.      T/ie  Great.     4S2?-565.     Byzantine  emperor. 
Juvenalis,  Decimus  Junius.    40?-i25?     Latin  poet. 


ALAKAUA,  David.     1836- King  of  Hawaii. 


Kamehameha  IV.     1S34-1863.     King  of  Hawaii. 
Kames,  Henry  Home,  Lord.     1 696-1 7S2.    Scottish  judge  and 
writer.     Elements  of  Criticism. 

Kane,  Elisha  Kert.     1820-1857.     American  Arctic  explorer. 
Kant,  Immanuel.   1724-1S04.  German  metaphysician ;  founder 

of  the  transcendental  school  of  philosophy.     Critique  of  Pure  Reason. 
Kean,  Edmund.     1787-1833.     English  tragedian. 
Kearney,  Philip.     1815-1862.     American  general. 
Keats,  John.     1795-1S21.     English  poet.     Eve  of  St.  Agnes. 
Keble,  John.     1792-1866.     Eng.  divine.     The  Christian  Year. 
Keene,  Laura.      1820-1873.     American  actress. 
Kellermann,  Francois  Christophe  de.   1735-1820.   Fr.  general. 
Kellogg,  Clara  Louise.     1842-.  . . .     American  vocalist. 
Kemble,  Charles.    1775-1854.  Brother  of  J.  P.  K.  Eng.  actor. 
Kemble,  I'rances  Anne.     1S09-....      English  actress. 
Kemble,  John  Philip.     1757-1823.     English  tragedian. 
Kempis,   Thomas  a.       1380-1471.       German   ascetic   writer. 

Imitation  of  Christ. 
Kent,  James.     1763-1847.     American  jurist.     Commentaries. 
Kepler,  Johann.     1571-1630.     German  a.stronomer. 
Key,   Francis  Scot.     1776-1843.      American   [roet;  author   of 

The  Star-spangled  Banner. 

Khosru  I -579-     King  of  Persia.     II.,  . .  .  .-628. 

Kidd,  William.     1650-1701.     American  pirate  ;  executed. 
Kilpatrick,  Hugh  Judson.     1836-.  . . .     American  general. 
King,  Rufus.     1755-1827.     American  statesman. 
King,  William  Rufus.     1786-1853.     American  statesman. 
Kingsley,  Charles.      1819-1S75.     English  divine  and  author. 
Kitto,  John.     1804-1854.     English  Biblical  scholar. 
Kleber,  Jean  Baptiste.     1754-1800.     F'fnch  general. 
Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb.     1724-1803.     Gennan  poet. 
Kneller,  .Sir  Godfrey.     1648-1723.     English  portrait  painter. 
Knowles,   James    Sheridan.     1784-1S62.     English   dramatist 

and  actor;  subsequently  became  a  Baptist  minister.      The  Hunchback ; 

I  'irgittius. 


Knox,  Henry.     1 750-1806.     American  general  and  statesman. 
Knox,  JoliM.     1505-1572.     Leader  of  the  Scot,  reformation. 
Koerner,  Karl  Theodor.     1791-1S13.     German  soldier-poet. 
Kosciusko,     Thaddeus.     i746?-iSi7.      Polish     patriot     and 

general;    commanded    the  Polish    insurgent  army;    bravely    defended 

W'ai-saw,  but  was  defeated. 
Kossuth,  Louis.     1802-....      Hungarian  patriot,  orator  and 

statesman.     Leading  spirit  in  the  insurrection  of  1348-49. 
Kotzebue,  August  F.  F.  von.      1761-1819.     German  dramatist. 


1524-1700. 


'y'    ABLACHE,  Luigi.     1794-1858.     Italian   singer.     His 

1^_-^      voice  w.xs  of  phenomenal  range  and  unusual  sweetness. 

La  Chaise   d'Aix,   Frantjois.      P^re  la    Chaise. 

French  Jesuit. 

Lactantius.  The  Christian  Cicero.  26o?-325.  Latui  father 
of  the  church.     Institutioncs  Divince. 

La  Fayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roch  Yves  Gilbert  Molier  de, 
Marquis.  1757-1834.  French  general  and  patriot.  Came  to  America 
in  1777  to  aid  the  Americans  in  their  struggle  for  independence,  and  was 
commissioned  major-general ;  fought  at  Brandywine,  where  he  w.-is 
woimded,  and  in  numerous  other  engagements  ;  visited  France  and 
obtained  supplies  and  munitions,  returning  in  1779;  commanded  the 
advance  guard  at  Vorkstown,  1 781  ;  returned  again  to  France;  chosen 
commandant  of  the  French  National  Guard  in  1789  ;  visited  America  in 
1824,  and  was  enthusiastically  received;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1830. 

La  Fontaine,  Jean  de.     1621-1694.     Fr.  poet  and  fabulist. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis.     1736-1813.     Fr.  mathe.natician. 

Lamartine,  Alphonse  de.    1792-1869.  Fr.  poet  and  statesman. 

Lamb,  Charles.     1775-1834.     Eng.  essayist.     Essays  of  Elia. 

Lambert,  Daniel.     1 769-1 809.     English  giant. 

Lambert,  John.     1621-1694.     Eng.  Parliamentary  general. 

Lamotte-Fouque,  Friedrich  Ileiiirich  Karl  de.  Baron.  1777- 
1S43.     German  novelist  and  poet.     Undine. 

Landon,  Lelitia  E.  1802-1838.  L.  E.  L.  English  author- 
ess.   Romance  and  Reality. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage.  1775-1864.  English  author,  /wa^/- 
nary  Conversations. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin.     1S02-1S73.     English   animal  painter. 

Langlande  (or  Longland),  Robert.  FI.  1360.  English 
monk  and  poet.      I'ision  of  Piers  PtoTuman, 

Langton,  Stephen -1228.     English  prelate. 

Lannes,   Jean,    Duke    of  Montebello.     1 769-1 S09. 
marshal. 

Lansdowne,  William  Petty,   Marquis   of.      1737-1805 
lish  statesman. 

Laplace,  Pierre  .Simon,  Marquis.  1749-1827.  French  astron- 
omer and  ni.itliem.itician. 

La  Rochefoucauld,  Frangois  de,  Duke.     1613-1680.   French 

m()ralist  and  statesman. 
La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste.     1651-1719.     Founder  of  the  Chris- 
ti.m  Brothers. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier  de. 

Lasker,  Eduard.     1829-1884. 

Latimer,  Htigh.     1480-1555. 

Latour  d'Auvergne,  TliiSophile  Male  Corret  de.'   1743-1800. 

French  officer,  called  by  Napoleon  "The  First  Grenadier  of  France." 
Lauderdale,  John  Maitland,  Duke  of.     1616-16S2.     English 
cabal  minister. 

Laurens,  H?nry.     1724-1792.     American  statesman. 
Lavater,  Johann  Caspar.     1741-1801.     Swiss   jjhysiognomist. 


French 
•     Eng- 


i635?-i6S7.     Fr.  explorer. 
German  statesman. 
English  reformer;  burned. 


Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent.     1743-' 794-     French  chemist. 

Law,  John.  167 1-1729.  Scottish  financier  in  France;  pro- 
moted the  "  South  Sea  Bubble." 

Lawrence,  Amos.     1786-1852.     American  philanthropist. 

Lawrence,  James.  1781-1813.  American  naval  hero  ;  com- 
manded the  Chesapeake  and  engaged  the  British  frigate  Shannon  off 
Boston.  He  was  killed  in  the  action,  and  his  last  words  were  :  "  Don't 
give  up  the  ship." 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas.     1769-1830.     English  painter. 

Lawrence,  Saint -258.     Roman  martyr. 

Layard,  Austen  Henry.     1S17- English  orientalist. 

Lebrun,  Anne  Charles,  Duke  of  Piacenza.  I775-'S59- 
French  general. 

Lebrun,  Charles.     1619-1690.     French  painter. 

Lebrun,  Charles  Francois,  Duke  of  Piacenza.  1 739-1 S24. 
French  statesman. 

Lecky,  William  Edward  Hartpole.     1838- Eng.  author. 

Lecouvreur,  Adrienne.     1690-1730.     French  actress. 

Ledru-Rollin,  Alexandre  Auguste.     1808-1874.  Fr.  socialist. 

Ledyard,  John.     1751-1788.     American  traveller. 

Lee,  Arihur.  1740-1792.  American  statesman.  Brother  of 
R.  H.  and  F.  L.  I.ce. 

Lee,  Charles.     1775-1782.     Am.  general ;  native  of  Wales. 

Lee,  Francis  Lightfoot.     1734-1797.     American  patriot. 

Lee,  Henry.  Light-Horse  Harry.  1756-1818.  American 
general  and  statesman.      Governor  of  Virginia. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry.     1732-1794.     Am.  orator  and  patriot. 

Lee,  Robert  Edmund.  1806-1870.  American  general ;  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Confederate  army.  Son  of  Henry  Lee.  Born  in 
Virginia ;  graduate  of  West  Point ;  chief  engineer  of  Gen.  Scott's  army 
in  Mexico;  Confederate  brigadier-general  1861,  and  appointed  to  the 
chief  command  in  1862.  Surrendered  at  Appomattox,  April  9,  1865. 
Subsequendy  chosen  president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington, 
Va.,  where  he  died. 

Leech,  John.     1816-1864.     English  caricaturist. 

Lefebvre,  Francois  Joseph,  Duke  of  Dantzig.  1755-1820. 
French  general. 

Legare,  Hugh  Swinton.     1797-1843.     American  statesman. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm  von.  Baron.  1646-1716.  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  mathematician. 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudleys  Earl  of.  1532?-158S.  Favorite  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

Leidy,  Joseph.     1823-.  . . .     American  naturalist. 

L'Enclos,  Ninon  de.      1616-1706.     French  beauty. 

Leo  L  400?-474.  Byzantine  emperor.  IIL,  68o?-74l.  V., 
-S20.     VI.,  865?-9ii. 

Leo  L  (Saint).  The  Great.  Pope,  ruling  from  440  to  461. 
IL,  682-684.  HI.  (Saint),  795-816.  IV.,  847-855.  V.,  903  ;  reigned 
only  two  months.  VI.,  928-929.  VII.,  937-939.  VIII.,  963-965.  IX., 
1049-1054.  X.  (Giovanni  de'  Medici),  1513-1521.  XI.,  1635;  died 
twenty-four  days  after  his  accession.  XII.,  1823-1829.  XIII.  (Gioa- 
chimo  Pecci.)  Born  at  Carpineto,  in  the  Papal  States,  i3io,  the  son 
of  Count  Ludovico  Pecci  ;  ordained  a  priest  in  1837,  and  created  Arch- 
bishop of  Damietta  in  1843 ;  nuncio  to  Belgium  three  years ;  car- 
dinal, 1853  :  cardinal  camerlengo,  1877  :  elected  to  the  papacy,  to  succeed 
Pius  IX.,  February  20,  1878. 

Leonidas -480  B.C.      King  of  Sparta  ;    leader  of  the 

brave  three  hundred  at  Thermopylae. 

Leopold  I.  The  Great.  1640-1705.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
11.,  1747-1792. 

Leopold  L     1790-1865.     King  of  Belgium.     IL,  1835-.... 


Lerdo  de  Tejada,  Sebastian.  1825-. . . .  President  of 
Mexico. 

Le  Sage,  Alain  Ren^.     1668-1747.     Fr.  novelist.     Gil  Bias. 

Leslie,  Alexander,  Earl  of  Leven -1661.  Scot,  general. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de.  Viscount.  1805-....  French  en- 
gineer and  diplomatist.  Planned  the  Sue»  canal,  and  the  inter-oceanic 
canal  across  Panama. 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim.     1729-1781.     German  author. 

Leutze,  Emanuel.     1816-1868.     German  historical  painter. 

Lever,  Charles  James.  1806-1872.  Irish  novelist.  Charles 
O' Malley ;    Tom  Burke  oj"  Ours;  Harry  Lorrequer. 

Leverrier,  Urbain  J.  J.     1811-1877.     French  astronomer. 

Lewes,  George  Henry.  1817-1878.  English  author;  hus- 
band of  "  George  Eliot."     Biographical  History  of  Philosopiiy. 

Lewis,  Matthew  Gregory.     1775-1818.     English  novelist. 

Lewis,  Meriwether.     1774-1809.     American  explorer. 

Leyden,  Lucas  van.     1494-1533.     Dutch  painter. 

Lieber,  Francis.     1800-1872.     German  historical  writer. 

Liebig,  Justus  von.  Baron.     1803-1873.     German  chemist. 

Lincoln,  Abraham.  1809-1865.  Sixteenth  president  of  the 
United  States.  Born  in  Kentucky;  removed  to  Indiana  when  eight  years 
old  ;  captain  in  the  Black  Hawk  war,  1S32  ;  elected  to  the  TUinois  legis- 
lature 1S34 ;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1836,  and  removed  to  Springfield,  III,; 
elected  to  Congress  in  1846;  Republican  candidate  for  U.  S.  senator  in 
1854,  his  opponent  being  Stephen  A.  Douglas;  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency and  elected,  i860 ;  re-elected  1864,  but  assassinated  April  14.  1865, 
by  John  Wilkes  Booth.  His  death  was  universally  deplored,  for  his  wise 
administration  of  affairs  during  the  civil  war  nad  won  for  him  the  regard 
of  both  factions  of  the  bloody  controversy. 

Lincoln,  Benjamin.     1733-1810.     American  general. 

Lind, Jenny.  (Mrs.  Goldschmidt.)   1821-....   Swedish  vocalist. 

Linnaeus,  Charles.     1707-177S.     Swedish  botanist. 

Lippi,  Filippo.     1412-1469.     Italian  painter. 

Liszt,  Franz,  Abbe.     1811-1885.    Hungarian  pianist. 

Littleton  (or  Lyttleton),  Sir  Thomas.  1420?-I48i.  English 
jurist.      Tenures. 

Liverpool,  Robert  B.  J.,  Earl  of.   1770-1828.    Eng.  statesman. 

Livingston,  Edward.     1764-1836.     American  jurist. 

Livingstone,  David.  1S17-1873.  Scottish  explorer  in  Africa. 
Narrative  o/an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi. 

Livy.     (Titus  Livius.)     59  B.C.-17  A.D.     Roman  historian. 

Locke,  John.  1632-1704.  English  philosopher.  Essay  on 
the  Hitman  Understanding. 

Lockhart,  John  Gibson.     1794-1854.     Scottish  author. 

Logan.      Tah-gah-jute.     l725?-l78o.    American  Indian  chief. 

Logan,  Benjamin.     l742?-l862.     Kentucky  pioneer. 

Logan,  John  Alexander.     1826- American  general  and 

statesman. 

Loia  Montez.     1820-1861.     Creole  ballet  dancer. 

Long,  Roger.     i68o?-l770.     English  astronomer. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth.  1 807-1 882.  American  poet. 
Born  in  Portland,  Me. ;  graduated  in  1825  at  Bowdoin  College,  at  which 
institution  he  took  the  chair  of  modern  languages  after  travelling  four 
years  in  Europe  ;  held  the  same  position  at  Harvard  1836-54.  Hyperion: 
Voices  0/  the  Night;  The  Spanish  Student;  Evangeline ;  Song  0/ 
Hiawatha;  Miles  Standish ;   Tales  0/ a  ll-'ayside  Inn,  cic. 

Longinus.     Fl.  3d  century.     Greek  philosopher. 

Longstreet,  James.     1821- Confederate  general. 

Lome,  John  George  Edward  Henry  Sutherland  Campbell, 
Marquis  of.     1845-....     Governor-general  of  Canada. 


fsr 


/ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


237 


Lorraine,  Charles  IV.,  Duke  of.  1604-1679.  German  general. 
v.,  1643-1690. 

Lossing,  Benson  John.     1813-. .  . .     American  historian. 

Louis  1.  Le  Debonnair.  77S-S40.  Emperor  of  the  West 
and  king  of  France ;  divided  the  empire  among  his  sons.  VI.,  The  Fat; 
io78?-ii37.  King  of  France.  IX.  (Saint),  1215-1270;  led  a  large 
army  against  the  Saracens  in  1248;  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  in 
Egypt, but  effected  his  ransom;  led  another  crusade  in  1270,  but  died  the 
same  ye.ir  near  Tunis.  He  was  a  wise  ruler,  and  noted  for  many  virtues. 
XI.,  1423-1483 ;  established  post-offices.  XII.,  1462-1515.  XIII., 
1601-1643.  XIV.,  Le  Grand,  1638-1715.  ("  I  am  the  State.")  XV., 
1710-1774.  XVI.,  1754-1793;  guillotined.  XVII.  (Dauphin),  1785-1795. 
XVIII.,  Monsieur,  1755-1824. 

Louis  L     1786-1S68.     King  of  Bavaria. 

Louis  IV.      llw  Bavarian.     I2S5?-I345.     Get.  emperor. 

Louis  Philippe.    1773-1S50.    "  The  citizen  king"  of  France; 

abdicated  1848. 
Louvois,  Frangois  Michel  Letellier  de,  Marquis.     1641-1691. 

French  statesman  ;  caused  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
Lover,  Samuel.     1797-1S68.      Irish  novelist.    Handy  Andy; 

Rory  C Moore,  etc. 

Lowell,  James    Russell.        -1S19- American   poet  and 

critic  ;  minister  to  Spain  and  to  England.  The  Bigehw  Papers  ;  Under 
the  IViiioTvs :  The  Vision  0/ Sir  Laun/al :  Commemoration  Odes: 
Fable  for  Critics  :  Among  my  Books  ;  jMy  Study  lVi?ido'ws ,  etc. 

Lowell,  John.     1799-1836.     American  statesman. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  de.  Saint  Ignatius.  1491-1566.  Spanish 
founder  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  or  Jesuits.  Entered  the  army  at  an 
early  age  ;  crippled  by  a  wound  in  152U,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
religion;  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in  1523,  and  subsequently 
studied  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  met  Francis  Xavier  and 
James  Lainez,  in  conjunction  with  whom,  in  1543,  he  formed  the  society 
which  has  since  become  so  celebrated. 

Loyson,    Charles.       F^re  Hyacinthe.       1827- French 

reformer  and  ex-Carmelite. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John.     1834-....      English  antiquarian. 

Lucanus,  Marcus  Annxus.     38-65.     Roman  epic  poet. 

Lucian.     120?-. . . .      Greek  satirist. 

Lucilius,  Caius.     i48?-ioo?  B.C.     Roman  satiric  poet. 

Lucretius.   (Titus  Lucretius  Carus.)  95- .    u.c.    Latin  poet. 

Lucullus,  Lucius  Licinius.     110-57  B.C.     Roman  general, 

Luther,  Martin.  14S3-1546.  Leader  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  Born  at  Eisleben,  in  Germany,  the  son  of  a  miner  ;  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Erfurt,  and  in  1505  entered  the  Augustine 
convent  at  that  pl.ite ;  ordained  a  priest,  1507 ;  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Wittenberg,  1508;  visited  Rome,  1510;  denounced  the 
sale  of  indulgences,  1517,  and  became  involved  in  numerous  controver- 
sies ;  cited  to  appear  before  Leo  X.,  he  refused  to  comply  ;  burned  the 
papal  bull  containing  an  order  to  destroy  certain  of  his  works,  and  denied 
the  authority  of  the  pope;  excommunicated;  enjoyed  the  support  of  the 
Elector  of  Saxony;  attended  the  Diet  of  Worms,  convened  for  his 
trial,  in  1521  ;  laid  aside  his  monastic  dress  in  1524,  and  married  Cather- 
ine von  Bora,  an  cx-nun,  in  1525  ;  enjoyed,  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  the  greatest  distinction  from  the  princes  of  Germany.  Luther  com- 
pleted, in  1522,  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  1534 
that  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  central  point  of  his  theology  is 
justification  by  faith. 

Luxembourg,  Frangois  Henri  de  Montmorenci  de.       1628- 

16^5.     Marshal  of  France. 

Lycurgus.     Fl.  S50  B.C.     Spartan  law-giver. 

Lyell,  Sir  George.     1797-1875.     Scottish  geologist. 

Lyndhurst,  John  Singleton  Copley,  Lord.  1772-1863.  Lord 
chancellor  of  England  ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass. 


Lyon,  Nathaniel.  1819-1861.  American  general.  Bom  in 
Connecticut ;  graduate  of  West  Point ;  appointed  commandcrof  the  De- 
partment of  the  Missouri,  i86i ;    killed  at  the  battle  of  Wilson's  Creek. 

Lysander -395  b.c.     Spartan  general. 

Lysias.     458-378  B.C.     Athenian  orator. 

Lysimachus.    355?-28i  B.C.     King  of  Thrace. 

Lysippus.     Fl.  330  B.C.     Greek  sculptor. 

Lytton.     See  Buhuer, 

*TT^ACAULAY,  Thomas  Babinglon,  Baron.      1S00-1S59. 

(AV^^  English  historian,  critic  and  essayist.  History  0/ F.ngland ;  Es- 
says :  Lays  0/  Ancient  Rome. 

Macbeth -1056?     King  of  Scotland. 

McCarthy,  Justin.  1830-. . .  .  Irish  writer  and  Home  Rule 
member  uf  Parliament.  Came  to  .\mcrica  in  1868  and  visite<l  thirty-five 
of  the  United  States.  My  Enetny's  Daughter  ;  A  Fair  Saxon  ;  History 
0/  Our  07vn  Times,  etc. 

Macchiavelli,  Nicolo  di  Bernardo  dei.  1469-1527.  Italian 
statesman  and  author.  Among  his  numerous  writings  arc  his  History 
0/ Florence  and  The  Prince,  the  latter  of  which  (not  intended  for  publi- 
cation, but  for  the  private  perusal  of  the  Medici)  has  rendered  the  name 
Macchiavelli  the  synonym  of  perfidy. 

MacClellan,  George  Brinton.  1826-1885.  American  general. 
Born  in  Philadelphia;  graduate  of  West  Point;  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  in  1 855  served  on  a  commission  sent  by  the  government  to  make 
observations  on  the  Crimean  war;  became  chief  engineer  of  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad  in  1857;  re-entered  the  army  in  1S61,  taking  command 
of  the  Federal  troops  in  Western  Virginia,  and  gained  the  victories  of 
Rich  Mountain  and  Cheat  River;  made  commander  of  the  army  at 
Washington,  and  in  November,  i86r,  became  commander  of  the  armies 
of  the  United  States  ;  gained  a  victory  at  Fair  Oaks,  1S62,  but  was  forced 
to  relinquish  the  plan  of  reducing  Richmond  ;  superseded  by  Gen.  Pope, 
but  recalled,  and  defeated  the  Confederates  under  Lee  at  Antictam  ;  re- 
lieved of  command  about  six  weeks  later;  Democratic  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1864,  and  afterward  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey. 

McCosh,  James,     181 1-.  ...      Scottish  theologian. 

Macdonald,  Etienne  Jacques  Joseph  Alexandre,  Duke  of 
Tareiitum.     1765-1B40.     Marshal  of  France, 

Macdonald,  Flora.  1720-1790.  Scottish  heroine;  saved  the 
life  of  "  The  Young  Pretender." 

Macdonald,  George.  1824-. . . .  Scottish  poet  and  novelist. 
David El^nbrod :  The  Portent:  Wilfred  Cumbermede :  Malcolm: 
Unsf>okcn  Sermons  :    The  Miracles  of  our  Lord,  etc. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  A.     1814- Canadian  statesman. 

McCloskey,  John.     1810-. . . .      First  American  cardinal. 

McDowell,  Irvin.     1S1S-.  . . .     American  general. 

MacMahon,  Marie  Edme  Patrice  Maurice  de,  Due  de  Magenta. 
i8o8~ Marshal  of  France  and  president  of  the  French  republic. 

Macpherson,  James.      1738-1796.     Scottish  poet. 

MacPherson,  James  liirdseye.     1828-1864.     Am.  general. 

Macready,  William  Charles.     1793-1S73.     Eng.  tragedian. 

Madison,  James.  1751-1836.  Fourth  president  of  the  United 
States.  Bom  in  Virginia  ;  member  of  the  Virginia  legislature  and  dele- 
gate to  the  convention  of  1787  ;  joint  author  with  Jay  and  Hamilton  of 
the  Federalist ;  CongresSjiySg-g?;  secretary  of  state,  1801-9,  president, 
1809-17. 

Magellan,  Fernando.     1470-1521.     Portuguese  navigator. 

Mahmood  I.      1696-1754.     Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Mahmood,  Abool-Kasim-Vemecn-ed-Dowlah.  967-1030. 
M'lhammedan  contjueror;  founder  of  th'j  Gaznevide  dynasty. 

Mahomet.     See  Jlfohammed. 

Maintenon,  PVanfjoise  d'Aubign^  de,  Marquise.  1635-1719. 
Consort  of  Louis  XIV. 


/• 


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K" 


2.^8 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


-A 


Malibran,  Maria  Felicita  {nee  Garcia).  1S0S-1836.  French 
vocalist  and  actress. 

Malthus,  Thomas  Robert.  1766-1834.  English  writer  on 
political  economy,  and  author  of  tlie"  Malthusian  theory." 

Mandeville,  Sir  John.     1300-1372.     English  traveller. 

Manfred.     1 234-1 266.     King  of  Naples. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward.         180S- English    Catholic 

prelate  and  author.  United  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  1851  ; 
archbishop  of  Westminster,  1865  ;  cardinal,  1877. 

Mansfeld,  Ernst  von,  Count.     1585-1626.     German  general. 

Mansfield,  William  Murray,  Earl  of.   1704-1793.  British  jurist. 

Mantegna,  Andrea.     1431-1506.     Italian  painter. 

Manteuffel,  Edwin  Hans  Carl  von,  Baron.  1S09-1883.  Prus- 
sian field-marsh.il. 

Manuel  I.  Comnenus.  i  i20?-ll8o.  Byzantine  emperor.  II. 
Palaeologus,  1348-1423. 

Manutius,  Aldus.     I449?-I5I5.     Venetian  printer. 

Manutius,  Aldus.     1547-1597-     Venetian  printer  and  author. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul.  1744-1793.  French  Jacobin  demagogue, 
assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday. 

Marcellus,  Marcus  Claudius.  268?-2o8b.c.  Roman  consul. 
Conquered  Syracuse  ;  killed  in  a  skirmish  with  the  Carthaginians. 

Margaret.  Semiramis  of  the  North.  1353-1412.  Queen  of 
Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark. 

Margaret  of  Anjou  1429-1482.  Queen  of  Henry  VI.  of 
England. 

Margaret  of  Angouleme.  1492-1549.  Queen  of  Navarre 
and  author.    Heptameron. 

Margaret  of  Austria.   1480-1530.     Regent  of  the  Netherlands. 

Margaret  of  Valois.     1553-1615.     Queen  of  France. 

Margaret,  Saint.      1046-1093.     Queen  of  Scotland. 

Margaret,  Saint -275-     Virgin  of  Antioch ;  martyr. 

Maria  Christina.     1806-187S.  Queen  dowager  of  Spain. 

Maria  II.  da  Gloria.     1S19-1853.     Queen  of  Portugal. 

Maria  de'  Medici.     1 573-1642.     Queen  of  France. 

Maria  Louisa.     1791-1S47.     Empress  of  France. 

Maria  Theresa.  1717-1780.  Empress  of  Austria  and  Queen 
of  Hungarj-  and  Bohemia. 

Marie  Antoinette.  1755-1793-  Wife  of  Louis  XVI.  of 
France  ;  guillotined. 

Mario,  Giuseppe,  Marquis  di  Candia.     1810-1S83.     It.  singer. 

Marion,  Francis.     1732-1795.     Am.  Revolutionary  general. 

Mariotte,  Edme.     1620-1684.     French  phycisist. 

Marius,  Caius.     157-86  B.C.     Roman  general  and  consul. 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of.  1650-1722.  Eng- 
lish commander.  Commanded  the  English  forces  in  the  Netherlands, 
1689:  commanded  in  Ireland,  1690;  accused  of  tre.ison,  deposed  and 
confined  in  the  Tower,  1692  :  reinstated  1696  ;  commanded  the  allied 
armies  in  Holland,  1702  ;  won  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  1704  ;  Ramilles, 
1706;  Oudenarde,  1708  ;  Malplatiuet,  1709. 

Marlowe,  Christopher.     1564-1593.     English  dramatist. 

Marmont,  Augusta  Frederic  Louis  Viesse  de,  Dulie  of  Ragusa. 
1774-1852.     French  marshal. 

Marquette,  Jacques.  1637-1675.  French  missionary  and 
discoverer  ;  explored  the  Mississippi  river. 

Marryatt,  Frederic.  1792-1848.  English  novelist  and  naval 
officer.     Midshipman  Easy :  J'i:tcr  Simp/i',  etc. 

Marsh,  George  P.     1801-....      American  philologist. 

Marshall,  John.  i755-'835.  American  jurist  and  states- 
man; chief  justice  of  the  United  Stales. 


Martialis,  Marcus  Valerius.     43-104.     Latin  poet. 

Martel,  Charles,  Duke  of  Austrasia.        T/u-  Hammer.        694- 

741.    Conquered  the  Saracens  in  the  great  battle  of  Tours,  or  Poitiers, 

732. 
Martineau,  Harriet.     1802-1876.     English  writer. 
Marx,  Karl.     1S18-1883.     German  socialist. 
Mary  I.      Bloody  Mary.       1516-1558.       Queen  of  England. 

Married   Philip  11.  of  Spain;  persecuted   the   Protestants.      II.,  1662- 

1694  ;  wife  of  William  III. 

Mary  Stuart.  1542-15S7.  Queen  of  Scots.  Daughter  of 
James  V.  and  Mary  of  Guise  ;  educated  in  France,  where  she  was  mar- 
ried to  the  Dauphin  in  1558,  who  the  following  year  ascended  the  French 
throne  as  Francis  II.,  but  died  childless,  1560  ;  invited  to  the  throne  of 
Scotland,  and  married  her  cousin.  Lord  Darnley;  suppressed,  1565,  a 
revolt  of  the  Protestants  instigated  by  Queen  Elizabeth;  joined,  1566, 
a  league  to  extirpate  heresy,  and,  wearj'ing  of  the  arrogance  and  disso- 
luteness of  Lord  Damley,  bestowed  her  confidence  on  David  Rizzio,  an 
Italian  musician,  whose  murder  was  instigated  the  same  year  by  Mary's 
jealous  husband.  Lord  Darnley  himself  was  killed  in  1567,  and  Queen 
Mary  married  the  Earl  of  Bothwell  the  same  year.  Public  sentiment 
in  Scotland  against  her  became  so  intense  that  she  was  compelled  to  take 
refijge  in  England,  where  she  was  finally  beheaded  on  an  unproven 
charge  of  conspiracy. 

Masaniello.     1620-1647.     Neapolitan  insurgent  leader. 

Mason,  James  M.      1797-1871.     American  statesman. 

Massasoit.     i58o?-i66i.     Sachem  of  the  Wampanoags. 

Massena,  Andre,  Prince  of  Essling.    1758-1817.    Fr.  marshal. 

Massinger,  Philip.     1584-1640.     English  dramatist. 

Mather,  Cotton.  1663-1728.  American  divine  and  writer, 
notorious  for  his  persecution  of  witchcraft. 

Mathew,  Theobald.  Father  Mathew.  1790-1856.  Irish 
Catholic  priest,  called  *'  The  Apostle  of  Temperance." 

Maurice.  1521-1553.  Elector  of  Saxony  ;  Gennan  general 
and  Protestant  leader. 

Maurice  of  Nassau.     1567-1625.     Dutch  warrior;   Prince  of 

Oran-e. 

Maximilian  I.      1459-1519.     Emperor  of  Germany. 
Maximilian.     (Ferdinand  Maximilian   Jo.seph.)      1832-1867. 

Archduke    of   Austria,    and    emperor    of   Mexico.     Executed  by   the 

Mexicans. 
Mazarin,  Giulio,  Cardinal.     1602-1661.     Fr.  prime  minister. 
Mazeppa,  Ivan  Stepanovitch.     1644-1709.     PoHsh  nobleman, 

and  hetman  of  the  Cossacks.     Hero  of  Byron's  poem. 
Mazzini,  Giuseppe.     1807-1872.     Italian  patriot. 
Meade,  George  Gordon.     1815-1872.    American  general ;  won 

the  battle  of  Gettysburg. 

Medici,  Alessandro  de'.  1510-1537.  First  duke  of  Florence  ; 
assassinated. 

Medici,  Cosimo  de'.  The  Elder.  1389-1464.  Chief  of  the 
Florentine  republic. 

Medici,  Cosimo  de'.  The  Great.  1519-1574.  First  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de'.  The  Magnificent.  144S-1492.  Prince 
of  Florence  ;  scholar,  and  patron  of  literature  and  art. 

MehemetAIi.     1769-1849.     Viceroy  of  Egypt. 

Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest.     1812- French  pamter. 

Melanchthon,  Philip.  1497-1560.  German  reformer ;  leader 
of  the  Reformation  after  Luther's  death.      The  Augsburg  Confession. 

Melikoff,  Loris.     1824- Russian  general. 

Melville,  .\ndrevv.     1545-1622.     Scottish  religious  reformer. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  Felix.  1809-1S47.  German  com- 
poser. The  .M.-iisummer  Xighfs  Dream  and  The  Wedding  0/  Ca- 
mache,  1827 ;  SI.  Paul,  1836  ;  Elijah,  1846.     Songs  'without  Words. 


V- 


A  inMlM  Ni.lUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


~A 


239 


Menno,    Simonis.     1496-1561.     Frieslantlic    founder   of    the 

Mcnnonites. 
Mercadante,  Saverio.     1797-1870.     Italian  composer. 
Merimee,  Prosper.     1803-1870.     French  novelist. 
Mesmer,  Friedrich  Anton.    1733-1815.    German  discoverer  of 

"  mesmerism." 
Metellus,   Quintus   Caecilius.     Fl.   100  B.C.     Roman  general. 

Defeated  Jugvirtha,  109  B.C. 
Metternich,  Clemens  Wenzel  Nepomuk  Lothar  von.      1775- 

1859.     Austrian  statesman. 

Meyerbeer,  Giacomo.  (Jakob  Meyer-Beer.)  1794-1S64.  Ger- 
man  composer.     Robert  U  Diable :    Semiramide :    Les   Hitguenots : 

L'  tlioile  du  Nord. 
Michael  Angelo.  (Michelangelo  Buonarotti.)  1474-1563. 
Italian  painter,  sculptor,  architect  and  poet.  Patronized  by  T-orcnzo  the 
Magnificent;  invited  to  Rome  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  where  he  designed 
the  church  of  St.  Peter;  became  architect  of  that  magnificent  structure 
in  1546,  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  almost  exclusively  to  its  comple- 
tion. Among  his  productions  are  the  frescoes  in  the  Sistine  chapel,  in- 
cluding The  Last  Jtuiginent ;  The  Holy  FatttUy ,-  a  gigantic  statue  of 
David,  and  a  marble  group  called  Pieta^  representing  the  Virgin  as 
weeping  over  the  dead  body  of  the  Savior. 

Mifflin,  Thomas.     1744-1800.     American  patriot;  president  of 

the  Continental  Congress. 
Mill,  James.     1773-1830.     Scottish  hisitorian  and  writer. 
Mill,    John    Stuart.     1806-1S73.     English     philosopher    and 

political  economist.     The  Frinciples  of  Political  Economy, 
Millais,  John  Everett.     1S29-. . . .      English  painter. 
Miller,  Hugh.     1S02-1856.     Scottish  geologist. 
Miller,    Joaquin.     (Real  name,    Cincinnatus    Hiner    Miller.) 

1841-....     American  poet.     Born  in  Indiana,  and  emigrated  to  Oregon 

in  boyhood.      The  One  Fair  IFotnan,  a  novel ;  Pacific  Poems ;  Songs 

0/  the  Sierras,  etc. 

Mills,  Clark.     1815-1883.     American  sculptor. 

Miltiades.  Fl.  500  B.C.  Athenian  commander ;  gained  the 
great  victory  of  Marathon. 

Milton,  John.  160S-1674.  English  poet ;  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  passed  several  years  in  travel ;  visited  Galileo,  and  gained  the 
friendship  of  many  eminent  personages  ;  returning  to  England,  he  ad- 
vocated the  popular  party,  opposing  prelacy  and  the  established  church; 
wrote  many  political  and  controversial  works  in  prose  ;  was  appointed  in 
1648  Latin  secretary  of  the  Council  of  State ;  in  1654  he  had  become 
entirely  blind.  His  Paradise  Lost  was  completed  in  1655,  and  sold  for 
_;^io,  half  of  which  was  not  to  be  paid  until  after  the  sale  of  1,300  copies. 
His  sonnets  are  among  the  best  in  the  language,  and  among  his  other 
works  are  Comiis  :  Jl  Penseroso :  Satnsoti  Agonistes  ;  U Allegro ; 
Paradise  Regained :  Lycidas.  Milton  is  justly  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  poets  of  all  time. 

Minie,  Claude  Etienne.     1810-1879.     French   inventor. 

Mirabeau,  Honor6  Gabriel  de  Riquetti  de,  Comte.  1749-1791. 
French  orator  and  statesman.  Entered  the  army  in  1776;  exiled  and 
imprisoned  for  debt  ;  separating  from  his  wife,  he  eloped  with  a  young 
woman  in  1776,  for  which  offence  he  was  condemned  to  death  ;  escaped, 
however,  with  four  years'  imprisonment;  led  a  wandering  life  for  sev- 
eral years,  engaging  in  numerous  intrigues  ;  sent  to  Berlin  on  a  secret 
mission  in  i7£6,  and  elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  later  to 
the  National  Assembly,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1791.  Mira- 
beau possessed  remarkable  powers  of  oratory,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
promoters  of  the  French  Revolution, 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  Macknight.  1810-1S62.  American  gen- 
eral and  astronomer.     Captured  Huntsville,  1862. 

Mitchell,  Donald  Grant.  Ik  Maruel.  1822-. . . .  American 
author.     Ret'eries  0/  a  Bachelor  ;  My  Fann  at  Edgewood,  etc. 

Mitford,  Mary  Russell.     1786-1855.     American  authoress. 


Mitford,  Williniuf    1744-1827.     English  historian. 

Mithridates  VI.  The  Great.  132-63  B.C.  King  of  Pontus. 
Allied  with  TIgranes,  king  of  Armenia,  He  defeated  the  Romans  in  sev- 
eral battles. 

Mohammed,  or  Mahomet.  569-. . . .  Founder  of  the  Mos- 
lem religion.  Pretended,  at  the  age  of  forty,  to  have  received  a  revela- 
tion from  Allah,  and  thenceforth  devotcd^himsclf  to  the  prop.igation  of 
his  new  religion.  Previous  to  this  time  he  had  been  an  idolater.  His 
new  faith,  which  included  the  unity  of  God,  was  rejected  at  Mecca, 
where  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  but  was  warmly  embraced 
in  Medina,  to  which  place  the  prophet  fled  in  622,  From  this  flight, 
called  the  Hegira,  the  Mussulmans  compute  their  time.  After  this 
event,  Mohammed  ceased  to  advocate  liberty  of  conscience,  but  prop- 
agated the  faith  of  Islam  by  the  sword,  gaining  numerous  victories,  and 
spreading  his  religion  over  a  large  portion  of  Western  Asia.  The  Koran 
was  composed  in  separate  chapters,  as  occasion  required. 

Mohammed  II.  The  VlctoriotiS.  1430-1481.  Turkish  sul- 
tan,  in.,  1642-1692. 

Moliere.  (Jean  Baptiste  Poquelin.)  1622-1673.  French  dra- 
matist and  actor.  Among  his  numerous  comedies  are  The  Misanthrope 
and  The  Hypocrite  {Tart ujfe). 

Moltke,  Carl    Bemhard    Helmuth    von,    Count.     1800-.... 

Chief  marshal  of  the  German  empire.  Virtually  commander-in-chief  of 
the  German  armies  in  the  Franco-German  war,  and  designed  the  entire 
campaign. 

Mommsen,  Christian  Matthias  Theodor.  1817-. . . .  Ger- 
man historian. 

Monk,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle.  160S-1670.  English 
gt.-neral ;  restored  the  monarchy. 

Monmouth,  James  Scott,  Duke  of.  i649?-i6S5.  Natural 
son  of  Charles  H.;  rebelled,  but  was  defeated  and  executed, 

Monroe,  James.  ^758-1831.  Fifth  president.  Born  in  Vir- 
ginia; captain  in  the  war  of  1812;  studied  law  under  Jefferson ;  Con- 
gress, 1783;  opposed  the  constitution;  governor  of  Virginia,  1799: 
envoy  extraordinary  to  France,  1802;  re-elected  governor,  1811 ;  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  same  year  by  Madison;  elected  president, 
1816,  and  re-elected  1820. 

I 690-1 762. 


English 
1592.     French  philos- 
1810-1S70.     Fr. 
1712-1759. 
1689-1755. 


Montague,     Lady    Mary  Wortley. 

authoress. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquem  de.     1533- 

ophcr  and  essayist.     Essays, 
Montalembert,  Charles  Forbes  de,  Comte. 

publicist;  leader  of  the  liberal  Catholic  party. 
Montcalm,    Louis  J.  de  St.  Veran,  Marquis  of. 

French  commander  in  Canada. 
Montesquieu,    Charles  de  Secondat,  Baron  de. 

French  jurist  and  philosopher. 

Montezuma   II.        1480?-! 520.        Last   Aztec  emperor   of 

Mexico, 
Montfort,  Simon  de.     Ii50?-I2i8.     Norman  crusader. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester.        1200?-I265.      Son 

of  preceding.     Led  the  barons  against  Henry  III. 
Montgolfier,  Jacques  Etienne  (1745-1799)  and  Joseph  Michel 

(i7-(o-i8io).  French  mechanicians  ;  invented  air-balloon. 
Montgomery,  James.  1771-1854.  Scottish  poet. 
Montgomery,    Richard.        '73^' 775-       American   general; 

killed  at  Quebec. 
Montgomery,  Robert.     1807-1855.     English  poet. 
Montmorenci,  Anne  de,    Due.      1493-1567.      Fr.  constable. 
Montmorenci,  Henri  de.  Due.      1534-1614.       Constable  of 

France. 

Montmorenci,  Malhew  de.     1175-1230.  Constable  of  France. 


•«si  Q- 


A 


240 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Montrose,  James  Graham,  Marquis  of.  1612-1650.  Scottish 
t:ener.il.     Executed. 

Moody,  Dwight  Lyman.  1S37-. ...  American  evangelist. 
Born  at  Northfield,  Mass 

Moore,  Sir  John.  1761-iSog.  British  general;  fell  at 
Corunna. 

Moore,  Thomas.  1779-1852.  Irish  poet.  Lalla  Rookh :  Irish 
Melodies:    The  Lores  0/  the  Angels,  etc. 

Morales,  Luis.    El  Divino.     1509-1586.     Spanish  painter. 

More,  Hannah.  1 745-1 S33.  English  authoress.  Calebs  in 
Search  of  a   Wife. 

More,  Sir  Thomas.  14S0-1535.  English  statesman  and  phil- 
osopher; educated  at  Oxford  :  entered  Parliament,  1504:  produced 
History  of  Richard  III.,  1513  ;  Utopia,  1516  ;  became  a  great  favorite 
of  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  lord  chancellor  in  1530;  being  an  ardent 
Catholic,  he  refused  to  sanction  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  and  re- 
signedhis  office  in  1532  ;  imprisoned  in  i534for  declining  to  take  an  oath 
acknowledging  the  validity  of  the  king's  marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and 
executed  the  following  year  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy  as  head  of 
the  church. 

Moreau,  Jean  Victor.  1763-1813.  French  general.  Victor 
at  Hochstadt  and  Hohenlinden;  fell  at  Dresden. 

Morelos,  Jose  Maria.     1780-1815.     Mexican  revolutionist. 

Morgan,  John  Hunt.  1825-1863.  Confederate  cavalry  offi- 
cer and  major-general.     ("  Morgan's  raid.") 

Mornay,  Philippe  de,  Seigneur  du  Plessis-Marly.  Dii  Plessis 
IMornny.     1549-1623.     French  Protestant  statesman. 

Morris,  George  P.  1802-1864.  American  journalist  and 
poet.      Woodman ,  S/tare   That   Tree. 

Morris,  Gouverneur.     1752-1816.     American  statesman. 

Morris,  Robert.     1734-1806.     Am.  statesman  and  financier. 

Morris,  William.     1834-....     English  poet. 

Morse,  Samuel  Finley  Breese.  1791-1872.  Am.  inventor  of 
the  magnetic  telegraph  ;  graduate  of  Yale  College;  studied  painting  in 
England,  returning  to  America  in  1832  ;  constructed  small  recording 
electric  telegraph  in  1835  ;  finally  obtained  aid  from  Congress  in  1843, 
and  constructed  a  line  between  Washington  and  Baltimore  in  1844. 

Mortimer,  Roger,  Earl  of  March.     I287?-I330.     Favorite  of 

Is.-ibclla  of  England  ;  executed. 
Morton,   James   Douglas,   Earl  of.       1 530-1 58 1.       Regent  of 

Scotland.     Executed  as  accessory  to  Darnley's  murder. 
Morton  (or  Moreton),  John.     1410-1500.    English  prelate. 
Morton,  Oliver  Perry.     1823-1877.     American  statesman. 
Moscheles,  Ignaz.     1 794-1870.     Hungarian  pianist. 
Moses.     1 570-1450.     Hebrew  law-giver.     Led  the  Israelites 

out  of  Egypt. 
Motley,   John    Lothrop.     1814-1877.     American    diplomatist 

and  historian.    The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  :  History  of  the  United 

Netherlands. 
Mott,  Lucretia  («tV  Coffin).     1793-....      Am.  social  reformer. 
Mott,  Valentine.     1785-1S65.     American  surgeon. 
Moultrie,  William.     1731-1805.     Am.  Revolutionary  general. 
Mozart,   Johann   Chrysostomus    Wolfgang   Amadeus.     1656— 

1791.    German  composer.     Composed  short  pieces  at  the  age  of  six,  and 

at  seven  gave  concerts  in  Paris  and  London.     Distinguished  for  the 

universality  of  his  genius.     Don   Giovanni:    The  Magic  Flute;   The 

Marriage  0/ Figaro:  Requiem. 
Muhlenberg,  Henry  Melchior.     1711-1787.     Founder  of  the 

r.erriian  Lutheran  church  in  America. 
Muhlenberg,  John  Peter  Gabriel.     1746-1807.     Am.  general. 
Mukhtar  Pasha,  Ghazi  Ahmed.     1837- Turkish  general 

and  statesman. 


MuUer,    Friedrich    Maximilian    (H/ax   Miiller).       1823- 

German  scholar  and  writer  in  England.     Chips  from  a  German  IVork- 
shop. 

Mulock,  Dinah  Maria.     See  Craik. 

Munchausen,  Hieronymus  Karl  Friedrich  von,  B.iron.  1720- 
1797.     German  soldier  and  rom.ancist. 

Munzer,  Thomas -1526.     German  Anabaptist  fanatic. 

Murat,  Joachim.     1771-1815.     Fr.  marshal  and  king  of  Itaiv. 

Murillo,  Bartolome  Esteban.  1618-1682.  .Spanish  painter. 
Excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  the  Spanish 
school  of  painters.     His  virgin  saints  and  beggar  boys  are  famous. 

Murray  (or  Moray),  James  Stuart,  Earl  of.     1533-1570.     Re- 
gent of  Scotland.    Opponent  of  Mary  Stuart.    Assassinated. 
Murray,  Lindley.      1745-1826.     American  grammarian. 
Musset,  Louis  Charles  Alfred  de.     1810-1S57.     French  poet. 

Nadir  Shah.     (Kouli    Khan.)     1688-1747.     King  of  Persia. 

Expelled  the  Afghans  and  dethroned  the  Shah  ;  conquered  part  of  India. 
Nana-Sahib.     1824-....      Leader  of  Sepoy  mutiny. 
Napier,  Sir  Charles  James.    1782-1853.    Eng.  general  in  India. 
Napier,  Sir  Charles  John.     1786-1860.     British  admiral. 
Napier,    John,  Laird   of    Merchiston.       1550-1614.     Scottish 

mathematician. 
Napier,  Sir    William  Francis   Patrick.       17S5-1S60,     British 

general  and  writer. 
Napier  of  Magdala,  Robert   Cornells   Napier,  Baron.     1810- 

1876.     British  gener.al. 
Napoleon.     See  Bonaparte. 

Nash,  Richard.     Beau  Nash.     1674-1761.     English  fop. 
Nash,  Thomas.      i564?-i6oo?     English  satirist  and  dramatist. 
Neander,    Johann    August    Wilhelm.     1789-1850.     German 

theologian  and  historian.    History  of  the  Christian  Religion. 

Nebuchadnezzar -561  B.C.    Chaldean  king  of  Babylon. 

Conquered  Jerusalem,  T>Te  and  Egypt. 
Necker,  Jacques.    1732-1804.    French  statesman  and  financier. 

Father  of  Mme.  de  Stael. 
Neilson,  Adelaide.     1853-1S81.     American  actress. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount.  1758-1805.  The  greatest  of 
Britain's  naval  commmders.  Entered  the  navy  at  13;  post-captain, 
1779  ;  rear  admiral,  1797,  his  promotion  having  been  eamet?  by  his  share 
in  the  victory  of  St.  Vincent ;  lost  his  right  arm  in  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tack on  TeneriflFe  ;  won  the  battle  of  the  Nile  in  1798,  for  which  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile;  became  separated 
from  his  wife,  owing  to  an  infatuation  with  Lady  Hamilton  which  lasted 
until  his  death  ;  created  a  viscount  for  the  victory  of  the  Baltic,  where, 
being  second  in  command,  he  disobeyed  the  orders  directing  him  to  re- 
treat ;  fell  at  Trafalgar,  where  his  fleet  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  French  and  Spanish. 

Nepos,  Cornelius.     Fl.  5  B.C.     Roman  historian. 

Neri,  Filippo  de.  Saint.  St.  Philip  Neri.  15 15-1595.  Italian 
founder  of  the  order  of  "  Priests  of  the  Oratory." 

Nerva,    Marcus  Cocccius.     32-98.     Roman    emperor,  76-98. 

Nesselrode,  Charles  Robert  von.  Count.  1 780-1862.  Rus- 
sian diplomatist ;  minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  forty  years. 

Nestorius -440?  Syrian  ])relate  ;  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  founder  of  the  Nestorian  schism. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  Cardinal.  1801-....  English  theo- 
logian. Graduated  at  O.xford ;  founded  an  ascetic  community  in  1842, 
over  which  he  presided  for  three  years  ;  a  recognized  leader  of  the 
High  Church  party  imtil  1845,  when  he  became  a  Catholic  ;  appointed 
rector  of  Catholic  University  at  Dublin  1854,  and  made  a  cardinal  by 
Pope  Leo  Xlll.  in  1S79.     A  Grammar  of  .4ssent. 


Newton,  Sir  Isaac.  1642-1727.  English  philosopher  and 
mathematician.  The  son  of  a  f.inncr  :  graduated  at  Cambridge  1665, 
about  which  time  he  invented  the  "  tnethod  of  lUi.vions."  and  discovered 
the  attraction  of  gravitation  ;  discovcre<l,  in  i663,  that  light  is  not  liomo- 
gcncous,  but  consists  of  r.iys  of  difTercnt  refrangibility  :  pubUshed  his 
Theory  o/  I.ighl and  Color  in  1675,  and  his  greatest  work,  The  J'riii- 
cipia,  in  1687. 

Ney,  Michel,  Duke  of  Echlingen  and  Prince  of  tlic  Moskwa. 
1796-1815.  French  marshal  :  the  son  of  a  cooper;  entered  the  army  at 
18  as  a  i)rivatc,  and  wxs  graiiually  promoted.  Napoleon  called  him  "the 
bravest  of  the  brave,"  and  his  titles  were  conferred  upon  him  for  his 
victory  at  F.cblingen  in  1805,  and  his  services  at  the  battle  ofBarodinu. 
Commanded  the  rearguard  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow;  defeated  by 
liernadotte,  at  Dcnnewilz,  1813;  submitted  to  Louis  XVIII.  upon  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  against  whom  he  was  sent  with  an  arnty  in 
1815.  but  united  his  army  with  th.il  of  his  old  commander;  had  (Ive 
horses  shot  under  him  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought  with  his  usual  valor  ; 
was  captured  soon  after,  and  executed  on  a  charge  of  treason. 

Nicholas  I.  Pope,  ruling  from  858  to  867.  II.,  1059-1061. 
HI.,  i;77-t28o.    IV.,  1388-1292.    V.,  1447-1455- 

Nicholas  I.  1796-1855.  Emperor  of  Russia;  at  war  with 
Persia  and  Turkey ;  subdued  Polish  insurrection,  1831  ;  engaged  in 
Crimean  war. 

Nicholas,  Saint -340?     Rishop  of  Myria. 

Tiebuhr,  liarthold  Oeorg.     1776-1831.     Cerman  hi.storian. 

Nicot,  Jean.      1530-1600.     Er.  scholar  ;   introduCL-d  tobacco. 

Nightingale,   Elorence.     l82C>-....      English  philanthropist. 

Nott-s  OH  Itospitols. 

Nilsson,  Christine.     (Mmc.  Rouzaiid.)     1S43-....      Swedisli 

vocalist. 

Noailles,  .Vdrian  M.,  Duke  of.     167S-1766.     French  general. 

Nordenskjold,  Adolf  Erik.     1S32-. . . .     Swedish  explorer. 

Nordhoff,  Charles.     1S30-....     Am.  author  and  journalist. 

North,  Christopher.     See  Wilson,  John. 

North,  Frederick,  Lord.     1732-1792.     English  .statesman. 

Northcote,  Sir  Stafford  Henry.     l8i8-....     Eng.  statesman. 

Norton,  Caroline  Elizabeth  Sarah  {nie  Sheridcn).  1808- 
1S77.     English  authoress.     Slitart  0/  Dunleith. 

Nostradamus.  (Michel  ile  Notrcdame.)  1503-1566.  French 
astrologer.      Ci'ntiiries. 

Nottingham,  lleneage  Finch,  first  Earl  of.  1621-16S2.  Eng- 
lish jurist  and  statesman. 

Novalis.  (Friedrich  von  Ilardenberg.)  1772-1S01.  Ger- 
man author. 

Novello,  Vincent.     1771-1861.     English  composer. 

Noyes,  Ceorge  Kapall.     1798-1868.     American  theologian. 

Noyes,  John  Humphrey.   1S11-. ...     American  communist. 

GATES,  Titus.  1620-1705.  English  informer;  contriver 
of  the  celebrated  "Popish  Plot." 

Oberlin,  Jean  Frederic.  1740-1S16.  French-German  re- 
former and  philanthropist. 

O'Brien,  William  Smith.  1S03-1864.  Irish  political  agitator. 
Leader  of  "  V'oung  Ireland  "  party  ;  banished  for  treason. 

O'Connell,  Daniel.  1775-1847.  Iri.sh  patriot  and  orator. 
Advocated  Catholic  emancipation,  but  opposed  resort  to  arms  ;  elected 
to  Parliament  in  i8^'8,  but  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat  until  1829,  when 
the  bill  for  Catholic  emancipation  was  passed  ;  gave  up  his  large  law 
practice  and  gave  his  entire  attention  to  pidjlic  duties  ;  began  advocating 
the  repeal  of  the  union  in  1840,  and  w.xs  convicted  in  1S44  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  but  the  sentence,  one  year's  imprisonment  and  j^^,ooo  fine,  was 
reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords. 

O'Conor,  Charles.     1804-1884.     American  lawyer. 


Occam,  William^f.  The  Imnncible  Doctor.  i28o?-l347. 
English  theologian. 

Odoacer -493-  Gothic  king  ofltaly;  executed. 

O'Donnell,    Leopold,  Count   of    Lucena,  Duks  of  Tetuan. 

1809-1867.     Spanish  general  and  statesman. 

Oehlenschlager,  Adam  Gottlob.     1779-1850.     Danish  poet. 
Oersted,   Hans  Christian.     1777-1851.     Danish  natural  phil- 

osnplier ;  founder  of  the  science  of  electro-magnetism. 
Offenbach,  Jacques.     1S19-1880.     German-French  composer. 

La   liclle  Heliitf :     Orphic  aux  Rn/ers ;  Blutrhearti ;    Lit  Granjf 

Duchfsse ;  Lajotie  Par/umeuse,  etc. 
Oglesby,   Richard  J.     1824-....     American  statesman. 
Oglethorpe,  James  Edward.     169S-1785.     English  general; 

colonized  Georgia. 
Oldcastle,  .Sir  John,  Lord  Cobham.     1360-1407.     English  re- 

ff)rmcr;  head  of  the  Lollards  ;  executed. 
Oldfield,  Aline.     1683-1730.     English  actress. 
Oliphant,  Margaret.     1S1S-.  ..  .English  novelist. 
Ollendorff,  Henri  (Jodefroy.     1803-1S65.     German  educator. 
OUivier,  Olivier  Emile.     1825-....      French  statesman. 
Omar  I.     581-644.     Arabian  caliph.     Conciuered  Jerusalem. 
Omar  Pasha.    (Michael  Lattas.)     1806-1871.     Turkish  com 

niandcrin  the  Crimean  war;  born  in  Croatia. 
O'Meara,   Barry  Edward.     1780-1836.     Irish  physician   and 

author.     Napoleon  in  Exile, 
Opie,  Mrs.  Amelia.     1769-1S53.     English  authoress. 
Orange,  William,  Prince  of.    The  Silent.    1553-1584.   Founder 

of  the  Dutch  republic  ;  leader  of  the  insurrection  which  broke  out  when 

it  was   attempted   to   introduce   the   Inquisition  into   the   Netherlands. 

Assassinated. 

Origen.  l86?-253.  Greek  theologian  and  preacher.  Endeav- 
ored to  harmoni/c  the  teachings  of  Christ  and  Plato  ;  opposed  the  theory 
of  eternal  punishment. 

Orleans,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Due  d'.  1 747-1 793.  Took 
the  popular  side  on  the  assembling  of  the  States-General,  renouncc<l  his 
titles  .tnd  assumed  the  name  of /^.^(t///<'( Equality).  Voted  for  the  death  of 
his  cousin,  Louis  XVI.  Condemned  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  and 
executed.    His  son,  Louis  Philippe,  afterward  became  king  of  France. 

Orleans,  Philippe,  Due  d'.     1674-1723.     RegcntofFrar.ee. 

Orloff,  Alexis,  Count.     17S7-1S61.     Russian  general. 

Ormond,  James  Butler,  Duke  of.  l6_io-!6S8.  Irish  statesman; 
put  down  the  Irish  rebellion. 

Orsini,  Felice.  1819-1858.  Italian  conspirator;  leader  in  the 
attempted  assassination  of  Napoleon  III.,  in  185S  ;  e-vecuted. 

Osceola.     1804-183S.     Seminole  chief. 

Osman  I.     1259-1326.     Founder  of  Ottoman  dynasty. 

Ossoli,  Margaret  Fuller,  Marchioness.  1S10-1S50.  Ameri- 
can authoress. 

Otho  I.  The  Great.  912-973.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Ciiristianized  the  L>anes  ;  deposed  Pope  John  XII.  11.,  955-981.  III., 
980-1002.     IV.,  1174-1218. 

Otho  I.     1815-1867.     King  of  Greece. 

Otis,  James.       1725-1783.       Am.  lawyer,  orator  and  patriot. 

Opposed  "  writs  of  assistance  ";    leader  of  the  popular  party. 
Otway,  Thomas.     1651-1685.     English  dramatist. 
Oudinot,  Nicholas  Charles.     1767-1S47.     French  general. 
Outram,  Sir  James.     1802-1863.     English  general  in  India. 
Overbury,  Sir  Thomas.     15S1-1613.    JEnglish  poet. 
Ovid.  ( I'uliliusOvidius  Naso.)   ii.c.  43- 18  A.D.     Roman  poet. 
Owen,  Richard.      1804-....      Eng.  zoologist  and  anatomist. 


■*y  Q .^ 


Owen,  Robert.     1771-1S5S. 
community  of  New  Harmony. 
Oxenstiern,  Axel,  Count. 


English  socialist ;  founder  of  the 
1 583-1 654.     Swedish  statesman. 


^TI^ADILLA,  Don  Juan  Lopez  de -1521.      Spanish 

^■^  patriot  and  general ;  executed. 

Paganini,  Niccolo.     1784-1840.     Italian  violinist. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat.     1731-1814.  Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Paine,  Thomas.       1737-1809.      American  political  writer  and 

free-thinker;  bom  in  England.    Covnnon  Sense :  Rights  0/  Man  ;    The 

Age  0/  Reason. 

Pakenham,   Sir  Edward -1815.     British  general;  fell 

at  New  Orleans. 

Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da.  I524?-I594.  Italian  com- 
poser of  church  music.    Mass  0/  Pope  Marcelhts. 

Paley,  William.     1743-1805.     English  theologian. 

Palissy,  Bernard.     1506-1589.     Fr.  potter  and  enameller. 

Palladio,  .\ndrea.      1518-1580.     Italian  architect. 

Palmarcli,  Pietro -1828.     Italian  painter. 

Palmerston,  Henry  John  Temple,  Viscount.  17S4-1865. 
English  statesman  ;  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  prime  minister. 

Paoli,  Pasqualedi.     1726-1807.     Corsican  general. 

Papin,  Denis.     1647-17 12.     French  physician.     (Digester.) 

Papineau,  Louis  Joseph.      1 789-1 871.       Canadian  politician. 

Paracelsus,  Philippus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastus  von 
Hohenhcim.     1493-1541.    Swiss  alchemist  and  empiric. 

Parepa-Rosa,   Euphrosyne.     1S36-1874.     Scottish  vocalist. 

Paris,  Louis  Albert  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Comte  de.  1 838-. . . . 
French  prince  ;  gmndson  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Park,  Mungo.  1771-1S05.  Scottish  traveller  and  explorer. 
Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Africa. 

Parker,  Matthew.       1504-1575.       English  prelate. 

Parker,  Theodore.     1810-1S60.     Am.  rationalistic  theologian. 

Parkman,  Francis.     1823-.  .  . .     American  historian. 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart.  1843-....  Irish  agitator;  leader 
of  the  Land  Le.ague  movement. 

Parr.  Catherine.   1509-1548.    Surviving  queen  of  Henry  VIII. 

Parrhasius.      Fl.  400  B.C.     Greek  painter. 

Parrott,  Robert  Parker.      1804-1S77.     American  inventor. 

Parry,  Sir  William  Edmund.  1790-1855.  English  Arctic 
explorer  ;  discovered  Harrow's  Strait. 

Parsons,  Theophilus.     1750-1S13.     American  jurist. 

Parsons,  Theophilus.     1797-1882.     .'\merican  jurist. 

Pascal,  Blaise.  1623-1662.  French  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician. At  the  age  of  twelve,  he  had  acquired,  without  books,  a 
knowledge  of  geometry  ;  established  the  theory  of  atmospheric  pressure, 
1648  :  entered  the  cloister  of  Port  Royal,  and  there  produced,  in  1656, 
his  Froz'incial  Letters  against  the  Jesuits. 

Patrick,  .Saint.      372?-46o?      Apostle  of  Ireland. 

Patti,  Adelina  Maria  Clorinda,  M.arquise  de  Caux.      1843- .  . . . 

Operatic  singer,  of  Italian  descent ;  boni  in  Madri<l. 
Paul,    Saint,   of    Tarsus.     Saul.     io?-66?     Apostle. 
Paul  I.  Pope  from  757  to  767.  II.,  1464-1471.   III.  (.-Messan- 

dro  Faniese),  1534-1549:  excommunicated  Henry  VIH.;  called  Council 

of  Trent.     IV.,  1555-1559.     V.,  1605-1621. 

Paul  I.     1754-1S01.     Emperor  of  Russia  ;  assassinated. 
Paul   Veronese.     (Paolo  Cagliari.)   I530?-I58S.    It.  painter. 
Pausanias.     Fl.  479  B.C.     Spartan  general. 
Paxton,  Sir  Joseph.     1803-1865.     English  architect. 


Payne,  John  Howard.     1792-1852.     American  dramatist  and 

poet.    Home,  Szueet  Home. 
Peabody,    George.       1795-1869.      American   philanthropist. 

Acquired  great  wealth  as  a  banker   in   London  ;    expended  over  five 

millions  in  benevolent  enterprises. 

Peale,  Rembrandt.     1778-1860.     American  painter. 

Pedro  (de  Alcantara)  I.  1798-1834.  Emperor  of  Brazil; 
king  of  Portugal  as  Pedro  IV.     II.,  1825- 

Peel,  Sir  Robert.  Orange  Peel.  1788-1850.  English  states- 
man and  prime  minister  ;  repealed  the  Corn  Laws. 

Peirce,  Benjamin.     1809-....     American  mathematician. 

Pelham,  Henry.     1694-1754,     English  statesman. 

Pellegrini,  Pellegrino.     1527-1595.     It.  painter  and  architect. 

Pellico,  Silvio.     1789-1854.     Italian  poet  and  patriot. 

Pemberton,  John  Clifford.     1814-1881.     Confederate  general. 

Penn,  William.  1644-1718.  English  Quaker;  statesman, 
courtier,  author  and  philanthropist ;  founder  of  Pennsylvania.  Son  of 
Sir  William  Penn,  an  English  admiral. 

Pepin.      The  Short.     7I4?-768.       King  of  France.       Son   of 

Charles  Martel  and  father  of  Charlemagne.      Mayor  of  the  palace  under 

Chiideric  IIL;  usurped  the  throne  in  752. 
Pepys,    Samuel.     1632-1703.     English   author   and   scholar; 

secretary  of  the  admiralty.     Diary:  Memories  of  the  Navy . 
Pepperell,  Sir  William.     1696-1759.     Am.  colonial  general. 
Perceval,  Spencer.   1762-1S12.    Eng.  statesman  ;  assassinated. 
Percival,  James  Gates.     1795-1856.     American  poet. 
Percy,  Thomas.     1728-1811.     English  prelate  and  author. 
Pereire,  Emile  (1800-1875)   and  Isaac  (1806- ).     French 

financiers.     Founded  the  "Credit  Mobilier." 
Pergolesi,  Giovanni  Battista.    i7io?-l737?    Italian  composer. 
Pericles.      495?-429   B.C.      Athenian   orator,   statesman   and 

general.    Became  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party  and  the  first  man  in 

Athens ;   greatly  increased   Athenian   influence ;    erected   many   noble 

public  works,  including  the  Parthenon. 

Perrault,  Claude.     1613-1688.     French  architect. 

Perry,  Matthew  Calbraith.  1794-1S58.  American  commodore  ; 
commanded  expedition  to  Japan. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard.  1785-1819.  American  commodore; 
defeated  the  British  on  Lake  Erie. 

Persius  Flaccus,  Aulus.     34-62.     Roman  satirist. 

Perugino,  Pietro.     (Vannucci.)     1446-1524.     Italian  painter. 

Pestalozzi,  Johann  Heinrich.    1745-1S27.    Swiss  educationist. 

Peter,  .Saint -66.     Apostle. 

Peter  I.  The  Great.  1672-1725.  Czar  of  Russia.  Organ- 
ized an  army  and  entered  it  as  a  private  ;  studied  practical  seamanship, 
and  formed  a  navy  :  travelled  incognito  in  Western  Europe  :  worked  as 
a  ship-carpenter  in  Holland  ;  founded  schools  and  effected  a  number  of 
reforms  ;  defeated  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  at  Pultowa,  1709  ;  founded 
St.  Petersburg.  His  second  wife,  Catherine,  was  a  prisoner  of  war,  of 
obscure  parentage.  The  crown  prince,  Alexis,  opposing  the  czar's 
policy,  was  forced  to  renounce  the  succession  and  is  said  to  have  been 
poisoned  by  his  father. 

Peter  the  Hermit.       1050?-!  115.      Preacher  of  first  crusade. 

Peterborough,  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of.  1658-1735. 
English  general ;  able  but  eccentric.   Captured  Barcelona  and  Valencia. 

Petion,  Alexandre.     1770-1S18.     First  president  of  Hayti. 

Petrarch.  (Francesco  Petrarca.)  1304-1374.  Italian  poet 
and  scholar.  Enamored  of  Laura  de  Bade,  whose  name  has  been  ren- 
dered immortal  by  over  three  hundred  sonnets  and  fifty  canzoni  ad- 
dressed to  her. 

Pettie,  John,      1839-. . . .     Scottish  artist. 


Vi- 


A 


\ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  HIOGRAPIIV. 


243 


1S15-1S52.      American  authoress. 
Daugliter  of  preceding 


Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart. 

Tht'  Sunny  Side. 

Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart.     1S44-. 
American  authoress.      The  Gates  Ajar. 

Phidias.  490-432  B.C.  The  greatest  of  Greek  sculptors.  His 
Zlus  at  Olympia  is  counted  among  the  wonders  of  the  world. 

Philidor.  Assumed  name  of  a  French  family  (Danican)  of 
musicians,  Francjois  Andre  Danican  (1726-1795)  was  a  celebrated  chess 
player. 

Philip.       (Pometacom.)      King  Philip -1676.      New 

England  Indian  chief;  sachcm  of  Pokanoket.     (King    Philip's  war.) 

Philip  II.  382-336  B.C.  King  of  Macedonia ;  father  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,    Assassinated. 

Philip  II.  (.\ugustus.)  1165-1223.  King  of  France.  An- 
nexed Normandy,  Anjou  and  Lorraine;  won  llie  battle  of  Bou- 
vines.  III.,  I  he  Dold^  1245-1285;  ascended  llie  throne  in  1:70. 
IV.,  The  J-ah\  i26S-:.^i4;  reduced  the  power  i>f  the  feudal  nobles; 
imprisoned  Pope  Boniface  III.  and  caused  him  to  remove  his  seat 
to  Avignon;  suppressed  tlie  order  of  Knights  Templars.  VI.  (of 
V'alois),  :2()3-i350. 

Philip  II.  1527-1598.  King  of  Spain.  Son  of  Charles  V. 
Proviikcd  insurrection  in  the  Netherlands  by  his  attempt  to  intro- 
duce the  Spanish  Inquisition;  married,  nn  the  deaili  of  Mary  Tudor, 
his  second  wife.  Isabella  of  France,  the  betrothed  of  his  son,  Don 
Carlos;  equipped  the  "  Invincib'e  Armada"  for  the  conquest  of 
England.  III.,  1578-1621.  IV.,  1605-1665.  V.,  1683-1746;  first  of 
the  House  of  Bourbon. 

Philip.      The  Good.     1396-1467.     Duke  of  Rurj^undy. 

Phillips,  Adelaide.     1833- .  .  . .        English-American  vocalist. 

Phillips,  Wendell.  1811-1SS4.  American  orator  and  nbo- 
litiunist.   S/feech  in  Faneuil  Hall,  1836. 

Phips  (or  Phipps),  Sir  William.  1651-1695.  Colonial  gover- 
n«ir  of  Massachusetts.     Captured  Port  Royal. 

Phocion.     402?-3i7  B.C.     Athenian  general  and  statesman. 

Piccolomini,  Ottavio.  1599-1656.  Austrian  general  ;  con- 
spirator against  Wallenstein.  Gained  great  distinction  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  war  ;  led  Spanish  army  in  Flanders. 

Pickering,  Timotliy.      1745-1S29.     American  statesman. 

Pierce,  Franklin.  1804-1S69.  Fourteenth  president  of  the 
United  States.  Born  in  New  Hampshire  ;  Congress,  1832-7  ;  senator, 
1837-42  ;  brigadier-general  in  Mexican  war  ;  elected  president  on  the 
Democratic  ticket,  in  1852,  holding  that  office  from  1853-7  '•  opposed  co- 
ercion ot  the  South  in  1S63. 

Pilate,  Pontius -38.     Roman  governor  of  Palestine. 

Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth.  1746-1825.  American  states- 
m.ui  and  soldier;  leader  of  the  Federalists. 

Pindar,    520  ?-440?  B.C.     Greek  lyric  poet. 

Pinkney,  William.         1764-1S22.       Am.  lawyer  and   orator. 

Pisano,  Andrea.     1270-1345.      Italian  sculptor  and  architect. 

Pisano,  Nicola.     !200?-i278?    Italian  sculptor. 

Pisistratus.     612-527  li.c.     Tyrant  of  Athens. 

Pitcairn,    Maj.  John -1775-      English   officer;    fell  at 

Hunker  HiU. 

Pitman,  Bcnn -. . . .     English  phonographer. 

Pitman,  Isaac.     1S13-. ...    Eng.  inventor  of  phonography. 

Pitt,  William.  1759-1S06.  English  statesman  and  orator. 
Son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.  Graduated  at  Cambridge  ;  admitted  to 
the  bar,  17S0;  entered  Parliament,  1781  ;  chancellor  of  the  exchecquer, 
1782  ;  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  prime  minister,  1783  ;  head  of  the 
great  coalition  against  Bonaparte. 

Pius  I.  Pope,  142-157.  II.,  1458-1464.  III.,  1503;  died 
same  year.  IV.  (Giovanni  Angclo  de'Medici),  1559-1565  ;  convoked 
Council  oJ  Trent.  V.,  1566-1572.  VI.,  1775-1799.  VH.,  1800-1823  ; 
taken  from  Rome  in  1809  by  Napoleon,  and  detained  at  Genoa  and  Fon- 


taineble;ui.  V^I.,  1829-1830.  IX.  (Giovanni  Maria  Mastai  Fcrrctti), 
born  1792;  chosen  to  the  pontificate,  1846  ;  died,  1878.  During  his 
incumbency  the  dogmas  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  of  Papal  In- 
fallibility were  promulgated  ;  temporal  power  overthrown,  1870,  and 
the  Papal  States  annexed  to  Italy. 

Pizarro,   Francisco.     I475?-I54l?     .Sp.  conqueror  of  Peru. 

Plantagenet.     Dynasty  of  English  kings,  11 54-1485. 

Plato.  428-347  B.C.  Greek  philosopher;  disciple  of  Socrates. 
Held  that  the  human  soul  h.is  always  existed,  and  that  an  idea  is  an 
eternal  thought  of  the  divine  mind. 

Pleasonton,  Alfred.     1824-. . . .     American  general. 

Pliny.  The  Elder.  23-79.  Roman  naturalist ;  perished  at 
an  eruption  of  Vesuvius.     Natural  History. 

Pliny,      The  Younger.     62?-u6.     Roman  orator  and  author. 

Plotinus.     205-270.     Greek  Neo-PIatonic  philosopher. 

Plunkett,    William    Conyngham,    Lord.      1 764-1 854.     Irish 

jurist. 

Plutarch.      50?-! 20?      Greek    biographer    and    philosopher. 

Parallel  JJ-ves. 

Pocahontas.      i595?-i6i7.      Daughter  of  Powhatan.    Saved 

the  life  (_.f  Capt.  John  Smith,  an  English  explorer;  wxs  converted  to 
Christianity,  and  married  an  English  gentleman  named  Rolfe. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan.  1809-1S49.  American  author;  extremely 
dissipated.  The  Raven:  The  Fall 0/ the  House  0/  Usher  :  Tales  0/ 
the  Grotesque  and  Arabesque. 

Polk,  James  Knox.  1795-1849.  American  statesman; 
eleventh  president.  Born  in  North  Carolina;  removed  to  Tennessee; 
admitted  to  the  bar;  Congress,  1825;  speaker  for  two  terms  ;  governor 
of  Tennessee,  1839-41  ;  elected  president  on  the  Democratic  ticket, 
holding  that  office  from  1845-9.  During  his  term  Texas  was  formally 
annexed  to  the  Union,  and  the  Mexican  war  prosecuted. 

Polk,  Leonidas.  1806-1864.  Episcopal  bishop  and  Confed- 
erate general;  prominent  at  Shiloh  and  Stone  River. 

Pollok,  Robert.     i79S?-i827.     Scot.    poet.      Course  of  Time. 

Polo,  Marco.     I252?-I324?     Venetian  traveller. 

Polybius.     2o6?-i24B.c.     Greek  historian. 

Polycarp,  Saint.     8o?-i69?     Bishop  of  Smyrna;  martyr. 

Pompadour,  Jeanne  Antoinette  Poisson,  Marquise  de.  1721- 
1764.  Mistress  of  Louis  XV.  of  France  ;  assumed  complete  control 
of  public  affairs. 

Pompey.  The  Great.  106-4S  B.C.  Roman  general  and 
triumvir;  conquered  Suetonius  and  Milhridates  ;  be.:amc  leader  of  the 
arisl()cracy  and  opponent  of  C^^ar;  defeated  at  Pharsalia. 

Ponce  de   Leon,   Juan.      1460-1521.     Spanish   discoverer  of 

Florid... 

Poniatowski,  Jozef  Antoni,  Prince.  1762-1S13.  Polish  com- 
mander; created  field-marshal  by  Napoleon. 

Pontiac.  I7I2?-I769.  Chief  of  the  Ottawas  ;  formed  coali- 
tion of  Indians  against  the  whites,  and  attempted  to  capture  Detroit. 

Pope,  Alexander.  168S-1744.  English  poet.  The  son  of  a 
linen-draper  ;  educated  by  a  Catholic  priest.  Macaulay  calls  him  "  a 
great  master  of  invective  and  sarcasm."  Messiah  :  Pastorals  :  Essay 
on  Man  ;  Essay  on  Criticistn  ;  The  Dunciad  ;  Ra/>e  of  the  Lock,  and 
translations  of  Homer. 

Porter,  David.     17S0-1S43.     American  commodore. 

Porter,  David  Dixon.  1813- Son  of  preceding.  Am- 
erican admiral  ;  reduced  Fort  Fisher,  1865. 

Porter,    Fitz   John.     1S23- Nephew    of   David    Porter. 

American  general. 

Porter,  fane.   1776-1S50.  Eng.  novelist.    Thaddcus  of  Warsaw. 

Poussin,  Nicholas.      1594-1665.     French  painter. 

Powers,  Iliram.     1805-1873.     American  sculptor. 

Powhatan.     i55o?-i6iS.     Indian  chieftain  in  Virginia. 


Jm 


Praxiteles.     Fl.  360  B.C.     Greek  sculptor. 

Preble,  Edward.     1761-1807.     American  naval  officer. 

Prentice,  George  Denison.     1S02-1870.      American  poet  and 

journalist. 

Prentiss,  Sergeant  Smith.     1S0S-1850.     .American  orator  and 

l.lwyer. 

Prescott,  William  Hickling.  1796-1S59.  American  historian. 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Price,  Sterling 1867.     Confederate  general. 

Prim,  Juan,  Count  de  Reus  and  Marquis  de  los  Castillejos. 
1814-1870.     Spanish  general  and  statesman  ;  assassinated. 

Prior,  Matthew.     1664-1721.     English  poet  and  diplomatist. 

Piobus,  Marcus  Aurelius.     232-2S2.     Roman  emperor. 

Procter,  Adelaide  Anne.     1825-1S64.     English  poetess. 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller.  Barry  Cornwall.  1790-1874.  Eng- 
lish poet.     The  Sea. 

Prout,  Father.  (Francis  M.ihony.)  1805-1S66.  Irish  journal- 
ist and  writer. 

Prynne,  William.      1600-1669.     English  Puritan  writer. 

Ptolemy  I.  S:'ter.  397?-283  B.C.  King  of  Egypt.  II., 
PhiladelphuSf    309-247  B.C. 

Ptolemy.  (Claudius  Ptolemseus.)  Fl.  2d  century.  Greek 
.astronomer  and  geographer.  Believed  the  earth  to  be  at  rest  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  universe,  the  heavenly  bodies  moving  around  it. 

Pugin,  .-\ugustus  N.  W.     1811-1852.     English  architect. 

Pulaski,  Casimir,  Count.  1747-1779.  Polish  patriot;  general 
in  the  American  Revolutionary  army.     Fell  at  the  srege  of  Savannah. 

Putnam,  Israel.  171S-1790.  American  Revolutionary  general. 
Conspicuous  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

Pym,  John.  1584- 1643.  English  republican  statesman  and 
orator;   popular  leader  in  Parliament. 

Pyrrho.     36o?-270?  B.C.     Greek  skeptic  and  philosopher. 

Pyrrhus.  3iS?-272  B.C.  King  of  Epirus  and  one  of  the 
greatest  of  ancient  generals.  Defeated  the  Romans  and  conq  lered 
Macedonia. 

Pythagoras.  6oo?-5io?  B.C.  Greek  philosopher.  Tauglit 
the  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls. 

QUACKENBOS,  George  Payn.  1826- .American 
educationist. 

Quarles,  Francis.     1592-1644.     English  poet.     Emblems. 

Queensberry,  William  Douglas,  Duke  of.  1724-1S10.  Scot- 
tish profligate. 

Quin,  James.     1693-1766.     English  actor,  famous  as /aA^r/^. 

Quincy,  Josiah.     1744-1775.     .American  orator  and  patriot. 

Quincy,  Josiah.  1772-1864.  Son  of  preceding.  American 
statesman  and  scholar. 

Quintilianus,  Marcus  Fabius.    50?-iiS?    Roman  rhetorician. 

Vg^ABELAIS,  Francois.    I495?-I553.    French  scholar  and 

^A-\.  sLitirist,  Joined  the  PVanciscans,  but  left  the  order;  afterward 
studied  medicine.  His  great  work,  The  Pleasant  Story  0/ the  Giant 
Gars^antua  and  his  Ssn  Pantasruel ,  is  a  satire  upon  the  different 
branches  of  society  of  his  age,  more  particularly  the  monastic  orders. 

Rachel.  (Elizabeth  Rachel  Felix.)  1821-1858.  French 
actress,  born  in  Switzerland  ;  daughter  of  a  Jewish  peddler. 

Racine,  Jean.  1639-1699.  French  dramatist.  Les  Plai- 
detirs  :  Britannictis  ;  Berenice  :  Bajazet  :  Ifihightie  ;  Ph^dre  : 
Esther  ;  Athalie. 

Racine,  I.ouis.     1692-1763.     French  poet.     .Son  of  J.  R. 

Radcliffe,  Ann.     1764-1823.     English  novelist. 

RadclifTe,  John.     1650-1714.     English  physician. 


Raglan,  James  Henry  Fitzroy  Somerset,  Lord.  1788-1855. 
English  general.     Commanded  British  army  in  Crimean  war. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter.  1552-1618.  English  courtier,  states- 
man, navigator  and  author,  h  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth ;  executed 
by  James  I. 

Rameau,  Jean  Philippe.     16S3-1764.     French  composer. 

Ramsay,  .Vllan.     1 685-1758.     Scottish  poet. 

Ramsay,  David.     1749-1815.     American  historical  writer. 

Randolph,  John  (of  Roanoke).  1773-1833.  American  poli- 
tician and  orator.  Entered  Congress  1799 ;  advocated  extension  of 
slavery;  opposed  Missouri  Compromise;  Senate,  1824;  soon  after  fought 
a  duel  with  Henry  Ciay  ;  minister  to  Russia.  1830. 

Randolph,  Peyton.     1723-1775.     President  of  first  American 

Congress. 

Raphael.    (RaflTaelle  Sanzio,  or  Santi  d'  Urbino.)     1483-1520. 

Italian  painter.   Sistine  Madonna  :  Adoration  0/ tlte  Mai^ :  Marriage 

0/ ilie  Virgin  :    Transfigitration,  etc. 
Ravaillac,  Francois.    1578-1610.    French  fanatic  ;  assassin  of 

Henry  IV. 
Read,  Thomas  Buchanan.     1822-1872.     American   poet  and 

artist.     The  House  by  the  Sea  :    The  Wagoner  0/ the  Alleghanies, 
Reade,  Charles.     1814-1884    English  novelist.     Peg  IVoffiiig- 

ton :  Hard  Cash  :    H7tite  Lies  ;  A    Terrible    Temptation  ;    Grijffitii 

Gaunt. 
Reaumur,   Rene  Antoine  Ferchault  de.     1683-1757.     French 

naturalist  and  inventor  of  a  thermometer. 
Recamier,  Jeanne  F.  J.  A.  IS.   1777-1S49.     French  lady  noted 

for  beauty  and  accomplishmenLs. 
Red  Jacket.     1760-1830.     Eloquent  Seneca  Indian  chief. 
Reeves,  Sims.     1S21-   ...      English  oratorio  singer. 
Regulus,  Marcus  Atilius -250  B.C.     Roman  general  and 

statesman.     Captured  by  the  Carthaginians  and  sent  to  Rome  to  secure 

peace,    but    advised    against   it ;    returning    to    Carthage   as    he    had 

promised,  he  was  tortured  and  put  to  death. 
Reid,  Capt.  Mayne.     1818-1883.     Irish-American  novelist. 
Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  Paul.     1607-1669.     Dutch  painter. 
Remusat,  Charles  Frantjois  Marie,  Count.   1797-1875.   Frencli 

st.itesman  and  philosopher.     Essays  on  Philosophy. 
Renan,   Joseph    Ernest.     1823-....      French  philologist  and 

writer.     Life  0/ Jesus. 
Retz,  Jean   Francois   Paul   de  Gondi,  Cardinal.     1614-1679. 

French  prelate ;  a  leader  of  the  Frondeurs.     Memoirs. 
Reuter,  Fritz.     1810-1874.     Low-German  poet  and  novelist. 
Reuter,  Julius.      181 5-....     German   originator  of   Reuters 

Telegraphic  Agency. 
Revere,  Paul.     1735-1S18.     American   engraver  and  Revolu- 
tionary patriot.     Carried   the    news    of   Gage's   impending   attack   to 

Concord. 

Reynolds,  John  Fulton.     1820-1S63.     American  general. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua.      1723-1792.     English  painter. 

Ricardo,  David.     1772-1S23.     Enghsh  political  economist. 

Richard  I.  Ccctir  de  Lion.  1157-1199.  King  of  England. 
Led  a  large  army  into  Palestine,  where  he  exhibited  great  personal 
prowess;  conquered  .\cre  and  defeated  S.aladin.  II.,  i36f>-i4oo.  III., 
i452-i4S5,last  of  the  Plantagenets. 

Richardson,  Samuel.     1689-1761.     English  novelist. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardinal.  1585-1642. 
French  prelate  and  statesman.  Made  cardinal,  1622  ;  prime  minister, 
i6?4  ;  curited  the  nobility  ;  subdued  the  Calvinists  ;  restored  balance  of 
power  in  Europe;  granted  religious  toleration  to  the  Protestants; 
secured  exile  of  his  foe,  Marie  de  Medici,  the  king's  mother,  1630  ; 
aided  German  Protestants  against  Austria  ;  founded  French  Academy 
(1635);  added  Alsace,  Lorraine,  and  Roussillon  to  France. 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


245 


Richter,  Johaim  Paul  ]''rieilricli.  Jean  Paul.  1763-1825. 
German  author.  Among  his  works,  which  arc  distinguished  for  quaint- 
ness  and  originr.lity,  may  be  named  Greenland  lAiwsuiis  :  Hesperus  ; 
The  In-y'isU'te  Lotige  t  Farson  in  Jubilee :    Titan, 

Ridley,  Nicholas.     i50O?-l555.    English  bishop  and  reformer. 

I5urncd  at  the  stake. 
Rienzi,  N'icola  Gabrini.     I3I3?-I354.     Roman  oratur;   made 

f.inious  by  his  attempt  to  restore  the  Roman  Rcpidtlic. 
Ripon,  George  Krederick  Samuel  Robinson,  Earl  de  Grey  and 

Marquis  of.     1827- English  statesman. 

Ristori,  .\delaidc.  Marchioness  del  Grillo.     1S21-. . . .    Italian 

.tctrcss. 

Rittenhouse,  David.      1732-1706.     American  astronomer. 
Riviere,  liriton,     1840-. . . .      English  animal  painter. 
Rizzio,    David.     1540-1566.     Italian    musician;  favorite  and 

secretary  of  Mary  Stuart:  assassinated. 
Robert.     Robert  the  Devil.     -1035.    Duke  of  Normandy; 

fattier  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
Robert    I.     Robert  Bruce.     1274-1329.     King  of   Scotland. 

II.,  1316-1390;  first  of  the  Stuarts. 
Robert,  Louis  Leopold.     1794-1835.     French  painter. 
Robertson,  Frederick  William.     1816-1853.     Eng.  divine. 
Robespierre,  Maximilien  Joseph  Marie  Isidore.     175S-1794. 

French  Jacobin  revolutionist :  ruler  during  the  Reign  of  Terror;  guil- 
lotined. 
Robin  Hood.     Fl.  12th  century.     English  outlaw. 
Rob    Roy.      (Robert      McGregor.)       i66o?-i735?      Scottish 

frecbiiotcr. 
Rochambeau,  Jean  Baptiste  Donatien  de  Vimeur  de,  Count. 

1 725-1807.     French  marsh.al ;  general  in  .America  in  1781. 
Rochefort,  Victor  Henri   de   Rochefort-Lugay,  Comte.     1830- 

....     French  editor  and  communist. 
Rochefoucauld,  Franpois,   Due  de  la.     1613-16S0.     French 

wit  and  author.     Maxims. 
Rochejaquelin,   Henri   de  la,    Comte.     1772-1794.     French 

royalist ;  leader  of  the  Vendeans. 
Rodney,  George    Bridges,  Lord.     1718-1792.     Brit,   admiral. 
Roebling,  John  Augustus.     1 806-1 869.     American  engineer. 
Rogers,  John.     1829-....      American  sculptor. 
Rogers,    John.      I500?-I555.      English    divine;     burned  at 

Smithfield. 

Rogers,  Samuel.     1763-1855.     English  poet. 

Roland,   Marie  Jeanne  Philipon,  Mine.     1754-1793.     French 

Girondist  and  writer;  guillotined.     Memoirs. 
RoUin,  Charles.     1661-1741.     Fr.  historian.    Aitcient History. 
RoUo,  or  Hrolf.     86o?-93o?     Norwegian  viking.     First  duke 

of  Normandy. 
Romanoff,  Michael  Feodorovitch.     l59S?-i645.     Founder  of 

the  Russian  dynasty. 
Romulus.     Fl.  750  B.C.     Founder  of  Rome. 
Romilly,  Sir  Samuel.     1757-1818.     English  statesman. 
Rooke,  Sir  George.     1650-1709.     British  admiral. 
Rosa,  Salvator.     1615-1673.     Italian  painter. 

Roscius,  Quintus.     61  B.c Roman  actor. 

Rosecrans,  William  Starke.     1817-.  . . .     Am.  general. 
Ross,    Sir  John.     1777-1856.     British    admiral    and    Arctic 

navigator. 
Ross,  Sir  James   Clark.     1S00-1862.     Nephew  of  precedint;. 

IJritish  Arctic  navigator, 
Rossetti,   Dante  Gabriel.   182S-18S2.     English    painter    and 

poet.     House  of  Li/e. 


Rossini,  Gioamiimo.  1792-1S6S.  Italian  composer.  Will- 
iam Tell :    The  Barber  0/  Serulle, 

Rothschild,  M.ayer  Anselm.  1743-1S12.  Jewish  banker  .at 
Frankfort  ;  founder  of  the  house  of  Rothschild. 

Rouget  de  I'lsle,  Claude  Joseph.  1760-1836.  French  jioct 
and  musician.     Marseillaise. 

Rouher,  Eugene.     1814-....      French  politician. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Baptiste.     1670-1741.     French  lyric  poet. 

Rous3eau,  Jean  Jacques.  1712-177S.  French  i)hilosophcr 
and  writer.  Born  in  Geneva ;  apprenticed  to  an  engraver,  but  wan- 
dered about,  and  was  successively  a  servant,  .a  clerk,  and  a  music 
teacher;  went  to  Paris  1745,  and  met  Diderot  and  Grimmc  ;  formed 
a  connection  with  Thcrcse  le  Vasscur,  an  ignorant  woman,  whom  he 
afterward  married.  In  1760  appeared  y«/iV,  or  The  Nciv  Helo'ise  ;  in 
1762,  The  Social  Contract.  His  Emile,  or  Eiiucation,  was  burned  at 
Geneva,  and  he  w.as  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  England.  His  CoH' 
/essions  are  an  autobiography. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul.     1 587-1 640.     Flemish  painter. 

Rubinstein,  Anton.     1830-....      Rus.  composer  and  pianist. 

Ruckert,  Friedrich.     1 789-1 866.     Ger.  orientalist  and  jioet. 

Rudolph  I.  (of  Uapsburg).  1218-1291.  Emperor  of  Ger- 
m.iiiy.     Founder  of  the  Austrian  empire.     II.,  1552-1612. 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count.  1753-1814.  Am- 
erican natural  philosopher  in  France. 

Rupert,  Prince.  (Prince  Robert  of  Bavaria.)  1619-1682. 
German  warrior. 

Ruskin.John.     1819-....      English  writer  on  art. 

Russell,  John,  Earl       1792-1878.     English  statesman. 

Russell,  William,  Lord.  1639-1683.  English  patriot.  Be- 
headed on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the  "  Rye  House  Plot." 

Rutledge,  John.     1739-1800.     American  statesman  and  jurist. 

Ruyter,  Michael  Adrianzoon  de.   1607-1675.  Dutch  admiral. 

Q'aCKVILLE,  George,  Viscount.       Lord  George  Germain. 
^^^       1716-1785.     English  statesman  and  general. 
Sadlier,  Mary  Anne,  Mrs.     1820-. . . .      .'\m.  authoress. 
Saint  Clair,  Arthur.     1734-1818.     American  general. 
Sainte- Beuve,  Charles  Augustin.     1804-1S69.      French  poet 

anti  critic. 

Saint-Pierre,  Jacques  Henri  Bernardin  de.  1737-1814.  Fr. 
author.     Paul et  I'ir^inie. 

Saint  Simon,  Claude  Henri  de.  Count.  1760-1S25.  French 
socialist. 

Sala,  George  Augustus  Henri.     1828-....       Eng.  litterateur. 

Saladin.  1137-1193.  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  Opposed 
the  Crusaders.     Defeated  the  Christians  at  Tiberi.as. 

Sale,  George.     1680-1736.     English  orientalist. 

Salisbury,  Robert  Arthur  Talbot  Gascoyne  Cecil,  Marquis  of. 
i83f>- English  statesman. 

Sallust.  (Caius  Sallustius  Crispus.)   S6-34  n.o.    Rom.  historian. 

Saltonstall,  Sir  Richard.  1586-1658?  Puritan  in  Massachu- 
setts colony. 

Salvini,  Tonimaso.     1833-....      Italian  actor. 

Samuel.     1 170-1060  n.c.     L.i.st  of  the  Israelite  judges. 

Sand,  George.     See  Dude-.iant. 

Sandeau,  Leonard  Sylvain  Jules.     1S11-1883.      Fr.  novelist. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de.  1798-1876.  Mexican  gen- 
eral and  statesman 

Sappho.     Fl.     600  B.C.     Greek  lyric  poetess. 

Sardanapalus.     Fl.  900  B.C.     King  of  Assyria. 

Sardou,  Victorien.      1831- French  dramatist. 


\ 


A 


246 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Saul -i°55  I'-C-'-     F'l'St  l-^i'ig  of  Israel. 

Savage,  Richard.     169S-1743.     Eng.  poet.      The   Wanderer. 

Savonarola,  Girolamo.  1452-1598.  Italian  religious  re- 
former. 

Saxe,  Hermann  Maurice,  Count  of.  1696-1750.  Marshal  of 
France;  native  of  Saxony.     Captured  Prague  1741. 

Saxe,  Tohn  Godfrey.       1S16- American  humorous  poet. 

Scanderbeg,  George  Castriota.  i4io?-i467.  Albanian  chief. 
Defeated  the  Turks. 

Schelling,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Joseph  von.  1775-1S54.  Ger- 
man philosopher. 

Schenck,  Robert  Gumming.     1809- Am.  statesman. 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich  von.  1759-1805.  The 
most  popular  of  German  poets.  Studied  medicine  and  law,  but 
could  not  resist  his  inclination  toward  literature.  His  drama.  The  Robbers, 
appeared  in  1777  ;  Thirty  Years'  IVar,  i-^gi;  Waliejistein,  the  work 
of  many  years,  1/99.  The  Maid  of  Orleans,  Alary  Stttart  and  Witt- 
iain  Tett  are  among  his  best  known  dramas,  and  Tlie  Song  of  tlie 
Bettis  considered  the  best  of  his  minor  poems,  Schiller  removed  to 
Weimar  in  1799,  and  there  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Goethe. 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm  von.  1767-1845.  German  poet, 
critic  and  philologist.     Lectures  on  Dramatic  Literature, 

Schlegel,  Karl  Wilhelm  Friedrich  von.  Brother  of  preceding. 
^  1772-1829.  German  philosopher  and  scholar.  Lectures  on  tlie  Philoso- 
phy of  History, 

Schliemann,   Heinrich.     1S22-....     German  traveller. 

Schoeffer,  Peter.  1430-1500.  One  of  the  inventors  of  print- 
ing; partner  of  Johann  Faust. 

Schofield,  John  McAllister.     1S31- American  general. 

Schomberg,  Friedrich  A.  H.,  Duke  of.  16167-1690.  Protes- 
tant general.  Born  at  Heidelberg:  served  in  Swedish  army  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  ;  afterward  marshal  of  France  ;  entered  the  service  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 

Schopenhauer,    Arthur.       17S8-1S60.       German     pessimist 

philosopher.      The  M'ortd as  Will, 
Schott,  Andreas.     1552-1629.     Dutch  Jesuit  scholar. 
Schubert,  Franz.     1797-1S28.     German  composer. 
Schumann,  Robert.     iSlo-1856.     German  composer. 
Schurz,  Carl.     1829-. . . .     German-American  statesman. 
Schuvaloff,  Peter,  Count.     1828-....      Russian  diplomatist. 
Schuyler,  Philip.     1733-1804.     Am.  general  and  patriot. 
Schwanthaler,  Ludwig  Michael.     1S02-1S48.     Ger.  sculptor. 
Schwarz,   Berthold.     Fl.    14th   century.     Gennan   monk  and 

alchemist :  reputed  inventor  of  gunpowder. 
Schweinfurth,  Georg  August,     1836-. . . .      Ger.  traveller. 
Scipio  Africanus  Major,  Publius  Cornelius.     235  B.C.-1S4? 

Roman  general ;  invaded  Africa  and  defeated  Hannibal. 

Scipio   .ffimilianus   Africanus   Minor,    Publius    Conielius. 

185  ?-i29  E.c.     Roman  gener.al  ;  captured  and  destroyed  Carthage. 
Scott,  Sir  Walter.     1771-1832.     Scottish  novelist  and  poet. 
Scott,  Winfield.     1786-1866.     American  general. 
Sebastian,  .Saint.     255?-288.     Roman  soldier  and  martyr. 
Sebastian,  Dom.     1554-1578.     King  of  Portugal  and  warrior; 

invaded  Morocco,  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 
Secchi,  Pietro  Angelo.     1818-1878.     Italian  a.stronomer. 
Sedgwick,  Catherine  Maria.  Daughter  of  T.  S.  S.   17S9-1867. 

American  authoress. 
Sedgwick,  John.     1813-1864.     American  general. 
Sedgwick,  Theodore.     1746-1813.     American  jurist. 
Selden,  John.      15S4-1654.     English  statesman. 


Selkirk,  Alexander.  1676?-. 723.  .Scottish  sailor  whose  ad- 
ventures suggested  the  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 

Semiramis.  Fl.  1250  B.C.  Assyrian  queen.  Built  Babylon, 
and  greatly  increased  her  dominions  ;  invaded  India,  but  was  defeated. 

Semmes,  Rapliael.      1809-1877.      Confederate  naval  officer. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Annteus.  5  ?-65.  Roman  statesman,  moralist 
and  Stoic  philosopher. 

Sennacherib.     Fl.  700  B.C.     Assyrian  king. 

Sergius  I.  Pope  from  687-701.  II.,  844-847.  III.,  904- 
913.     IV.,  1009-1012. 

Servetus,  Michael.  1 509-1 553.  Spanish  theologian.  Burned 
at  the  slake.     On  the  Errors  of  the  Trinity, 

Sesostris.     (Rameses.)     Fl.  1400  B.C.     King  of  Egypt. 

Severus,  Alexander.     205-235.     Roman  emperor. 

Severus,  Lucius  Septimius.     146-211.     Roman  emperor. 

Sevigne,  Marie  de  Rabutin-Chantal,  Marquise  de.  1627-1696. 
French  lady  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  accomplishments. 

Seward,  William  Henry.  1801-1872.  American  statesman. 
Secretary  of  state  1861-9. 

Seymour,  Horatio.  1811-....  American  statesman.  Elected 
governor  of  New  York  1852,  and  re-elected  1862;  opposed  the  adminis- 
tration's war  policy ,   Democratic  nominee  for  the  presidency  in  i863. 

Sforza,  Ludovico.     II  Mora.     1451-1510.     Italian  general. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  first  Earl  of.     1621- 

16S3.     English  statesman. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  third  Earl  of.       1671- 

1713.     English  philanthropist,  author  and  freethinker. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  seventh  Earl  of.    1801- 

....      English  philanthropist. 

Shakspere,  Shakspeare,  or  Shakespeare,  William.  1564 
1616.  The  greatest  English  dramatist.  Born  at  Stratford-on-Avon ; 
married  Anne  Hathaway  1582  ;  went  to  London  about  15S6  and  became 
an  actor  and  playwright ;  acquired  a  competence  and  retired  to  his  native 
town  about  1610.  I'enus  and  Adonis  and  T/ie  Rape  of  Lucrece,  the 
only  works  published  under  his  own  hand,  appeared  1593-4.  The  first 
edition  of  his  collected  works  appeared  in  1623.  Hamlet :  Lear  ;  Mac- 
beth:  Othello:  The  Tempest:  Midsummer  Night' s  Dream, ac.,ac. 

Shaw,  Henry  W.    Josh  Billings.     1818-....     Am.  humorist. 

Shell,  Richard  Lalor.     1793-1851.     Irish  orator. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe.  1792-1822.  English  poet.  Expelled 
from  O.xford,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  for  writing  a  treatise  on  the  necessity 
of  atheism  ;  married  the  daughter  of  a  retired  innkeeper  against  his 
father's  will ;  became  reconciled  to  his  father,  and  eloped  with  Miss 
Weslbrook,  whom  he  married  at  Gretna  Green  ;  separated  from  her  by 
mutual  consent,  and,  hearing  of  his  first  wife's  suicide,  married  Mary 
Godwin,  with  whom  he  was  travelling  on  the  continent  ;  demanded  at 
law  the  custody  of  the  two  children  by  his  first  marriage,  but  the  guard- 
ianship was  granted  to  their  maternal  grandfather,  on  the  ground  of  the 
father's  atheism  ;  removed  to  Italy,  where  he  was  accidentally  drowned. 
Adonais  ,  The  Cenci  :  Prometheus  :  Revolt  of  Islam  :  .-Itastor  ;  The 
Witch  o/"  Atlas.  The  Cloud,  Ode  to  the  Skylark  and  The  Sensitive 
Plant  are  among  the  most  exquisite  of  his  shorter  poems. 

Sheppard,  Jack -1724.     English  burglar;  hanged. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry.  1831-....  American  general. 
Victorious  at  Winchester,  Cedar  Creek  and  Five  Forks.  Made  lieuten- 
ant-general of  the  U.  S.  army  1869,  and  promoted  to  the  chief  command 
on  the  retirement  of  General  Sherman,  1883. 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley.  1751-1816.  Irish  orator  and 
dramatist.      The  Rivals  :    The  School  for  Scandal :    The  Duenna. 

Sherman,  John.  1823-....  American  statesman.  Secretary 
of  the  treasury,  1877-81  ;  resumed  specie  payments. 

Sherman,  Roger.     1721-1793.     American  statesman. 


/ 


/ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  DIOGRAPHY. 


247 


Sherman,  William  Tccumseh.  1S20-....  Brother  of  John 
Slierman.  American  genera!.  Made  the  celebrated  "  March  to  Ihc 
Sea."     Became  general  of  the  army  in  1869,  retiring  in  1883. 

Sickingen,    Franz    von.        14S1-1523.       German    Protestant 

gcncr;d, 

Siddons,  Sarah   (nie  Kemble).     1755-1S31.     F^nghsh  actress. 

Sidney,  .Mgernon.  1622-16S3.  Enghsh  republican;  exe- 
cuted on  false  charge  of  complicity  in  "  Rye  House  Plot." 

Sidney,  .Sir  Philip.     1554-15S6.     English  soldier  and  poet. 

Siemens,  Ernst  Werner.     1816-. ...     German  inventor. 

Siemens,  Charles  William.  1S23- .  lirollier  of  preced- 
ing.   German  inventor. 

Sigismund.       1368-1437.       German    emperor   and   king    of 

Hungary. 

Sigismund  I.   1466-154S.   King  of  Poland.    II.,   151S-1572. 

Sigourney,  Mrs.  I-ydia  Howard  Huntley.  1791-1865.  Am- 
erican poetess.     Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse. 

Silliman,  Benjamin.     1779-1864.     American  naturalist. 

Simeon  Stylites.  390?-459.  Syrian  ascetic;  lived  for  forty- 
six  years  on  tlie  tops  of  pillars. 

Simms,  William  Gilmore.     1S06-1S70.     American  author. 

Simon,  Jules.     1814-....     French  statesman. 

Sixtus  I.  Pope  from  11710  128.  II.,  257-258;  martyr.  III., 
431-440.     IV.,  1471-1484.     V.  (Felice  Perelli),  1585-1590. 

Skobeleff,  Michael.     1S43-18S2.     Russian  general. 

olocum,  Henry  Wadsworth.     1827- American  general. 

Smiles,  S,inniel.     1816-....     Scottish  author. 

Smith,  .Vdam.  1723-1790.  Scottish  political  economist. 
An  Enquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  0/ the  Weatth  0/ Nations, 

Smith,  Gerrit.     1797-1S74.     American  philanthropist. 

Smith,  Horace  (i78o?-lS49)  and  James  (1775-1839).  English 
poets  and  humorists  ;  brothers.     Rejected  Addresses. 

Smith,  John,  Captain.  1579-1631.  English  explorer;  found- 
er of  Virginia.     History  0/  I  'ir^nia. 

Smith,  Joseph.     1805-1844.    Founder  of  the  Mormon  church. 

Smith,  Seba.  Alaj.  Jack  Downing.     1 792-1 868.  Am.  author. 

Smith,  Sydney.     1771-1845.     English  divine  and  essayist. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George.  1721-1771.  Scottish  novelist. 
Roderick  Random;  Peregrine  Pickle;  Expedition  of  Humphrey 
Clinker. 

Sobieski,  John.  1629-1696.  Kins;  of  Poland  and  patriot. 
Defeated  the  Turks,  and  raised  the  siege  of  Vienna. 

Socrates.     470?-399B.c.     Gr.  philosopher;  teacher  of  Plato. 

Soliman  II.  The  Magnificent.  1494-1566.  Sultan  of  Tur- 
key.    Conquered  Persia  and  part  of  Hungary. 

Solomon.      The  Wise.     1033-975  ?  n.r.     King  of  Israel. 

Solon.     638-558  ?n.c.     Athenian  law-giver  and  poet. 

Somers,  John,  Baron.     1650-1716.     Eng.  jurist  and  statesman. 

Sontag,    Henriette,   Countess   Rossi.     1806-1854.      German 

vocalist. 

Sophocles.    495-405  B.C.    Gr.  tragic  poet.   CEdipus  Tyrannies. 

Sothern,  Edward  Askew.     1830-1S81.     English  comedian. 

Soult,  Nicholas  Jean  de  Dieu.     1769-1851.     French  marshal. 

Southey,  Robert.  1774-1843.  English  poet-laureate.  Thai- 
aba;    'flte  Curse  0/  Kehama:  Roderick,  qU:, 

Jjouthworth,  Emma  D.  E.  (Nevitt).  1818-....  American 
novelist.  Retrihution  ;  The  Curse  of  Clifford ;  The  Pearl  of  Pearl 
Riz/er,  etc. 

oparks,  Jared.     17S9-1S66.     .\mcrican  historian. 


Spartacus.  ^.  .-7ll).f.  Thracian  glailialor  in  Rome;  in- 
augurated Servile  war. 

Speke,  John  Hanning.  1827-1864.  English  explorer  in  Africa. 

Spencer,  Herbert.    1820-....   English  philosopher.  .Sociology. 

Spenser,  Edmund.  1553-1599.  English  poet.  The  Faerie 
Queen  ;  Tlie  Sltepltearde' s  Calendar. 

Spinola,  Ambrosio,  Maniuis  de.   1569-1630.  Spanish  general. 

Spinoza,  Benedict.  1632-1677.  Dutch  philosopher  and  pan- 
theist.    Ethics  Heinonst rated  by  Geometrical  Metliod. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon.   1834- English  pulpit-orator. 

Spurzheim,  Johann  Caspar.   1776-1832.  German  phrenologist. 

Stael-Holstein,  Anne  Louise  Germainc  Keeker  de,  liaronne. 
Mine,  de  Staei.  1766-1817.  French  authoress,  and  a  lady  of  remark- 
able genius.     Corinne. 

Standish,  Miles.     1584-1656.     Captain  of  Plymouth  Colony. 

Stanhope,  Philip  Henry,  Earl  of.     1805-1875.  Eng.  historian. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn.  Dean  Stanley.  1815-1881.  Eng- 
lish divine  and  author;  dean  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.  (John  Rowlands.)  1S40-. ...  Ameri- 
can explorer  in  Africa  :  born  in  Wales. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters.  1814-1S69.  American  states- 
man ;  secretary  of  war  in  President  Lincoln's  cabinet. 

Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady.  1S16-....  American  "  Woman's 
rights  "  advocate. 

Starhemberg  (or  Stahremberg),  Ernst  Rudiger,  Count.'* 
1635^1701.     Austrian  general. 

Starhemberg    (or    Stahremberg),     Guido     Bahli,     Count. 

1657-1737.     Austrian  general. 

Stark,  John.     172S-1822.      American  Revolutionary   general. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence.     1833-....     American  poet. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard.  1671-1729.  Brilish  essayist  and  drama- 
tist. The  Funeral ;  The  Tender  Husband;  The  Conscious  Ltyi'ers ; 
Essays  in  The   Taller,    The  Spectator  and  The  Guardian. 

Stein,  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl  von,  Baron.  1757-1831.  Prus- 
sian statesman. 

Stephen,  Saint.     Stoned  36?     First  Christian  martyr. 

Stephen  I.  Pope,  253-257.  II.,  752.  III.,  752-757.  IV., 
768-772.  v.,  816.  VI.,  885-891.  VII.,  896-897.  VIII.,  928-930.  IX., 
939-942-     X.,  1057-1058. 

Stephen  I.     (Saint.)     979-103S.     King  of  Hungary. 

Stephen.     1105-1154.     King  of  England. 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton.  1812-1883.  American 
statesman.  Born  in  Georgia  ;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1835  :  Congress,  1843; 
vice-president  of  the  Confederate  States  ;  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Georgia,  but  not  permitted  to  take  his  seat ;  m«mbcrof  the  House 
of  Representatives,  however,  from  1874  until  his  death.  History  of  the 
It'arbetitieentlte  States;  A  Constitutional  Vifw  of  the  Late  War 
between  the  States. 

Stephenson,  George.  1781-1848.  English  engineer ;  inventor 
of  the  locomotive  engine. 

Stephenson,  Robert.  1803-1S59.  Son  of  preceding.  Eng- 
lish engineer;  inventor  of  the  tubular  bridge. 

Sterling,  John.     1806-1844.     British  essayist. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  Rev.  1713-1768.  Irish  humorous  writer. 
Tristram  Shandy  ;    The  Sentimental  fourney. 

Steuben,  Frederick  William  Augustus  vor.,  Baron.  1730- 
1794.     German  American  general  in  the  Revolutionary  war. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus.     1793-1868.     American  abolitionist. 

Stewart,  .'Mexander  Turney.     1802-1876.     Am.  merchant. 

Stewart,  Balfour.     182S-....      Scottish  physicist. 

Stoddard,  Richard  Henry.     1S25-. . . .     American  poet. 


V 


J- 


248 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


1S06-1874.     English  authoress. 
i756-i!;2S.     American  portrait  painter. 
1602-16S2.     Last    Dutch    governor  of 


French  novelist. 
38-78    B.C.     Roman 


Story,  Joseph.      1779-1S45.     American  jurist. 

Story,  William  Wetmore.      1S19-. .  . .     American  sculptor. 

Stowe,  Mrs.  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher.  1S12- Ameri- 
can .authoress.     Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 

Strabo.     54  B.C.-24  a.d.     Greek  geographer. 

Stradella,  Alessandro.     1645-1678.     Italian  composer. 

Stradivari,  Antonio.      1670-1735.     Italian  violin-maker. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentvvorth,  Earl  of.  1 593-1 641.  English 
sLitcsman  :  beheaded. 

Strauss,  Johann.     1804-1849.    Gcr.  composer  of  dance  music. 

Strauss,  Johann.  1S25-....  Sun  of  preceding.  German 
composer. 

Strickland,  Agnes. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  C. 

Stuyvesant,     Peter 

New  Netherland  (New  York). 

Sue,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene.     1804-1857 
Sulla    (or    Sylla),  Lucius    Cornelius. 

st;itesnian  and  general. 
Sullivan,  Arthur.     1844-....      English  composer, 

Faliciicf,  etc.     See  also  Gilbert. 
Sumner,  Charles.     1811-1874.     American   statesman,   lawyer 

and  abolitionist.      True  Grandeur  of  Nations, 
Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of.     I5i6?-i547.     English  poet. 
Suwarow,  Alexander  Vasilievitch.      1729-1774.  Rus.  general. 
Swedenborg,    Emanuel.     168S-1772.      Swedish  theosophist. 

In  his  theosophy,  the  central  point  is  the  correspondence  of  the  natural 

and  the  stipernatural.      The  True  Christian   Religion;    The  J\Iysterits 

oy  Heaven. 
Swift,  Jonathan.      1667-1745.   Irish  divine  and  satirist.     Citlli- 

Ter's  Trtti'els  ;  Tale  o/  a    Tub. 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles.     1837-....      English  poet. 
Sylvester  I.     (.Saint.)     Pope,  314-335-    H-i  999-I003-    HI. 
(Anti-pope),  1013. 

VtVACITUS,  Caius  Cornelius.     55?  after   117?    Roman  his- 

^  A  ^        tori.in.      Gerntania. 

Taglioni,  Marie,  Countess  des  Voisins.      1804-1884.     Swedisli 

opera  dancer. 


Pinafore^ 


Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe.     i 
Talbot,    William    Henry  Fox. 

and  discoverer  of  photography. 
Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon. 


828-....      French  author. 
l8oo-i'877.     English    author 

1795-1S54.      Eng.  author.   Ion. 
Talleyrand-Perigord,    Charles  Maurice    dc,  Prince  of  Bene- 

ve[Uo.      i754-iRj8.      French  chploniatist. 

Talmage,  Thomas  Dew  ilt.      1832-....      Am.  clergyman. 
Tamerlane  (or  Timour).     1336-1405.     Asiatic  conqueror. 
Tancred.     1078-1112.     Norman  leader  in  the  first  crusade. 
Taney,  Roger  Brooke.     1777-1864.     American  jurist. 
Tannahill,  Robert.     1774-1S10.     Scottish  jioet. 
Tarquinius  Superbus.    (Lucius  Tarc|uinius.)     . . .  .-495?  B.C. 

Last  king  of  Rome. 

Tasman,  Abel  Janssen.     i6oo?-i645.     Dutch  navigator. 
Tasso,  Torquato.     1544- 1595.     Italian  poet.    Jerusalem  De- 

li-.vreJ. 

Taylor,  Bayard.  1825-187S.  American  traveller,  novelist, 
poet  and  joiirnahst  :  minister  to  Germany  ;  translated  Goethe's  Faust. 
Among  his  works  are  yiews  Afoot,  or  Europe  seen  with  Knapsack 
ami  Staff;  Travels  ;  Poems  0/ the  Orient;  Book  0/ Romances  ;  Lyrics 
and  Songs,  and  several  novels. 

Taylor,  Jeremy.     1613-1667.     English  bishop  and  author. 


Taylor,  Thomas.      The  Platonist.     1758-1835.     Eng.  scholar. 

Taylor,  Tom.     1817-....     English  dramatist. 

Taylor,  Zachary.  1784-1850.  American  general  and  states- 
man ;  twelfth  president.  Born  in  Virginia ;  entered  the  army  in  i3o3  ; 
served  in  Seminole  and  Black  Hawk  wars;  m.ajor-general  in  Mexican 
war,  and  won  the  battles  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  and  Buena  Vista. 
Elected  president  by  the  Whigs  in  1848. 

Tecumseh.     1770-1813.     Chief    of   the    Shawnee    Indians; 

formed  alliance  of  Western  Indians,  and  was  delfeated  by  Harrison  at 

Tippecanoe. 
Tell,  Wilhclm.     Flem.   1305.  Legendary  Swiss  hero. 
Teniers,  David.      The    Younger.     1610-1690.     Flem.  painter. 
Tennyson,  Alfred.     1809-. . . .      English   poet-laureate.      In 

Metnoriam  ;   Enoch  Arden  ;    The  Princess  ;    The  Idylls  0/ the  King -, 

Locksley  Hall ;    The  Lotus  Eaters ;    The  Holy  Grail;  Harold,  ^ic. 

Terence.  (P.  Terentius  Afer.)  i95?-i6o?  B.C.  Roman 
comic  poet. 

Terpander.     Fl.  675  B.C.     Greek  musician. 

Terry,  .Mfred  Howe.     1827-....     American  general. 

TertuUian.     l50?-230?     Latin  father  of  the  church. 

Tetzel,  Johann.  i46o?-i5i9.  German  monk;  vender  of  in- 
dulgences. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace.  1811-1863.  English  novel- 
ist. Born  in  Calcutta.  Henry  Esmond;  Vanity  Fair;  The  New- 
cjmes  :  Pendennis ;  The  Adventures  0/ Philip ;  The  Virginians :  The 
Booii  of  Snobs ;    The  Four  Georges ;  English  Humorists. 

Thalberg,  Sigismond.     1812-1871.     Swiss  pianist. 
Thales.     635?-546  B.C.     Greek  s.ige  and  philosopher. 
Themistocles.  5i4?-44g?  n.c.  Athenian  general  and  statesman. 
Theocritus.     Fl.  275?     Greek  pastoral  poet. 

,..-548.       Empress    of    the     East;     wife   of 


Theodora. 

Justinian. 

Theodore. 
Theodoric. 
Theodosius 


SlS?-l86S.  King  of  Abvssinia. 
The  Great.  455-526.  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 
Flavins.  The  Great.  346?-395.  Rom.  emperor. 
Theophrastus.  372?-287?  B.C.  Gr.  philosopher  and  moralist. 
Thierry,  J.acques  N.  Augustin.  1795-1836.  French  hi-torian. 
Thiers,    Louis    Adolphe.     1797-1877.     French  statesman  and 

historian.     History  of  the  Consulate  and  Empire. 
Thomas,  George  H.     1816-1870.     American  federal  general. 

Won  the  battles  of  Chickamauga  and  Nashville, 
Thomson,  James.      1 700-1 748.     Scotch  poet.      The  Seasons; 

The  Castle  0/  Indolence  ;    Tancred  and  Sigism'.;n. la. 
Thoreau,    Henry    D.     1817-1S62.     American    author.      The 

Concord  and  Merrimeu  Rivers ;    The  Maine  Woods. 
Thorwaldsen,  Albert  D.     1770-1844.     Danish  sculptor. 
Thucydides.     470-400  n.c.     Greek  historian. 
Tiberius.    42  B.C.-37  A.D.     Roman  emperor. 
Tilden,    Samuel  Jones.      1814-....        American    statesman. 

(iovernor  of  New  York  ;  Democratic  candidate  fur  presidency,  1S76. 
Tilly,   Johann    Tierklas    von,    Count.     1559-1632.     German 

general  in  Thirty  Years'  war  ;  fell  at  the  battle  of  the  Lech. 
Timoleon.     395-337  B.C.     Corinthian  general. 
Tindal,  Matthew.     i657?-i733.     English  theological  writer. 
Tintoretto,  II.    (Giacomo  Robusti.)     1512-1594.     It.  painter. 
Titian.     (Tiziano   Vecellio.)       1477-1576.      The   greatest   of 

Venetian  painters.    Assumption  0/ the   Virgin;  Peter  Martyr;    The 

Last  Supper ;    Bacchus  and  Ariadne ;  Homage  0/  Frederick  Bar- 

barossa  to  the  Pope,  etc. 
Titiens  (or  Titjens),  Therese.     1834-1877.    German  vocalist. 


VL 


^ 


A  COMPKNDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHV. 


249 


Titus.     40-81.     Roman  emperor. 

Tobin,  Joliii.     1770-1S04.     Eng.  dramatist.      The  Honeymoon. 

Tocqueville,  .Vlexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel  dc.  1805-1859. 
Frcncli  sl.itesman  ;  author  of  Dt-trtocracy  in  Avlerica. 

Todleben,  I'ranz  Eduard.     1818-. . . .      Russian  general. 

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe.  1763-1798.  Irish  patriot;  founder 
of  the  United  Irishman. 

Tooke,  John  Home.  1736-1  Si 2.  English  philologist  and 
radical.  Having  said  that  certain  Americans  had  been  "  murdered  "  at 
the  buttle  of  Lexington,  he  w.'is  sentenced  to  one  years  imprisonment 
.and  a  heax-j'  fine  ;  .subsequently  tried  for  treason,  but  acquitted. 

Torquemada,  Tomas  de.  1420-1498.  Spanish  Dominican 
monk ;  inijuisitor-gcneral. 

Torricelli,  Evangelista.     1608-1647.     Italian  physicist. 

Toussaint  I'Ouverture,  Franpois  Dominique.  1743-1S03. 
Negro  leader  of  the  Haytien  rebellion. 

Trajan.     52-J17.     Roman  emperor. 

Trollope,  Anthony.     1815-1SS3.     English  novelist. 

Tromp,  Marten  Harpertzoon  van.   1597-1653.   Dutch  admiral. 

Tromp,  Cornelis  van.     1629-1691.     Dutch  admiral. 

Trumbull,  John.     1750-1831.     .\merican  poet  and  satirist. 

Trumbull,  John.      1756-1843.     American  painter. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan.     1740-1S09.     American  statesman. 

Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar.     1S10-. ...     Fng.  poet  and  author. 

Turenne,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  Vicomte  de.  1611- 
1675.  French  general.  Defeated  Conde  and  the  Spaniards  in  1659  ;  in- 
vaded Holland  in  1672  ;  killed  at  Salzbach. 

Turgenef,    Ivan  Sergyevich.     181S-1883.     Russian  novelist. 

Turner,  Joseph  M.i!lord  William.  1775- English  land- 
scape painter.  The  son  of  a  barber.  The  Battle  p/ the  Nile  ;  The  Sun 
Risiftg  through  I  'apor ;    The  Fall  of  Schaffhaitsen. 

Turpin,  Dick.     1711-1739.     English  highwayman. 

Tweed,  William  Marcy.  Boss  Tmeeci.  1823-1878.  American 
politician  and  embezzler;  mayor  of  New  York  city. 

Tyler,  John.  1790-1862.  Tenth  president  of  the  United 
States.  Born  in  Va. ;  practiced  law;  Congress,  1816-21;  governor  of 
Virginia,  1825:  senator,  1S27;  sympathized  with  the  nullifiers  and 
opposed  Jackson  ;  resigned  1836  ;  elected  vice-president  on  Whig  ticket, 
1840  ;  succeeded  Harrison  in  1841. 

Tyler,  Wat -1381.      English  rebel ;    leader  of  rebellion 

against  capitation  tax. 

Tyndall,  John.      1S20- Irish  scientist. 

J  y  DAL,    Nicolas.      1 506-1 564.      English    dramatist    and 

-<,^    teacher.     Author  of  the  first  F.nglish  comedy. 

Uhland,  Johann  Ludwig.     1787-1S62.     Cierman  lyric  poet. 

UUoa,  Antonio  de.  1716-1795.  Spanish  mathematician  and 
naval  ullicer  ;  governor  of  Louisiana. 

Ulphilas.  3'3-383-  The  aposlle  of  the  Goths.  Translated 
the  Scriptures  into  Gothic. 

Ulpianus,  Domitius -228.     Roman  jurist. 

Unger,  Johann  Friedrich.  1750-1813.  German  printer  and 
engraver. 

Urban  I.  Pope,  rufing  223-230;  martyr,  II.,  1088-1099; 
organized  the  first  crusade.  III.,  1184-1187.  IV.,  1261-1264.  V.,  1362- 
1370.  VI.,  1378-1389.  VII.,  1500  ;  died  on  the  twelfth  day  of  his  pon- 
tificate.    VIII.,  1623-1644. 

Ure,  Andrew.     1778-1857.     Scottish  chemist  and  physician. 
Urfe,  Honors  d'.     1567-1625.     French  romancist. 
Ussher,  James.     1580-1656.     Irish  prelate  and  scholar. 
Utrechtj  Adriaan  van.     1599-1651.     Dutch  painter. 


'TT'aLENS,  ^•■lavius.     32SP-378.      Emperor  of    the    East. 

s*^^      Brother  of  Valcntinian  L     Arian  persecutor  of  orthodo.\  Christians. 
Valentinianus    I.     (Flavins.)      321-375.     Roman    emperor. 
II.  (Flavuis),  371-392.     III.  (Phicidius),  419-455. 

Valerian.     (Publius  Lucinius  Valeiianus.)    ...  .-268?  Roman 

emperor. 

Van   Buren,   Martin.     1782-1862.     Eighth  president  of   the 

United  States.  Enrolled  at  the  bar  in  New  York  in  1803,  and  elected  to 
the  state  senate;  state  attorney-general,  1815;  leader  of  the  "  Albany 
Regency  ":  U.  S.  Senator,  1821  ;  governor,  1828  ;  secretary  of  state, 
1829-31;  vice-president,  1833-7  ;  president,  1837-41. 

Vancouver,  George.     I758?-1798.     English  navigator. 
Vanderbilt,  Cornelius.     1794-1877.     American  capitalist. 
Vandyke  (or  Van  Dyck),  .Sir  Anthony.    1599-1641.    Flemish 

painter.  Resided  in  England  for  several  years  before  his  death,  where 
hebecame  the  most  popular  artist  of  his  time.  Besides  many  portraits, 
including  those  of  the  celebrated  nrtists  of  his  time  and  several  of  Charles 
I . ,  may  be  mentioned  .as  among  his  best  works.  The  Crucifixion  ;  St. 
Augiistine  in  Jicstacy,  :ind  Tlte  Erection  0/  the  Cross, 

Vane,  Sir  Henry.  1612-1662.  English  republican  statesman. 
Convicted  of  treason  and  executed. 

Vanloo,  Charles  AndriS.     1705-1765.     French  painter. 

Vanloo,  Jean  liaptiste.      1684-1745.     French  painter. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen.  The  Fatroon.  1764-1839.  Am- 
erican statesman  and  landholder. 

Varus,  Publius  Quintilius.  Fl.  7.  Roman  general  ;  governor 
of  Germany  ;  defeated  by  Arminiiis. 

Vassar,  Matthew.     1792-1868.     Founder  of  Vassar  College. 

Vauban,    StiKastien    le    Prestre,     Seigneur    de.     1633-1707. 

French  militarj'  engineer. 

Velasquez,   Don   Diego 

Spanish  painter. 

Velde,   Willem  van   der. 

m.irine  painter. 
Velde,  Willem  van   der. 

marine  painter. 

Vendome,  Louis  Joseph,  Due  de.  1654-1712.  Fr.  general. 
Verboeckhoven,  Eugine  Joseph.  1799-1S81.  Belgian  painter. 
Verdi,    Giuseppe.     1814-....      Italian    composer.     Ernani ; 

La  Trai'iata  ;  II  Trovatore  ;  A'ida. 
Vernet,    .\ntoine   Charles   Horace.     175S-1S36.     Fr.  painter. 
Vernon,  Edward.     1684-1757.     English  admiral. 
Vespasianus,  Titus  Flavins.     9-79.     Roman  emperor. 
Vespucci,    Amerigo.      (Americus    Vespucius.)      1451-1512. 

Italian  navigator  and  astronomer,  after  whom  America  is  named, 
Vestris,   Gaetano  Apolline.      1729-1S08.     Italian  dancer. 
Victor,  Claude  Perrin,  Duke  of  Belluno. 

marshal. 
Victor  I.     Pope,  from   185   to   198.     II., 

1086-1087.     IV.    (Anti-pope),  recognized    by 

died  1164. 
Victor  Emmanuel  I.     1759-1S24.     King  of  Sardinia.     II., 

1821.-1878;  first  king  of  Italy  ;  restored  Italian  unity. 
Victoria.      (Victoria    Alexandrina.)       1819-....       Queen  of 

Great  Britain  and  empress  of  India. 
Vidocq,  Eugene  Fran(;ois.      1775-1850.     French  detective. 
Villars,  Claude  Louis  Hector  de,   Due.     1653-1734.     French 

gener.tl. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  Saint.  1576-1660.  French  priest  and  re- 
former. Founded  the  Congregation  of  Missions  and  the  Sisters  of 
Charity. 


Rodriguez  de  Silva  y.     1599-1660. 

The  Elder.      1610-1693.      E)utch 

The   Yoicngcr.      1633-1707.      Dutch 


1764-1841.     French 

1055-1057.     III., 
Frederick    I.    in    1159; 


K" 


"71 


250 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Vinci,  Leonardo  da.  1452-1519.  lulian  painter.  Last  Siif- 
pcr :  Madonnn:  Adoration  0/  t/tc  Miig-i,^lc. 

Virgil  (or  Vergil).  (Publius  Virgilius  Maro.)  70-19  B.C. 
Latin  poet.     .-Eneid ;  Ecioguts ;  Bucoiics:  Georgics. 

Volta,  .\lessandro.    1745-1S27.    It.  inventor  of  the  voltaic  pile. 

Voltaire,  Francois  Marie  Arouct  de.  1694-1778.  French 
.nuthor,  poet,  wit,  dramatist,  historian,  philosopher  and  skeptic. 
The  son  of  a  notary ;  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  in  1716  on  an  unfounded 
suspicion  of  being  the  author  of  a  libel  on  the  Regent,  and  there  pro- 
duced (Edipe  and  wrote  part  of  the  Henriadc;  in  England,  1726-9, 
passing  much  time  in  the  society  of  Eolingbroke  ;  his  drama  of  Zaire 
appeared  in  1730,  and  about  the  same  time  he  finished  his  History  0/ 
Charles  XII.;  Ahire,  1736;  Mahomet,  1741;  Merope,  1743;  passed 
the  years  I75t^3  with  Frederick  the  Great;  took  up  his  residence  (175s) 
atFerney.  The  Age  0/  Louis  XIV.:  Essay  on  the  Manners  0/  Na. 
tions :   Candide, 

Voorhees,  Daniel  W.     1827- American  orator  and  states- 


senator  from  Indiana. 


Vortigern. 


-4S5.     King  of  the  Britons. 


1S26-. 


French 


VsyADDINGTON,  William  Henry. 
JL  jL      statesman  and  archjeologist. 

Wagner,  Richard.  1813-1SS3.  German  composer,  poet  and 
critic.  Rien::i :  The  Flying  Dutchman :  Tannhiiuser;  Lohengrin: 
C'otterddmmerung  :  Nibelungenlied :  Rheingold,  etc. 

Waite,  Morrison  Remich.    i8l5-'. ..    American  chief  justice. 

Waldemar  I.      The  Great.     1131-11S1.       King  of  Denmark. 

Walker,  John.     1732-1807.     English  lexicographer. 

Wallace,  Sir  William.  I270?-I305.  Scottish  general  and 
patriot.     Defeated  by  Edward  I.   of  England  ;  betrayed  and  executed. 

Wallace,    William   Vincent.       1815-1865.       Irish   composer. 

Maritajia. 

Wallenstein,  Albrecht  Wenzel  Eusebius  von,  Count.  1583- 
1634.  Austrian  general.  Hero  of  one  of  Schiller's  dramas.  Entered 
the  imperial  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war ;  raised  an 
army  at  his  own  expense  in  1625,  invading  Denmark  ;  banished  from 
court  by  Emperor  Ferdinand,  but  recalled  on  the  death  of  Marshal 
Tilly ;  defeated  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Lutzen  in  1632,  but  gained 
several  victories  in  Silesia  :  again  lost  the  emperor's  favor,  b(  ing  charged 
with  aspirations  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  was  deprived  of  his  command 
and  assassinated. 

Walpole,  Horace,  Eari  of  Orford.  1717-1797.  English 
author  and  wit.     Catalogue  0/  Royal  a}id  Noble  Authors. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide.  ("Walter  of  the  Bird- 
Meadow.")    ii7o?-i23o?    Greatest  of  the  German  minnesingers. 

Walton,  Izaak.  1593-1683.  English  writer.  The  Complete 
Angler:  or,  A  Contemplative  Man' s  Recreation. 

Warbeck,  Perkin -1499-     English  pretender ;  hanged. 

Ward,  Artemas.     1727-1780.     American  general. 

Warner,   Charles  Dudley.     1829-....     American  humorist. 

Warner,  Susan.  (Elizabeth  Wetherell.)  1S18-....  American 
authoress. 

Warren,  Joseph.  1741-1775.  American  physician,  Revolu- 
tionary general  and  patriot ;  fell  at  Bunker  Hill. 

Warren,  Samuel.     1807-1877.     English  author. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of.  The  King-maker.  1420?- 
1471.  English  warrior.  Set  up  and  ^deposed  Edward  IV.  Hero  of 
Bulwer's  Last  o/the  Barons. 

Washington,  George.     1732-1799.    Commander-in-chief  in 

the  American  Revolution  and  first  president  of  the  United  States. 
Born  in  Virginia.  Aide-de-camp  to  Braddock  in  the  Indi.^n  campaign 
of  1755:  married  Martha  Custis,  1759:  chosen  to  Congress,  1774; 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  1775;  president,  1789-97. 


\Vatt,  James.  1736-1819.  Scottish  engineer  .and  inventor 
Improved  and  completed  the  steam-engine.  Has  also  been  credited  with 
the  discovery  of  the  composition  of  water. 

Watteau,  Jean  .Vntoine.     16S4-1721.     French  painter. 

Watts,  Isaac.     1 674-1 74S.     English  Dissenting  minister  and 

sacred  poet.    Hymns. 

Wayne,  Anthony.  1745-1796.  American  Revolutionary 
general.     Captured  Stony  Point. 

Weber,  Karl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst  von.  Baron.  1786-1826. 
German  composer.  Der  Freischiitz.  His  // rf/i/wtiVtr/^t-w,  subsequently 
known  as  Sylvana,  was  composed  at  sixteen. 

Webster,  Daniel.  17S2-1852.  American  lawyer,  orator  and 
statesman.  Born  in  N.  H.  ;  Congress,  1812-16,  1822-8;  Senate,  1S28-41; 
secretary  of  state  ;  re-entered  the  Senate  in  1S44  ;  agam  became  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1850.  Webster  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  in  1834, 
but  defeated  ;  candidate  for  the  Whig  nomination  in  1848,  but  defeated 
by  Taylor,  whom  he  cordially  supported.  Webster's  reply  to  Hayne 
of  South  Carolina,  is  considered  the  greatest  speech  ever  made  on  the 
floors  of  Congress.  His  greatest  legal  effort  was  in  the  famous  Dart- 
mouth College  case. 

Webster,  Noah.     1758-1S43.     American  lexicographer. 

Wedgwood,  Josiah.     1730-1795.     English  potter. 

Weed,  Thurlow.     1797-1883.     American  journalist. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  first  Duke  of.  1769-1S52. 
British  general  and  statesman.  Gained  great  distinction  in  India,  in  the 
waragainst  the  Mahrattas  ;  major-general,  1S02  ;  Parliament,  1S05  ;  sec- 
retary'for  Ireland,  1807  ;  defeated  the  Danes  at  Kioge,  and  was  given 
command  of  an  army  sent  to  Spain  against  the  French.  iSoS  ;  opposed 
by  superior  forces  and  able  generals,  but|ahly  thwarted  their  plans  ;  tri- 
umphantly entered  Madrid,  1S12;  defeated  Jourdan  and  Soull,  1S13  ;  in- 
vaded France  and  gained  numerous  victories  ;  defeated  Napoleon  at 
Waterioo,  1815,  and  entered  Paris  with  the  allies  same  year.  Was  .-fter- 
ward  prime  minister  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

Wells,  Horace.   1815-1848.  American  dentist.    (An;Esthesia.) 

Wells,  Samuel  Roberts.     1820-1875.     Am.  phrenologist. 

Wenceslaus  (or  Wenzel).  1361-1419.  Emperor  of  Ckr- 
many  and   king  of  Bohemia. 

Wesley,  Charles.  1708-1788.  English  Methodist  divine  ai  d 
hymn-writer. 

Wesley,  J(hn.     1703-1791.     Brother  of  preceding.     Englsh 

ioundcr  cf  Methodism. 

West,    Benjamin.       173S-1820. 
Wharton,  Francis.     1820-. . . . 
Wharton,  Ilcniy.     1664-1695. 
Whately,  Richard.      1787-1863. 
Wheeler,  William  Almon.     1819- 

vice-presidt^nt. 

Whewell,  William.     1794-1866.     English  philosopher. 

White,  Andrew  Dickson.     1832- American  scholar. 

\A^hite,  Henry  Kirke.     1785-1806.     English  religious  poet. 

White,  Joseph  Blanco.     1775-1841. 

White,  Richard  Grant.     1822- 

Whitefield,  George.     1714-1770. 
of  Calvinistic  Methodists. 

Whitman,  Walt.  1819- American  poet.  In  turn  car- 
penter, editor,  nurse  and  government  clerk.    Leaz'es  of  Grass. 

Whitney,  Eli.     1765-1825.     Inventor  of  the  cotton-gin. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf.     1807- American  poet.  Born 

at  Haverhill,  Mass.  Member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Farmer,  shoe- 
nuaker,  journalist  and  a'oohtionis'  agitator.  Snow  Bound :  Voices  of 
Freedom  :  Songs  0/  Labor  :  Home  Ballads  ;  In  War  Time  :  Nation- 
al Lyrics  :  The  Tent  on  the  Beach  :  Ballads  0/ New  England : 
Hazel  Blossoms,  etc. 


Am.   painter  in   England. 
Am.  jurist  and  theologian. 
English  ecclesiaslical  writer 
Irish  prelate  and  atithor. 
American  statesman; 


English  author. 
American  author. 
English  preacher;  founder 


k- 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Wieland,  Christoph  Martin.     17J3-1S1J.     (Icrmaii  poet. 
Wilberforce,  William.       1759-18^3.       English  philanthropist 

.-iiul  statesman.     Secured  the  abolition  of  the  s1.ivetr.idc. 
William  I.      Tfie  Conqueror.     1027-10S7.     King  of  England. 

Diikc  of  Normandy  :  conquered  England.     II.,  ^////if,  1056-1100.    III. 

(William  Henry  of  N.lssaii,  Prince  of  Orange),  1650-1702  ;  won  battle  of 

the  Royne.     IV.,  1765-1837  ;  uncle  of  Queen  Victoria. 
William  I.    1772-1843.    King  of  the  Netherlanils.    II.,  1792- 

r-i<i.    III.,  1817- 

William    I.     1797-....     King   of   Prussia   antt    emperor   of 

Cermany. 

Williams,  Eleazer.  1787-1858.  ,\merican  clergyman,  claim- 
ing; tu  bo  the  son  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette. 

Williams,  Roger.  1599-1683.  English  Puritan  minister; 
f  jUTidcr  of  Rhode  Island  colony  ;  born  in  Wales. 

Willis,   Nathaniel    Parker.     1806-1867.    American   journalist 

and  Jtoct. 

Wilmot,   David.      1814-1S6S.     .\mcrican    statesman;    author 

of  the  Wilmot  Proviso. 
■Wilson,    .Mexander.       1766-1813.      .Scottish-.American    orni- 

tholOg'ist. 

Wilson,    Henry.       (Jeremiah    Jones   Colbath.)       1812-1875. 

.\merican  politician  ;  eighteenth  vice-president. 
Wilson,   John.      Christopher   North.      17S5-1S54.      Scottish 

writer. 

Wimpffen,  Emmanuel  Felix  de.    1811-1S84.    French  general. 
\Ariseman.  Nicholas.     1802-1865.     Eng.  Catholic  cardinal. 
Wittekind -S07.    Saxon  warrior ;  conquered  by  Charle- 

ni.t^ne. 
Wolcott,  John.    173S-1819.    English  satirist.     Pelcr  Pindar  s 

OJ,-s. 
Wolfe,  Charles.     1791-1823.    Irish  poet.    Burial  of  Sir  John 

Wolfe,  James.     1726-1759.     Eng.  general;  fell  at  Quebec. 
\A^olseley,  Sir  Garnet  Joseph.     1833-....      British  general. 
Wolsey,  Thomas.     1471-1530.     English  cardinal  and  states- 
man.    Prime  minister  of  Henry  VIII.:  deposed  1529. 
\Vood,  Mrs.  Henry.     1820-. . . .     Eng.  novelist.    East  Lynnc. 
Wood  worth,  Samuel.   1785-1842.  Ainerican  poet.    Old  Oaken 

Bucket. 

Worcester,  Edward  .Somerset,  Marquis  of.  i6oi?-i667. 
F.ni^lish  nobleman  ;  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine. 

Worcester,  Joseph  Emerson.    1734-1866.  Am.  lexicographer. 

Wordsworth,  William.  1770-1850.  English  poet.  Educated 
at  Cambridge ;  with  Coleridge  produced  Lyrical  Ballads,  1798  ;  settled 
at  Rydal  Mount,  1803;  Poems,  1837;  The  E.rcursion,  1814:  The 
White  Dee  0/  Rylstoiie,  1815;  Peter  Bell,  1816.  Ecclesiastical  Son- 
nets:    The  Wagoner ;   Yarrow  Revisited :    The  Prelude, 

Wrangel,  Karl  Ciustaf  von,  Count.     1613-1675.     Sw.  general. 

Wrangell,  Ferdinand  Petrovitch  von,  Baron.  1 7957-1870. 
Russian  explorer  ;  governor  of  Russian  America. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher.  1632-1723.  English  architect.  (St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London.) 

Wright,  Silas.     1795-1847.     American  statesman. 

Wycherley,  William.     i640?-i7i5.     English  comedy  writer. 

Wycliffe  (or  Wickliffe),  John  de.  I324?-I384.  English  re- 
former; translator  of  the  Scriptures. 

XANTIPPE.     The   wife  of  Socrates;   notorious  for  bad 
temper,  but  credited   by  her  husband  with  many  domestic  virtues. 
Xavier    Francis,    Saint.      The  Apostle  of  the   Indies.     1506- 
1552.     French  Jesuit  missionary  to  India  and  Japan. 


Xenocrates.     ^6-314  B.C.     Greek  i)hilosopher. 
Xenophanes.     6oo?-5C)0?  n.c.     Greek  philosopher. 
Xenophon.     445  7-355?  B.C.     Athenian  historian  and  general. 

Aniilasis  ;    Cyro/tedia, 

Xerxes  I.  The  Great -465  It.c.  King  of  Persia.  In- 
vaded Greece,  but  was  defeated  at  Salamis, 

Ximenes,  Francisco,  Cardinal.  1436-1517.  Spanish  prelate, 
statesman  and  patron  of  literature.    Published  Polyglot  Bible. 

'rr'AKOOB     IBN     LAIS -879.      I'ounder   of    the 

j-^     Persi.in  dynasty  of  the  Suffarides.     Conquered  ScTstan  and  Fars"tan. 

Yale,  Elihu.     164S-1721.     Founder  of  Yale  College. 

Yancey,  William  Lowndes.     1814-1863.  American  politician. 

Yonge,  Charlotte  Mary.     1S23-.  ...      English  authoress. 

Yorck  von  Wartenburg,  Hans  David  Ludwig,  Count.    1759 
1830.     Pnissian  general. 

York,  Edmund  Plantagenet,  first  Duke  of.  1341-1402.  Found- 
er of  the  house  of  York. 

Yorke,  Charles,  Lord  Morden.  1722-1770.  English  states- 
man and  jurist. 

Young,  Arthur.     1 741-1820.     English  agricultural  writer. 

Young,  Brigham.        1801-1S77.       President  of  the    Mormon 

church. 

Young,  Charles  Augustus.     1834- American  scientist. 

Young,  Edward.  1684-1765.  English  poet.  Night  Thoughts ; 
Lo^'e  0/  Fame  the  Universal  Passion  ;    The  Revenge. 

Yves,  Saint.  1253-1303.  French  monk  and  jurist;  patron  of 
lawyers. 

TT-ALEUCUS.        Fl.    7th   century   u.c.       Greek    legislator 

-AA         and  retormer  :  first  to  make  a  written  code  of  laws. 

Zamoyski,  John  Sarius.  1541-1605.  Polish  general,  states- 
man and  scholar. 

Zechariah.     Fl.  6th  cenftry  p..(.-.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Zelotti,  Batlista.     1532-1592.     Italian  painter. 

Zeno  (or  Zenon).  355  ?-307?  B.C.  Greek  philosopher;  founde 
of  the  school  of  Stoics. 

Zeno  (or  Zeoon).     495- ?     Greek  philosopher. 

Zeno -491.    Emperor  of  the  East. 

Zenobia, -Septiiiiia -27S-  Queen  of  Palmyra.  Beauti- 
ful, learned,  and  possessed  of  a  warlike  ind  masculine  temper.  Her  do- 
minions extended  from  the  Mcditernmean  to  the  Euphrates,  and  included 
a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor.     Defeated  by  Aurelian,  she  retired  to  Italy. 

Zephaniah.  Hebrew  prophet,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah.     Foretold  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Zeuxis.     450-....?     Greek  painter. 

Zhukovsky,  Vasili  Andreevitch.     1 783-1852.       Russian  poet. 

Zimmerman,  Johann  Georg  von.  1728-1795.  Swiss  physi- 
cian anil  philosopher.     On  Solitude. 

Zinzendorf  Nicolaus  Ludwig  von,  Count.  1700-1760.  Ger- 
man theologian  ;  restorer  of  the  sect  of  Moravians. 

Ziska,  John,  of  Trocznow.      i36o-i4?4.      Bohemian  general 

and  leader  of  the  Hussites. 
Zoega,  Georg.     1755-1S09.     Danish  archaeologist. 
Zollicoffer,  Felix  K.     1812-1862.     American  general. 
Zoroaster.    Fl.  1500  B.C.     Persian  philosopher  and  founder  of 

the  Magian  religion. 
Zschokke,  Johann  lleinrich  Daniel.        1771-184S.       Geiman 

avtlhor. 
Zuccaro,  Federigo.     1543-1609.     Italian  painter. 
Zwingle,  Ulrich.       1484-1531.      Swiss    reformer;    killed  in 

battle.     Exposition  0/  the  Christian  Faith. 


252 


A  PANORAMA  OF  HISTORY. 


^OBAM^^, 


-.51^ 


-jj* 


^^  Nation  on  the  o^" 


She  United  States. 


EFORE  the  occurrence  uf  the  events  which  awoke  a 

qM     national  feeling  in  the  thirteen  colonies,  their  history 

was  an  uninteresting  series  of  selfish  bickerings  and 

\&  Jl     quarrels.     Only  once  or  twice  during  this  period  did 

^/jv'         any  of  the  colonies  form  unions  with  one  another, 

and  even  then  it  was  done  solely   for  the  purpose  of  mutual 

protection  against  the 

common  enemy,  the  In- 
dians, whose  incursions 

upon   the    settlements, 

and    the   wars    waged 

against  them,  form  the 

most  romantic  pages  of 

this  period  of  American 

history.       The    people 

were  too  loyal  to  think 

of  separating  from  the 

mother  country,  whose 

utter  disregard   of  her 

alien  children  is  alone 

to  blame   for  the  loss 

of    the    empire   which 

they  deprived    her    of 

when   they  united  and 

fought  for  and  obtained 

the    glorious   boon    of 

national  independence. 

It   is   with    the   events 

whicli     preceded      this 

consumm:ition  that  the 

history   of  the    United 

States    really    begins. 

Unacquainted   at  once 

with  the  needs  and  with 

the  spirit  of  the  colo- 
nists, the  home  Government  brought  to  bear  upon  them  several 

oppressive  measures  against  which  they  entered  more  than  one 

gentle  but  decided  protest.     No  taxation  without  representation 

was  the  central  idea  of  the  Colonial  opposition  to  British  rule,  and 


THE  FALLS  OF  NTA(;ARA. 


when,  in  1765,  the  British  Government  passed  what  was  known 
as  the  Stamp  Act,  requiring  the  colonists  to  place  the  Gov- 
ernment stamp  upon  all  their  legal  documents,  newspapers  or 
pamphlets,  a  general  opposition  to  the  law  was  aroused  in 
the  colonies,  which  resulted  in  the  calling  of  a  Colonial  Con- 
gress, which  entered  a  formal  protest  against  the  measure.      Its 

repeal  was  .secured  by 
this  action,  but  the  re- 
lief was  only  tempo- 
rary, as  ten  years  later 
tlie  Government  im- 
jiosed  a  duty  on  tea, 
glass,  paper  and  other 
colonial  imports,  which 
was  bitterly  resisted. 
In  Boston  the  outcry 
against  it  was  especially 
loud, and  there  occurred 
that  very  ominous  affair 
known  as  the  "  Bos- 
ton Tea  Party,  "  when 
patriotic  colonists,  dis- 
guised as  Indians, 
lioarded  the  British 
ships  and  threw  into 
the  bay  the  tea  which 
constituted  their  main 
cargoes.  The  Briti.sh 
Parliament  closed  the 
port  of  Boston,  and 
these  harsh  measures, 
unrelieved  by  any  ef- 
forts in  the  direction  of 
conciliation,  drove  the 
colonists  to  rebellion. 
War  began  April  19,  1775,  when  the  Colonial  militia  and 
the  British  troops  met  at  Concord.  Common  cause  was  at 
once  made  by  the  colonists,  who  raised  troops  and  placed 
them  under  tlie  command  of  George  Washington,  a  Virginian, 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


253 


J- 


y 


who  had  served  with  credit  as  an  Knglish  officer  in  tlie  wars 
against  the  French  in  the  West.  Boston  was  evacuated 
by  the  British  March  17,  iyj6,  and  July  4th  of  the  same 
year  Congress  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Ueverses  now  befell  the  Colonial  armies.  New  York  was  lost 
to  them,  and  this  serious  blow  was  hardly  olTset  by  the  victories 
of  I'rincetonand  Trenton.  Philadelphia  was  abandoned  in  1777, 
the  most  important  Colonial  victory  of  that  year  being  the  one 
gained  by  General  Gates  at  Saratoga,  where  he  captured  Gen- 
eral Burgoyne  and  his  army.  Very  serious  was  the  drain  upon 
the  population  and  resources  of  the  Revolutionary  Government 
at  this  time,  and  during  the  winter  of  1777-7S,  which  the 
American  army  passed  in  camp  at  Valley  Forge,  the  fortunes 
of  the  young  nation  seemed  at  a  very  low  ebb.  While  the  army 
was  suffering  from  cold  and  short  rations  during  this  season, 
the  American  diplomat  Benjamin  Franklin  was  at  the  court 
of  France,  successfully  conducting  negotiations  which  led  to 
the  establishment  of  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliance  between 
that  country  and  the  Americans.  French  money  and  men 
proved  a  timely  aid,  though  for  two  years  the  colonists  made 
no  great  headway.  In  1781  the  campaign  in  the  South  was 
conducted  with  such  vigor  that  the  British  forces  there  were 
cooped  up  in  Savan- 
nah, Georgia,  and 
Charleston,  South 
Carolina.  Succes.ses 
further  north  fol- 
lowed, and  the  sur- 
render of  General 
Cornwallis  at  York- 
town, Virginin,  proved 
the  ruin  of  the  British 
cause  in  America, 
and  the  practical  ter- 
mination of  the  war. 
In  the  following  year 
negotiations  for  peace 
were  begun,  and  a 
treaty  acknowledging  the  independence  of  the  United  Slates 
was  signed  September  3,  17S3. 

It  had  been  felt  all  through  the  war  that  the  articles  of  con- 
federation under  which  the  different  colonies  co-operated  were 
altogether  inadequate  to  the  conduct  of  the  young  nation's 
affairs,  and  the  revision  of  the  form  of  government  was  one  of 
the  earliest  matters  to  receive  the  attention  of  its  leaders.  A 
convention  was  called  at  Annapolis  in  17S7,  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  which  was  duly  ratified  by 
the  States  and  has  remained,  with  the  addition  of  sundry  amend- 
ments, the  embodiment  of  the  principles  of  government  in  this 
country  ever  since.  In  17S9  General  George  Washington  was 
elected  first  President  of  the  United  States,  and  a  second  term  of 
office  was  accorded  him  in  1793,  at  the  end  of  which  he  declined 
to  again  accept  the  office,  thus  establishing  the  no-third-term 
precedent,  violation  of  which  has  not  since  been  permitted  l>y 
the  American  people.  Early  in  the  political  history  of  the 
country  party  lines  began  to  be  sharply  drawn,  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  causing  the  first  clearly  defined  difference  of 
opinion,  when  those  favoring  it  became  known  as  Federalists 


THE  SUSPENSION  BR[DGE,  NIAGARA. 


and  those  opposed  to  it  as  Anti-Federalists,  the  latter  party  as- 
suming the  name  Republican  subsequent  to  the  Constitution's 
ado])tion.  The  presidential  elections  following  those  of 
Washington,  in  which  patriotic  sentiment  was  allowed  to  over- 
come party  feeling,  were  purely  partisan ;  and  while  the  Fed- 
eralists succeeded  in  placing  John  .-Vdams  in  the  presidential 
chair  as  Washington's  successor,  the  Republicans  elected  Jeffer- 
son, Madison  and  Monroe,  each  for  two  terms  of  office.  With 
the  exception  of  wars  with  the  Indians,  who  disputed  the  ad- 
vance into  their  territories  caused  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
population,  the  country  was  at  peace  during  the  years  subse- 
quent to  Washington's  inauguration.  In  1812,  however,  dilTcr- 
ences  arose  with  Great  Britain,  then  at  war  with  France,  the 
most  serious  of  which  was  her  persistence  in  asserting  the  right 
of  searching  American  vessels  and  removing  from  them  sailors 
who  she  claimed  were  of  British  birth,  but  who  really,  in  a  vast 
majority  of  cases,  were  American  citizens,  of  whom  not  less 
than  6,000 were  so  impressed  in  the  year  iSll.  The  war  was 
conducted  with  varying  success  in  different  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent. In  the  operations  against  Canada,  General  William 
Henry  Harrison  won  a  glorious  victory  near  Detroit,  defeating 
a  British  army  with  which  was  allied  a  powerful  force  of  In- 
dians under  the  fa- 
mous leader  Tecum- 
seh,  who  was  .slain. 
General  Scott  secured 
successes  at  I.undy's 
Lane  and  Chippewa; 
while  Commodore 
Perry,  on  Lake  V.ne, 
and  Commodore  Mc- 
Ponough,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  swept 
those  waters  of  Brit- 
ish war  vessels  and 
greatly  enhanced  the 
importance  of  the 
militaryvictories.  In 
the  South,  General  Jackson  defeated  the  British  at  the  mem- 
orable battle  of  New  Orleans.  The  principal  reverses  sus- 
tained during  the  war  were  the  capture  of  General  Hull 
and  his  army  at  Detroit,  and  of  General  Winchester  and 
the  defeat  of  the  Americans  at  Bladensburgh,  which  opened  the 
waj;  to  the  British  occupation  of  Washington.  The  war,  which 
came  to  an  end  December  24,  1S14,  was  strongly  opposed  by 
the  Federalists,  and  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Republican 
party.  While  it  was  in  progress  an  uprising  of  the  Creek  In- 
dians in  Alabama  caused  considerable  trouble,  but  they  were 
conquered  by  General  Jackson.  Further  troubles  with  Indians 
occurred  in  1832,  when  the  Sacs  and  Fo.tes,  tribes  living  in  the 
Northwest,  had  to  be  quelled  in  what  is  known  as  the  Black 
Hawk  war,  and  in  1S35,  when  Osceola,  a  crafty  leader  of  the 
Seminole  tribe,  of  Florida,  began  a  war  which  lasted  for  four 
years  before  they  were  brought  under  subjection.  All  of  these 
troublesome  savages  were  removed  to  lands  reserved  for  them, 
and  known  then  and  since  as  the  Indian  Territory. 

Although   no  foreign   war   occupied   the   public  mind   for 
thirty  years  from  the  close  of  that  of  1S12,  important  events 


/ 


254 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


at  home  caused  great  agitation.  The  question  of  perpetuating 
the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  new  States  caused  a  long  and 
excited  controversy,  which  ended  temporarily  in  1S20  by  the 
admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State,  with  a  compromise 
resolution  providing  that  in  future  no  slave  State  should  exist 
north  of  the  parallel  36  degrees  20  seconds  north  latitude. 
In  1832,  the  adoption  of  a  high  protective  tariff  by  Congress 
was  resented  by  the  Southern  States,  South  Carolina  declaring 
it  unconstitutional  and  threatening  secession.  Happily,  when 
a  collision  seemed  unavoidable,  a  compromise,  effected  by 
Henry  Clay,  providing  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  duties, 
restored  a  peaceful  condition  of  affairs.  In  1S37  occurred  a 
linancial  crisis  attended  with  many  serious  commercial  dis- 
asters, the  result  of  a  period  of  over-speculation  and  expansion 


defeated  the  Mexican  General  Santa  Anna.  In  1847,  General 
Winfield  Scott  captured  the  seaport  of  Vera  Cruz,  and,  march- 
ing up  the  valley  of  Mexico,  fought  and  won  the  battles  of  Cerro 
Gordo,  Churubusco  and  Chapultepec,  and  captured  the  city  of 
Mexico.  The  war  came  to  an  end  February  2,  1848,  the 
Mexicans  ceding  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California  to  the 
United  States. 

No  foreign  war  was  conducted  by  the  United  States  after 
this,  but  within  her  boundaries  a  conflict  of  forces  was  going 
on  which  was  doomed  to  bring  the  country  to  internal  strife. 
The  agitation  of  the  slavery  question  continued,  and,  as  years 
went  by,  the  discussion  of  its  merits  increased  in  bitterness. 
Still  the  country  continued  to  grow  rapidly  in  wealth  and 
population,  and  many  hoped  that  some  compromise  might  yet 


THE  CITY  OF  BOSTON. 


of  the  currency.  During  the  administration  of  President 
Tyler,  the  boundary  question  threatened  a  disruption  of  peace- 
ful relations  with  Great  Britain,  but  the  arbitration  treaty, 
which  was  arranged  by  Daniel  Webster,  averted  the  threatened 
disaster.  In  1845,  the  Mexican  State  of  Texas,  which  had 
been  largely  settled  by  Americans,  and  which  had  declared  its 
independence  some  years  previous,  was  annexed  by  the  United 
States.  .'\  dispute  with  Mexico  over  the  boundary  question 
followed,  which  led  to  war,  and  General  Zachary  Taylor,  in 
the  battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resacade  la  Palma,  captured  the 
city  of  Monterey,  and  marched  on  to  Buena   Vista,  where  he 


preserve  the  national  peace,  which  the  more  reckless  support- 
ers of  both  the  .\bolition  and  Slavery  parties,  judging  by  the 
fierceness  of  their  utterances,  seemed  to  hold  of  much  lighter 
account  than  the  respective  principles  they  upheld.  As  each 
election  went  by,  the  issue  became  more  clearly  that  of  slavery 
or  freedom,  and  in  1S60  Abraham  Lincoln  was  elected  Presi- 
dent by  the  Republican  party  on  a  jilatform  which,  while  leav- 
ing to  each  State  the  right  to  order  and  control  its  own 
domestic  institutions,  insisted  that  freedom  was  the  normal 
condition  of  all  the  territory  of  the  United  States.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Southern  States  had  made  the  declaration  that 


.^1 


K" 


7 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


255 


the  election  of  a  President  pledged  to  oppose  the  extension  of 
slavery  would  be  a  violation  of  their  constitutional  rights  and 
a  moral  invasion  of  the  Slave  States.  In  adherence  to  this 
declaration,  in  December,  iS6o,  South  Carolina  seceded  from 
the  Union,  and  her  example  was  followed  by  Mississippi, 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Virginia, 
Arkansas,  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  In  April  following 
the  Confederates  opened  hostilities  by  bombarding  Fort 
Sumter,  near   Charleston,   S.  C,  and  compelling   the  Union 


before  General  Grant,  and.  Port  Hudson  surrendering  a  few 
days  later,  the  blockade  of  the  Mississippi  was  ended.  The 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  at  which  General  Meade  defeated  Lee's 
splendid  army,  was  another  important  Northern  victory  during 
the  year  of  Emancipation.  In  1S64,  General  Sherman  cap- 
tured Atlanta,  and  accomplished  his  march  to  the  sea,  which 
ended  with  the  fall  of  Savannah.  The  bloody  victories  of  the 
Wilderness  and  of  Spottsylvania  helped  the  Union  soldiers  in 
their  march  south,  and  the  siege  of  Petersburg  was  conducted 


THE  IROOkLW  SUsPF'-sION  BRIDGE 


garrison  to  .surrender.  Both  sides  to  the  impending  conflict 
armed  with  haste,  and  the  first  serious  clash  of  arms  occurred 
at  Bull  Run,  where  the  Federal  forces  became  panic-stricken 
and  suffered  defeat.  The  Confederates  gained  but  a  slight 
advantage  and  were  driven  back.  In  the  West,  where  the 
Confederates  had  closed  up  the  Mississippi  River,  the  Federals 
captured  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  and  overran  the  State  of 
Tennessee.  On  January  i,  1863,  President  Lincoln  issued  the 
Emancipation  Proclamation.  With  varying  fortunes  the  war 
progressed  until  July  4th   of  that  year,  when  Vicksburg  fell 


by  General  Grant  in  command  of  a  line  between  thirty  and 
forty  miles  in  length.  The  fall  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
April  2  and  3,  1865,  brought  the  end  near,  and  a  week  later 
General  Lee  surrendered  at  Ai>pomaltox  Court-house.  The 
war,  in  the  conduct  of  which  nearly  i,Soo,ooo  Union  soldiers 
had  been  enlisted,  and  a  debt  of  $2,000,000,000  incurred,  called 
for  special  financial  legislation.  In  1S62,  and  on  subsequent 
occasions,  were  issued  legal  tender  notes  of  the  United  States, 
and  interest-bearing  bonds  of  various  kinds.  A  national 
bank  system,  which  survives,  was  established.    Customs  duties 


\ 


~»  a  V 


2s6 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


were  raised  to  an  average  of  nearly  50  per   cent,  and  a  direct 
tax  and  a  large   variety    <■(  iiilimil    revenue  duties  were  im- 


— - 

■fU 


VL- 


COL.  W    A    ROEBLING 

BUILUEK    OF  THE   BROOKLYN  BRIDGE. 

posed.  These  impositions  provided  for  the  annual  expendi- 
tures of  the  Government,  which  were  increased  from  $60,000,000 
in  1S60  to  $1,217,000,000  in  1865. 

April  14,  1S65,  a  few  weeks 
after  his  inauguration  for  the 
second  term.  President  Lincoln 
was  assassinated  at  Washington 
by  J.  Wilkes  Booth,  who  was 
hunted  down  and  killed  a  few 
days  later,  four  of  his  accom- 
plices being  convicted  and  exe- 
cuted. Vice-President  Johnson 
became  President,  and  the  work 
of  political  reconstruction  was 
begun.  The  Thirteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution,  abol- 
ishing slavery  within  the  United 
States  and  places  subject  to 
their  jurisdiction,  was  duly  rati- 
fied anil  proclaimed.  In  April, 
1866,  Congress  passed  the  Civil 
Rights  bill  over  the  President's 
veto,  thus  ensuring  protection 
to  the  freed  slaves,  and  giving 
to  tile  Federal  courts  enlarged 
jurisdiction  in  the  matter.  In 
June  was  passed  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment,  whereby  equal 
civil  rights  were  guaranteed  to 

all,  irrespective  of  race  or  color,  liy  this  time  the  breach 
between  President  Johnson  and  the  Republican  party  was 
complete,  and  the  antagonism  grew  until  in  March,  1S67, 
the  Republican  Congress  ])assed,  over  the  President's  veto,  the 
tenure  of  oflice  act,  intended  to  contract  the  executive's  power  to 
eniove  officials.      Mr.   Johnson  deemed  the  act  an  unconstitu- 


tional invasion  of  his  rights,  and  defied  it,  which  led  to  his 
impeachment  and  trial  by  the  Senate,  who  acquitted  him,  the 
two-thirds  vote  necessary  for  a  conviction  not  being  secured. 
Just  before  his  retirement,  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  was  passed,  which  provides  that  the  rights  of  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged 
by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

At  the  next  presidential  election  General  U.  S.  Grant  re- 
ceived the  nomination  of  the  Republican  party  and  was  elected. 
Representation  in  Congress  was  restored  to  such  States  as  had 
not  regained  it  since  reconstruction  commenced.  In  1869  the 
Union  Pacific  and  Central  Pacific  railroads  were  completed, 
connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  by  rail. 

The  claims  of  the  United  States  against  the  British  Govern- 
ment for  the  depredations  of  the  Alabama  and  other  Confed- 
erate cruisers  built  by  the  English  were  referred  to  a  tribunal 
of  arbitration,  which  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1S71,  and  awarded  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,- 
000  damages,  this  being  the  first  occasion  in  the  world's  history 
in  which  an  international  difficulty  of  such  gravity  had  been 
disposed  of  in  so  peaceful  a  manner. 

During  General  Grant'ssecond  term,  which  began  in  1873,  the 
Indians  gave  trouble.  The  Apaches,  in  Arizona,  were  subdued 
by  General  Crook.  In  1873,  General  E.  R.  S.  Canby  and 
some    other   officers     were    treacherously   massacred   by    the 


THE  NEW  YORK  ELEVATED  RAILROAD. 

Modocs,  who  were  destroyed  after  a  hard  .struggle.  In  .1876, 
the  Sioux,  in  Montana,  under  Sitting  Bull,  rebelled  against 
United  States  authority  and  were  attacked  by  General  George 
A.  Custer,  who,  with  his  immediate  command,  was  surrounded 
and  slain,  other  companies  of  the  cavalry  regiment  under  him 
being  rescued  by  General  Terry. 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


257 


In  1876  the  convention  of  the  Republican  party  nominated 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  for  President,  while  Samuel  J. 
Tilden,  of  New  York,  was  put  forward  by  the  Democrats.  The 
ensuing  election  was  extremely  close,  Mr.  Tiklen  receiving  a 
majority  of  the  popular  vote,  and  the  returns  also  giving  him  a 
majority  of  the  Electoral  College.  The  returns  from  Florida  and 
Louisiana  were  disputed,  however,  on  tlie  ground  of  fraud. 
Congress  was  unable  to  reach  a  decision,  and  an  Electoral  Com- 
mission was  appointed.  Under  its  decision,  by  a  vote  of  8  to  7, 
Mr.  Hayes  became  President,  the  commission  allotting  him  185 
of  the  electoral  votes,  one  more  than  the  number  allotted  Mr. 
Tilden.  During  the  administration  of  President  Hayes  a 
great  ciuse  of  irritation  throughout  the  South  was  removed 
by  his  aversion  to  th.-  use  of  the  military  power  of  the 
United  Stales  in  controlling  State  governni-'nts.  The  decline  of 
values  in  all  pirts  of  the  cou-titry,  however,  as  tiie  time  for  re- 
sumption of  specie  payments  approached,  caused  great  distress. 
Wages  wjre  lowered,  and  thousands  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. In  the  summer  of  1877  a  great  strike  of  men  engaged 
by  the  railroad  companies  stopped,  for  a  time,  all  traisporta- 
tion  of  passengers  and  freight  on  many  roads,  and  filled  the 
country  with  alarm.  Riots  occurred  at  Reading,  Scranton, 
Pittsburg,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis.  At  Pittsburg  property  to 
the  amount  of  several  millions  of  dollars  was  destroyed.  During 
187S  and  1S79  the  lower  Mississippi  v,illey  was  ravaged  by 
yellow  fever,  and  great  numbers  perished  with  the  dread  disease 
in  New  Orleans,  Vicksburg,  Memphis,  and  smaller  places, 
although  the  Howard  Association,  as  well  as  sisterhoods  and 
clergymen,  nobly  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  and  relief  of  the 
sick.  A  majority  of  Congress,  during  Hayes'  administration,  was 
elected  by  the  Democrats,  and  many  cases  of  disagreement 
occurred  between  the  legislative  body  and  the  executive,  several 
bills  being  vetoed  by  the  President,  who,  in  1879,  called  an 
extra  session  to  pass  the  annual  appropriation  bills.  One  of  the 
bills  vetoed  by  the  President  was  that  to  prevent  the  further 
immigration  of  natives  of  China.  During  the  excitement  on 
this  subject  in  California,  many  acts  of  violence  were  perpetrated, 
and  m  my  Chinese  left  the  Stale  and  became  scattered  through 
the  country.  A  new  treaty  wuh  Cliina  at  last  removed  some  of 
the  difficulties. 

In  1880  the  Republicans  nominated  and  elected  General 
James  A.  Garfield,  his  opponent  for  the  Presidency  being  General 
Winfield  S.  Hancock.  A  strong  effort  had  previously  been  made 
in  the  Republican  party  to  nominate  General  Grant,  who  had 
made  a  tour  of  the  world,  and  been  received  with  great  distinc- 
tion in  Europe.  The  election  of  1880  was  a  close  one,  the  vote 
of  New  York,  which  had  for  years  been  Democratic,  deciding 
the  contest  in  favor  of  the  Republican  candidate.  The  elections 
for  Congress  also  showed  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  Republicans. 
The  nomination  of  Garfield,  however,  had  caused  a  split  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Republican  party,  the  supporters  of  the  third  term 
aspirations  of  General  Grant,  commonly  known  as  "  Stalwarts," 
feeling  deeply  their  failure  to  nominate  him.  This  opposition  to 
the  President  reappeared  after  he  had  begun  his  administration, 
and  an  open  rupture  between  him  and  the  Stalwart  leaders  fol- 
lowed.    While  this  was  at  its  height,  a  political  fanatic,  named 


Charles  Jules  Guiteau,  conceived  the  idea  that  he  would  restore 
unity  to  the  party  by  removing  the  President,  thus  throwing 
the  administration  into  the  hands  of  Vice-President  Arthur,  who 
was  a  Stalwart,  and  had  received  the  nomination  as  a  concession 
to  that  faction.  July  2,  18S1,  Guiteau  lay  in  wait  for  the  Presi- 
dent at  the  railway  station  at  Washington,  and  shot  him  as  he 
was  on  the  point  of  dep.irting  from  the  city  upon  a  vacation. 
The  wounded  President  died  September  19,  at  Long  Branch, 
N.  J.,  and  was  succeeded  liy  Vice-President  Arthur.  The  as- 
sassin Guiteau  was  tried,  convicted  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged, 
the  execution  taking  place  in  the  jail  building  at  Washington. 

Since  Mr.  .\rthur's  accession  to  power  the  Democrats,  in  the 
general  elections  of  1S82,  came  to  the  front  and  carried  so  many 
of  the  Congressional  districts  as  to  secure  them  a  large  majority 
in  the  Forty-eighth  Congress,  which  assembled  in  December, 
18S3.  Interest  in  the  final  session  of  that  Congress  settled 
largely  upon  their  action  in  regard  to  the  tariff,  a  modification  of 
which  was  very  evidently  looked  for  by  the  people.  In  1884 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  re-adjust  the  tariff,  with  a 
view  to  redilcing  the  surplus  in  the  treasury  and  securing  a  more 
equitable  distribution  of  taxation.  The  defeat  of  the  measure 
was  largely  due  to  the  Democratic  majority  in  the  House,  who 
desired  to  enter  the  Presidential  campaign  unfettered  by  prom- 
ises. Two  unsuccessful  treaties  were  negotiated  during  the 
same  period.  The  first,  with  Mexico,  was  approved  by  the 
Senate,  but  failed  to  go  into  effect  because  of  the  refusal  of  the 
House  to  provide  the  legislative  measures  necessary  to  secure 
its  operation.  The  other  treaty,  with  Spain,  was  killed  in  its 
early  stages.  Negotiations  for  a  new  extradition  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  were  also  begun. 

The  Presidential  campaign  of  1884  was  bitter  and  aggressive. 
James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine,  the  Republican  candidate,  was 
defeated  by  Grover  Cleveland,  of  New  York,  the  nominee  of 
the  Democratic  party,  who  received  the  support  of  many  dis- 
satisfied Republicans;  and  in  1S85,  for  the  first  time  in  twenty- 
four  years,  a  Democrat  was  installed  in  the  White  Hou.se- 
President  Cleveland  took  the  helm  of  state  with  the  motto  of 
'■  Reform,"  and  the  conservative  spirit  displayed  in  his  adminis- 
tration of  the  office  of  chief  magistrate  of  the  republic  has  made 
it  satisfactory  to  all  classes. 

The  foreign  relations  of  the  country  have  been  peaceful  for 
several  years  past,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  stringency 
existing  in  the  diplomatic  relations  with  Great  Britain  on  account 
of  the  discovery  of  the  fact  that  the  plotters  who  are  seeking 
by  the  employment  of  dynamite  to  frighten  England  into  granting 
concessions  to  Ireland,  have  made  the  United  States  the  base 
of  their  operations. 

The  country  was  never  in  a  more  prosperous  and  healthy 
condition  generally  than  .at  present.  The  statistical  department 
of  the  Popular  Educator  speaks  volumes  for  the  growth  and 
rank  of  the  Union  in  all  those  things  which  make  a  nation  great. 


L^ 


lot     Longitude     97 


'^    Loo.  W.  g3    ofWnahlagloD 


En^.  for  "Pealb'b  Popui.*b  Epucatoe"  by  A.  Zeese  h  Co.,  Chfcsfro. 


om       93     Gree-«wicli     S9 


We*t      16     from  Washington     12 


K 


260 


THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


i- 


a-^©'^^^ , 


©*"a'BifR.TfcrkV&T».tAU'3vtJ\-!akiC&'a^&'ta^S^T3^'^^ 


IWP^-VWfV^-'^ 


^|p|  She  Dominion  or  (Sanada.  Mh 


m<: 


i^Ti7&Tii.'!&ys^^v^^^r&rs>x&r^T:k^jk^T2^-^^s,^r&Ti:aji.'a^ 


e^^)(^7^"" 


-••^^•^ 


c-^.1 


^HE  Dominion  of  Canada,  now  a  semi-independent 
confederation  of  provinces  subject  to  the  British 
Crown,  has  an  interesting  history  which  reaches 
back  to  within  a  very  few  years  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus.  The  French  sea  captain 
Jacques  Cartier,  in  1534,  planted  the  r.tandard  of  Francis  I. 
of  France  upon  the  shores  of  New  Brunswick,  and  in  later 
voyages  he  discovered  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Attempts 
at  colonization  were  made,  but  none  were  very  successful 
until  the  time  of  Samuel  de  Champlain,  when  the  city  of 
Quebec  was  established,  and  the  foundation  laid  of  the 
empire  of  New  France.  His  explorations  were  ably  followed 
up  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  who  were  sent  out  later  by  the 
French  Government,  and  the  names  of  Fathers  Joliet,  Mar- 
quette, La  Salle  and  Perrot,  who  first  saw  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  Mississippi  River,  are  indissolubly  linked  with  the  story  of 
early  discovery  in  North  America.  Cruel  wars  with  the  Indians 
constitute  the  leading  feature  of  interest  in  early  Canadian  his- 
tory, each  of  the  leading  claimants  of  North  American  soil 
— England  and  France — employing  the  willing  savages  to  carry 
destruction  into  the  settlements  of  the  other.  Directly  result- 
ing from  this  cruel  policy  was  the  massacre  of  Lachine,  in 
which  the  Iroquois,  at  the  instigation  of  the  English,  fell  upon 
the  French  settlements  in  the  neighborhood  of  Montreal,  and 
slaughtered  their  inhabitants,  and  which  caused  the  cruel 
reprisals  of  Schenectady  and  Salmon  Falls.  During  the  fre- 
quent wars  between  England  and  France,  the  latter's  Canadian 
colonies  became  more  than  once  the  object  of  English  attack, 
but  it  was  not  until  September,  1759,  that  the  citadel  of 
Quebec  fell  before  the  gallant  English  General  Wolfe,  and 
with  it  the  French  tenure  of  Canada,  which  was  called,  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  divided  into  three  districts  and  placed 
under  the  direction  of  a  Governor  appointed  by  Great  Britain. 
During  the  war  of  American  Independence,  the  Americans, 
finding  that  the  Canadians  would  not  join  the  revolution,  in- 
vaded Canada,  but  were  unable  to  hold  the  country  on  account 
of  their  failure  to  capture  the  city  of  Quebec. 

After  the  close  of  the  war  a  great  many  persons  from  the 
English  colonies  settled  in  that  portion  of  Canada  lying  north 
of  Lake  Ontario,  which,  upon  the  separation  of  the  province 
in  1791,  became  known  as  Upper  Canada,  the  eastern  province 
taking  the  name  of  Lower  Canada.  Dissensions  arose  in  both 
provinces  over  questions  of  government,  but  the  war  of  1S12 


united  Canada  in  defence  against  a  common  invasion,  in 
which  the  Canadians  showed  a  patriotism  and  valor  very 
creditable  for  so  young  a  country.  After  the  war,  the  same 
causes  of  dissension  still  existing,  the  old  quarrels  were  renewed 
and  the  disaffection  finally  culminated  in  separate  rebellions 
in  each  of  the  provinces.  In  Upper  Canada  a  popular  agitator 
named  Mackenzie  attempted  to  set  up  the  republic,  and  in 
1S37  gathered  a  body  of  armed  followers,  who  marched  against 
the  capital,  Toronto,  w'here  they  were  defeated.  More  serious 
disturbances  were  caused  in  Lower  Canada,  when,  under  the 
leadership  of  Louis  Papineau,  the  French  Canadian  "patriots" 
collected  in  masses  on  the  Richelieu,  and  were  not  dispersed  until 
after  severe  conflicts,  in  which  several  hundreds  were  slain. 
The  union  of  the  two  provinces  was  decided  upon  by  the  home 
Government  as  a  remedy  for  the  troubles  complained  of,  and 
this  measure  was  accomplished  in  1S41,  the  new  Constitution 
giving  Canada  one  legislature  instead  of  two.  Under  it  the 
country  progressed  rapidly  in  population,  commerce  and  general 
prosperity.  About  1S61  a  strongparty  feeling  arose  between  the 
two  provinces  over  the  claim  for  representation  by  population 
made  by  the  inhabitants  of  Upper  Canada,  who,  having  largely 
outgrown  the  lower  province  in  numbers,  desired  that  their 
representation  in  Parliament  should  be  proportionately  larger. 
The  Lower  Canadians  would  not  agree  to  any  change  of  the 
Constitution  in  accordance  with  this  plan,  and  the  political 
struggle  was  growing  dangerously  bitter,  when  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  various  British  provinces  in  America,  with  local 
government  for  each,  was  suggested  as  an  available  remedy. 
The  provinces  of  Canada,  afterwards  known  as  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  accepted  the  pro- 
posed union.  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward  Island 
rejected  it.  The  matter  was  left  with  the  British  Government, 
which,  in  1867,  conferred  the  Constitution  imder  which  the 
Canadians  now  live,  as  well  as  the  name  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Since  then  the  confederation  has  been  enlarged  by  the  admis- 
sion of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  Northwestern  territories  in 
1S70,  now  known  as  the  provinces  of  Manitoba  and  Keewatin; 
of  British  Columbia  in  1871,  and  of  Prince  Edward  Island  in 

1873- 

To  the  vast  majority  of  Americans  the  country  to  the 
north  of  the  international  boundary  line  is  a  terra  incognita, 
of  which  less  is  known  than  of  the  small  revolutionary  States 
of  Central  America.     Of  Mexican  affairs  the  people  of  the 


a  'V 


THK  DOMINION  OK  CANADA. 


261 


A 


United  Stales  have  sufficient  reminders  to  spur  interest  or 
promote  enquiry,  in  its  biennial  revolutions  and  military  dicta- 
torships, but  of  the  quiet,  progressive  5,000,000  of  people 
owning  the  4,000,000  square  miles  comprising  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  we  know  but  little,  and  apjiarently  care  less. 

However  much  it  may  be  ignored,  it  is  still  an  undoubted 
fact  that  a  great  nation  is  rapidly  assuming  consistency  and 
form  in  that  country.  National  sentiment  and  feeling  have 
been  developed,  and  now  the  habitants  and  bourgeois  of 
Quebec  vie  with  the  agriculturists,  manufacturers  and  trades- 
men of  Ontario  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  in  priding  them- 
selves upon  being  Canatlians.  Alreatiy  they  complain  of  being 
held  in  leading-strings  by  Great  Britain,  and  the  wish  is  gen- 
erally expressed  that  Canada  should  have  the  appointing  of  its 
own  Governor-General,  the  power  of  negotiating  foreign  com- 
mercial treaties,  antl  that  the  slight  ties  now  binding  the 
Dominion  to  the  Colonial  Secretary's  office  in  London  be  yet 
further  loosened,  until  the  political  connection,  now  merely 
nominal,  ceases  to  exist  even  in  name.  The  appointment  of 
Sir  A.  T.  Gait  as  High  Commissioner  of  Canada  at  the 
British  Court,  with  functions  approximated  to  those  possessed 
by  the  representatives  of  independent  powers,  was  a  tacit 
claim  by  the  Dominion  of  the  privileges  of  a  sovereign  people. 

ITS  VAST  AREA. 

The  Dominion,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
oceans  and  from  the  United  States  boundary  line  to  the  Arctic 
seas,  has  a  larger  area  than  Europe,  and  even  exceeds  the 
United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska.  Territory,  however,  does 
not  of  necessity  imply  a  correspondence  in  greatness,  wealth 
or  power,  and  any  speculations  based  entirely  upon  such  data 
must  prove  fallacious.  In  order  to  form  anything  like  a  just 
estimate  of  the  importance  of  the  country  the  state  of  the 
settled  and  cultivated  portions  must  be  considered. 

Canada  proper,  consisting  of  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  containing  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  population 
of  the  Dominion,  is  i,ooomiles  long,  withan  average  breadth  of 
230.  It  contains  an  area  of  350,000  square  miles,  or  240,000,- 
000  acres.  That  portion  of  it  included  in  Ontario  may  be 
considered  the  garden  of  Canada,  both  as  to  climate,  soil  and 
the  variety  of  productiveness  of  its  agricultural  exhibits. 

POPULATION. 

The  people  of  Ontario  are  very  different  from  their  French 
neighbors  on  the  other  side  of  the  Ottawa,  and  are  as  noted 
for  real  American  enterprise,  industry  and  progressiveness  as 
those  are  for  the  opposite.  In  1825  the  number  of  inhabitants 
in  Ontario  (at  that  time  Upper  Canada)  was  158,027.  In  1852 
the  number  had  reached  952,004,  and  at  the  present  time  is  about 
2,000,000,  The  growth  of  the  cities  is  also  remarkable. 
Toronto  in  1S26  had  only  1,677  inhabitants,  and  in  1S54  it 
numbered  40,000,  and  now  it  contains  100,000  people.  Ham- 
ilton, within  ten  years,  from  1844  to  1S54, quadrupled  its  popu- 
lation, and  its  increase  since,  if  less  rapid,  has  been  remarka- 
ble. 

In  187s  the  population  of  the  entire  Dominion  was  4,000,000 ; 
in  1881  it  was  almost  5,000,000,  and  now  probably  exceeds  that 
number.     The  material  progress  of  the  country  has  been  on  an 


equally  rapid  scale.  The  agricultural  products  exported  in 
1SS2  amounted  in  value  to  $16,398,613,  or  $2,665,864  more 
than  in  the  year  previous.  The  wheat  exported  for  the  same 
period  was  equal  in  amount  to  6,433,035  bushels,  a  quantity 
greatly  in  excess  of  that  sent  out  of  the  country  in  the  year 
before.  In  1SS2  50,000,000  pounds  of  cheese  were  exportcti 
to  Britain,  and  the  production  of  butter  in  the  Province  of 
Ontario  alone  during  that  period  amounted  to  an  equal  number 
of  pounds.  The  lumber  trade  is  one  of  the  leading  industries 
of  the  country,  the  value  of  that  exported  last  year  being 
$10,729,596. 

The  Canadian  exports  for  1S81  amounted  to  $80,921,379, 
and  last  year  to  $90,042,711.  The  balance  of  trade  being 
against  Canada,  the  imports  for  both  years  were  $17,000,000 
in  excess  of  those  numbers. 

The  imports  from  Great  Britain  in  i8Si  were  valued  at 
$43,583,808,  and  for  1882,  $50,597,341.  During  the  same 
periods  the  imports  from  the  United  States  were  $36, 704, 1 12  and 
$48,289,052,  respectively.  The  duty  collected  on  imports  from 
CJreat  Britain  in  1882  was  $10,011,811,  or  about  20  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  imports.  On  goods  from  the  United  States 
for  the  same  period  $7,082,720  was  collected,  or  about  15  per 
cent. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  purchaser  of  Canadian  goods 
and  products,  the  value  of  the  trade  to  the  latter  country  being 
about  $40,000,000  in  1882. 

The  shipping  interests  of  Canada  are  not  the  least  considera- 
ble, $30,000,000  capital  being  employed  in  the  carrying  trade, 
which  is  valued  at  $350,000,000.  .\llowing  5  per  cent  for 
freight  charges,  it  would  yield  a  revenue  of  about  $i7,ooo,cxx) 
a  year.  The  trade  of  the  city  of  Toronto  alone  with  the 
United  States  was  equal  in  1S82  to  $10,447,818,  or  almost 
$4,000,000  more  than  in  the  previous  year. 

Ten  yearsago  the  Government  expenditure  was  $23,316,316; 
in  18S3  the  Finance  Minister  asked  for  $30,250,000  to  carry 
on  the  affairs  of  the  country.  This  amount,  it  is  estimated, 
will  be  a  few  millions  less  than  the  revenue.  The  civil  govern- 
ment of  the  country  is  estimated  to  cost  $1,109,100  this  year  ; 
Indian  scouts,  $875,949,  '""'  ''i*^  mounted  police,  $416,000. 

CANADA  PACIFIC   RAILWAY. 

Otie  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  j^rospectivc  future 
advance  of  the  country  to  a  high  condition  of  material  prog- 
ress and  industrial  wealth  will  be,  undoubtedly,  the  Canada 
Pacific  Railway.  The  route  through  the  Dominion  is,  in  a 
certain  sense,  preferable  to  that  now  connecting  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  in  our  country.  It  is  said  by  competent  authori- 
ties to  be  shorter  by  over  a  thousand  miles  in  connecting 
Kuropc  with  Asia.  Pa.ssing  close  to  I^ke  Superior  and 
traversing  the  watershed  which  <livides  the  streams  flowing 
toward  the  .Vrctic  seas  from  tho.se  which  have  their  exit  south- 
>vard,  the  route,  though  presenting  serious  engineering  diffi- 
culties, is  more  easy  of  construction  than  the  Union  I'acific 
was.  The  effect  of  the  comjiletion  of  this  road  can  scarcely  be 
estimated  at  present,  as  it  will  open  up  for  settlement  a  vast 
region  abounding  in  valuable  timber,  coal  and  other  material 
products,  and  admirably  suited  to  grazing  and  the  growth  of 
grain.     The  work  of  construction  on  the  Canada  Pacific  was 


\^ 


_NJ 


6^ 


\ 


262 


THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


first  commenced  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, but  this  plan  was  not  found  to  work  well,  and 
shortly  after  the  change  of  Government,  in  1878,  the  new 
Ministry  handed  over  the  work  of  construction  to  a  syndicate, 
granting  to  them  money  and  land  bonuses  and  exclusive  rights 
on  a  monopoly  of  trafRc  for  twenty  years  from  the  time  of  the 
completion  of  the  road.  It  is  now  well  under  way,  and  is 
rapidly  approaching  the  centre  of  the  continent.  The  esti- 
mated cost  is  $100,000,000,  and  it  is  a  work  of  extraordinary 
magnitude  for  5,000,000  people  to  project. 

The  settlement  of  the  Northwest  Territory  along  the  line  of 
the  railway  is  proceeding  at  an  unprecedented  rate.  Indeed, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  at  all  compared  with  it  unless  it  is  the 
rapidity  of  opening  up  in  some  of  the  Western  States.  Free 
grants  are  given  to  actual  settlers,  which,  with  an  inexhaustible 
soil,  should  be  a  sufficient  attraction  for  emigrants  from  Europe. 
But  of  this  class  the  Canadian  Northwest  country  has  so  far 
attracted  no  considerable  number.  Of  the  44,000  emigrants 
arriving  in  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest  last  year,  fully  three- 
fourths  were  from  Ontario  and  other  parts  of  Canada. 

NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS. 

There  are  extensive  coal  fields  in  the  Valley  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan and  at  Edmonton,  but  so  far  they  have  not  been 
worked  to  any  extent.  When  capital  has  been  directed  into 
this  channel,  a  cheap  supply  of  coal  can  be  secured,  and  one  of 
the  principal  defects  of  that  section  of  the  Dominion  will  be 
removed. 

The  length  and  severity  of  the  winter  in  Manitoba  and  the 
contiguous  territory  is  also  a  serious  obstacle  to  their  settle- 
ment. Winter  often  begins  in  October,  and  continues  until 
about  the  end  of  April,  after  which  the  weather  changes  rap- 
idly, and  the  chilling,  freezing  atmosphere  becomes  soft  and 
warm,  with  the  southern  winds  sweeping  over  the  interminable 
plains.  Vegetation  after  this  becomes  so  rapid  as  to  be  almost 
incredible,  and  in  less  than  four,  and  occasionally  only  three, 
months  after  the  seed  has  been  sown,  abundant  crops  of 
wheat,  barley  and  oats  can  be  harvested. 

With  all  its  defects,  it  is  a  magnificent  coimtry,  and  it 
requires  no  great  powers  of  prevision  to  foresee  in  it  the  home 
of  millions  of  free,  prosperous  and  intelligent  people. 

Winnipeg,  the  leading  city  of  the  Northwest,  has  sprung 
up  as  if  by  magic,  and  is  a  very  different  place  from  the  hamlet 
visited  by  General  Wolseley  and  his  troops,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Rial  disturbance,  a  number  of  years  ago.  It  has  now  a 
summer  population  of  20,000,  and  last  year  the  boom  in  real 
estate  was  such  that  city  lots  were  selling  at  a  higher  price 
than  in  Toronto.  Many  other  cities  now  exist  in  embryo  in 
that  vast  region,  and  with  a  liberal,  wise  policy  on  the  part  of 
the  Government,  the  success  of  the  Northwest  is  certain. 

In  the  other  sections  of  Canada,  Ontario  especially,  the 
condition  of  the  farming  population  has  been  entirely  changed 
within  the  past  twenty  years.  The  log  shanties  of  the  squatter 
have  been  changed  to  elegant  farm-houses  of  stone,  brick  and 


frame.  Frame  barns  have  taken  the  place  of  the  open  log 
structures  that  so  poorly  protected  the  crops  of  the  pioneers, 
and  wire  and  picket  fences  surround  the  steadings  instead  of 
rails.  Farm-houses  now  contain  all  that  is  requisite  for  com- 
fort, with  many  of  the  elegancies  of  life  added,  and  in  many 
will  be  found  not  only  a  piano  or  parlor  organ,  but  also  a 
young  lady  quite  capable  of  rendering  music  by  note.  Educa- 
tion has  also  become  generally  diffused,  and  it  is  but  rarely  that 
a  person  can  be  met  with  who  cannot  read  and  write. 

That  the  Dominion  is  more  prosperous  now  than  ever  it  has 
been  before,  will  scarcely  be  questioned  by  those  familiar  with 
its  present  and  past  conditions,  and  that  it  has  now  entered 
upon  a  new  and  vast  phase  of  its  progressive  development, 
under  the  most  auspicious  circumstances,  cannot  for  a  moment 
be  doubted. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  DOMINION. 

The  executive  power  of  the  Dominion  is  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor-General, who  is  appointed  by  the  British  Government,  and 
exercises  authority  in  the  name  of  the  Queen.  His  advisers 
constitute  the  Privy  Council,  whom  he  appoints  and  removes, 
subject  to  the  convenience  of  the  lower  house  of  Parliament. 
The  military  command  is  vested  in  the  Queen.  Parliament, 
consisting  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  house,  known  respectively 
as  the  Senate  and  House  of  Commons,  controls  legislation. 
Senators,  who  are  appointed  for  life  by  the  Governor-General, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Privy  Council,  are  77  in  num- 
ber, apportioned  as  follows :  Quebec  and  Ontario,  24  each  ; 
No\'a  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  11  each;  British  Columbia, 
3  ;  Manitoba,  2  ;  Prince  Edward  Island,  2.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  are  206  members — SS  for  Ontario  ;  65  for  Quebec  ; 
21  for  Nova  Scotia  ;  16  for  New  Brunswick  ;  6  for  British 
Columbia  ;  4  for  Manitoba,  and  6  for  Prince  Edward  Island. 
A  redistribution  of  memberships  occurs  after  each  decennial 
census,  with  the  understanding  that  Quebec  shall  never  have 
less  than  65.  All  appropriation  bills  must  originate  in  this 
house,  to  which  the  Privj'Coimcil  is  responsible,  it  representing 
the  views  of  the  political  party  which  is  in  the  ascendancy.  Bills 
passed  by  Parliament  may  be  vetoed  at  any  time  within  two 
years.  The  seat  of  government  is  at  Ottawa.  The  Dominion 
Parliament  controls  exclusively  the  currency,  postal  service, 
public  debt,  raising  of  money,  regulation  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, the  militia,  savings  banks,  marriage  and  divorce,  crim- 
inal law,  navigation  and  shipping,  bankruptcy,  and  all  subjects 
not  specially  assigned  to  the  local  legislatures.  The  latter  have 
the  right  to  levy  direct  taxes,  and  to  borrow  money  for  provin- 
cial purposes,  the  management  of  public  lands,  public  works 
lying  within  the  province,  municipal  institutions,  prisons, 
hospitals,  asylums  and  charities,  and  generally  matters  of  a 
local  or  private  character.  With  a  few  minor  exceptions,  all 
Judges  are  appointed  by  the  Dominion  Government.  There  is 
a  general  court  of  appeal,  possessing  powers  similar  to  that  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  and  which  passes  upon  the 
constitutionality  of  laws  passed  by  the  provincial  legislatures. 


/ 


MEXICO. 


263 


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;|ii^^O  foreign   country   is   attracting  such  close  attention 
from   the  people  of  the  United  States  just  now  as 
Mexico,  sometimes  familiarly  alluded  to  as  "  the  sister 
__^  republic."     Bounded   on   the   north   by  the   United 

'^irii  .States,  on  the  south  by  Guatemala,  on  the  east  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Pacific,  it  occupies  the  tapering  southern  extremity  of  the 
North  American  continent — a  region  of  mountain  table-lands, 
rich  in  mineral  wealth  and  agricultural  resources,  which,  hav- 
ing lain  for  ages  comparatively  undeveloped,  are  now  begin- 
ning to  feel  the  impulse  of  a  new  civilization  supplied  from  the 
United  States,  whose  capitalists  are  building  railroads  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  The  history  of  the  country  begins — 
no  one  knows  when.  .A.ges  before  the  coming  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors  the  settlement  of  the  Mexican  valley  had  been 
accomplished  by  Indian  tribes  who  are  said  to  have  come  from 
the  north,  the  last  of  these  being  the  Aztecs,  who  founded  a 
city,  established  a  monarchial  government,  enforced  civil  and 
criminal  laws,  kept  a  standing  army,  and  cultivated  the  arts 
and  sciences,  their  skill  in  the  working sof  metals  and  their 
profouuLl  knowledge  of  astronomy  being  attested  by  venerable 
relics  which  are  extant  at  the  present  day.  About  the  only 
dark  feature  in  this  pleasing  picture  of  prehistoric  civilization 
and  culture  is  that  provided  by  their  religious  observances, 
which  included  human  sacrifices,  the  practice  being  so  common 
that  the  observance  of  certain  days  caused  the  immolation  of 
thousands  of  victims.  Such  were  the  accomplishments  of  the 
wonderful  people  whom  De  Cordova  met  in  Mexico  when  he 
discovered  it  in  1517.  Two  years  later  Fernando  Cortez 
effected  a  landing  upon  Mexican  soil  at  a  spot  where  the  city 
nf  Vera  Cruz  now  stands.  Here  he  burned  his  ships  to  give  a 
disaffected  portion  of  his  command  to  understand  that  nothing 
was  left  them  but  obedience,  after  which  he  marched  into  the 
interior.  On  his  way  he  fought  several  engagements  with  the 
natives,  and  finally  arrived  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  the 
Aztec  Emperor,  Montezuma,  received  him  with  apparent 
kindness.  Fearing  treachery,  Cortez  caused  Montezuma  to  be 
seized  and  conveyed  to  the  Spanish  quarters.  Cortez'  conquests 
were  delayed  by  the  opposition  of  the  Governor  of  Cuba,  who 
sent  a  party  to  seize  him  and  his  staff  and  send  them  back  to 
Cuba.  The  brave  Spaniard  turned  the  tables  upon  his  pursuers, 
vanquishing  them  and  taking  their  leader,  Narvaez,  prisoner. 
Montezuma,  after  a  long  imprisonment,  consented  to  acknowl- 
edge Spanish  supremacy,  but  the  Aztecs  declined  to  submit  so 


easily,  and,  making  a  final  effort,  compelled  Cortez  to  retreat. 
He  returned,  however,  a  year  later,  and,  after  a  series  of  battles, 
reached  once  more  the  City  of  Mexico,  which  he  captured, 
August  13,  1521,  after  a  siege  of  seventy-five  days.  The  other 
provinces  fell  in  succession  before  the  invader,  and  for  nearly 
300  years  subsequently  Mexico  remained  in  subjection.  The 
government  which  the  Spaniards  first  inaugurated  was  known 
as  "  Audiencia,"  with  a  President  and  four  Auditors,  but  the 
measures  of  this  body  soon  proved  so  harsh  and  arbitrary  that 
the  colony  complained  loudly  of  their  oppression.  A  vice- 
regal government  was  inaugurated  in  1535,  which  lasted  undis- 
turbed for  nearly  three  centuries. 

Events  in  Europe  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century 
shaped  the  history  of  Mexico.  The  uprising  of  1810  is  thus 
graphically  described  by  Mr.  John  A.  Dillon,  a  journalist 
whose  thorough  knowledge  of  Mexican  affairs,  no  less  than  his 
eminent  literary  attainments,  makes  him  peculiarly  qualified  to 
treat  the  subject : 

"  The  revolution  was  long  in  coming.  Shut  off  as  it  was 
from  the  world,  Mexico  could  not  help  noting  that  the  power 
of  Spain  had  grown  weaker  and  weaker,  until  at  last  the  rough 
hand  of  Napoleon  pushed  the  feeble  Bourbon  from  the  throne. 
The  latent  fires  of  revolution  broke  forth  on  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember, iSio,  in  the  village  of  Dolores,  near  Guanajuato, 
where  a  curate  named  Manuel  Hidalgo  set  up  the  Grtio  de 
Dolores,  as  it  is  called  in  Mexican  history,  or  the  'call  of 
Dolores.'  What  the  call  meant  was  little  known,  either  to 
him  who  started  it  or  to  those  who  heard  it.  It  meant  any- 
thing but  a  republic  to  Hidalgo;  it  meant  the  cause  of  religion, 
and  loyalty  to  some  Mexican  sovereign.  To  the  Indians  who 
heard  it,  it  meant  death  to  the  strangers;  the  Gachupines,  as 
they  called  the  Spaniards. 

"  Then  was  started  the  most  bizarre  and  motley  revolution 
in  history,  outshaming  Jack  Cade.  Swarms  of  ragged  and 
swarthy  Indians  gathered  around  the  ])riest,  armed  with  sticks 
and  stones  and  knives  and  clumsy  pikes.  They  swarmed  down 
to  Guanajuato  in  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  and  the 
slaughter  of  Cortez  was  repeated  on  their  defenceless  bodies. 
Cannon  and  musket  tore  their  ranks  in  vain,  for  they  rushed 
up  to  the  loaded  cannon's  mouth  and  stuffed  in  their  battered 
straw  hats  and  ragged  serapcs,  to  keep  the  balls  from  coming 
out.  By  sheer  force  of  numbers  they  destroyed  the  troops, 
and  then  in  savage  triumph  sacked  the  city  of  their  brothers. 


■fU 


v^ 


K^ 


264 


MEXICO. 


/ 


"  Brief  and  sad  was  the  career  of  the  soldier-priest.  Under 
the  banner  of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe  he  led  his  hordes  from 
Guanajuato  down  to  Valladolid,  and  thence  to  Queretaro,  and 
in  six  weeks  had  reached  the  mountain  of  Las  Cruces,  within 
thirty  miles  of  the  capital.  Here  the  Viceroy  gave  him  battle, 
and  here  again  the  ragged  hordes  rushed  on  the  batteries  and 
killed  every  man  behind  them,  only  three  officers  of  the  Vice- 
roy's army  of  3,000  escaping. 

"  Then  fear  came  on  the  victor  for  the  unknown  power  of  a 
city  such  as  he  had  never  seen  the  like  of.  He  came  within 
sight  of  Mexico,  lingered  there  for  a  month,  and  then  turned 
to  retreat.  A  bloodhound  was  set  on  his  trail  in  the  person 
of  General  Calleja.  The  fugitive  rebels  pas.sed  back  through 
Guanajuato,  and  the  bloodhound  Calleja  followed  them  and 
cut  to  pieces  14,000  men,  women  and  children  in  the  city.  In 
his  report  he  said  that  he  had  them  hacked  with  knives  and 
swords,  because  gunpowder  was  very  dear,  and  he  did  not  want 
to  put  the  Government  to  the  needless  expense  of  using  ammu- 
nition. 

"  On  the  17th  of  January  Hidalgo  reached  the  place  called 
the  Bridge  of  Calderon,  and  there  his  last  battle  was  fought 
and  lost.  He  fled  toward  our  frontier,  but  his  commanders 
rebelled,  and  one  of  them,  Elizondo,  delivered  the  whole  band 
up  to  the  Government  on  the  21st  of  March,  181 1.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  they  were  shot,  and  their  heads  were  after- 
ward exposed  in  iron  cages  on  the  castle  wall  of  Guanajuato." 

The  population  was  made  up  of  four  classes  —  the  Span- 
iards of  European  birth  ;  the  Mestizos,  or  half-breeds,  the 
result  of  union  between  the  Indians  and  whites  ;  the  Creoles, 
who  were  the  pure-blooded  descendants  of  the  original  Span- 
ish settlers,  and  the  pure-blooded  Indians.  The  last-named 
had  experienced  but  little  change  of  condition  under  the  Vice- 
roys, and  were  still  subject  to  the  payment  of  tribute  and  held 
in  a  sort  of  life-long  tutelage.  Degrading  restrictions  weighed 
upon  them  from  which  only  their  nobles  were  exempted.  The 
Creoles,  as  proud  of  their  origin  as  the  native  Spaniards  were 
of  their  birth,  were  treated  contemptuously  by  the  latter,  and 
denied  all  part  in  the  government,  or  even  high  command 
in  the  army.  Many  of  them  had  ama.s.sed  great  wealth,  and 
while  titles  and  other  empty  honors  were  conferred  upon  such, 
the  Government  deemed  it  imprudent  to  allow  them  a  share  of 
the  administration  of  public  affairs.  This  treatment  was 
resented  by  the  Creoles,  and  open  rebellion  would  have  been 
gladly  availed  of  by  them,  had  they  not  dreaded  that,  at  such 
a  turn  of  affairs,  an  uprising  of  the  Indians  and  half-breeds 
would  occur,  and  they  and  the  native  Spaniards  be  together 
overcome  and  destroyed.  While  the  revolution  of  1S20  was 
going  on  in  Spain,  which  lost  Ferdinand  his  throne,  the  Mexi- 
cans agitated  in  favor  of  a  liberal  government,  and  Don  Au- 
gustin  Iturbide,  a  native  Mexican  officer  of  rank,  who  had 
served  with  distinction  in  quelling  the  earlier  uprisings,  inaugu- 
rated a  second  and  successful  revolution,  which  resulted  in  the 
declaration  of  Mexican  independence,  February  24,  1821.  His 
authority  obtained  the  national  recognition  ;  in  August  he 
established  a  regency,  and  May  19,  supported  by  his  army  and 
his  followers,  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  he  was  proclaimed  Emperor. 
December  2,  1822,  Santa  Anna,  supported  by  other  chiefs, 
proclaimed  the  Republic  at  Santa  Cruz,  and  March  19  Itur- 


bide abdicated.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  ordered  into  exile, 
and  in  May,  1823,  he  left  Mexico  for  London. 

The  Constitution  which  Congress  formulated  October  4, 
1824,  was  modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States,  and  estab- 
lished in  Mexico  a  republic  with  nineteen  States  and  five 
Territories.  The  first  President  was  Don  Felix  Fernando 
Victoria,  during  whose  administration  Iturbide  returned  to 
the  country  and  was  arrested  and  shot.  At  the  second  presi- 
dential election  the  candidates  were  Generals  Padraza  and 
Guerrero.  The  former  was  elected,  but  Guerrero  instituted  a 
revolt,  and  seized  the  presidency  in  1829.  That  year  the  Re- 
public received  the  recognition  of  the  United  States,  and  de- 
feated an  attempt  of  the  Spaniards  to  recapture  the  country 
with  an  army  of  4,000,  who  were  sent  back  to  Havana.  '  Gen- 
eral ."Vnastasio  Bustamante,  who  had  assisted  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Spanish  invaders,  declared  against  Guerrero,  and  de- 
posed him.  Intrigues  and  revolts  followed  in  quick  succession, 
Santa  Anna  coming  to  the  front  April  i,  1833,  who,  after 
banishing  Bustamante  and  several  other  political  leaders,  insti- 
tuted an  administration  of  sweeping  reform.,  Laws  were 
passed  suppressing  the  convents  and  abolishing  the  payment  of 
tithes,  and  measures  discussed  looking  to  the  appropriation  of 
church  estates  and  their  application  to  extinguishing  the 
national  debt.  These  failed  to  prove  popular,  going  further 
than  the  people  cared  to  follow.  Insurrections  followed,  and 
troubles  which  led,  in  1835,  to  the  abrogation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion which  had  been  adopted  in  1824,  and  the  formation  of  a 
consolidated  republic,  which  took  the  place  of  the  confedera- 
tion of  States.  Santa  Anna  possessed  dictatorial  power,  and 
the  revolution  was  endorsed  by  the  whole  country  except 
Texas,  whose  citizens  declined  to  accede  to  the  centralization 
of  power.  Santa  Anna  then  invaded  the  State  with  an  army, 
which  was  destroyed,  and  Santa  Anna  was  captured.  Busta- 
mante became  President,  but  Santa  Anna,  after  a  trip  to 
Washington,  where  he  conferred  with  President  Jackson,  was 
released,  and  returned  to  Mexico.  Another  period  of  chronic 
revolution  soon  set  in,  a  dictatorship  was  established  for  a 
while,  and  in  1844  constitutional  government  was  resumed, 
with  Santa  Anna  at  its  head.  He  was  banished,  however,  and 
Herrara  happened  to  be  the  President  at  the  time  war  was  de- 
clared against  the  United  States  after  the  annexation  of  Te.xas. 

The  American  arms  were  successful,  and  Mexico  lost,  in 
addition  to  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Northern  California,  when 
peace  was  declared,  in  February,  1848.  Santa  Anna  was  re- 
called in  1S53,  and  for  the  fifth  time  elected  President.  He 
attempted  now  to  secure  the  position  for  life,  with  the  right  to 
name  his  successor,  and  this  led  to  another  revolution  in  1S55, 
when  Alvarez  deposed  him  and  became  President.  He  re- 
signed in  favor  of  Comonfort,  who  gained  the  opposition  of 
the  ecclesiastical  party  by  his  promotion  of  a  law,  which  was 
adopted  in  1S56,  for  the  sale  of  church  lands  and  the  freedom 
of  religious  belief.  Revolutions  followed,  and  in  1857  Con- 
gress promulgated,  and  the  President  was  forced  to  accept,  a 
very  democratic  Constitution. 

In  the  following  year  Benito  Juarez,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  claimed  the  legal  succession  to  the  presidency, 
but  was  defeated  by  the  incumbent,  Zuloaga,  and  driven  to 
Vera   Cruz,  where   he   established   himself  as   Constitutional 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


265 


President.  His  claims  were  strengthened  by  their  acknowl- 
edgment by  the  United  States,  and,  after  defeating  General 
Miramon  in  several  engagements,  he  entered  the  capital  in 
triumph,  January  ir,  1861.  His  administration  was  noted  for 
the  reforms  which  he  carried  out,  and  which  gained  him  the 
love  of  the  Mexican  people.  Among  the  most  important  of 
these  were  the  appropriation  of  church  property  to  the  service 
of  the  State,  by  which  more  than  three  hundred  millions'  worth 
of  real  estate  was  saved  to  the  people ;  making  marriage  a 
civil  contract  ;  the  aljolition  of  ecclesi.istical  tribunals  and  per- 
petual monastic  vows  ;  and,  finally,  the  complete  separation  of 
Church  and  State.  Much  as  the  people  enjoyed  their  liberties, 
the  Church  party  could  not  brook  so  great  a  curtailment  of 
their  property  and  prerogatives,  and  they  resolved  upon  the 
destruction  of  Juarez'  Government.  Their  opportunity  was 
not  long  wanting.  .Subjects  of  Spain,  France  and  Great 
Britain  having  sustained  alleged  losses  and  injuries  in  Mexico, 
for  which  Juarez  declined  to  give  satisfaction,  these  three 
powers,  at  a  convention  held  in  London,  October  31,  1861, 
decided  to  send  a  joint  expedition  to  Mexico  to  demand  it. 
In  December  of  that  year.  General  Prim,  commanding  a 
Spanish  detachment  from  Cuba,  landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  a 
month  later  French  and  British  troops  followed.  A  settle- 
ment being  effected  with  Spain  and  Great  Britain,  the  forces 
of  these  powers  were  withdrawn  from  the  country.  The 
French  army  remained  in  Mexico,  declared  war  against  Juarez, 
and  captured  the  City  of  Mexico  June  10,  1863,  President 
Juarez  and  his  Ministers  retiring  to  San  Luis  Potosi.  June  24 
a  regency  was  formed,  and  July  8  an  assembly  of  notables  was 
convened  to  decide  upon  Mexico's  form  of  government  and  re- 
solved that  it  should  be  a  hereditary  monarchial  government 
under  a  Roman  Catholic  Emperor.  The  .\rchduke  Maximilian, 
of  Austria,  accepted  the  crown.  Juarez  and  his  republican  .sup- 
porters retired  to  El  Paso,  where  they  remained  from  Septem- 


ber, 1865,  to  the  beginning  of  1S66,  when,  the  United  States 
having  secured  the  withdrawal  of  French  troops  from  Mexico, 
they  assumed  the  aggressive.  Maximilian  was  captured  and 
shot,  together  with  his  Generals,  Miramon  and  Mejia,  June  19, 
1867,  three  days  after  Juarez  had  re-entered  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico. The  work  of  national  reconstruction  was  at  once  com- 
menced. An  attempted  revolution  by  Santa  .Xnna  was  quelled 
and  its  instigator  captured  and  exiled.  In  1871  Juarez  was 
again  elected,  his  opponents  being  Porfirio  Diaz  and  Sebastian 
Lerdo  de  Tejada,  the  latter  of  whom,  on  the  death  of  Juarez, 
July  iS,  1872,  became  President. 

Although  a  brilliant  scholar  and  statesman,  Lerdo  misun- 
derstood the  sentiments  of  the  Mexican  people,  mistook  the 
spirit  of  the  age,  and  seemed  to  oppose  the  material  progress 
of  the  country,  endeavoring  to  stem  the  tide  of  reform  and 
advancement  and  opposing  the  railroad  movement.  General 
Diaz  seized  this  opportunity,  and  in  1S76  organized  a  revolu- 
tion. After  a  series  of  victories  and  defeats,  the  revolutionary 
chieftains  met  the  Government  forces  at  Texcoac,  and  came 
out  victorious  after  a  .sanguinary  conflict.  During  his  short 
administration  Diaz  began  the  work  of  regeneration,  and  initi- 
ated the  railroad  movement,  which  was  ably  conducted  onward 
by  his  successor,  General  Gonzales,  elected  to  the  presidency 
in  iSSo. 

Mexico  is  a  federal  republic,  and  the  General  Government  is 
administered  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution 
of  1857,  which  was  twice  overthrown  and  restored,  and  which 
was  considerably  amended  in  1873-4.  The  President  is  chosen 
by  indirect  popular  suffrage  every  fourth  year.  Both  houses 
of  Congress  and  the  Supreme  Judiciary  are  elected  in  the  same 
manner.  The  Senate  and  the  Supreme  Judiciary  are  elected 
for  terms  of  six  years,  and  the  House  of  Deputies  for  two 
years.  The  States  have  local  constitutions,  with  elective 
Governors  and  legislatures. 


s^S^^^^^SSs 


•^■••M  ^ENUIP^AL  flMEr^IGA. 


sS2sr*-2S^ 


^fff'NDER  the  name  of  Central  America  are  included  the 
republics  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador, 
Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  the  territory  known  as 
British  Honduras.  In  1502  Columbus  discovered 
the  Eastern  shore  of  Central  America,  and  shortly 
afterward  the  .Spaniards  took  possession  of  it,  retaining  it 
until  1S20,  when  it  rebelled  and  many  of  the  States  which 
then  composed  it  were  annexed  by  Mexico.  Three  years 
afterwards  was  formed  the   Central  .-Vmerican  Confederation, 


but  in  1839  Nicaragua  withdrew,  as  did  also  Costa  Rica  in 
1840  and  Guatemala  in  1847.  In  1872  Guatemala,  Costa 
Rica,  San  Salvador  and  Honduras  becantt  united,  forming  the 
Central  American  Union,  the  object  of  the  union  being  the 
maintenance  of  peace  in  the  several  States  and  of  the  repub- 
lican form  of  government.  Since  this  was  accomplished,  the 
several  States  have  generally  enjoyed  an  immunity  from  the 
internal  discords  which  frei|uently    plunged   them   into   civil 


\ 


.- S)   J- 


266 


CUBA— SOUTH  AMERICA. 


S^ 


■@5 


-!i|iiIii]lli3Di!l'iiIl(ii8>i!ti€"iiiIii|"I>i?'f-< 


/IN  VinVin 


(iUBA. 


/i\  /i\Vi\ 


# 


4^ 


#"*^ 


lUBA,  the  greatest  of  Spain's  colonial  possessions,  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  while  on  his  first  voyage,  but 
|jl|JJ\.  .  it  was  not  until  1511  that  Velasquez  conquered  the 
'^y  natives.  Eight  years  later  the  present  capital, 
-iS^  '  Havana,  was  founded,  which  in  1538  and  1554  was 
destroyed  by  the  French.  Near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  was  begun,  and 
slavery  followed.  In  1762  the  English  captured  Havana, 
and  took  possession  of  the  island,  but  restored  it  to  Spain 
in  the  following  year.  Cuba's  brightest  and  happiest  era 
began  with  the  rule  of  Las  Casas  as  Governor-General, 
who  arrived  at  the  island  in  1790.  Under  him  the  island's 
resources  were  developed  rapidly,  old  restrictions  were  re- 
moved, and  the  natives,  grateful  for  their  new  liberties,  devel- 
oped a  strong  affection  for  their  foreign  rulers.  In  180S, 
when  Napoleon  deposed  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  they  remained 
loyal  to  the  Spanish  crown.  Since  that  time  Spanish  misrule 
has  caused  Cuban  discontent,  and  when  the  French  republic 
was  proclaimed  in  1848  the  question  of  annexation  to  the 
United  .States  was  openly  advocated,  and  President  Polk 
offered  Si)ain  one  million  dollars  for  the  island,  which  was 
declined.  Ten  years  later  a  proposition  to  purchase  the  island 
for  thirty  millions  was  submitted  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
but  nothing  was  done  in  the  matter.  Four  years  previously 
the  American  Ministers  at  London,  Paris  and  Madrid  had 
drawn   up   what    is   known   as  the  Ostend   Manifesto,    which 


urged  that  Cuba  should  belong  to  the  United  States,  and  that, 
if  Spain  declined  to  .sell  it,  it  should  be  wrested  from  her.  In 
1S6S  the  discontent  of  the  natives  culminated  in  open  rebellion, 
which  soon  spread  over  the  entire  island.  In  iS6g  Ces]5edes, 
who  had  headed  the  uprising,  was  elected  President,  and  Man- 
uel Quesada  was  given  command  of  ihe  forces.  Offers  from 
the  United  States  to  settle  the  strife  amicably,  and  for  the  ces- 
sion of  the  island,  were  rejected  by  Spain,  which  continued  to 
mass  troops  upon  the  island  to  quell  the  insurrection.  Peace 
overtures  were  made  to  Cespedes  in  1873,  on  the  condition 
that  Cuba  should  become  a  Spanish  republic,  but  they  were 
declined.  Eventually  the  Spanish  arms  prevailed,  but  not  until 
over  13,000  Cuban  soldiers  had  been  killed  in  battle  and  over 
43,000  prisoners  slain,  in  accomplishing  which  horrible  result 
more  than  150,000  men  had  been  sent  over  from  Spain  and 
over  twenty  millions  of  dollars  expended.  Peace  has  been 
nominally  restored,  but  the  native  Cuban  still  groans  under  the 
foreign  yoke,  and  sighs  for  the  free  institutions  of  the  land 
of  the  free,  from  which  lie  is  separated  by  a  very  few  miles  of 
ocean. 

As  a  province  of  Spain,  Cuba  is  governed  by  a  Governor- 
General,  who  is  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  a  period  of  from 
three  to  five  years,  is  subordinate  only  to  the  Spanish  King, 
and  has  despotic  power  as  the  head  of  the  civil,  military  and 
ecclesiastical  jurisdictions.  No  municipal  government  is 
allowed,  although  town  councils  prevail  in  the  cities. 


t'OR  obvious  rSasons,  no  history  of  South  America  as  a 
continent  need  be  given.  It  will  be  readily  gleaned 
jfli^^  W  '''c  reader  from  the  following  histories  of  the  vari- 
^  Iw  ous  countries  contained  within  its  boundaries.  It 
cJ^  may  be  stated,  however,  that  the  table-land  of  Bolivia 
was  the  nucleus  of  the  earliest  civilization  in  South  America. 
From  there  came  the  Inca  rulers  of  Peru  and  Ecuador,  which 


kL 


places,  together  with  Colombia,  provided  the  S|)anish  ex- 
plorers with  the  only  evidences  of  culture  and  civilization. 
These  and  the  Portuguese  made  ea-sy  conquests  wherever 
they  went  in  South  America,  and  established  colonies,  which, 
however,  declared  their  independence  early  in  the  present 
century,  and  obtained  their  freedom  after  fighting  for  it 
bravely. 


-^ 


liRAZIL-CHILl. 


267 


~A 


i^'iiHiiiiMniiiiiimiiiiiii<iiirni»niiiniiiiitiiiii!iMiiinii>o»ttiitii  i(g)- 
0lliiii.ktiii»i|iiii«i»iiiiiiHiMiiii!ii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiDiitii>iiiiii(iiiiitiiiiiiiii.t«mi(^ 


^..o^..^ 


gOTABLE  as  the  largest  of  the  divisions  of  South 
America,  and  as  the  only  empire  now  existing  in  the 
Western  hemisphere,  Brazil's  history  is  of  peculiar 
interest  to  the  historical  reader.  Pedro  Alvarez  de 
Cabral,  who  had  been  sent  out  by  King  Emmanuel 
of  Portugal  to  follow  up  the  discoveries  of  Vasco  da  Gama, 
discovered  the  land  in  1500,  and  the  richness  of  its  forests  in 
dye-woods  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  commerce.  A  Gov- 
ernor of  the  territory  was  appointed  in  1549,  who  founded  the 
jMcsent  capital  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Numerous  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Dutch  and  Krench  to  take  the  country,  but  it  was 
retained  almost  in  its  entirety  by  Portugal,  whose  King,  on 
the  occasion  of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  his  country  in  iSoS, 
fled  to  Brazil,  and  virtually  transferred  the  monarchy  to  his 
colonial  jiossession.  Seven  years  later  Brazil  was  made  a  king- 
dom and  its  ports  thrown  open  to  the  world,  and  in  1821  the 
King  went  back  to  Portugal,  leaving  behind  him  his  son,  Doni 
Pedro,  as  regent.  A  revolution,  or  rather  a  transition,  occurred 
in  the  same  year,  and  in  1822  Brazil  was  proclaimed  an  inde- 
pendent empire,  and  Dom  Pedro  was  invested  with  the  impe- 
rial crown.  A  Constitution  was  granted  in  1824,  when  the 
home  Government  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
young  empire.  In  1826  Dom  Pedro  became  King  of  Portugal 
by   the  death  of  his  father,   and  he   resigned   the   European 


crown  to  his  daughter.  In  1831,  after  long  and  harassing 
wars  with  adjacent  countries,  the  Emperor  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  then  but  six  years  old,  and  the 
country  was  ruled  by  a  regent  until  he  came  of  age,  in  1841. 
Prosperity  has  rewarded  the  generally  wi.se  reign  of  this  mon- 
arch. Political  troubles  have  occurred  from  time  to  time, 
but  on  the  whole  the  government  of  the  twenty  provinces 
under  imperial  control  has  been  happily  conducted.  Wars 
have  been  carried  on  with  neighboring  countries,  the  most 
known  of  which  was  that  with  Paraguay,  which  lasted  five 
years,  and  resulted  in  Brazilian  aggrandizement. 

Brazil's  Constitution,  which  has  lasted  since  1824,  divides 
the  governing  power  into  four  branches — the  legislative,  exec- 
utive, judicial  and  moderating,  the  latter  expression  defining 
the  imperial  prerogative.  Imperial  affairs  are  controlled  'oy  the 
General  Legislative  Assembly,  which  consists  of  two  houses, 
the  Senate  and  Congress,  whose  members  are  all  elected  by 
popular  vote,  the  Senators  for  life  and  the  Members  of  Con- 
gress for  four  years.  Provincial  assemblies  regulate  the  affairs 
of  the  respective  provinces.  Naturalized  foreigners  and  non- 
Catholics  are  not  eligible  as  Deputies.  Executive  power  lies 
in  the  Emperor,  who  is  assisted  by  seven  Ministers  and  a  Coun- 
cil of  State.  Over  each  province  is  a  President  appointed  by 
the  General  Government. 


-¥^mr-^ 


■Jf     * 


@HILI. 


*     * 


jl  pN  1533  the  Incas  of  Peru  lost  their  control  over  Chili,  and 
a  few  years  later  the  Spaniards  occupied  the  country, 
the  city  of  .Santiago  being  founded  by  them  shortly  after 

their  arrival.     A  treaty  was  established  with  the  natives 

°"^  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  which 
boundary  lines  were  established  and  the  rule  of  the  Spanish  Vice- 
roy acknowledged.  A  preliminary  movement  to  the  declaration 
of  independence  was  made  in  iSio,  when  the  Clrilians  deposed 
the  Captain-CJeneral  and  placed  the  executive  power  in  the 
hands  of  a  committee  of  seven.  War  between  the  mother 
country  and  the  colony  commenced  in  the  following  year,  and 
two  years  later  the  latter  was  entirely  uiuler  the  control  of  the 


/ 


royalist  troops.  Nothing  daunted,  the  colony,  in  1S17,  rebelled 
again,  and,  after  a  severe  struggle,  defeated  the  royalists  and 
secured  their  independence.  At  first  the  Government  took  the 
shape  of  a  directorship,  but  confusion  prevailed  until  1833, 
when  a  new  Constitution,  whose  formation  was  begun  two  years 
jireviously,  was  ado])ted.  Under  the  amended  form  of  govern- 
ment an  improved  condition  of  affairs  was  established,  which 
has  endured  up  to  the  ])resent  day. 

Allusion  has  been  made,  under  the  head  of  Peru,  to  the  war 
in  which  that  country  was  con(|uered,  but  a  fuller  mention  of 
it  may  be  afforded  here,  as  the  event  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance  in   connection  with  South   .\inerican  history.      In   1879 


••sf^f^e^^"^* 


-^ 


-A 


268 


PERU. 


hostilities  began  between  Chili  and  the  allied  republics  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru,  growing  out  of  rival  territorial  claims,  and 
claims  to  guano  beds  and  mineral  deposits.  Chili  insisted  that, 
having  done  more  than  either  of  the  others  to  repel  the  enemy, 
she  was  entitled  to  generous  treatment.  When  the  war  came 
she  had  an  army  of  22,000  and  a  navy  of  ten  small  steamers 
and  two  powerful  iron-clads,  which  gave  her  a  vast  advantage 
over  the  enemy.  The  war  was  conducted  with  great  spirit  and 
intrepidity,  the  naval  conflicts  between  the  two  powers  being 
especially  remarkable  for  the  ferocious  carnage  displayed  on 
both  sides.  In  the  spring  of  1S81  Callao  and  Lima  were  taken, 
and  the  Chilians  were  masters  of  the  situation.  By  the  terms 
of  peace  Chili  exacted  from  the  conquered  countries  the  abso- 


lute annexation  of  the  territory  containing  all  the  nitrates  and 
the  great  bulk  of  the  guano,  the  occupation  of  other  territory 
for  a  period  of  years,  and  of  the  Loblis  islands  as  long  as  there 
is  any  guano  on  them;  also  the  payment  of  a  monster  war  in- 
demnity— terms  which  virtually  crush  the  countries  which  have 
been  forced  to  submit  to  them. 

Executive  power  is  vested  in  the  President,  who  is  advised 
by  five  Cabinet  Ministers,  and  subject  to  the  check  of  a  Council 
of  State  composed  of  eleven  officials,  six  of  whom  are  chosen 
by  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  Senate  consists 
of  twenty  members  chosen  for  nine  years,  and  the  Chamber  is 
composed  of  Deputies,  elected  for  three  years,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  to  every  20,000  inhabitants. 


«->^^- 


•^^-^ 


-K-H 


^-^ 


#-     1?EI^U.    -^^^^ 


■fe-^-i 


-S>-J<- 


,^^« 


'^N  1524,  Pizarro  made  a  visit  to  the  coast  of  Peru,  but  it 
was  not  until  1531  that  he  returned  with  intention  of  con- 
quest. His  aim  was  aided  at  the  time  by  the  divided  con- 
dition of  the  country,  for  the  possession  of  which  rival 
°^'  Incas  were  struggling.  With  less  than  200  men  in  his 
command,  the  Spanish  adventurer  made  the  friendship  of  one 
of  the  Incas,  whom  he  took  prisoner.  Promising  to  i-elease 
him  for  a  ransom,  he  acquired  from  the  natives  metals  and 
valuables  worth  nearly  eighteen  millions  of  dollars,  after  which 
he  treacherously  slew  his  prisoner.  After  subjecting  the 
country  to  misrule,  accompanied  by  atrocious  cruelties,  Pizarro 
was  assassinated  in  1541.  Spanish  rule  became  firmly  rooted, 
however,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
colony  of  Quito  was  separated  from  Peru  and  added  to  the 
adjoining  colony  of  New  Granada.  Another  partition  of  the 
colony  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  separate  govern- 
ments of  Venezuela,  Guatemala,  Caracas,  Cumana  and  Chili. 
Peru  was  the  last  of  the  colonies  to  rise  against  Spain,  but  in 
1S21  patriots  from  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres  entered  the  country 
and  drove  the  Spaniards  from  the  capital.  In  1824  the  dicta- 
torship was  assumed  by  Bolivar,  who,  two  years  later,  drove 
the  Spaniards  from  their  last  stronghold,  after  which  he  formed 
a  republic  called  Bolivia  of  the  southern  and  southeastern  por- 
tions of  the  colony,  and  resigned  the  dictatorship.  Revolution 
in  Peru  occurred  in  1S26,  and  in  place  of  the  Constitution  pre- 
pared by  Bolivar,  a  new  one,  similar  in  form  to  that  of  the 


United  States  of  America,  was  adopted.  Civil  war  followed, 
but  peace  was  finally  brought  about  by  General  Castilla,  who 
became  President  in  1S45  and  ruled  the  country  until  1851, 
when,  a  vicious  government  succeeding  him,  another  revolution 
occurred.  Complications  with  the  United  States  arose  in 
185S,  through  the  seizure  of  several  American  vessels  by  ships 
belonging  to  the  revolutionary  forces,  but  in  1873  the 
American  claims  for  damages  were  settled.  Castilla's  star  once  ' 
more  shone  in  the  ascendant,  and  the  country  enjoyed  good  gov- 
ernment until  1S62.  In  1S67  a  Con.stitution  was  adopted  and  a 
treaty  of  commerce  and  friendship  was  made  with  Chili.  After 
revolutions,  as.sassinations  and  other  exhibitions  of  anarchical 
tendency,  the  country  came,  in  1879,  into  conflict  with  Chili. 
With  the  Bolivians  as  allies,  the  Peruvians  made  a  gallant  stand, 
but  in  iSSi  the  Chilians  defeated  and  dispersed  the  Peruvian 
army  and  drove  the  President  from  the  capital. 

Executive  power  in  Peru  vests  in  the  President,  who,  with 
the  Vice-President,  is  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  four 
years.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Senate  composed  of 
Deputies  of  the  twenty-two  provinces,  two  for  each,  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  nominated  by  the  people,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  for  every  20,000  inhabitants.  Five  members 
who  are  nominated  by  the  President  form  the  Cabinet.  Great 
liberality  is  the  characteristic  of  the  Constitution,  except  in 
regard  to  religion,  as  it  provides  that  any  other  religion  than 
the  Roman  Catholic,  which  is  declared  to  be  the  religion  of 
the  State,  is  to  be  strictly  prohibited. 


^ 


UNITED  STATES  QF  COLOMBIA. 


269 


fi  ©HE  United  States  op  (©olombia  & 


-ja-2<ri3  othe:^s- 


I+++++++++++ 


Icjjf  COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTH   AMERICA.  ^5^: 


^I^ 


r- 


+++++++++++ii 


tesNE  of  the  most  enlightened  and  progressive  coun- 
tries  in  South  America  is  the  United  States  of 
Colombia.  In  1536-7  the  country  was  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards,  who  held  it  until  1809, 
^^^fr  when  a  war  of  independence,  lasting  eight  years, 
gave  its  inhabitants  their  liberty.  At  that  time  the  country, 
then  known  as  New  Granada,  was  united  with  Ecuador  and 
Venezuela,  but  a  separation  took  place  in  1S29,  and  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  as  at  present  organized,  was 
formed.  Civil  wars  desolated  the  country  from  i860  to  1870, 
but  peace  has  prevailed  generally  since  then,  and  the  country 
has  been  prosperous.  A  Constitution  was  promulgated  in  1S63 
by  which  the  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  President 
elected  for  two  years,  while  the  legislative  power  lies  in  a 
Senate  consisting  of  three  members  from  each  State,  and  a 
lower  House  of  Delegates,  each  of  the  nine  States  sending  a 
member  for  every  50,000  of  its  inhabitants.  The  States  have 
each  their  own  legislature  and  executive  officer. 

Venezuela  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  a 
settlement  was  effected  by  the  Spaniards  in  1520,  who  held  the 
country  until  1823,  when  the  Venezuelans,  who  had  declared 
their  independence  in  181:,  secured  it  after  a  severe  struggle 
of  eleven  years'  duration.  It  separated  from  New  Granada 
and  Ecuador  in  1S80.  Many  civil  wars  have  devastated  the 
country,  which  has  hardly  yet  settled  down  to  the  peaceful 
enjoyment  of  the  liberties  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution  of 
1864,  by  which  Venezuela  became  a  federal  republic,  whose 
executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President  holding  office  for 
four  years.  Legislative  power  lies  in  a  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  whose  Deputies  are  named  by  corresponding 
State  bodies. 

Ecuador  was,  many  years  previous  to  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  seat  of  an  Indian  monarchy,  whose  King  was 
overthrown  in  the  tenth  century  by  Indians,  who  established  a 
government  and  ruled  the  country  until  it  was  conquered  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  by  Huaqua  Capac, 
Inca  of  Peru.  His  sons  divided  the  country  between  them 
and  quarrelled,  the  war  resulting  in  the  victory  of  the  one  of 
them  to  whom  the  province  of  Quito  had  fallen.  He  reunited 
both  countries,  but  in  1532  Pizarro  seized  and  slew  the  Inca, 
and  Spanish  rule  prevailed  until  1809,  when  the  colonists  arose 


in  rebellion  and  obtained  their  independence  in  1820.  Ecuador 
became  an  independent  State  in  1S30,  and  civil  war  followed, 
lasting  twenty  years,  after  which  came  war  with  Peru.  Tran- 
quillity followed,  and  prosperity  has  of  late  rewarded  the  coun- 
try's efforts  in  the  direction  of  commercial  and  social  advance- 
ment. The  Government  is  a  republic,  with  the  executive  in  the 
hands  of  a  President,  who  is  elected  for  four  years.  Legislative 
power  rests  in  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  who  have 
respectively  eigliteen  and  thirty  members. 

P.\RAGU.\Y  was  discovered  in  1530,  and  settled  in  1536  by 
the  Spaniards,  whose  missionaries  found  the  natives  mild  and 
peaceful  of  disposition  and  well  disposed  to  receive  the  truths 
of  Christianity.  In  181 1  the  country  declared  for  independ- 
ence, and  was  for  twenty-nine  years  kept  under  the  rule  of 
Jose  Caspar  Rodriguez  Francia,  who  sustained  during  the 
whole  period  a  policy  of  non-interference  with  foreigners. 
The  country  was  accessible  only  by  way  of  the  river  Parana, 
and  ingress  and  egress  by  it  were  so  thoroughly  stopped  that 
during  the  long  period  of  his  rule  no  foreigners  whatever  were 
allowed  to  enter,  and  only  half  a  dozen  were  permitted  to 
leave.  Such  shipping  as  was  in  the  river  at  the  time  this  policy 
was  inaugurated  stayed  there,  rotted  and  fell  to  pieces.  This 
unique  condition  of  affairs  was  only  ended  by  Francia's  death, 
when  the  dictatorship  was  seized  by  Antonio  Lopez,  who  held 
it  under  the  title  of  President  until  1862,  when  he  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  ambitious  son,  Francisco  Solano  Lopez, 
who  set  himself  up  as  protector  of  the  "  equilibrium"  of  the 
La  Plata  region.  War  with  Brazil,  Uruguay  and  the  Argentine 
Republic  ensued,  which  lasted  for  five  years,  closing  in  1870, 
when  Lopez  was  killed  and  peace  restored.  At  the  mercy  of 
its  conquerors,  Paraguay  ceded  a  portion  of  its  territory  to 
Brazil,  and  agreed  to  pay  in  all  an  indemnity  so  enormous  that 
it  is  now  bankrupt  and  with  no  prospect  of  regaining  the  finan- 
cial prosperity  it  enjoyed  previous  to  the  war.  Executive- 
power  rests  in  a  Priisident,  who  is  elected  for  six  years,  and 
the  legislative  function  in  a  Congress  composed  of  a  Senate 
and  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Guiana,  consisting  of  three  divisions,  belonging  respect- 
ively to  Great  Britain,  France  and  the  Netherlands,  has  no 
specially  interesting  historical  reminiscences.  Briti.sh  Guiana, 
the  largest  and   most   valuable  of  the  three  possessions,  was 


Drkws  b7  J.  Jutiiutua.  UlUwk 


iv 


272 


EUROPE. 


acquired  by  Great  Britain  in  1S03.  It  is  ruled  by  a  Governor 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  French  Guiana  was  acquired  in 
1704.  It  is  not  a  very  valuable  possession,  and  its  main  use  to 
France  is  as  a  penal  settlement.  Dutch  Guiana,  which  lies 
between  the  others,  is  a  rich  country,  and  is  ruled  by  a  Gov- 
ernor-General and  Council. 

Formerly  kno%vn  as  Buenos  Ayres,  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic was  discovered  in  15 12,  and  twenty-three  years  later  its 
settlement  began,  as  a  part  of  the  Peruvian  domain.  Such  it 
remained  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  formed  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  land  now  divided  among  the  Argentine  Republic,  Paraguay, 
Uruguay  and  Bolivia.  War  for  independence  from  Spanish 
rule  began  in  1S09  and  ended  in  1812,  with  the  revolutionary 
arms  in  the  ascendant.  In  1S17  a  Dictator  was  elected,  subject 
to  the  limitations  of  a  provisional  constitution,  and  three  years 
later  a  democratic  government  was  inaugurated,  .\fter  a  war 
with  Brazil  the  Argentine  provinces  in  1831  formed  a  confeder- 
ation, and  the  power  fell  into  the  hands  of  General  Rosas, 
commander  of  the  army,  who  exercised  it  .despotically  until 
1S52,  when  he  was  deposed,  at  which  time  the  province  of 
Buenos  Ayres  seceded  from  the  confederation.  It  returned, 
laowever,  later,  and  by  a  recent  treaty  the  confederation  was 
increased  by  the  acquisition  of  all  of  Patagonia,  except  a  strip 
along  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  all  of  the  island  of  Terra 
del  Fuego  east  of  the  Andes.  Subsequent  to  the  deposition  of 
Rosas,  the  confederation  engaged  in  a  number  of  foreign  wars, 
and  suffered  from  many  internal  disturbances,  but  of  late  peace 
has  been  enjoyed  to  a  fair  extent.  A  President,  who  is  elected 
for  six  years  by  the  provincial  representatives,  holds  the  execu- 


tive power.  Legislative  power  rests  in  a  National  Congress, 
which  comprises  a  Senate  of  twenty-eight  members  and  a 
House  of  fifty-four  Deputies.  The  provinces,  fourteen  in  num- 
ber, are  ruled  by  Governors,  who  are  elected  for  fourteen  years, 

Uruguay  has  a  history  even  more  bloody  and  bellicose 
than  any  other  of  the  South  American  dominions.  It  was 
first  settled  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  Spain  and  Portugal  both  claimed  possession  of  it 
later,  and  after  much  fighting  the  former  succeeded  in  making 
its  claim  good  in  1724.  About  a  century  later  Brazil  an- 
nexed it,  but  it  revolted  and  secured  its  independence  in  1S2S. 
Since  that  time  until  quite  recently  revolution  continued  to  be 
the  normal  condition  of  the  country,  and  at  times  civil  war 
was  conducted  with  such  ferocity  that  the  intervention  of 
foreign  powers  became  necessary  as  an  act  dictated  by  feelings 
of  humanity.  Although  in  theory  a  republic,  with  a  President 
and  a  Senate  and  House  of  Delegates,  the  real  power  lies  with 
whatever  General  happens  at  the  time  to  have  the  control  of 
the  military. 

BoLivi.\,  named  after  Simon  Bolivar,  sometimes  called  the 
"Liberator  of  South  America,"  for  the  leading  ]iart  which  he 
took  in  helping  the  efforts  made  by  the  different  States  in  the 
direction  of  independence,  was  held  by  the  Spaniards  until 
1825,  when  it  became  independent.  Since  then  revolt  has 
almost  entirely  occupied  the  attention  of  its  people.  In  the 
war  with  Chili  it  was  virtually  annihilated,  the  conditions  ol 
peace  imposed  being  such  as  to  keep  the  country  in  everlasting 
subjection.  A  President  enjoys  the  executive  power,  and  legis- 
lative functions  are  vested  in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, elected  by  the  people. 


^'  REECE  has  the  honor  of  being  in  the  van  of 
IllftviN  European  civilization  and  power,  but  in  the  seventh 
!l\\l%nf  century  before  Christ  a  rival  sprang  up  in  Italy, 
which  in  the  course  of  time  attained  such  vigor 
that  Greece  at  last  was  humbled  to  the  condition 
of  a  Roman  province.  From  200  B.C.  to  100  A.D.  the 
Roman  Empire  enjoyed  its  greatest  glory,  extending  its  power 
until  almost  all  Europe  came  under  its  rule.  From  the 
unconquered  portion  to  the  north,  however,  poured  legions 
of  barbarians,  who  overran  the  Roman  Empire  and  laid 
upon  its  ruins  the  foundations  of  modern  Europe.  What 
are  knomi  as  the  dark  or  middle  ages  of  European  history 


lasted  from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  these  are 
pregnant  with  historic  interest,  the  extension  of  the  Christian 
Church,  with  the  accompanying  development  of  rational  civili- 
zation, being  accomplished  during  those  centuries.  Many 
valuable  inventions  made  during  this  period  assisted  in  the 
beneficent  work,  among  the  most  important  of  which  was 
that  of  printing.  Among  the  most  advanced  of  European 
nations  during  this  time  were  the  republics  of  Italy,  which 
led  the  world  in  commerce,  the  arts  and  civilization.  Such 
is  a  general  summary  of  the  continent's  history  up  to  the  end 
of  the  middle  ages.  Fuller  facts  regarding  individual  national 
progress  during  and  subsequent  to  this  period  will  be  found 
under  the  proper  heads  elsewhere. 


A 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


273 


^^       )Xaa3a[da(aa[a[aaaaaiaaa3[aaaaiaaaa3a3aaaaaaaaGaa)( 
%,,       l/aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaafl        j^ 


-^m^i^ 


Yi\ 


^HE  is 
V,   writti 


island  now  known  as  Great  Britain  was  known 
the  ancients  previous  to  the  date  at  which  its 
tten  history  begins,  the  Phcenicians,  Carthagin- 
l  7  ians  and  Massilians  having  visited  its  shores  in  their 
■n^''  trading  vessels.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  year 
55  B.C.  that  its  real  history  commenced,  with  the  conquest  of 
the  country  by  Julius  Ccesar,  and  the  establishment  there  of 
the  Roman  rule,  which  lasted  until  A.D.  420,  when  the  pres- 
sure of  Rome's  enemies  caused  the  withdrawal  of  the  legions 
from  Britannia — the  name  which  Caesar  gave  to  the  island  in 
the  stead  of  Albion,  by  which  it  had  formerly  been  known. 
The  departure  of  the  Romans  left  the  British  a  prey  to  the 
Picts  and  Scots,  whose  incursions,  aided  by  internal  dissen- 
sions among  the  British  chiefs,  re- 
duced the  country  to  a  condition  of 
anarchy.   One  of  these  chiefs,  seek-  jb, 

ing  assistance  to  enable  him  to  cope 
with  the  northern  invaders,  effected 
an  alliance,  in  A.D.  446,  with  lien- 
gist,  a  prince  of  the  Jutes,  who, 
with  Horsa,  his  brother,  after  driv- 
ing back  the  Picts  and  Scots,  turned 
his  arms  against  the  Britons,  whom 
they  overcame  in  a  series  of  san- 
guinary battles.  In  457  Hengist 
declared  himself  King  of  Kent, 
and  in  the  cour.se  of  time  the  con- 
quest of  England  was  fully  ac- 
complished by  the  Saxons,  Jutes 
and  Angles,  who  established  three 
Saxon,  one  Jutish  and  four  Anglian 
kingdoms.     About  the  year  830  the 

ruling  power  was  consolidated,  and  Egbert,  ruler  of  the  Saxon 
kingdom,  Wessex,  became  King  of  all  England.  During  his 
reign  began  the  invasions  of  the  Danes,  who,  gaining  increased 
jiower  after  the  death  of  Alfred  the  Great  in  goi ,  held  the  country 
from  1017  to  1041,  when  the  crown  reverted  to  the  Anglo-Saxons 
and  to  Christianity,  which  had  already  been  introduced  in  the 
person  of  Edward,  surnamed  the  Confessor.  His  reign  was 
merely  nominal,  tKe  country  being  governed  by  Dani,sh  and 
English  Earls,  and  when  he  died  one  of  these,  Harold,  Earl  of 
Wessex,  seized  the  throne,  which  was  soon  wrested  from  him 
by  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  in  France,  who  defeated  him 
in  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  established  the  Norman  line  of 
Kings.     The  Norman  invasion  was  followed  by  the  division  of 


QUEEN'S  CASTLE,  BALMORAL 


the  lands  among  William  the  Conqueror's  followers,  as  feudal 
lords,  the  foundation  thus  being  laid  of  a  rich  and  powerful 
landed  aristocracy,  which  has  continued  lo  successfully  defend 
its  ascendancy  in  spite  of  all  oppo.sition.  As  years  went  by 
the  Normans  and  Saxons  became  merged  into  one  people. 

In  the  court,  French  manners  and  the  Norman-French 
language  prevailed,  while  the  Saxon  tongue  remained  in  use 
among  the  laboring  classes ;  but  the  writings  of  Chaucer 
fixed  the  English  language,  which,  however,  had  received  a 
strong  impression  from  the  invaders.  The  reigns  of  the 
Norman  and  Plantagenet  monarchs  were  a  series  of  contests 
between  the  Kings  and  the  Barons,  and  the  concessions  which 
the  latter  wrung  from  royalty  constitute  .some  of  the  strong- 
holds of  British  liberty.  One  of 
—  ^^  the  most  important   of   these  was 

7^_^  the  Magna  Charta,  which  the  Bar- 

Jj'     _  ^i  ons  forced  King  John   to  sign  at 

Kunnymede  in  1215,  and  which 
secured  to  the  English  people  two 
great  rights :  first,  that  no  man 
should  sufl'er  arbitrary  imprison- 
ment ;  second,  that  no  tax  should  he 
imposed  without  the  consent  of  the 
National  Council.  In  1265  King 
Henry  III.  was  imprisoned  by  the 
Barons,  and  the  first  English  Par- 
liament was  convened ;  and  though, 
in  the  same  year,  liis  son  Edward 
defeated  the  Barons  and  restored 
his  father,  the  latter  was  glad  to 
conciliate  his  foes,  and  confirmed 
the  great  charter.  During  Ed- 
ward's reign  Wales  was  conquered  and  annexed  to  England, 
and  Scotland  was  menaced,  but  preserved  her  integrity  through 
the  skilful  generalship  of  William  Wallace  and  Robert  Bruce. 
The  shaping  of  the  English  Parliament  was  greatly  advanced 
during  this  reign,  the  National  Council  taking  its  modern 
form  by  the  separation  of  the  greater  Barons  from  the 
tenants-in-chief,  who  thereafter  took  part  in  Parliament  only 
through  representatives.  In  1295  the  first  session  of  the 
Commons  in  a  separate  chamber  was  held,  and  in  1296  was 
passed  the  statute  providing  that  no  tax  should  be  imposed 
which  was  not  sanctioned  by  the  Barons,  Bishojis  and  Burges- 
ses. Popular  government  made  another  step  forward  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.,  the  first  King  of  the  house  of  Lancaster, 


\ 


~A 


274 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


in  the  enactment  of  the  statute  granting  the  parliamentary 
right  of  election  for  counties  to  all  freeholders,  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  two  houses  of  Parliament  as  bodies  possessing 
distinct  privileges,  which  were  not  to  be  interfered  with  by- 
each  other.  The  reform  of  church  abuses,  which  had  been 
inaugurated  by  Wycliff,  was  opposed  by  Henry  IV.,  while 
Parliament  passed  the  act  for  the  punishment  of  heretics, 
which  for  two  centuries,  almost,  was  made  the  instrument  for 
the  affliction  of  unutterable  cruelties.  The  aspirations  of  the 
house  of  York  to  the  throne  led  to  the  sanguinary  civil  con- 
flicts known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  The  Yorkists  triumphed 
in  1461,  and  in  Henry  VII. 's  marriage  the  two  houses  were 
joined  together.  The  Tudor  dj-nasty  thus  formed  produced 
some  remarkable  reigns.  Henry  VIII.,  who  in  the  early  part 
of  his  reign  earned  the  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith,"  for  his 
loyalty  to  the  Pope,  broke  with  Rome  later,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  "  Head  of  the  Church,"  and  in  1535  the  Papal  authority 
was  set  aside  by  act  of  Parliament.  In  the  reign  of  his 
daughter.  Queen  Mary,  a  devout  Catholic,  a  strong  effort  was 
made  to  undo  the  work  of  reformation  in  England.  The 
legislation  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  of  the  regency  which  suc- 
ceeded him,  was  repealed,  and  many  who  opposed  the  new 
deal  were  burned  at  the  stake.  Dying  without  issue,  Mary 
was  succeeded  by  her  Protestant  half-sister,  Elizabeth,  who 
restored  the  supremacy  of  the  Church  of  England,  which  about 
this  time  accomplished  the  reform  of  the  service  books  of  the 
church,  and  of  its  doctrines,  which  resulted  in  the  preparation 
of  the  thirty-nine  articles,  in  substantially  the  same  form  as 
they  exist  at  present.  -  The  nation  was  threatened  in  Eliza- 
beth's reign  by  the  Spanish  .Armada,  which  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  fitted  out  for  England's  invasion,  but  which,  overtaken 
by  a  storm,  was  dispersed,  and  its  great  vessels  made  an  easy 
prey  for  the  lighter  and  more  manageable  English  ships. 
Under  Elizabeth  Ireland  was  subjected,  commerce  with  India 
established,  and  colonies  planted  in  America. 

The  Stuart  family  of  Scotland  succeeded  that  of  Tudor, 
and  with  them  culminated  the  struggle  between  royal  preroga- 
tive and  popular  right.  The  power  of  the  feudal  Barons  had 
already  been  destroyed,  and  the  bulwark  of  British  law  and 
liberty  now  was  the  middle  class.  The  Stuart  monarchs,  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.,  by  no  means  understood  the  spirit  of  their 
age,  and  their  constant  exercise  of  despotic  power  brought 
them  in  collision  with  the  united  trading  and  laboring  classes. 
King  Charles  attempted  to  dispense  with  the  Parliament,  and 
ruled  for  many  years  without  one,  but  in  1642  the  people  arose 
against  him,  and  in  1645  the  Roundhead  (Puritan)  army,  under 
Oliver  Cromwell,  overthrew  the  Royalist  forces.  The  King 
was  imprisoned  and  executed,  and  Cromwell,  declining  the 
title  of  King  offered  him  by  Parliament,  ruled  the  country  as 
Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth.  Under  this  great  man 
the  power  of  England  increased  greatly.  At  his  death,  in  1659, 
his  son,  an  amiable  man  of  moderate  capacity,  succeeded  him, 
but  resigned  his  power  in  the  following  year.  This  paved  the 
way  for  the  return  of  the  Stuarts  in  Charles  II.,  a  vicious 
monarch,  whose  reign  saw  further  conflicts  between  the  King 
and  Parliament,  which,  however,  in  1679,  shuwed  their  oppo- 
sition to  his  will,  and  passed  the  Habeas  Corpus  act.  His 
brother  and  successor,  James  II.,  worked  persistently  for   the 


overthrow  of  constitutional  government  and  the  establishment 
of  despotic  regal  power  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as 
the  State  religion,  and  fared  no  better  than  his  predecessors, 
being  forced  to  abdicate  to  make  room  for  William  of  Orange, 
whose  acceptance  of  the  crown  was  made  subject  to  limita- 
tions inspired  by  Parliament,  which  passed  an  act  arranging 
for  the  succession,  while  the  Bill  of  Rights  guaranteeil  the  lib- 
erty of  the  country.  Under  Queen  Anne,  the  English  armies 
under  the  famous  Marlborough  won  splendid  victories  on  the 
continent  against  France.  In  1707  the  union  with  Scotland 
was  consummated.  With  George  I.,  who  succeeded  her,  came 
in  the  Hanoverian  dynasty,  during  the  early  years  of  whose  rule 
efforts  were  made  to  re-establish  the  Stuart  line,  whose  hopes 
were  finally  crushed  at  Culloden  in  1 746.  The  reign  of  George 
II.  was  marked  by  the  acquisition  of  India  and  Canada.  En- 
gland's colonial  possessions  were  largely  increased  during  the 
earlier  years  of  George  III. ,  but  later  on  the  persistent  attempts 
to  tax  the  American  tolonists  drove  them  to  successful  revolu- 
tion and  the  formation  of  the  United  States  of  America.  The 
intellectual  brilliancy  of  the  Parliamentary  leaders  of  this 
epoch  is  one  of  its  striking  features,  the  destinies  of  the  nation 
being  in  the  hands  of  such  men  as  Pitt,  Fox,  Burke  and  Sheri- 
dan. The  successes  of  Napoleon  in  Europe  alarming  England, 
she  joined  with  the  other  powers  in  a  war  whose  object  was  to 
replace  the  Bourbons  on  the  French  throne.  The  prolonged  con- 
flict was  ended  by  the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  1815,  in  which 
Napoleon  was  defeated  by  a  British  army  under  Wellington 
and  a  Prussian  army  under  Blucher.  During  these  wars  En- 
gland's victories  at  sea,  under  Admiral  Nelson,  constitute  the 
brightest  page  in  her  n.ival  history.  In  1798  the  Irish,  assisted 
by  the  French,  rebelled,  but  were  subdued,  and  in  1801 
occurred  the  passage  of  the  act  of  union  between  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  George  IV.,  a  regal  profligate,  succeeded 
him,  and  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  who  followed,  was 
pas-sed  the  first  reform  bill,  which  placed  the  political  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  people.  Three  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1837,  the  decree  was  ordered  abolishing  slavery 
from  British  territory.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  sov- 
ereign. Queen  Victoria,  whose  reign  has  proved  one  of  the 
most  remarkable,  as  well  as  beneficent,  of  all  the  British  sov- 
ereigns. Born  in  London,  May  24,  1819,  she  was  only  iS 
years  old  at  the  time  of  her  accession.  In  February,  1840, 
she  was  married  to  her  cousin.  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  with  whom  she  .sustained  very  happy  conjugal  relations 
until  his  death,  in  1861,  since  which  time  she  has  remained  a 
widow.  The  earliest  event  of  importance  in  her  reign  was  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  in  1S45.  In  1847  a  famine  occurred 
in  Ireland,  \\hich  was  followed  by  a  large  emigration  from  that 
country.  The  Chartist  agitation  followed  in  1S4S,  and  in  1S53 
the  Crimean  war  commenced,  in  which  England  and  France 
allied  themselves  with  Turkey  against  the  encroachments  of 
Russia.  It  lasted  from  January,  1854,  until  March,  1856, 
when  the  Russians,  having  lost  the  fortress  of  Sebastopol, 
which  was  the  key  to  their  position,  consented  to  a  peace. 
The  next  serious  employment  of  the  English  arms  was  that 
provided  in  the  suppression  of  the  Indian  mutiny,  which 
occurred  in  1S57-S,  after  which  England  assumed  direct  con- 
trol of  affairs  in  that  country.     In   1S6S  the    supplementary 


/ 


K' 


IRELAND. 


~7\ 


275 


reform  bill  was  passed,  and  in  1S70  the  disestablisment  uf  llie 
Irish  Church  was  accomplished.  In  the  year  following,  the 
peaceful  negotiation  of  the  differences  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  caused  by  the  acts  of  the  rebel 
cruiser  Alabama,  resulted  in  an  Alabama  claims  treaty. 
A,mongst  the  minor  wars  of  her  reign  were  those  against  the 
Chinese,  Abyssinians  and  Ashantees,  the  Afghanistans,  Zulus 
jud  Boers.  Though  at  peace  with  foreign  nations,  Great 
<5rilain  is  just  now  menaced  by  the  defiant  attitude  of  her  Irish 
.".ubjects,  who,  seeking  to  redress  the  wrongs  which  they  have 
suffered,  are  in  secret  rebellion  against  the  Government. 
Assisted  by  political  societies,  whose  ramifications  cdend  to 
foreign  countries  where  expatriated  Irishmen  have  found 
liomes,  the  plotters  for  Iri.sh  liberty  are  endeavoring,  by 
acts  of  violence  organized  and  accomplished  in  secret,  to 
terrify  the  Government  into  granting  the  concessions  they  de- 
mand. 

The  Government  of  Great  Britain  is  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  executive  function  is  vested  in  the  sovereign,  and 
the  legislative  in  the  Imperial  Parliament.  The  succession  to 
ihe  throne  is  settled  upon  the  descendants  of  Sophia  of  Bruns- 


wick, and  no  change  in  (he  "  Act  of  Settlement  "  can  be  made 
without  the  consent  of  Parliament.  The  heir-apparent 
assumes  the  title  of  "  Prince  of  Wales. "  The  Parliament 
consists  of  the  sovereign,  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  Hou.se 
of  Commons,  and  an  act  to  obtain  the  force  of  law  must  be 
passed  by  all  three.  Membership  in  the  House  of  Lords  is 
hereditary.  There  are  492  members,  including  the  2  Arch- 
bishops and  24  Bishops  of  the  Estalilished  Church  of  England. 
The  House  of  Commons  has  654  members — 4S7  for  England 
and  Wales,  105  for  Ireland  and  62  for  Scotland.  Of  these, 
1 1  represent  the  universities,  283  the  counties,  and  360  the 
3i;5  boroughs.  The  right  of  voting  is  restricted  in  boroughs 
to  householders  and  to  lodgers  paying  a  rent  of  ;{^20  ]>er 
annum  ;  in  counties  to  householders  paying  £\o  rent.  The 
members  of  the  Cabinet  Council  are  appointed  by  the  sover- 
eign, but  responsible  to  Parliament,  and  consequently  their 
appointment  is  virtually  made  by  the  party  in  the  majority. 
The  sovereign  appoints  the  members  of  the  Privy  Council,  the 
Lord  Mayor  of  London  being  the  only  ex  officio  member,  but 
public  business  is  in  reality  conducted  by  the  Cabinet  Council. 
In  Ireland  the  Crown  is  represented  by  a  Lord  Lieutenant. 


-^    Ir^EliAND.    -*- 


|r^ T  the  present  moment,  on  account  of  the  strenuous 
W^)  effort  the  Irish  are  making  to  effect  the  liberation  of 
their  land,  Ireland  is  commanding  a  great  deal  of 
attention.  Christianity  was  introduced  into  the 
SJ*^^  island  in  the  fifth  century,  when  St.  Patrick,  being 
taken  a  captive  in  war,  was  sold  into  slavery  in  Ireland,  where 
he  remained  for  five  years.  Twenty  years  later  he  returned 
there  as  a  missionary,  and  for  thirty  years  preached  the  truths 
of  the  gospel  to  its  people,  succeeding  most  remarkably  in  his 
mission  as  a  Christian  propagandist.  From  the  eighth  to  the 
eleventh  century  was  the  period  of  Ireland's  greatest  compara- 
tive civilization.  During  this  period  she  was  far  more  advanced 
than  England  in  learning  and  culture.  Colleges  flourished,  and 
the  arts  were  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Unfor- 
tunately, while  so  well  advanced  in  civilization,  Ireland  had  not 
achieved  what  was  at  that  time  necessary  for  her  salvation — a 
strong  central  government.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  divided 
up  into  a  number  of  petty  kingdoms,  which  had  no  secure 
l)ond  of  union.  Hence,  when  the  Plantagenet  monarch  of 
England,  Henry  II.,  made  his  raids  in  1 172,  his  conquest  of 
the  disunited  country  was  a  comparatively  easy  matter, 
taking  into  consideration  the  really  warlike  qualities  of  the 
Irish  chiefs  and  Barons  who  ruled  the  land.  The  foothold 
thus  gained  was  in  the  province  of  Leinster,  and  from  that 
date  England  has  asserted  a  fictitious  claim  to  rule  a  people 


persistently  unreconciled  to  any  interference  with  home  rule. 
It  was  under  the  Tudors,  however,  that  the  fate  of  the  un- 
happy island  was  settled.  There  was  no  centralization  in 
Ireland.  Britain  l)ecame  great  because  the  petty  kingdoms 
were  con.solidated  into  one  nation,  while  Ireland  dwindled 
away  and  lost  its  splendid  opportunity,  through  the  calamitous 
influence  of  the  tribe  and  the  clan,  in  distinction  from  the 
country.  For  a  long  time  the  "English  Pale,"  or  the  area 
of  actual  British  rule  in  Ireland,  was  very  limited.  Henry 
VII.  determined  to  extend  it,  but  pursued  his  purpose  only 
feebly.  Henry  VIH.  was  more  intently  bent  on  Irish  subju- 
gation, and  under  his  reign  nobles  and  people  felt  the  crushing 
hand  of  a  tyrant.  In  1542  he  assumed  the  title  of  King, 
instead  of  Lord  of  Ireland,  by  virtue  of  an  act  jjassed  by  the 
.\nglo-Irish  Parliament  in  1541,  and  about  the  same  time  some 
of  the  native  princes  were  induced  to  acknowletlge  him  as 
their  sovereign  and  to  accept  peerages.  Since  then  his  suc- 
cessors have  never  ceased  to  hold  fast  both  the  shadow  and 
substance  of  Irish  sovereignty.  In  order  that  the  national 
sentiment  might  be  suppressed,  the  language,  dress,  customs 
and  laws  of  the  country  were  prohibited.  The  fact  that  Henry 
was  at  war  with  the  Pope  made  loyalty  to  Rome  an  expres- 
sion of  patriotism  in  Ireland.  Very  little  favor  was  extende<l  to 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  either  by  the  descendants 
of  the  old  English  settlers  or  by  the  native  Irish,  and  when 


K. 


\ 


276 


A 


IRELAND. 


the  English  Government  sought  to  introduce  it  great  dissen- 
sions were  stirred  up.  When  Mary  came  to  the  throne,  and 
Protestantism  lacked  the  support  of  the  Government,  it  almost 
immediately  melted  away.  She  was  not  disposed  to  abandon 
the  island  to  itself  by  any  means,  but  her  personal  sympathies 
were  with  the  Irish  in  the  matter  of  religion.  Elizabeth  was 
in  sympathy,  of  course,  with  the  Protestantism  of  her  father 
rather  than  the  papacy  of  her  sister ;  but  she  took  a  secular 
view  of  the  Irish  question,  and  under  her  the  power  of  the 
British  Crown  was  felt  throughout  the  entire  island.  The  old 
Celtic  Constitution  was  rejected ;  the  tribal  authority  of  the 
chiefs  was  taken  from  them,  and  the  tribal  system  of  property 
set  aside  ;  English  judges  and  English  law  were  substituted  for 
the  old  proceedings  :  the  result  of  which,  says  Green,  was  that 
"  the  evicted  natives  withdrew  sullenly  to  the  lands  which  had 
been  left  them  by  the  spoiler  ;  but  all  faith  in  English  justice 
had  been  torn  from  the  minds  of  the  Irishry,  and  the  seed  had 
been  sown  of  that  fatal  harvest  of  distrust  which  was  to  be 
reaped  through  t)Tanny  and  massacre  in  the  age  to  come." 

Very  shortly  before  Elizabeth's  death  occurred  the  famous 
insurrection  of  Tyrone, 
who  invited  the  Span- 
iards to  assist  him;  but 
they  were  all  defeated  in 
1620.  Repeated  rebel- 
lion tried  the  temper  of 
the  Government,  which, 
in  the  reign  of  James  I., 
seized  the  province  of 
Ulster  and  divided  it 
among  such  of  liis  Scotch 
and  English  subjects  as 
chose  to  settle  there.  In 
1641  occurred  More  and 
.^^aguire's  rebellion,  in 
which  an  endeavor  was 
made  to  expel  the  Prot- 
estants from  the  island. 
From  1649  to  1656  the 
iron  hand  of  Cromwell 
was  laid  upon  the  land. 
In  the  year  of  King 
'  "harles'  execution,  the 
Royalists  being  still  strong  and  rebellious  in  Ireland,  Cromwell 
went  there  ii'  person  as  Lord-Lieutenant  and  Commander-in- 
Chief,  and  his  measures  were  so  cruel  and  sanguinary  that  the 
island  was,  in  nine  months,  completely  crushed.  He  left  in  charge 
of  it  his  son-in-law,  Ireton,  who  completed  the  island's  subjec- 
tion, and  no  disturbance  of  its  tranquillity  occurred  until  the  revo- 
lution. The  northern  province,  Ulster,  was  colonized  by 
Scotch  .shortly  after  Cromwell's  invasion.  At  the  time  of  the 
revolution  James  II.  received  very  generally  the  support  of 
the  Irish,  while  the  Scotch  and  English  colonists  took  the 
part  of  William  and  Mary.  The  struggle  between  oppressor 
and  oppressed  lasted  for  four  years,  and  was  ended  by  the 
bloody  battle  of  the  Boyne,  fought  July  i,  1690,  and  result- 
ing in  the  overthrow  of  the  Irish,  who,  two  years  later,  were 
again  in    utter   subjection.       From  this   time   on   the  British 


SACKVILLE  STREET,  DUBLIN 


Government  systematically  sought  to  destroy  the  Irish  national 
sentiment.  Penal  laws  were  passed  \yhich  imposed  terrible 
restrictions  upon  the  Roman  Catholic  population,  and  rebel- 
lions were  frequent.  Backed  by  the  "Volunteers,"  Henry 
Grattan  secured  a  free  Parliament  and  the  partial  abolition  of 
the  heavy  restrictions  on  Irish  commerce.  It  was  mainly 
through  this  patriot's  exertions  and  influence  that  the  stringent 
pressure  of  the  penal  laws  against  the  Roman  Catholics 
was  relaxed.  He  steadily  opposed  the  idea  of  a  legislative 
union  of  the  countries,  and  in  1800  he  was  elected  to  fight 
in  Parliament  for  Irish  liberty.  Two  years  previous  the 
country,  driven  to  desperation  by  oppression,  had  been  in 
revolt,  and  the  year  that  saw  Grattan's  election  saw  also  the 
crushing  out  of  the  attempt  to  secure  Ireland's  liberty.  Not- 
withstanding his  brilliant  advocacy  of  the  Irish  cause,  the 
oppressors  were  in  the  preponderance  m  Parliament,  and  the 
union  was  consummated  January  i,  iSoi.  Since  that  time 
Ireland  has  not  lacked  for  agitators  to  keep  alive  the  national 
spirit  and  to  fight  for  the  amelioration  of  her  condition.  In 
1S29  the  Catholic  Emancipation  act  was  passed,  largely  through 

the  exertions  of  the  great 
Daniel  ©'Connell,  and 
later  on  a  reform  bill 
and  a  poor-law  were  en- 
acted. About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  present  century 
a  strong  movement  was 
on  foot  for  the  repeal  of 
the  union,  and  while  it 
was  in  progress  famine 
fell  upon  the  land  and 
whole  counties  were  de- 
populated. In  iS4SSmilh 
O'Brien's  abortive  revo- 
lution was  easily  sup- 
pressed. More  formida- 
ble since  then  have  been 
the  alternately  secret  and 
overt  workings  of  the 
Fenian  Brotherhood. 
Organized  in  i  S59  in  both 
America  and  Great  Brit- 
ain, it  held  a  congress  at 
Chicago  in  1863  that  attracted  much  attention.  Two  years 
later  another  was  held  in  Cincinnati,  which  represented  a  con- 
stituency of  80,000.  In  1866  an  attempt  was  made  to  conquer 
Canada,  and  in  1867  several  Fenian  riots  occurred  in  Great 
Britain.  It  has  been  urged  that  these  aggressive  movements 
accomplished  nothing.  Directly  they  may  have  failed  of  great 
success,  but  indirectly  they  proved  of  immense  value  to  the 
Irish  cause.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  population  of  Ireland 
hold  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  their  taxation  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  State  Church  was  one  of  the  leading  causes  of 
Irish  discontent.  It  is  not  uninteresting  to  note  that  it  was  in 
1869 — two  years  after  the  first  Fenian  agitation — that  the 
Episcopal  State  Church  was  disestablished  and  disendowed,  and 
the  endowment,  except  as  used  for  annuities,  dedicated  tn 
educational  and  other  secular  inirposes.     Important  as  was  ihe 


VL 


_\ 


IRELAND. 


277 


concession,  it  did  not  satisfy  tlie  Irish  people,  who  have  ])Iaced 
national  independence  and  autonomy  as  the  goal  of  their 
combined  struggles,  and  a  powerful  movement  was  inaugu- 
rated for  securing  reform  in  tenure  of  land  and  the  rela- 
tions of  landlord  and  tenant.  Under  the  lead  of  Mr.  Parnell, 
himself  a  large  land-owner,  the  matter  has  been  so  per- 
.sistently  brought  before  the  attention  of  Parliament  that 
reforms  have  already  been  accomplished  of  great  importance. 
The  Land  League,  which  is  at  the  back  of  Mr.  Parnell  and  his 
associates,  is  a  formidable  body,  which  aims  at  British  reforms 
within  the  limits  of  the  Constitution,  rather  than  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  union.  It  has  secured  much  tlirough  the  Land  Bill, 
and  the  readjustment  of  rents  thereunder,  and  it  is  still  a  tre- 
mendous power  in  Ireland  and  the  British  Parliament,  while 
the  hundreds  of  societies  in  this  country  which  are  affiliated 
to  the  main  body  show  how  strongly  lrish-.\mericans  and 
Americans  sympathize  with  the  cause  of  Ireland.  The  aim,  how- 
ever, of  the  Irish  Nationalist  party  docs  not  fall  short  of  an  Irish 
Parliament  to  manage  local  affairs,  of  the  formation,  in  place  of 
the  present  system  which  concentrates  all  power  in  the  British 
Parliament,  of  a  federal  government,  and  of  the  abolition  of 
the  oppressive  system  of  land  tenures  now  in  vogue. 

Within  tile  past  few  months  the  struggle  for  these  desirable 
objects  has  assumed  a  shape  of   .secret  aggression  which  has 


carried  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  British.  Right  in  the 
heart  of  the  British  capital,  members  of  the  secret  societies 
have  effected  explosions  of  large  quantities  of  dynamite,  and 
quite  recently  the  Government  spies  ferreted  out  a  factory  of 
explosives,  to  be  used  in  carrying  on  the  war  of  terror  against 
oppression.  Many  arrests  have  been  made,  and  trials  have 
followed,  resulting  in  a  number  of  convictions,  with  sentences 
of  death  or  transportation.  Among  those  doomed  to  death 
are  the  convicted  assassins  of  the  Earl  of  Spencer  and  Secre- 
tary Burke,  whose  murder  was  one  of  the  most  unfortunate 
occurrences  in  connection  with  the  recent  struggles,  and  has 
cost  the  good  cau.se  much  favorable  opinion  which  should  be- 
long to  it.  Such  events,  however,  resulting  from  the  enthusi- 
asm of  the  over-zealous  and  excitalilc,  have  attended  almost 
all  revolutions,  and  nothing  will  ensure  their  forgiveness  quicker 
than  the  success  of  those  who  are  now  continuing  the  fight  for 
Irish  independence. 

Ireland  is  represented  in  the  British  House  of  Commons  by 
105  members,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  2S  representative 
Peers,  who  are  elected  and  hold  office  for  life.  Its  executive 
consists  of  a  Lord  Lieutenant  and  Privy  Council,  nominated 
by  the  Crown.  English  rule  is  enforced  throughout  the  coun- 
try with  the  assistance  of  an  armed  military  constabulary 
numbering  over  12,000  men. 


278 


SCOTLAND- 


1,7 


Wi    ^    Scotland.    ^ 


£11}      -i  „-t^^'i'<DCiJDi3D#^®ig(ltW»^<MH8i»M'#»l»i«^^-#»i<#€'||g-fer4' "i 


-i-+#=&^4+^ 


^^REVIOUS  to  the  union  with  England,  Scotland,  as 
jN^  an  independent  country,  had  attracted  considerable 
■5sj  attention.  In  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  the 
-11''  Scots  acquired  a  predominance  in  North  Britain 
^C  by  revolution.  A  lineal  descendant  of  Ardan,  a 
powerful  prince  who  more  than  once  successfully  invaded  the 
English  borders,  named  Kenneth,  claimed  the  British  realm. 
Under  his  son,  Malcolm  II.,  the  Scotch  acquired  the  Merse  and 
Teviotdale  from  the  Earl  of  Northumbria.  Malcolm  III.,  who 
succeeded,  had  a  long  and  prosperous  reign,  in  which  Scotland 
made  great  strides 
forward,  both  polit- 
ically and  socially. 
English  customs  were 
introduced,  owing  to 
his  long  residence  in 
England  and  his  mar- 
riage with  an  English 
princess,  and  the  En- 
glish language  began 
to  make  headway  on 
account  of  the  large 
immigration  from 
England  which  took 
place.  During  the 
succeeding  reigns  of 
Edgar,  .Me.\ander  I., 
and  David,  who  was 
a  great  reformer  in 
both  clerical  and  sec- 
ular affairs,  the  En- 
glish influence  in- 
creased. One  of  the 
ablest  and  best  of 
Scottish  kings  was 
Alexander  III.,  who,  oy  a  treaty  with  Norway,  added  tlie 
Isle  of  Man  to  his  dominions,  together  with  other  islands 
of  the  Western  Sea.  A  dispute  over  the  crown  followed  the 
death  of  his  granddaughter  in  1290,  and  the  decision  between 
the  claimants,  Baliol  and  Bruce,  was  left  to  King  Edward  I. 
of  England,  who  entered  the  country  with  an  army,  deposed 
Baliol  and  instituted  English  government.  A  prolonged  strug- 
gle for  intiependcnce  followed,  in  which  tlie  heroic  deeds  of 
Wallace  and  Bruce  gained  for  the  Scotch  a  deathless  reputation 


VIEW  OF  EDINBURGH. 


for  valor  and  patriotism.  During  succeeding  generations  the 
history  of  Scotland  was  one  prolonged  story  of  interminable 
civil  and  border  warfare,  and  of  occasional  invasions  from 
England.  Amicable  relations  between  the  Crown  and  the 
nobles  were  first  accomplished  during  the  reign  of  James  IV., 
whose  gay  and  elegant  court  seduced  the  warriors  from  the 
field  and  left  the  peasantry  to  attend  undisturbed  to  the  peace- 
ful and  profitable  occupation  of  husbandry.  Fisheries  were 
encouraged,  a  navy  built  and  commerce  promoted,  while  the 
King's    marriage    with    Margaret,    daughter    of    the    Tudor 

Henry  VII.,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the 
union  of  the  two 
kingdoms.  Henry 
VIII.  .sought  to  con- 
quer the  country,  and 
in  the  war  which 
James  IV.  was  pro- 
voked into  declaring 
against  him  the  Scotch 
navy  was  destroyed, 
and  its  armies  de- 
feated on  Flodden 
Heights.  The  King 
was  among  the  slain. 
His  son,  subsequently 
James  V.,  was  then 
a  minor,  and  during 
the  regency  which  en- 
sued the  country  fell 
into  a  wretched  con- 
dition. He  married  a 
daughteroftheFrench 
Duke  of  Guise,  the 
fruit  of  which  mar- 
riage was  the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  whose  son, 
JamesVI.  of  Scotland,  became  James  I.  of  England,  thus  uniting 
the  two  countries.  The  overthrow  of  the  Stuart  family  and  other 
events  v  hich  happened  from  the  accession  of  James  VI.  to  the 
English  throne,  down  to  ratification  of  the  act  of  union  by  the 
Scottish  Parliament  in  1707,  are  told  in  the  history  of  Great 
Britain  given  elsewhere.  Scotland  retained,  on  its  admission  to 
the  union,  its  church  system  and  its  laws.  It  is  governed  by  the 
Imperial  Parliament,  to  which  it  elects  sixty  members. 


GERMANY. 


■71 


279 


^aat^aaiiBagan^qgnwgagangggiqniHngiFigaaaiinrmn^iji 


+  Gei^many.  + 


--V. 


'^^^^ 


^- -5  b^''^^  ^i^-^' 


ieEBEEEBEElEBEEbltJiaia]EEEb!EtilEbIbiBBBEBEEEEEL:EE» 


---     -  .V*^  -   ^»  'IT  jf  —  ^j-.. 


pPHEN  Julius  C;iesar  was  on  his  way  of  exploration 

•! 1.  Europe,  which  led  him  through  Gaul 

Great  Britain,  he  avoided  rather  than 

^Jl   few  l/j     sought   to   measure   arms   with    the   Germans, 

L     CJ)i>Tj      whose  fighting  he  tasted  of  and  then  learned  to 

respect.     A  conflict  between  the  liomans  and  Germans  was, 


PALACE,  BERLIN. 

however,  inevitable,  and  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the 
nation  was  firmly  established  by  Arminius,  wlio  cru.shed  the 
invaders  in  the  historic  battle  of  Teuto- 
berger,  which  occurred  B.C.  9.  About 
500  years  later,  Clovis,  moving  westward, 
established  the  Franl<ish  Empire,  which, 
under  the  famous  Charlemagne,  reached 
from  the  Raab,  in  Hungary,  to  the  Ebro, 
in  Spain,  and  from  the  Eider,  in  the  north, 
to  the  Tiber,  in  the  south.  The  division 
and  subdivision  of  the  empire  created 
numerous  duchies  and  principalities,  and 
the  ruler  over  all  was  generally  the. one 
who  was  able  to  secure  the  influence  of  the 
clerical  leaders.  Wars  for  the  possession 
of  the  imperial  crown  and  changes  of  dy- 
nasty were  frequent.  The  empire  lasted 
until  1273,  when  Count  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg  began  his  reign  as  King,  destroyed  the  power  of  the 
nobles  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  family  which  still  reigns 
over  Austria.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  the  power  of  Ger- 
many was  extended   so   that  it  included   Belgium,  Spain,  the 


Netherlands,  .\ustro-IIungary  and  Italy,  and  she  became  the 
ruling  power  in  Europe.  This  reign  was  also  remarkable  for 
the  beginning  of  the  Reformation.  In  1521,  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  Luther  made  his  famous  defence  ;  at  the  Diet  of 
Speyer  was  made  the  formal  protest  of  his  supporters  against 
decisions  unfavorable  to  them,  while  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg their  creed  was  publicly  announced.  Religious  dis- 
sensions occupied  the  country  for  about  fifty  years  after  the 
retirement  of  Charles  V.,  in  1556,  and  in  1618  the  Thirty-Years' 
War  broke  out.  At  first  the  Protestants  were  defeated,  but 
under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  they  rallied,  and 
Germany  was  secured  forever  in  her  religious  freedom  by  the 
peace  declared  at  Westphalia  in  1648.  In  1675  the  Elector  of 
r.randenlnirg  vanquished  the  Swedes  at  Eehrhellin  and  laid 
ihe  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monarchy,  the  name  of  Prussia 
lieing  assumed  when  ?"rederick  I.  was  crowned  King  in  1701. 
Numerous  wars  occurred  in  the  next  one  hundred  years,  and 
constant  mutations  occurred  in  the  map  of  Germany.  The 
young  kingdom  of  Prussia,  under  the  famous  Fredericks, 
developed  rapidly  into  a  first-class  power,  and  in  the  great 
wars,  especially  that  which  led  to  the  downfall  of  Napoleon, 
her  generals  and  soldiers  gained  many  important  victories. 
During  the  Napoleonic  wars  Germany  lost  a  large  portion  of 


HEIDELBERG, 
her  territory,  fully  half  of  it  being  lost  by  the  Peace  cf  Tilsit 
in   1806,  when  Napoleon  formed  the   Rhenish   Confederation 
under  French  protection,  and  the  German  Empire  was  for- 
mally dissolved.     Subsequent   to  the  return  of  the  Bourbons 


Al 


^r 


/ 


2S0 


GERMANY. 


the  affairs  of  Germany  were  regulated  in  accordance  with  a 
plan' drawn  up  by  Metternich,  whose  influence  then  predomi- 
nated throughout  Europe.  In  1833  the  ZoUverein  was  estab- 
lished, an  important  event  as  being  in  the  direction  of  a  united 
Germany.  The  confederation  of  the  German  States  was  alter- 
nately swayed  by  Austria  and  Prussia.  In  1849  Frederick 
William  IV.  of  Prussia  was  tendered  the  imperial  crown  by 
the  Diet  of  Frankfort,  but  declined  to  accept  it.  His  succes- 
sor, William  I.,  early  evinced  a  desire  to  rule  in  accordance 
with  constitutional  views,  but  when,  in  1S62,  the  Government 
declined  to  pass  certain  laws  relating  to  the  army,  he  created 
Bismarck  Minister  of  Slate  and  instituted  a  violent  reaction. 
In  the  following  year  Prussia  laid  claim  to  the  Danish  duchies 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  which  Denmark  disputed,  and, 
war  following,  the  Prussian  arms  were  victorious  and  the  two 
countries  were  anne.ved.  This  action  was  opposed  by  Austria, 
who  sought  to  have  them  placed  under  the  rule  of  a  branch  of 
the  Danish  royal  family,  and  in  June,  1866,  war  was  declared 
against  Prussia,  whose  splendidly  organized  army,  armed  with 
the  needle-gun,  which  was  at  that  time  a  novelty  in  warfare, 
completely  routed  the  Austrians  at  Sadowa.  Austria  with- 
drew entirely  from  the  German  confederation  and  acknowl- 
edged the  political  and  other  changes  which  Germany  had 
undergone  at  Prussia's  hands.  The  work  of  German  unifica- 
tion was  now  further  advanced.  The  North  German  Confed- 
eration was  formed,  its  Constitution,  modified  in  parts,  was 
made  to  cover  the  whole  German  Empire,  and  treaties  were 
effected  with  the  South  German  States.  France,  jealous  of 
the  growing  power  of  Germany,  became  alarmed  when  she  saw 
that  the  unity  of  her  traditional  foe  in  the  East  was  fast 
being  realized,  and  the  relations  of  the  two  countries  became 
day  by  day  more  strained.  A  conflict  was  inevitable,  and  the 
issue  was  furnished  by  the  question  of  supplying  a  ruler  for 
Spain,  whose  throne  was  at  that  time  tenantless.  The  crown 
was  tendered  by  the  Spaniards  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  who  declared  his  willingness  to  accept  it.  The  French 
Government,  hoping  to  gain  a  diplomatic  victory  of  great 
political  consequence,  demanded  of  King  William  that  he 
should  command  the  Prince  to  withdraw  his  acceptance  of  the 
Spanish  crown.  This  the  King  declined  to  give,  and  when 
the  Prince  himself  renoimced  the  crown  the  French  Govern- 
ment demanded  of  William  a  declaration  that  he  approved  of 
the  renunciation  and  that  he  would  not  in  the  future  permit  of 
the  Prince's  candidature.  This  William  declined  to  give,  and 
on  July  19,  1870,  France  declared  war  against  Prussia.  In  a 
very  few  days  it  became  apparent  that  the  haste  with  which 
the  French  diplomats  had  brought  about  the  war  was  not  war- 
ranted by  the  condition  of  the  country's  military  and  naval 
affairs.  From  the  beginning  it  was  apparent  that,  while  the 
Prussian  armies  were  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  those  of 
France  existed  to  a  large  extent  only  on  paper,  were  poorly 
equipped  and  very  defectively  organized.  The  fight  opened  at 
Saarbrucken,  where  the  French  gained  a  slight  advantage,  but 
the  defeats  of  Weissenburg  and  Worth  completely  changed 
the   aspect   of    affairs.      The   French   armies   withdrew   into 


France,  and  the  German  battalions  streamed  over  the  fron- 
tier, following  up  eagerly  the  advantages  they  had  secured. 
Bazaine,  the  French  commander-in-chief,  after  conducting 
several  unsuccessful  battles,  was  locked  up  in  Metz  with  a 
large  army.  The  main  body  of  the  French  army,  led  by 
Napoleon  III.  and  commanded  by  Mar.shal  MacMahon,  sought 
to  relieve  Bazaine,  but  were  checked  at  Sedan  and  over- 
thrown. Napoh'on  surrendered  and  was  sent  in  captivity  to 
Wilhelmshohe. 

The  war  should  have  ended  here,  as  the  German  hold  upon 
France  was  so  complete  that  no  hope  was  left  to  her.  The 
Parisians,  however,  would  not  accept  the  situation.  A  pro- 
visional government  was  formed  and  the  defence  of  the  capital, 
pending  the  formation  of  a  new  army,  decided  upon.  The 
Empress  Eugenie  escaped  to  England.  September  19  the 
German  armies  invested  Paris,  the  idea  being  to  starve  the 
city  out,  and  January  26  the  siege  was  raised  and  the  Germans 
took  possession.  At  Versailles,  February  26,  a  preliminary 
peace  was  signed,  by  which  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  to 
be  ceded  and  a  war  indemnity  paid  to  the  Germans.  The 
peace  was  ratified  by  the  French  National  Assembly,  and 
Paris  was  evacuated.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  war  which 
France  waged  against  the  unification  of  Germany  resulted  in 
its  accomplishment.  The  treaties  by  which  the  unity  was 
secured  were  concluded  between  Northern  and  Southern  Ger- 
many in  December,  1870,  and  January  18,  1S71,  while  the 
victorious  German  armies  were  thundering  at  the  gates  of 
Paris,  the  King  of  Prussia  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many as  Kaiser  Wilhelm  I. 

The  Government  of  Germany  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The 
German  Empire  is  a  confederation  of  sovereign  States,  with 
largely  representative  governments.  Although  the  Emperor 
is  limited  in  certain  relations,  he  is  given  large  power  in 
others.  By  the  terms  of  the  Constitution,  which  bears  date 
April  16,  1871,  all  the  States  of  Germany  form  an  eternal  union 
for  the  protection  of  the  realm  and  care  of  the  welfare  of  the 
German  people.  In  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  bears  the  title 
ai  Dt'itischer  Kaist'r  {German  Emperor),  is  vested  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  military  and  political  affairs  of  the  Empire. 
The  Kaiser  "represents  the  Empire  internationally,"  and  can 
declare  war,  if  defensive,  and  make  peace  ;  can  enter  into 
treaties  with  other  nations,  and  can  appoint  and  receive  em- 
bassadors. To  declare  war,  if  not  merely  defensive,  he  must 
have  the  consent  of  the  Bundesrath^  or  Federal  Council,  in 
which  body,  together  with  the  Reichstag,  or  Diet  of  the  Realm, 
are  vested  the  legislative  functions  of  the  Empire.  The  Reichs- 
tag represents  the  German  Nation,  and  its  members,  397  in 
number,  are  elective  by  universal  suflfrage  and  ballot  for  terms 
of  three  years.  The  Bundesrath  represents  the  individual 
States,  and  its  members,  numbering  fifty-nine,  are  appointed 
for  each  session  by  their  respective  governments.  The  Bun- 
desrath an^l  Reichstag  meet  in  annual  session,  convoked  by 
the  Emperor.  All  laws  must  have  a  majority  of  both  houses, 
and  must  be  approved  by  the  Empercr  and  promulgated  by 
the   Chancellor   of  the   Empire. 


VL 


/ 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


-fl^^l^- 


'  USTRIA'S  early  history  will  be  found  under  the  head 
of  Germany.  The  Government  under  which  the  Aus- 
yTM  tro-Hungarian  Empire  now  exists  will  receive  at- 
Bp\^V  tention  here.  About  the  end  of  the  eighth  century 
'~°^i^f^~ '  Charlemagne  founded  a  Margraviate  in  Lower  Austria 
which,  in  1156,  became  a  Duchy,  and  three  centuries  later 
an  .\rch-Duchy.  Maximilian  II.,  son  of  Emperor  Charles 
v.,  of  Germany,  became  Emperor  in  1564,  with  a  dominion 
over  Austria,  Hungary  and  Uohemia.  It  was  not  until  the 
eighteenth  century  that  Austria  came  to  tlie  front  as  one  of 
the  great  European  powers,  and  attained  a  preponderating 
influence  in  the  conduct  of  German  affairs.  In  the  year  1S06 
the  reigning  Emperor,  Francis,  renounced  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  the  Romans  and  became  the  first  Emperor  of  Austria.  In 
the  seven  years  which  followed.  Napoleon  worried  the  country, 
but  he  was  courageously  resisted,  and  the  territories  which  he 
took  from  her  were  restored  in  1S15  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
together  with  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  Lombardy  and  Venice, 
and  the  Illyrian  provinces.  Several  insurrections  in  the  Austro- 
Italian  provinces  occurred  during  the  last  year  of  Emperor 
Francis'  reign,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  confederation  was 
shown  to  be  a  very  difficult  matter,  far  beyond  tlie  ability  of 
his  son,  Ferdinand  I.,  who  succeeded  in  1835.  The  crafty 
Metternich  almost  entirely  dictated  the  national  policy  during 
his  reign,  which  ended  by  his  abdication  in  1848,  when  the 
throne  was  given  to  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph.  During  this 
year  occurred  the  Hungarian  revolution,  led  by  Kossuth.  In 
1859  the  relations  of  Austria  and  France  were  broken  off,  but 
after  a  warfare  of  two  months  the  two  Emperors,  Francis 
Joseph  and  Napoleon  III.,  consummated  a  peace  by  which 
Austria  surrendered  Lombardy,  Italy  was  made  a  confedera- 
tion under  the  Pope,  and  Tuscany  and  Modena  were  restored 
to  their  rulers.  The  Constitution  which  Kossuth  and  his  com- 
patriots struggled  for  in  1S4S  was  granted  in  1867.  In  iS6o 
the  first  Constitution  of  .\ustria  was  promulgated,  which  was 
followed  by  a  patent  in  1S61,  upon  which  was  based  a  charter 
that  went  into  effect  in  1S67.  Hungary's  independence  was 
acknowledged,  and  July  8,  1S67,  the  Emperor  was  crowned 
King  of  Hungary,  which  country  pledged  itself  to  contribute 


to  the  national  revenues.  In  1S64  Austria  combined  with 
Prussia  in  the  occupation  of  the  Danish  provinces  of  Schleswig, 
Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  which  terminated  in  their  acquisition; 
but,  quarrelling  afterward  with  Prussia  over  the  question  of  their 
disposition,  she  went  to  war  with  that  power.  This  adventure 
was  freighted  with  disaster,  and  the  peace  which  followed  was 
only  purchased  at  the  cost  of  Venetia,  the  fortresses  of  the 
Quadrilateral,  the  recognition  of  the  dissolution  of  the  German 
Confederation,  and  the  payment  of  a  large  indemnity.  After 
the  close  of  the  Turko-Russian  war  of  1S77-S,  the  Austrian 
Empire  was  enlarged  by  the  acquisition  of  Bosnia,  Herze- 
govina and  Novi-Bazar. 

By  the  present  Constitution  each  of  the  two  countries,  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary,  has  its  own  parliament,  ministry  and  govern- 
ment, the  connecting  links  being  a  common  sovereign,  army, 
navy  and  diplomacy,  together  with  a  controlling  body  known 
as  the  Delegations.  The  latter  form  a  parliament  of  120  mem- 
bers, equally  divided  between  the  two  coimtries,  the  delegates 
being  chosen  by  the  local  legislatures,  the  latter  bodies  having 
two  branches,  substantfeUy  the  same  as  the  Senate  and  House 
of  the  United  States  Congress.  The  local  legislature  or  diet 
is  called  Reichstag  in  Hungary,  Reichsrath  in  Austria.  The 
delegations  of  each  country  sit  in  a  body  by  themselves,  possess- 
ing co-ordinate  authority  and  power;  but  if  they  cannot  agree 
upon  measures  while  thus  acting  separately,  they  meet  as  one 
body,  and  the  final  vote  is  binding  upon  the  entire  empire. 
This  imjierial  diet  is  confined  in  its  jurisdiction  to  foreign 
affairs  and  war.  There  are  three  Ministers  for  the  whole  em- 
pire, namely,  the  Ministers  of  War,  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  of 
Finance.  There  is  a  ministry  in  Austria  and  another  in  Hun- 
gary. The  former  consists  of  the  Interior,  Public  Education, 
Justice  and  licclesiastical  Affairs,  Finance,  Agriculture,  Com- 
merce, and  National  Defence.  The  Hungarian  departments 
or  executives  are:  Presidency  of  the  Council,  Finance,  National 
Defence,  Ministry  near  the  King's  Person,  Interior,  Educa- 
tion and  Public  Worship,  Justice,  Communications  and  Public 
Works,  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce,  and  the  Ministry 
of  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  The  Imperial  Cabinet  is  responsible 
to  the  Delegations,  the  local  cabinets  to  their  respective  diets, 
the  Reichstag  and  Reichsrath,  as  the  case  may  be. 


K. 


_\ 


0        Ea*t     ».?,.»tv\.t  vc&.,t*\cv^(i. 


284 


BELGIUM— HOLLAND. 


/4'  t. 


1(3 


Belgium. 


-«^      ■      (  'ii^ 


4A 


>ife- 


--i:<|.i»»».»i!;.iifi(^i|!'iijtij{^tg<(;'({ti>,<;<,gia^4i;jajggo|i(gi|iifiijiijiiiijii|iigvi».i 


-ii)^ 


mm- 


•^f*''.!  ELGIUM,   the  most  densely  populated  country  in  Eu- 
J      rope,  was  in  its  earlier  days  a  favorite  bone  of  con- 

Ptention  for  the  European  powers,  and  frequently  be- 
came the  battle-field  upon  which  their  claims  were 
^•"jy  settled.  The  Burgundians,  the  Austrians  and  the 
Spaniards  successively  ruled  it,  and  in  Napoleon's  time  it  came 
under  French  rule.  In  1814  a  union  between  Holland  and 
Belgium  took  place,  which  proved  very  unpopular  with  the 
Belgians,  and  shortly  after  the  Paris  revolution  of  1S30  they 
rose  against  the  Government  in  such  force  that  the  troops 
ordered  to  quell  the  uprising  found  themselves  unable  to  do  so. 
Brussels,  the  capital,  and  other  large  cities  fell  into  the  hands 
of  mobs,  who  destroyed  much  valuable  property.  A  separa- 
tion of  the  States  followed,  and  the  differences  between  them 
were  finally  settled  by  a  convention  of  the  great  powers  in 
London.  The  dissolution  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
was  proclaimed,  and  in  1831  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg 
entered  Brussels  as  the  Belgian  King;  but  the  kingdom  was 
not  recognized  by  all  the  States  of  Europe  until  1839,  when 
the  treaty  was  signed  which  established  peace  between  Leopold 
and  the  King  of  the  Netherlands.  Leopold  L  died  in  1865,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Leopold  II.,  who  still  reigns. 
Belgium  has  long  been  the  scene  of  a  struggle  between  the 
priests  and  growing  liberalism.     In  1850  the  educational  ques- 


tion, which  had  occasioned  a  long  and  fierce  dispute,  was  sup- 
posed to  be  settled  on  liberal  principles,  but  since  then  there 
has  been  another  keen  struggle  between  the  Progressionists 
and  the  Ultramontanes,  and  in  1S75  Belgium  was  the  scene  of 
serious  religious  riots,  in  which  many  persons  taking  part  in 
processions  were  injured  by  mobs  which  attacked  the  demon- 
strations. 

The  Government  of  Belgium  is  a  limited  constitutional 
monarchy,  which  was  established  in  its  present  form  by  the 
revolution.  The  broadest  principles  of  freedom  and  liberality 
are  its  foundation;  power  comes  from  the  people,  and  is  re- 
strained by  law.  Republican  equality  and  simplicity  pervade 
all  institutions.  No  act  of  the  King  is  valid  unless  it  has  the 
approval  of  one  of  his  Ministers.  The  law-making  power  is 
vested  in  the  Legislature,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber 
of  Representatives,  who  are  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
every  40,000  inhabitants.  The  law  is  administered  by  local 
and  provincial  tribunals,  with  courts  of  appeal  in  the  principal 
cities.  The  provinces,  each  of  which  has  a  Governor  who  is 
named  by  the  King  and  a  Provincial  Council,  are  divided  for 
civil  purposes  into  arondissements,  justice  of  peace  cantons, 
and  communes.  The  provincial  councils  guard  the  interests  of 
the  different  provinces,  direct  taxation,  superintend  public 
improvements  and  prepare  budgets. 


i-Jj'lf+J-n 


f^OIiliAND. 


(iPHB    NETHEI^LANDS.) 


5)0 $^-i<m 


W\2  FTER  being  ruled  for  four  centuries  by  a  number  of 
iW^  princes  who  were  subject  to  either  France  or  Ger- 
'iff\l'.  many,  the  Netherlands,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
/  it'f^  \  came  almost  entirely  under  the  rule  of  the  Duke  of 
~^^\_^-  ■  Burgundy.  At  that  time  the  country  was  rich, 
prosperous  and  happy,  the  controlling  interest  of  the  State 
resting  in  the  great  commercial  cities,  which  were  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  almost  republican  freedom,  and  renowned  for  the 
splendor  and  wealth  which  they  acquired  under  the  Burgundian 


VL 


rule.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  an  attempt 
to  bring  under  the  power  of  the  Inquisition  the  Netherland 
Protestants,  who  had  taken  early  a  part  in  the  Reformation, 
was  stoutly  resisted.  Concessions  were  made  which  produced 
a  temporary  quiet,  but  Philip  II.,  who  was  King  at  the  time, 
entered  upon  the  work  of  crushing  Protestantism,  and  carried 
it  on  with  merciless  rigor,  his  ferocious  policy  entailing  the 
execution  of  large  numbers  of  the  aristocracy  who  had  aided 
the  rebellion.     The   Prince   of  Orange,  having  made  alliance 


V 


~A 


HOLLAND. 


28^ 


with  the  Protestant  powers,  waged  war  against  the  oppressor. 
However,  the  assassination  of  the  Prince  in  15S4  for  the  time 
being  dashed  their  hopes  of  success,  and  the  war  ended.  His 
son.  Prince  Maurice,  carried  on  the  war  later  with  success. 
In  164S  war  with  Spain  ended,  and  the  Netherlands  achieved 
their  independence.  Foreign  conquest  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  Dutch  even  when  occupied  with  domestic  troubles,  and 


they  have  advanced  greatly  in  prosperity.  The  colonial 
possessions  of  the  country  are  very  important,  consisting 
mainly  of  islands  in  the  East  Indies ;  portions  of  Borneo, 
Celebes  and  Sumatra,  in  Asia ;  and  Dutch  Guiana  and 
Curacoa  and  several  islands  in  America.  Like  Belgium, 
the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  is  a  limited  constitu- 
tional   monarchy,    with   the    executive    vested    in   the   King, 


CITY  OF  AMSTERDAM. 


their  standard  was  planted  on  several  of  the  East  India 
Islands  and  on  the  American  continent.  A  great  naval  power, 
they  for  many  years  disputed  with  England  the  supremacy  of 
the  seas.  The  events  which  led  to  the  separation  from  Bel- 
gium are  described  in  the  history  of  that  country.  Since  that 
occurrence  the  Netherlands,  with  the  exception  of  wars  with 
her  colonies,  have   enjoyed  a  prolonged  peace,   during  which 


with  a  Council  of  .State  nominated  by  him,  and  the  Minis- 
ters of  the  Interior,  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance,  War,  the 
Colonies,  Marine  and  Justice.  Legislative  authority  rests  in 
a  Parliament,  consisting  of  two  chambers,  known  as  the 
States-General.  The  governors  of  the  provinces,  the  burgo- 
masters of  cities,  towns  and  villages,  and  many  other  officials, 
are  appointed  by  the  King. 


kL 


-^ 


V 


*.^.?tV\.tV  *■.&..  WV^V^Q. 


^.^.SlV\.tVtQ..t*\tV^ft. 


K" 


"71 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 


^c«wa%^  Roi^WAY  AND  Sweden. 


^•^ 


aORWAY  was  a  collection  of  petty  tribes  up  to  the 
time  of  Harold  Harfagcr,  who,  in  863,  began  the 
Mill  work  of  unification.  Attempts  to  introduce  Chris- 
tianity met  with  little  success  up  to  the  time  of 
~G^l^  Olaf  Skatkonung,  who  inaugurated  a  crusade  against 
the  Pagan  Finns,  destroyed  the  Pagan  temples,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  city  of  Trondhjem.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
eleventh  century  Canute,  the  Danish  King  of  England,  con- 
quered Olaf  and  assumed  the  crown.  Wars  with  Britain  fol- 
lowed, and  Ireland  was  invaded.  On  the  water  the  prowess  of 
the  Norsemen  was  remarkable,  and  for  years  they  scourged 
the  seas,  but  the  defeat  of  Haco  V.  ofT  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland,  and  his  death  later  in  the  Orkney  Islands,  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  of  national  depression.  National  industries 
were  checked,  foreign  wars  exhausted  the  exchequer,  and  in 
two  years  following  1347  the  plague  prevailed  through  the 
land,  carrying  off  more  than  half  the  people.  Not  only  its 
nationality,  but  also  its  language,  passed  away  during  this 
period,  and  when,  in  13S0,  the  crown  descended  to  the  son  of 
Olaf  III.,  a  union  of  the  two  countries  was  accomplished 
which  lasted  for  over  four  centuries.  Near  the  close  of 
the  fourteenth  century  Margaret  effected  the  conquest  of  all 
Scandinavia,  and  the  three  kingdoms  became  one  under  the 
treaty  of  Calmar,  which  remained  in  force  until  1523,  when 
Sweden  emancipated  herself  from  the  union  with  Denmark, 
and  gave  to  Gustaf  Vasa,  who  helped  on  the  deliverance,  the 
crown.  For  more  than  two  centuries  thereafter  Norway  was 
merely  a  province  of  Denmark,  but  about  the  beginning  of  this 
century  the  national  prospects  bright  "..ed,  "  .len  Charles  XIV. 
of  Sweden  was  on  the  throne.  .le  Danes  acknowledged 
Norway  as  a  Swedish  dominion,  and  the  two  countries  were 
united  August  14,  1S14.  In  181S,  Napoleon's  General,  Berra- 
dotte,  was  elected  to  the  throne,  and  under  him  and  the  succeed- 


ing generations  of  his  dynasty,  which  still  rules,  great  advance- 
ment has  been  made  in  the  direction  of  liberal  government. 

Sweden's  modern  history  is  almost  indissolubly  connected 
with  that  of  Norway.  During  the  rule  of  Gustaf  Vasa,  who 
headed  the  successful  revolt  against  Denmark,  the  country 
enjoyed  great  prosperity.  In  succeeding  reigns  the  country 
was  at  war  almost  constantly,  and  the  successes  of  the  great 
Gustavus  .\dolphus  are  among  the  most  glorious  of  the  nation'^ 
annals.  In  1743,  in  a  war  with  Russia  which  had  lasted  two 
years,  Sweden  lost  Eastern  Finland  to  that  power.  A  new  con- 
stitution was  decreed  in  1S09,  when  Gustavus  IV.  was  forcibly 
deposed  in  favor  of  his  uncle,  Charles  XIII.  The  union 
with  Norway,  in  1S14,  which  has  already  been  mentioned,  ends 
the  distinctive  histories  of  both  countries.  In  1S55  Russian 
encroachments  were  threatened,  but  an  alliance  which  Norway 
and  Sweden  effected  with  Great  Britain  and  France,  by  which 
the  former  engaged  themselves  never  to  cede  1  r  sell  territory 
to  Russia,  secured  the  guarantee  by  the  two  latter  powers  of 
their  future  territorial  integrity 

Thougn  having  a  common  ruler,  the  treaty  of  union  between 
Norway  and  Sweden  leaves  each  of  them  free,  independent, 
indivisible  and  inalienable.  The  Government,  of  which  Oscar 
II.  is  now  the  head,  is  a  constitutional  hereditary  monarchy. 
Legislative  authority  lies  in  the  Storthing — an  assembly  of 
deputies  which  meets  annually,  and  whose  members  are  chosen 
by  indirect  election.  It  meets  of  its  own  authority  and 
divides  itself  into  two  chambers  —  the  Lagthing,  practically 
a  Senate,  and  consisting  of  about  one-fourth  of  the  entire 
Storthing,  and  the  Odelsting.  A  Council  of  State  gives  con- 
sent to  the  declaration  of  war,  making  of  peace  or  conclusion 
and  abrogation  of  treaties  by  the  King,  who  is  required  to 
pass  some  months  of  each  year  at  Norway  and  to  be  crowT.ed 
at  Trondhjem. 


^- 


%^ 


S5i- 


Denmai^i^. 


•siipN  the  days  of  the  Norsemen  Jutland  was  occupied  by  a 
number  of  sea-faring  chieftains,  who  divided  their  time 
between  war  among  themselves  and  piracy  upon  out- 
siders. In  the  tenth  century  these  bold  mariner-war- 
o-sjib'  riors  had  made  their  way  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Scotland 
and  Normandy,  carrying  terror  into  such  places  as  they  vis- 


/ 


ited.  After  having  paid  England  one  or  two  flying  visits,  they 
came  to  stay  in  loiS,  when  the  Danish  King  Canute  added 
that  country  to  his  dominions  in  the  east.  The  Danish  tenure 
was  of  short  duration.  Anarchy  arose  in  Denmark  after  Ca- 
nute's departure,  and  in  1042  his  dynasty  became  extinct,  and 
his  sister's  son,   Svend    Estridsen,  succeeded.     Foreign  wars 


and  internal  dissensions  enfeebled  the  land,  and  a  powerful 
aristocracy  arose  who  oppressed  the  peojile,  reducing  them 
almost  to  a  condition  of  slavery.  In  the  reign  of  Canute  VI. 
and  Valdemar  II.  the  power  of  Denmark  grew  until  its  regal 
authority  extended  over  Holstein,  Pomerania  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  North  Germany.  The  Baltic  became  little  more  than 
a  Danish  inland  sea,  and  heavy  tolls  were  exacted  of  all  for- 
eign vessels  which  entered  it.  After  the  death  of  Valdemar, 
in  1241,  internal  disquietude  possessed  the  country,  which  rap- 
idly lost  its  possessions  and  prestige.  The  third  Valdemar, 
however,  retrieved  the  nation  and  regained  many  of  its  pos- 
sessions. Dying  in  1575,  he  was  succeeded  as  regent  by  his 
daughter  Margaret,  who  had  married  the  King  of  Norway  and 
was  at  this  time  his  widow.  Her  rule,  by  the  treaty  of  Cal- 
mar,  was  also  extended  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  the  union 
of  the  three  countries  lasted  until  1523,  when  the  Swedes  arose 
in  insurrection  against  Erick,  and  the  two  crowns  were  sepa- 
rated. Up  to  the  year  1660  the  crown  was,  to  a  large  extent, 
elective,  but  ift  that  year  Frederick  III.,  aided  by  the  people, 
who  arose  against  the  nobles,  assumed  the  supreme  power, 
forming  an  absolute  monarchy  with  right  of  .succession.  For  a 
century  the  peasantry  were  kept  in  a  condition  of  serfdom,  but 
its  abolition  was  accomplished  by  Christian  VII.  in  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Wars  on  her  own  account  or  in  alliance  with 
other  nations  kept  Denmark  busy  until  1848,  when  an  insur- 
rection arose  in  Holstein  which  broiight  the  country  to  the 
verge  of  ruin.  Prussia  lent  the  insurrectionists  a  portion  of 
her  army,  but  the  revolution  was  put  down  and  a  peace  was 
concluded  in  Prussia  in  1850,  and  in  1852  a  protocol  was  drawn 


up  in  London  returning  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Schles- 
wig  to  Denmark.  A  final  settlement  of  the  question  was  not 
yet  reached,  however,  and  when,  in  1863,  the  King  died  sud- 
denly, the  Duke  of  Augustenberg  laid  claim  to  the  throne, 
supported  by  Prussia,  Austria  and  other  German  States.  The 
duchies  were  occupied  by  their  troops,  and  in  the  war  which 
Denmark  brought  to  expel  them  her  armies  were  defeated, 
and  in  1864  King  Christian  IX.  surrendered  Holstein,  Schles- 
wig  and  Lauenberg  to  the  conquerors. 

The  despotic  form  of  government  which  was  established  in 
1660  lasted  until  1849,  when  Frederick  VII.  signed  a  charter 
acknowledging  the  principle  of  limited  monarchy,  and  made  the 
future  government  dependent  upon  the  Rigsdad  (Congress), 
consisting  of  two  elective  houses,  the  executive  power  resting  in 
the  King  and  his  Ministers.  The  Rigsdad  consists  of  two 
houses  —  the  Landsthing,  corresponding  to  the  United  States 
Senate  and  having  the  privilege  of  discussing  the  budget,  and 
the  Folkething,  similar  to  the  United  States  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, which  administers  local  affairs.  Certain  members 
of  the  Landsthing  receive  their  nomination  from  the  Crown 
for  life,  the  remainder  being  elected  indirectly  by  the  people 
for  eight  years.  The  members  of  the  Folkething  are  elected 
directly  for  a  term  of  three  years.  All  male  citizens  over  30 
years  of  age  who  are  not  paupers  enjoy  the  privilege  of  vot- 
ing. With  the  King  as  its  presiding  officer,  the  executive  body 
comprises  the  President  of  the  Council,  who  is  also  the  Minis- 
ter of  Finance,  and  the  Ministers  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Inte- 
rior, Pubhc  Education  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Justice,  and 
for  Iceland,  War  and  Marine. 


-¥-m-4- 


iwTa?-^ 


.^^=Si.-^- 


Finance.  - 


^m^ 


^OUR  centuries  after  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar, 
which  made  ancient  Gaul  a  Roman  province,  the 
country,  being  deserted  by  its  conquerors,  was  invaded 
by  the  Franks,  whose  leader,  Clovis,  in  the  sixth 
^  . '^  century,  established  the  French  monarchy.  The  Mero- 
vingian dynasty,  which  he  founded,  was  succeeded  by  the  Car- 
lovingian,  whose  greatest  ruler,  Charlemagne,  extended  his 
empire  until  it  included  Italy  and  a  large  portion  of  Ger- 
many. The  House  of  Capet  succeeded,  and  ruled  from  987  to 
132S,  ai.d  that  of  Valois,  which  followed,  from  1328  to  15S9, 
and  during  all  these  years,  while  the  power  of  the  nobles  was 
checked  by  the  growing  wealth  and  influence  of  the  burghers, 
the  monarchy  gained  in  strength.  In  1589  the  Bourbon  dynasty 
was  founded  by  Henry  IV.,  who  was  succeeded  by  Louis  XIII., 
an  indolent  monarch,  who  left  the  conduct  of  affairs  to  his 
powerful  Minister,  Cardinal   Richelieu.     The  reign   of   Louis 


XIV.,  which  followed,  was  in  many  respects  a  brilliant  one, 
but  freighted  with  misfortunes  which  did  not  appear  until  after 
its  close.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  by  which 
religious  freedom  had  been  secured,  led  to  banishments  and 
persecutions,  which  cost  the  country  many  of  its  leading  indus- 
tries. The  court's  reckless  prodigality  in  the  erection  of  mag- 
nificent buildings  and  the  conduct  of  gorgeous  spectacles, 
together  with  more  or  less  successful  wars,  swelled  the  national 
debt  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  this  burden  crushed  the 
French  people  during  the  succeeding  reigns,  and  was  a  potent 
cause  of  the  revolution  of  17S8.  The  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
added  to  the  national  burden,  and  the  evil  influences  of  his 
mistresses  led  to  a  foreign  policy  which  cost  France  her  colonial 
possessions  and  the  loss  of  her  fleets  and  armies  abroad.  His 
successor,  Louis  XVI.,  an  amiable  but  weak  monarch,  lacked 
the  ability  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  and,  after 


\ 


292 


FRANCE. 


he  had  reigned  for  fourteen  years,  in  1788  wasbegunarevohition 
by  which  the  whole  framework  of  society  in  France  was  over- 
turned. The  bourgeois,  or  commoners,  finding  their  powers 
checked  by  the  combined  clergy  and  nobility,  in  lySg  consti- 
tuted themselves  as  the  National  Assembly,  and  proceeded  to  the 
formation  of  a  Constitution.  Troops  being  ordered  to  oppose 
them,  in  Paris,  July  12,  an  insurrection  broke  out.  A  national 
guard  and  revolutionary  municipal  boards  were  formed,  and 
July  14  the  Bastile  was  stormed.  August  4  the  National 
Assembly  abolished  manorial  and  feudal  rights,  whereupon  the 
aristocracy  began  to  emigrate.  The  King  and  Queen  were 
taken  prisoners.  A  Constitution  was  prepared  by  the  Assem- 
bly, to  which  the  King  gave  his 
assent,  as  he  did  also  to  another 
which  was  formed  later.  The 
opposition  of  foreign  courts  to 
the  revolution  aroused  the  pop- 
ular anger,  and  the  King  and 
Queen  were  executed.  The  Keign 
of  Terror  succeeded,  the  absolute 
power  being  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  Committee  of  Public  Safety, 
whose  excesses  were  terrible. 
Worship  in  accordance  with  the 
Christian  religion  was  abolished, 
and  that  of  Reason  substituted. 
This  caused  dissensions  within 
the  convention  itself,  and  when 
the  last  of  the  Jacobin  leaders, 
Robespierre,  perished  upon  the 
scaffold  to  which  he  had  sent 
hundreds  of  victims,  they  were 
without  a  leader.  In  1795  the 
convention  adopted  a  new  Con- 
stitution, which  placed  a  Direc- 
tory of  five  in  charge  of  the 
national  executive.  The  radical 
Democrats,  combining  with  the 
Royalists,  organized  an  insurrec- 
tion against  the  new  Constitution 
which  was  quelled  by  General 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  whose  qual- 
ities had  already,  at  the  early  age 
of  26,  brought  him  rank  and  dis- 
tinction. The  mob  of  Paris  was 
subdued,  but  the  Directory  had  a 
difficult  task  before  it.  Knglaiid, 
.'\ustria  and  Prussia  were  com- 
bined against  the  Republic,  whose 

armies,  however,  achieved  victories  for  it  in  foreign  countries 
and  made  its  name  dreaded  as  well  as  respected.  At  home  the 
Royalist  interest  made  headway,  and  in  1797  they  gained  a  major- 
ity in  the  representation.  The  Directory  took  severe  measures, 
surrounded  the  Tuileries  with  troops  and  ordnance,  arrested 
the  Royalist  members,  declared  their  election  illegal,  and  ban- 
ished them  from  the  country.  Financial  difficulties  aI.so  added 
to  the  burden  of  the  Directory.  The  public  debt  was  more 
than  the  nation  could  pay,  and  the  State  was  declared  bank- 


NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS 


rupt  and  two-thirds  of  its  obligations  repudiated.  Internal 
dissensions  among  its  members  lessened  the  prospect  of  the 
Directory's  accomplishing  any  marked  improvement. 

In  this  emergency  Napoleon,  who  had  secretly  left  Egypt, 
where  the  English  fleet  had  nullified  his  Eastern  victories,  ap- 
peared suddenly  in  Paris,  and,  effecting  an  alliance  with  one 
of  the  disaffected  parties  in  the  Directory,  secured  its  over- 
throw November  9,  1799.  December  27,  a  new  Constitution 
was  offered  to  the  people,  which  they  sanctioned,  and  Napoleon, 
as  First  Consul,  was  entrusted  with  the  administration  of 
civil  and  military  affairs,  with  the  appointment  of  all  public 
officials  and  with  the  proposition  of  all  public  measures. 
Early  in  1800  he  occupied  the 
Tuileries  with  his  wife,  Josephine, 
whom  he  had  married  in  March, 
1796,  and  he  established  a  court, 
whose  extravagance  was  hardly 
likely  to  incur  the  popular  dis- 
pleasure as  long  as  his  adminis- 
tration continued  to  be  marked 
by  such  wise  measures  as  were 
passed  during  the  earlier  part  of 
his  rule.  The  re-establishment 
of  the  church,  in  accordance  with 
a  Papal  concordat ;  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Bank  of  France,  with 
the  restoration  of  financial  order; 
the  return  of  the  emigrants  ;  the 
establishment  of  a  sound  system  of 
popular  education,  and  the  codi- 
fication of  the  laws,  were  hailed 
with  joy  by  the  people,  who  saw 
their  wisdom  and  appreciated  the 
good  results  to  follow. 

At  the  head  of  the  Empire  he 
aspired  to  the  control  of  Europe. 
One  after  another  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many came  under  his  control. 
He  dictated  terms  of  peace  to 
the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  .-Aus- 
tria and  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 
For  ten  years  his  star  ruled  in  the 
ascendant.  The  decline  came  in 
1814,  when  Paris  was  entered  by 
the  allied  enemies  of  France,  and 
Napoleon  was  forced  to  Elba  in 
exile.  The  Bourbon  dynasty  was 
restored,  and  a  year  later  Napo- 
leon reappeared  and  gathered  around  him  an  army  of  enthusiastic 
followers.  Success  attended  him  at  first,  but,  June  18,  1815, 
he  was  thoroughly  defeated  at  Waterloo,  and  the  Bourbon 
restoration  was  finally  accomplished.  In  1830  war  was  com- 
menced with  Algeria,  which  country  was,  after  some  years' 
fighting,  ceded  to  France.  In  1848  the  Bourbons  were  again 
driven  out  and  a  Republic  established,  with  Napoleon  III., 
a  nephew  of  the  Emperor,  as  President.  This  lasted  less 
than    three   years.      In    December,    1851,    Napoleon,    by   the 


K- 


\ 


RUSSIA. 


293 


infamous  coup  d'etat^  seized  the  absolute  power,  setting  aside 
tlie  Constitution,  and  shortly  afterward  was  crowned  Emperor. 
The  imperial  prestige  was  sustained  by  the  wars  with  Russia 
and  Austria,  which  last  secured  France  the  Italian  provinces 
of  Savoy  and  Nice,  but  the  ill-fated  attempt  to  establish  an 
empire  in  Mexico,  and  other  failing  enterprises,  caused  it  to 
wane.  The  plebiscite  of  1870,  which  was  intended  to  secure 
the  popular  endorsement  of  the  Napoleonic  policy,  was  not  flat- 
tering to  the  Empiie,  which  found  itself  in  1870  forced  into  a 
\\ar  with  Prussia,  the  leading  events  and  results  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  history  of  Oermany.  This  last  experiment  of 
imperial  government,  which  cost  France  millions  of  money, 
thousands  of  lives  and  two  provinces,  has,  for  the  time  being, 
overcome  the  French  admiration  for  centralized  power,  and 
the  Republic  which  was  established  after  the  war  is  still  a 
stable  and  popular  government. 


The  legislative  power  in  France  is  vested  in  a  Legislative 
Corps,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Deputies.  The 
Senate  consists  of  300  members,  225  of  whom  are  chosen  for 
terms  of  nine  years  by  the  departments  and  colonics  and 
seventy-five  for  life  by  the  National  Assembly.  The  members 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  number  532 — one  to  every  100,000 
inhabitants — and  are  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  ex- 
ecutive power  is  vested  in  a  President,  elected  for  a  term  of 
seven  years  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  has  power  to  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
on  the  advice  of  the  Senate.  The  Secretaries  of  Stale,  or 
Ministry,  nine  in  number,  are  responsible  to  the  Chambers  for 
the  political  conduct  of  the  Government.  The  President  is 
responsible  in  cases  of  high  treason  only.  Every  Frenchman 
twenty-one  years  of  age  has  a  right  to  vote.. 


■^1^ 


^ 


-^o-A. 


^ 


^iiiS 


I^USSIA. 


fHE  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  is  evidenced  in  the  writ- 
ings of  .some  of  their  best  known  authors,  had 
'*■'"'  gained  some  knowledge  of  the  Sarniatians  and 
Scythians,  who  occupied  the  rivers  Don  and  Dnieper. 
'T^''  Shortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era  the  native  inhabitants  were  carried  before  the  invasion  of 
Goths  and  Huns  from  the  East.  The  Slavonians  are  recorded  as 
having  driven  the  scattered  Finns  northward  and  settled  down 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Russian  people.  The  country  for 
a  long  period  remained  subdivided  into  provinces,  each  of 
which  was  practically  independent  of  the  remainder.  Cen- 
tralization of  power  was  accomplished  from  time  to  time,  but 
cmly  to  be  again  broken  up,  until  in  1462  Ivan  I.  began  to 
reign,  and  in  the  forty-two  years  in  which  he  held  the  sceptre 
succeeded  so  ably  in  throwing  off  the  Tartar  yoke,  and  in  unit- 
ing the  principalities  under  his  sway,  that  he  must  be  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  Russian  nation.  His  successor,  Ivan  II., 
sometimes  called  the  Terrible,  or  the  Cruel,  on  account  of  the 
massacre  which  he  ordered,  in  which  60,000  inhabitants  of 
Novgorod,  suspected  of  treason,  were  slain,  advanced  the 
work  which  his  father  had  inaugurated,  finally  broke  the  power 
of  the  Tartars,  and  cultivated  commerce  and  the  arts  as  well 
as  warfare.  Perhaps  the  greatest  of  his  pe.iceful  achievements 
was  the  effecting  of  a  commercial  treaty  with  Queen  Elizabeth, 
by  which  the  English  merchant  marine,  who  had  discovered 
the  sea  passage  to  .\rchangel,  instituted  trading  relations  with 
the  northernmost  parts  of  the  Russian  dominions.  Under 
Peter  the  Great,  Russia  threw  off  her  barbarism  and  took  her 
place  among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  Though  lacking 
education  commensurate  with  his  position,  he  had  the  .sense  to 
see  the  shortcoming  and  to  remedy  it,  and  his  .studies  taught 
him  the  lesson  of  his  country's  greatest  needs.     On  assuming 


the  government  he  had  the  army  reorganized  in  accordance 
with  European  military  tactics.  Seeing  the  neces.sity  of  naval 
power,  and  lacking  a  seaboard,  he  wrested  the  Sea  of  Azof 
from  the  Tiirks.  Travelling  incognito  in  foreign  lands,  he 
studied  their  arts  and  sciences  and  learned  their  trades,  putting 
his  knowledge  to  good  use  when  he  returned  home  again. 
U])on  a  site  located  on  a  strip  of  land  he  took  from  the  Swedes, 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  capital,  St.  Petersburg, 
which  he  passed  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  beautifying.  Dy- 
ing in  1725,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  Empress,  Catherine,  who 
continued  his  policy.  During  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  the 
first  partition  of  Poland  between  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia 
took  place.  She  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Paul,  who  still  fur- 
ther advanced  the  interests  of  his  country,  now  acknowledged 
to  be  one  of  the  great  European  powers.  In  the  reign  of 
Alexander  I.  Russia  was  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  Me 
was  the  father  of  the  Holy  Alliance  —  the  compact  entered 
into  at  Paris  September  26,  1815,  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia, 
Austria  and  Prussia,  joined  by  most  of  the  European  powers, 
which  bound  them  to  exclude  forever  every  member  of  the 
Bonaparte  family  from  any  throne  in  Europe;  also  to  stand  by 
each  other  in  the  maintenance  of  their  royal  prerogatives  and 
the  general  peace.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city  of  Moscow  destroyed  it  by  fire  rather  than 
have  it  give  shelter  to  the  invader  Napoleon.  H  is  successor, 
Nicholas  I.,  saw  the  nation  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the 
combined  armies  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy  and  Turkey. 
Sebastopol,  the  stronghold  of  the  Russians  in  the  Crimea,  was 
taken,  and  the  Russian  ambition  to  control  the  whole  of  the 
Black  Sea  checked  for  the  time  being.  Under  Alexander  II., 
who  succeeded  him,  was  accomplished  the  liberation  of  the 
serfs  in  1861,  the  humane  policy  being  dictated  rather  by  reasons 


/• 


-M 


i . 


K" 


296 


of  expediency,  imperialism  at  the  time  being  threatened 
by  the  progressive  nobility  and  feeling  the  need  of  the  good 
will  of  the  fifty  million  working  people.  Twenty  years  later — 
years  that  were  marked  by  cruel  oppression  and  despotism — 
the  Czar  was  slain  by  the  hands  of  assassins,  who  had  previously 
made  repeated  imsuccessful  attempts  to  kill  him.  This  oc- 
curred shortly  after  the  war  with  Turkey,  in  which  Russia 
overcame  her  foe,  but  without  securing  any  distinct  advantages 
from  the  victory.  Notwithstanding  she  is  jealously  watched 
by  the  other  powers,  Russia  continues  to  approach  the  ac- 
complishment of  her  great  aim  —  the  possession  of  the  Black 
Sea.  In  the  East,  too,  h-'  power  is  felt,  and  England's  Indian 
border  and  China's  western  boimdary  are  closely  pressed  by 
the  Russian  soldiery,  and  this,  too,  although  the  Government  is 
threatened  by  conspiracies  on  every  side,  a  majority  of  the 
peasants  and  laboring  classes  holding  extreme  communistic 
views,  while  the  doctrine  of  Nihilism  is  said  to  permeate  the 
whole  Russian  social  fabric,  and  even  among  the  nobility  to 
possess  its  adherents  by  the  thousands. 


The  Government  of  Russia  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  heredi- 
tary in  the  house  of  Romanoff,  which  was  founded  in  the 
seventeenth  centurj-,  whose  head  rules  by  the  title  of  Czar. 
The  State  Council,  which  is  t}ie  highest  consultative  body  in 
the  State,  is  composed  of  the  heads  of  departments  and 
others  selected  by  the  Emperor,  and  is  divided  into  the  legis- 
lative, administrative  and  financial  departments.  The  promul- 
gation and  execution  of  the  law  is  left  with  the  Senate,  which 
is  the  court  of  last  appeal.  There  is  no  representative  body, 
and  the  power  of  the  ministers  hardly  extends  beyond  render- 
ing clerical  assistance  to  the  Czar,  who  makes  all  appoint- 
ments. Trial  by  jury  has  been  in  vogue  since  1866.  Estab- 
lished by  law  and  partially  supported  by  the  Government,  the 
Russo-Greek  Church  is  almost  a  part  of  it.  It  has  a  member- 
ship of  over  50,000,000  souls  in  European  Russia.  The  Rus- 
sians have  always  maintained  the  national  credit.  The  main 
portion  of  the  revenue  comes  from  excise  duties  on  beer,  spirits 
and  salt ;  in  addition  to  this  there  are  a  light  poll-tax  and  a  pro- 
tective customs  tariff. 


^^=^ 


"*-5-^# — oi 


'^--Qz 


^ 


-2;i*l- 


'®-^—     ImAhY, 


-i*i- 


FTALY,  the  successor  of  the  ancient  Roman  Empire,  has 
a  history  which  runs  back  into  the  ages  whose  events  are 
only  matters  of  tradition.  The  Virgilian  poem  which  tells 
of  the  founding  of  the  Roman  State  by  a  band  of  Trojan 
refugees,  and  the  story  of  the  wolf-suckled  twins,  Romulus 
and  Ren-.us,  are  delightful  legends.  However,  the  foundation  of 
the  city  is  generally  conceded  to  have  occurred  B.C.  753,  when 
the  kingdom  was  established  which  lasted  until  B.C.  509,  when 
it  was  overthrown  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  a 
republic  established  which  lasted  for  nearly  five  centuries. 
During'  these  eventful  years  the  kingdom  of  Tarquin  had 
grown  into  a  mighty  empire,  yet  not  without  suffering  great 
national  disasters.  In  the  year  390  B.C.  occurred  the  Gallic 
invasion,  with  the  burning  down  of  Rome  by  that  terrible  foe  ; 
from  343  to  290  B.C.  raged  the  wars  with  the  Samnites,  who 
threatened  the  Roman  power,  but  were  finally  subjugated  ;  in 
275  B.C.  occurred  the  battle  of  Beneventum,  by  which  the 
previou.sly  victorious  Pyrrhus  was  overcome  ;  in  216  B.C.  was 
fought  and  lost  the  battle  of  Cannoe,  by  which  the  Cartha- 
ginian General,  Hannibal,  after  destroying  80,000  of  the 
Roman  troops,  came  in  sight  of  Rome's  conquest,  but  lost  his 
opportunity  through  delay;  in  186  B.C.  the  enmity  between 
Rome  and  Carthage  culminated  in  the  destruction  of  the  latter 
city;  in  in  B.C.  began  the  Jugurthine  war,  in  which  the 
powerful  Numidian  was  overthrown  after  a  five  years'  struggle  ; 
in  88  B.C.  began  the  Mithridalic  war,  which  ended  five  years 
later  in  the  overthrow  of  the  King  of  Pontus,  who  .sued  for 
peace.     Such  were  a  few  of  the  leading  events  which  occurred 


between  the  regal  and  imperial  eras  of  Roman  history.  They 
bring  the  reader  to  a  period  when  Scylla,  overcoming  his  rival, 
Marius,  in  civil  war,  seized  the  government  and  reigned  as 
Dictator  for  three  years.  In  the  year  60  B.C.  was  formed  the 
first  triumvirate,  when  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey  and  Crassus  were 
invested  with  the  government.  Csesar's  wars  of  discovery  in 
Gaul  and  Britannia  followed,  and  then  came  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  in  which  he  defeated  Pompey.  Two  years  later 
Caesar  assumed  the  dictatorship,  and  in  44  B.C.  he  was  slain  in 
the  Senate  house  by  the  assassins,  Brutus,  Cassius  and  others. 
Then  followed  the  second  triumvirate,  and  then  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  in  which  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated  ;  then 
the  love  episode  between  Cleopatra  and  Marc  Antony,  who, 
frittering  away  the  opportunity  to  win  the  imperial  prize  at 
Rome,  suffered  defeat  and  death  at  Actium.  In  27  B.C. 
Octavius  established  the  Empire,  under  the  title  of  Augustus 
Caesar,  at  which  time  the  city  of  Rome  is  supposed  to 
have  had  about  700,000  population,  while  that  of  the  Em- 
pire is  believed  to  have  been  not  less  than  100,000,000. 
Then  followed  a  line  of  Emperors,  some  of  them  wise  and 
benevolent,  others  of  them  rapacious  and  cruel.  Of  the 
latter  was  the  famous  Nero,  who  proved  the  most  bloodthirsty 
of  tyrants.  Under  him  began  the  persecutions  of  the  Chris- 
tians. He  was  accused  of  having  .set  the  city  on  fire  for  the 
pleasure  to  be  derived  from  witnessing  the  conflagration.  Of 
the  former  was  Trajan,  under  whose  beneficent  administration 
much  was  done  to  civilize  the  ruder  portions  of  the  Empire, 
while  the  condition  of  the  city  and  its  inhabitants  was  greatly 


Al 


K" 


ITALY. 


297 


ameliorated.  In  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  first  acknowledged.  He  made  himself  a 
champion  of  the  church  bv  issuing  the  aecree  of  Milan,  in 
w'-'"''  he.  gave  it  mipenal  license  and  avowed  himself  a  believer 
in  us  Qoctrines  f'ntering  Rome  m  triumph  in  A.D.  312,  he 
became  the  first  Cnristian  sovereign  or  the  world,  and  after 
defeating  the  Pagans  in  their  tortres.-  of  Byzantmm  he  became 
sole  Emperor  of  the  entire  Roman  Empire  He  transtarred 
his  capital  from  Rome  to  Constantinople,  where  he  reigned 
until  the  year  337.  His  son  Julian,  who  succeeded  him,  had 
been  educated  a  Christian,  but  reverted  to  the  old  Pagan  faith  ; 
but  the  next  Emperor  Jovian,  restored  the  Christian  faith. 
In  3S3  the  Roman  En  pire  had  three  Emperors,  who  soon 
were  at  war,  and  the  victor,  Theodosius,  divided  the  Empire 
into  Eastern  and  Western  at  his  death,  in  395,  putting  one  of 
his  sons  at  the  head  of  each.  From  this  division  resulted  the 
Koman  and  the  Greek  churches.  Roman  imperialism  reached 
its  last  stages  in  the  fifth  century.  Alaric  with  his  Northern 
hosts  marched  into  Rome,  wrought  his  pleasure  there,  and 
retired  from  it  after  twelve  days  of  sack.  Rome  had  fallen, 
and  such  events  as  are  further  mentioned  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  Italian  histor)'  proper.  In  the  fifth  century 
Venice  was  founded  by  fugitives  fleeing  before  .^ttila.  In 
the  eighth  century  a  Germanic  tribe  threatened  Rome.  In 
the  ninth  Charlemagne  conquered  Lombardy  and  assumed  the 
title  of  Roman  Emperor,  the  control  of  the  city,  however, 
being  taken  by  the  Pope.  The  German  Kings  conquered  the 
northern  portion  of  Italy,  while  the  Byzantine  Emperors  and 
ihe  Saracens  ruled  the  southern  portion  until  the  uprising  of 
the  Xormans.  Several  of  the  Italian  cities,  however,  increased 
so  in  strength  and  riches  as  to  be  able  to  achieve  their  inde- 
pendence, and  chief  among  these  was  Venice,  which  com- 
manded the  Adriatic  Sea  and  kept  back  the  Turks  from  the 
invasion  of  Western  Europe.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
.\ustria  obtained  large  portions  of  Italy's  northern  territory, 
while  the  republics  of  Venice  and  Genoa  dwindled  away. 
The  remainder  of  the  land  was  divided  among  petty  sover- 
eigns, who  enjoyed  life  until  the  terrible  days  of  the  French 
revolution,  after  which  Napoleon  divided  Italy  into  four 
republics,  next  establishing  it  as  a  monarchy,  placing  first 
his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  then  Murat,  over  it. 
After   the    battle    of    Waterloo    the    final   reconstitution   of 


Italy  was  decreed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  Almost  all  the 
old  boundaries  and  the  old  tyrannies  were  restored,  folio  wed  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Carbonari,  whom  the  Austrians  subdued 

In  1S4S,  by  a  simultaneous  insurrection  in  Lombardy  and 
Venice,  the  great  revolution  was  inaugurated.  Supported  by 
the  Pope  and  the  Kin^  of  Sardinia,  it  was  successful,  and  Lom- 
bardy wasannexedtoSardinia.  In  thcyearfollowing.however, 
Austria  regained  that  territory.  After  an  unsuccessful  revoil 
in  Milan  in  1853,  and  in  Sicily  in  1856,  the  French  eflected 
an  alliance  with  the  Sardinians  in  1859,  and  Austria  was 
defeated  in  the  great  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  which 
were  followed  by  the  hasty  and  inconclusive  peace  of  Villa- 
franca,  which  left  Venetia  to  Austria,  gave  Lombardy  to 
Sicily,  and  left  unsettled  the  question  of  the  Grand  Duchies. 
Savoy  and  Nice  were  ceded  to  France,  which  still  holds  them, 
while  Parma,  Modena  and  the  Sicilian  provinces  were  incor- 
porated with  Sardinia.  March  17,  the  law  by  which  Victor 
Emmanuel  assumed  the  title  of  King  was  promulgated.  May 
6,  Garibaldi  joined,  with  1,000  men,  a  revolution  which  had 
broken  out  in  Sicily.  Declaring  himself  Dictator,  he  headed 
the  revolt  and  speedily  conquered  the  Two  Sicilies.  March 
14,  1S61,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  declared  King  of  Italy  by 
the  first  Italian  Parliament.  In  the  same  year,  on  June  6, 
occurreti  the  death  of  Cavour,  who  was  the  originator  as  well  as 
the  director  of  the  Sardinian  policy  which  resulted  in  Italian 
liberation.  In  1S66  Italy  and  Prussia  united  their  forces 
against  .\ustria,  and  Venetia  was  ceded  to  the  Italians. 
-Attempts  were  made  by  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi  to  drive  the 
French  from  Rome,  but  they  remained  there  until  the  war 
with  Prussia.  In  1867  the  French  army  began  to  be  with- 
drawn from  Rome,  and  three  years  later  the  last  detachment 
had  left  the  Pontifical  territory.  September  20,  1870,  the 
Italian  army  entered  Rome,  and  October  9  the  Papal  States 
were  declared  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  During  the 
latter  years  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel's  reign  he  strengthened 
and  consolidated  his  kingdom,  and,  dying  in  1S7S,  he  was  suc- 
ceede<i  by  his  son  Humbert,  who  still  reigns. 

Italy  is  a  limited  monarchy,  with  a  Senate  appointed  by  the 
King  for  life,  and  a  Chamber  of  50S  Deputies,  elected  by 
popular  suffrage  for  a  term  of  five  years.  Annual  sessions  are 
held  by  the  Chamber.  Local  self-government  is  accorded  to 
the  provinces,  and  municipal  privileges  to  many  of  the  cities. 


-^>>.,  •^  4'^'/r^     ,1 


k... 


-\ 


40,1 — 

"    o,  Azores  or 
o<J  i3T\'esteni  Is, 


AFRICA 


Scale  of  Miles 


20        Longitude    "West 


Longitude     £ast 


from     Greenw-ich       40 


*.^  f%t.^.t  V  tCi.,tV>\f.Vt51. 


O  C  E  A  jsr 


30      Longitude 


East        35      from 


Greenwich      40 


*.S.9tV\.t%.  ^t>.^tW\tV^ft. 


300 


SPAIN. 


-|,.V.VA.V-^vA-v-vV.giv»-V.\-\.v^..vvJr.' 


t^^;^    ^    Spain.    ^ 


•^st^^ 


ECORDED  history  gives  the  Phcenicians  the  credit 
1^  W  of  having  first  established  colonies  upon  the  shores 
=-1  ij.  of  Spain,  which  at  that  time  was  occupied  by  Celtic 
™Vi'  tribes.  Later  appeared  the  Greeks,  who  called  the 
country  Iberia,  which  name  gave  way  to  that  of 
Hispania,  from  which  the  modern  name  is  derived,  when  the 
Romans  took  possession  of  the  country.  After  them  the 
Carthaginians  appeared,  conquering  a  stronghold  upon  the 
country  and  establishing  cities,  one  of  which,  Cartagena, 
situated  upon  the  Mediterranean  coast,  is  now  a  handsome 
city  of  80,000  inhabitants.  After  the  Punic  wars  the  Romans 
again  obtained  possession  of  Spain,  which  readily  improved  the 
opportunity  offered  of  advancement  in  civilization.  In  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  Christianity,  which  was 
introduced  earlier,  became  the  general  religion.  In  the 
year  409  the  country  was  overrun  by  vast  hordes  of  barbarians 
who  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  made  a  clean  sweep  of  the 
country,  and  in  412  the  Visigoths  invaded  it,  and  a  Gothic 
monarchy  was  established  by  their  King,  Athaulf,  in  Catalonia. 
Its  first  written  laws  were  given  to  Spain  by  one  of  the  Gothic 
dynasty  of  kings.  In  711,  the  Moors  subjugated  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  country,  and  held  the  southern  part  of  it  as  a 
dependency  of  their  North  .•\frican  dominions.  From  A.D. 
717,  their  .Spanish  territory  was  governed  by  Emirs,  appointed 
by  the  Caliph  of  Damascus,  Under  the  independent  dynasty 
which  the  Moors  established  .Southern  .Spain  flourished  in 
agriculture,  commerce  and  the  arts  and  sciences.  Wars  oc- 
curred constantly  between  the  Moors  and  the  Gothic  princes, 
who  had  maintained  possession  of  the  Cantanabrian  territory, 
but  the  Christian  kingdoms  continued  to  grow  in  power,  and, 
uniting  at  last,  they  succeeded  in  driving  the  intruders  from  the 
country.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Granada  the  Moors  made  their 
final  stand,  but  at  last  they  succumbed  to  the  troops  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella.  Of  the  Christian  States  at  this  time  Arragon 
and  Castile  were  by  far  the  most  powerful,  and  in  time  their 
sway  extended  all  over  the  country.  Ferdinand  II.,  the  last  of 
the  Arragon  sovereigns,  by  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  Queen 
of  Castile,  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Granada  in  1492,  and 
of  Navarre  in  1502,  accomplished  thus  the  unification  of  Chris- 
tian Spain,  which  now  entered  upon  its  most  glorious  epoch. 
Spanish  discovery  gave  America  to  the  civilized  world,  and, 
Spanish  conquest  extending  her  rule  over  Naples,  a  large 
portion  of  North,  Central  and  South  .-Vmerica,  the  new 
Kingdom  at  once  attained  rank  as  one  of  the  great  powers  of 
the  world.  New  riches  were  secured  by  Cortez'  conquests  in 
Mexico,  and  Pizarro's  in  Chili  and  Peru,  but  in  the  reign  of 


the  Philips  the  decline  of  Spanish  power  began  and  accelerated. 
Portugal  had  been  conquered  in  1581,  but  in  1640  she  obtained 
her  independence,  and  during  this  period  Spain  .suffered  other 
serious  diminishments  of  power  and  resources.  The  reign  of 
Charles  III.  promised  to  bring  the  country  back  to  something 
like  its  old  glory,  but  his  successor  embroiled  the  country  in 
inglorious  wars  which  cost  it  its  valuable  possession  of  Loui- 
siana, in  America,  ceded  to  France  in  1800,  while  England 
destroyed  the  Spanish  navies.  Ferdinand  VII.  was  removed 
from  the  throne  by  Napoleon,  who  placed  his  brpther  Joseph 
in  his  stead.  England,  at  that  time  at  war  with  Spain,  ac- 
knowledged Ferdinand  as  King,  and  joined  the  Spaniards  in 
their  endeavors  to  drive  out  the  Bonaparte,  and  lent  the  sup- 
port of  its  armies  under  Wellington.  Ferdinand's  rule  was 
re-established,  but  his  reign  was  marked  by  insurrections  which 
cost  the  country  very  dearly.  His  daughter,  Isabella  II.,  suc- 
ceeded him,  but  her  political  and  personal  misconduct  brought 
about  many  rebeUions,  that  of  the  Carlists  in  1S34-9  being  the 
most  serious.  In  1S68  she  was  driven  from  the  throne  and 
forced  to  fly  to  France,  and  two  years  later  Prince  Amadeo 
of  Italy,  the  second  son  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  was  elected 
by  the  Cortes  and  declared  King.  A  year  later  he  abdicated, 
whereupon  Don  Carlos,  a  grandnephew  of  Ferdinand  VII., 
claimed  the  throne,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  gain 
possession  of  it.  A  democratic  federal  republic  was  then 
declared  and  a  President  elected,  who  had  two  successors  within 
three  months.  Castelar,  who  had  been  elected  in  September, 
1S73,  resigned  in  1S74.  The  Cortes  dissolved,  and  General 
Serrano  w.-us  charged  with  the  duty  of  forming  a  new  ministry. 
He  coped  successfully  with  the  Carlists,  who  were  then  making 
strenuous  efforts  to  gain  a  foothold,  and  retained  executive 
power  until  January,  1875,  when  Don  Alfonso,  son  of  the 
ex-Queen  Isabella,  who  had  been  declared  King  at  Santander 
the  month  previous,  landed  in  Spain  and  took  the  field  against 
Don  Carlos.  He  was  finally  victorious.  Don  Carlos  .surren- 
dered his  claim  to  the  throne,  and  the  young  King  at  once 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  work  of  reorganizing  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  development  of  the  country. 

In  June,  1876,  a  Constitution  was  proclaimed,  which  pro- 
vides that  the  Government  shall  be  a  constitutional  nionarciiy, 
giving  the  executive  authority  to  the  King  and  placing  the  legis- 
lative power  in  the  Cortes  with  the  King.  The  Cortes  comprises 
a  Senate,  which  is  divided  into  three  classes,  and  a  Congress, 
consisting  of  Deputies,  one  of  ^^■hom  is  allowed  to  every  50,- 
000  inhabitants.  Spain  is  divided  into  provinces,  districts 
and  communes,  which  have  municipal  rights  which  the  national 
executive  and  the  Cortes  are  bound  to  respect. 


K- 


"y 


PORTUGAL— SWITZERLAND. 


301 


h- 


fe[^lM^^,M>^]^^>^^^,>^^^>^V1^^^^>^^>^^?,^^^^^^^s?s^^^?>?:5g 


'T^^ 


-5<r; 


IKE  Spain,  Portugal  was  early  inhabited  by  the  Celts, 
-xt      who  were  succeeded  in  turn  by  Phcenicians,  Cartha- 
ginians and  Greeks,  who  built  cities  along  the  coast 
which  formed    the  nuclei  of  colonies.      Like  Spain, 
too,  it  sulfered  from  Vandal  and  Visigothic  invasion. 


In  the  eighth  century  the  Moors  conquered  the  country,  which 
they  held  until  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  when 
Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile  and  Leon  drove  out  the  invaders. 
It  was  the  son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy,  Don  Alfonso  II en- 
riques,  who  established  the  Portuguese  monarchy,  after  defeat- 
ing the  Moors  at  the  battle  of  Ouriquein  11 39.  Eight  years  later 
the  Moors  were  deprived  of  Lisbon,  and  a  century  later  they 
were  entirely  driven  from  the  country.  Alfonso's  successors 
proved  able  monarchs,  and  under  their  rule  the  country  advanced 
rapidly.  During  the  reign  of  King  John  I.  began  the  era  of 
Portugal's  superiority  in  seamanship,  which  made  Lisbon  a  city 
of  .such  vast  commercial  power.  In  1415  the  country  gained 
its  first  foothold  abroad,  when  the  sea-captain  Zarco  discov- 
ered the  island  of  Madeira.  Later  on,  Portuguese  sailors  discov- 
ered the  Azores  and  Cape  Verde.  In  i486  Bartholomeu  Dias 
discovered,  and  in  the  following  year  Vasco  da  Gama  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  pursuing  his  journey  reached 
Malabar.  Still  more  important  for  Portugal,  as  events  turned 
out,  was  the  discovery  by  Pedro  A_lvarez  Cabral,  in  1500,  of 
Brazil,  which  was  followed  by  the  formation  of  a  colony  which 


has  since  developed  into  the  Empire  of  Brazil.  A  dispute  with 
.Spain  over  a  question  of  succession  brought  about  a  war 
with  that  power,  and  for  sixty  years  thereafter  Portu- 
gal remained  in  subjection  to  her  neighbor  on  the  Iberian 
Peninsula.  In  1640,  however,  the  Duke  of  Braganza  headed 
a  Portuguese  revolution,  was  successful,  and  ascended  the  throne 
as  John  IV.  In  1S07,  the  Government  havingtaken  sides  against 
Napoleon,  the  latter  invaded  the  country,  declaring  it  part  of 
France,  and  the  throne  vacant.  When  the  French  soldiers 
arrived,  the  Regent,  John  Maria  Joseph,  Prince  of  Brazil,  who 
ruled  in  the  place  of  Queen  Maria,  who  was  insane,  .sailed  for 
Brazil.  At  Napoleon's  downfall  he  appointed  his  son,  Dom 
Pedro,  Regent  of  Brazil,  and  returned  to  Portugal.  In  1822 
Dom  Pedro  became  Emperor  of  Brazil,  the  succession  being 
accomplished  without  bloodshed,  and  a  few  years  later  he  came 
into  possession  of  the  crown  of  Portugal  also,  which  he  surren- 
dered to  his  daughter.  Donna  Maria,  preferring  to  remain  at 
Rio  Janeiro.  Civil  war  arising  not  long  afterward,  the  British 
interfered,  and  since  then  they  have  held  the  country  in  a  con- 
dition of  semi-subjugation. 

The  Government  is  a  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy, 
with  the  legislative  power  vested  jointly  in  the  .sovereign  and  a 
Cortes  which  comprises  a  Chamber  of  Peers  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  of  which  the  King  nominates  the  former  for  life  ami 
the  people  elect  the  latter. 


-I-^I^* 


+    SWirnZEr^LAND.    T 


5;<*- 


^RIGINALLV  occupied  by  Celts,  Switzerland  became 
ftil  ^  Roman  ]5rovince  and  was  held  as  such  for  several 
centuries,  until  successive  invasions  of  German  tribes 
-yj  occurred.  In  the  fifth  century  the  Burgundians, 
T^  Goths  and  AUemanians  divided  the  province  among 
them,  but  in  the  century  following  the  Franks  captured 
it.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the  seventh  century  by 
Irish  monks,  and  monastic  institutions  were  founded.  In 
the  latter  part  of   the  ninth  eentury  Switzerland  was  taken 


kl 


from  the  Franks,  Germany  gaining  tlie  northern  and  Bur- 
gundy the  southern  portion  of  the  land.  An  alliance  was 
formed  later  by  Zurich,  Berne  and  Basle  against  the  neighbor- 
i[ig  powers  which  held  the  country,  and  a  brave  endeavor  in 
the  direction  of  independence  was  made.  Attempts  by  Aus- 
tria to  incorporate  the  Swiss  Cantons  with  her  domain  were 
nobly  opposed,  and  the  war  which  followed,  lasting  200  years, 
sundered  the  relations  of  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Imperial 
power  was  assumed  in  1273  by  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  a  Swiss 


A{ 


.> 


3°4 


TURKEY. 


nobleman,  and  in  1291  the  Cantons  of  Uri,  Untenvalden  and 
Schw)-z  formed  a  league  against  foreign  oppression.  In  13 15 
this  was  established  as  a  perpetual  confederacy,  and  in  the 
course  of  time  other  Cantons  joined  them.  Lucerne,  Zurich, 
Glarus,  Zug  and  Berne  by  1353  had  become  members  of  "  The 
Perpetual  League  of  the  Old  Places  of  the  Confederacy," 
which  was  the  fomidation  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  In 
141 5  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cantons  invaded  and  annexed  parts 
of  the  Austrian  territory,  and  three  years  later  they  annexed 
Ticino.  In  14S1  Solothurn  and  Freiburg  were  admitted,  which 
was  followed  by  internal  dissension,  lasting  until  1499.  Two 
years  later  Basle  and  Schauff  hausen  were  admitted,  as  was  also 
Appenzell  in  15 13.  There  were  now  thirteen  Cantons,  and  the 
true  independence  of  the  State  was  established.  In  I53t  war 
broke  out  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Protestants,  and  the 
former  were  victorious.  Berne  and  Zurich  managed  to  main- 
tain the  neutrality  of  Switzerland  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  and  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648  Switzerland 
was  acknowledged  as  an  independent  State.  At  the  time  of 
the  French  Revolution  Switzerland  was  invaded  by  two  French 
armies,  which  captured  the  city  of  Berne  and  proclaimed  the 
Helvetic  Republic,  designating  Aarau  as  the  capital.  In  1S02, 
civil  war  dividing  the  Cantons,  Napoleon  undertook  to  reor- 
ganize the  country,  and  the  people  accepted  his  suggestions, 
but  in  1S09  a  new  Constitution  was  formed  which  added  three 
new  Cantons — Geneva,  Vallais  and  the  Prussian  principality 
of   Neufchatel — to    the  nineteen  which  had  been  framed  by 


Napoleon.  The  European  powers  ratified  this  change  and 
declared  the  perpetual  neutrality  and  inviolability  of  the  Con- 
federation. During  the  excitement  aroused  by  the  French 
Revolution  agitations  in  the  direction  of  liberty  resulted  in 
the  reorganization  of  cantonal  constitutions,  which  were  made 
more  liberal  and  democratic.  Religious  troubles  reappeared 
in  1S34  and  lasted  for  some  years,  finally  resulting,  in  1847,  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  suppression  of  the  monas- 
teries, which  excited  the  anger  of  some  of  the  powers  which 
attempted  to  intimidate  Switzerland.  In  1848  Neufchatel 
declared  her  independence  of  Prussian  control,  which  nine 
years  later  was  acknowledged.  Switzerland  made,  in  i860, 
an  unavailing  protest  against  the  annexation  of  Savoy  to 
France. 

By  the  revised  Constitution  of  1874  it  is  provided  that  all  the 
rights  of  sovereignty  not  transferred  to  the  Confederation  shall 
be  exercised  by  the  twenty-two  Cantons.  Every  Canton's 
Constitution  is  guaranteed  if  it  is  republican  in  form,  if  it  has 
been  adopted  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  and  if  it  can  be 
revised  on  a  demand  of  the  majority  of  the  voters.  There  is 
a  Federal  Assembly  which  comprises  a  National  Council  and 
a  Council  of  States.  The  executive  authority  is  exercised  by  a 
Federal  Council,  which  has  seven  members,  each  of  whom  has 
a  department.  The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Fed- 
eral Council,  also  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Con- 
federation, are  chosen  for  one  year  only  and  are  selected  from 
the  Council  by  its  members. 


■M^N  1330  begins  the  Ottoman  career  of  conquest.  About 
that  time  Orcan,  leader  of  a  tribe  inhabiting  the  Altai 
Mountains,  led  his  hardy  Janizaries  against  Nicomedia 
and  Nicola.  He  called  the  gate  of  his  palace  the  Sub- 
°-^  lime  Porte,  and  himself  Padisha,  both  of  which  expres- 
sions are  still  extant.  His  successor  located  his  capital  at 
Adrianople,  and  during  his  rule  the  Turks  fell  under  the  relent- 
less hand  of  Tamerlane,  who,  in  1402,  routed  them  in  battle, 
but  effected  no  permanent  occupation  of  their  territory.  Re- 
covering from  the  rude  assault,  the  Turks,  in  less  than  a  gener- 
ation, greatly  humiliated  the  Byzantine  Empire,  which  ceased 


to  exist  later,  giving  way  before  the  irresistible  Mohammed  II., 
who  transferred  the  seat  of  empire  from  Adrianople  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  capture  of  Constantinople  was  followed  by 
other  important  cities  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  during  tjie  next 
century  the  Turkish  Empire  constantly  grew  in  power.  Greece 
and  Arabia  were  added  to  the  domain  of  the  Porte.  The  glory 
of  Islam  culminated  in  the  reign  of  the  third  Sultan  of  Stam- 
boul,  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  which  lasted  from  1520  to 
1566.  His  ambition  was  to  conquer  Western  Europe  md 
establish  the  Crescent  throughout  the  continent,  and  for  many 
years  it  looked  as  though  he  would  succeed.      He  did  extend 


/* 


-^J 


"71 


TURKEY. 


305 


his  empire  considerably,  but  his  grand  hope  was  destined  for 
non-fulfihnent.  He  died  in  Hungary,  where  he  was  conduct- 
ing a  victorious  campaign,  in  14S1,  and  with  his  death  began 
the  decHne  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  It  was  by  no  rapid 
national  decay  that  the  Turk  fell  from  his  high  estate  under 
Sol)Tnan  to  his  lowly  condition  under  Abdul  Hamid,  the  pres- 
ent ruler.  For  centuries  Turkish  incursions  carried  terror  into 
the  lands  of  Russia,  Hungary,  Poland  and  Italy,  while  the 
whole  of  Europe  felt  apprehensive  of  Ottoman  supremacy. 
It  was  not  until  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 
the  tide  set  in  steadily  against  the  Turk.  Catherine  of  Russia 
was  the  first  to  bring 
the  Crescent  low, 
but  England  and 
France  objected  to 
the  partition  of  the 
empire  between 
Russia  and  Austria, 
and  obtained  for 
the  Sultan  terms  of 
peace  which  secured 
the  autonomy  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire. 
This  has  been  main- 
tained since  by  the 
friendly  interposi- 
tion of  the  anti- 
Russian  powers, 
who  see  that  so  long 
as  the  Sultan  of  a 
people  who  have 
lost  all  aggressive 
ambition  rules  at 
Constantinople  the 
"balance  of  power" 
is  safe.  In  the  war 
with  Russia  in 
1S77-8  Turkey 
suffered  a  very  seri- 
ous loss  of  terri- 
tory, the  treaty  of  Berlin  reducing  her  area  from  1,742,874 
square  miles  to  1,116,848  square  miles,  and  her  population 
from  28,165,000  to  21,000,000.  Turkey  in  Europe  was  re- 
duced more  than  one-half  in  both  territory  and  population, 
the  cessions  under  the  treaty  being  as  follows :  Bulgaria, 
Eastern  Roumelia,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Roumania,  Ser- 
via,  etc.,  and  parts  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus.      In  the  same 


\  lEW  .,F  CONST.ANTINOPLE. 


year,  too,  the  island  of  Cyprus  was  placed  under  British  con- 
trol. 

As  to  the  Government  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  it  can 
generally  be  said  that  the  precepts  of  the  Koran  are  the  foun- 
dation of  its  fundamental  laws.  Absolute  power  is  vested  in 
the  Sultan,  as  long  as  his  acts  remain  in  conformity  with  Mo- 
hammedan doctrine.  Forms  of  constitutional  limitation  upon 
the  arbitrary  authority  of  the  Sultan  have  been  adopted 
recently,  but  in  point  of  fact  the  legislative  and  executive 
departments  of  the  Government  are  in  the  hands  of  his  Sub- 
lime Highness,  and  the  functions  of  law  are  directed  by  two 

officers,  the  Grand 
Vizier,  who  looks 
after  secular  affairs, 
and  the  Sheik-ul- 
Islam,  who  is  the 
head  of  the  church. 
There  is  a  body  or 
class  known  as  the 
Clema,  which  com- 
prises the  "  Mufti," 
or  interpreters  of 
the  Koran,  the 
judges  and  high 
functionaries  of  the 
law.  "  Bey  "  is  a 
general  term,  apply- 
ing to  all  important 
civil  officers,  while 
"  Pasha  "  is  the  de- 
signation of  tax- 
gatherers  and  other 
ofScers  who  are 
both  military  and 
civil  in  function. 
•V  ministerial  coun- 
cilor cabinet  .called 
the"  Divan, "which 
is  presided  over  by 
the  Grand  Vizier, 
exists,  comprising  eight  ministerial  departments,  namely.  War, 
Finance,  Marine,  Commerce,  Public  Works,  Police,  Justice 
and  Education.  The  empire  is  divided  into  vilayets,  under 
Governors,  of  which  there  are  four  in  European  Turkey, 
exclusive  of  the  district  of  Constantinople.  Cruelty  and  ve- 
nality are  the  main  qualities  of  the  Governors,  whose  rule  is 
very  arbitrary. 


3°6 


ROUMANIA. 


I^OUMANIA. 


****««^ 


^-l-+f^^^+4~«^ 


1^:2  MONG  the  minor  States  of  Europe,  those  which 
\/w0     received  their  autonomy  at  the  treaty  of  Berlin   are 

>\i  worthy  of  close  attention.  Roumaniais  the  namecon- 
"  ferred  upon  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  when  they  be- 
came united  under  one  prmce  and  one  administration 
as  a  province  of  Turkey,  in  December,  1861.  The  represent- 
atives of  the  people  met  at  the  capital,  Bucharest,  May  21, 
1877,  and  proclaimed  absolute  independence  of  Turkey,  which 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  confirmed  the  following  year.  The  Gov- 
ernment is  an  elective  and  strictly  limited  constitutional  princi- 
pality.    Karl  I.  is  the  present  Prince. 


BULGAr^IA. 


Bulgaria,  an  autonomous  principality  tributary  to  Turkey, 
constituted  previous  to  1S78  the  Turkish  Danubian  vilayet. 
Her  subjection  to  the  Porte  dates  from  1392,  but  nearly  five 
centuries  of  Moslem  misrule  and  oppression  have  not  deprived 
the  people  of  their  national  pride  and  desire  for  independence. 
In  1S76  they  rose  against  their  oppressors,  but  were  unsuc- 
cessful, and  the  atrocities  which  the  ferocious  Bashi-Bazouks 
committed  in  suppressing  the  revolt,  together  with  the  lament- 
able condition  of  other  Turkish  provinces,  led  to  the  Turko- 
Russian  war.  At  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  the  erection  of  a 
Bulgarian  principality  was  not  permitted,  but  the  province  was 
granted  its  autonomy.  Eastern  Roumelia,  lying  to  the  south 
of  Roumania,  also  was  granted  administrative  autonomy. 


Sbi^via. 


Servia  gained  independence  of  Turkey  at  the  same  time  and 
in  the  same  way  as  Roumania.  It  was  virtually  free,  however, 
as  ear'y  as  1829.  Under  the  present  Prince,  Milan  II.,  the 
fourth  of  his  dynasty,  a  government  similar  to  that  of  Rou- 
mania is  carried  on. 


BosNi.\  and  Herzegovina,  according  to  the  same  treaty, 
were  to  have  their  administration  conducted  by  Austria-Hun- 
gary. 


flNDOI^I^A. 


In  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  nestling  among  the  high  mountains, 
is  the  tiny  European  republic  of  Andorra,  which  has  main- 
tained its  independence  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  Its 
area  is  149  square  miles,  and  the  burden  of  its  government 
rests  lightly  upon  no  less  than  twenty-four  Consuls. 


San  CQai^ino. 


Of  all  the  republics  in  the  world  that  of  San  Marino  enjoys 
the  double  distinction  of  being  the  oldest  and  the  smallest. 
Situated  in  Eastern  Central  Italy,  it  has  an  area  of  twenty-two 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  10,000,  an  army  of  819  men, 
131  officers,  while  the  Government,  since  1847,  has  consisted 
of  two  Presidents,  elective  for  si.^  months,  and  an  Executive 
Council  of  twelve,  and  a  Senate  consisting  of  sixty  life  mem- 
bers. 


GQONAGO. 


Still  smaller  than  San  Marino  is  the  principality  of  Monaco, 
whose  ruler  conducts  the  affairs  of  a  population  of  a  little  over 
3,000  within  an  area  of  six  square  miles.  Monaco  is  a  favor- 
ite resort  for  invalids,  but  its  chief  notoriety  comes  from  its 
gambling-houses,  which  are  here  legalized,  and  patronized  by 
European  tourists.  From  this  source  a  revenue  of  $350,cxx) 
per  annum  comes  to  the  Prince  of  Monaco,  who  spends  it  in 
Paris,  where  he  has  his  residence. 


\1 


m|=W  UT  little   remains   to-day  of  the   glories  which   once 
I  '^WJ     belonged   to  this  most   remarkable  and   interesting 


Of  the  early  history  of  Greece  but  very 
little  authentic  knowledge  is  available.  Hellen  was 
'^^  claimed  by  the  Greeks  as  their  common  ancestor,  the 
popular  belief  being  that  from  his  sons,  Dorus,  ^-Eolus,  and  his 
grandsons.  Ion  and  Achscus,  sprang  the  four  different  branches 
of  the  nation  :  the  Dorians,  from  whom  the  Spartans  were 
descended  ;  the  lonians,  from  whom  sprang  the  Athenians  ;  the 
••Eolians,  whose  dialect  developed  itself  into  the  songs  of 
Sappho  ;  and  the  Achaaans,  who  occupied  Mycenae,  Arros  and 
Sparta.  Previous  to  the  Hellenic  inhabitants  of  Greece  were 
the  Pelasgians,  who  had  a  different  language.  Many  indica- 
tions go  to  show  that  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  immigration 
had  a  large  influence  upon  Grecian  civilization,  whose  alphabet 
is  apparently  of  Phoenician  origin.  What  is  known  as  the 
heroic  age  of  Greece  is  a  fragment  of  the  poetic  imagination 
of  such  minds  as  Homer  and  other  great  poets,  who  told  the 
story  of  the  great  deeds  of  heroes,  who,  descended  from  the 
gods,  performed  deeds  of  supernatural  valor  and  strength. 
Still,  modern  research  has  shown  that  much  which  has  been 
gravely  condemned  as  fiction  has  been  actual  occurrence,  the 
persistent  spade  of  Schliemann  even  establishing  the  fact  that 
the  siege  of  Troy  w'as  no  myth,  and  that  the  story  of  .\chilles' 
wrath  may  to-day  be  read  in  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city. 

From  first  to  last  Greece  was  divided  into  numerous  inde- 
pendent States,  whose  union  was  confederate  rather  than 
federal.  Authentic  history  dates  from  776  B.C.,  when  the  first 
Olympiad  was  held.  Sparta  at  this  time  was  the  smallest  and 
least  important  of  the  States,  but  the  genius  and  valor  of  her 
citizens  made  her  famous  and  strong,  and  by  the  sixth  century 
before  the  Christian  era  foreign  conquest  and  internal  advance- 
ment liad  placed  her  in  the  lead  as  to  power  and  wisdom  of 
administration.  Greece  was  at  this  time  the  acknowledged 
centre  of  European  civilization.  Persia  now  began  to  dispute 
the  Hellenic  advancement,  and  the  battles  of  Marathon,  Salamis 
and  Thermopylai  were  among  the  most  famous  encounters 
between  these  powerful  nations.  In  B.C.  431  began  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  the  great  civil  war  of  Greece,  which  continued  with 
hardly  any  cessation  of  hostilities  for  twenty-seven  years.  In 
344  began  the  interference  by  Macedon  in  Peloponncsian  affairs, 
which  led  to  the  wars  which  ended  with  the  supremacy  of  the 


Macedonians,  whose  rule  lasted  until  325  B.C.,  when  the 
Athenians  accomplished  temporarily  their  independence.  In 
B.C.  214  occurred  the  first  collision  between  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans,  who  in  B.C.  200  invaded  the  coimtry,  and  three 
years  later  conquered  the  Macedonians.  About  twenty  years 
later  war  aro.se  again  between  the  Romans  and  Macedonians, 
who  were  defeated  and  their  country  made  a  Roman  province. 
In  B.C.  146  occurred  the  battle  of  Leucopetra,  which  completed 
the  dissolution  of  the  last  of  the  Greek  le-tgucs,  the  .Acha'an, 
and  henceforth  Greece  was  under  the  Roman  yoke.  The  Roman 
Senate,  and  afterward  the  Emperors,  treated  the  fatherland  of 
their  own  civilization  with  kindness,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
Byzantine  Empire  placed  its  cruel  fool  upon  the  Greek  neck 
that  all  free  institutions  and  popular  rights  were  disregarded. 

Though  conquered  in  war,  Greece  still  remained  the  leader 
of  the  world  in  literature  and  the  arts.  Her  temples  and 
statues,  her  schools  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  still  maintained 
her  dignity  among  the  nations.  After  the  Byzantine  invasion 
the  adherents  of  the  ancient  religion  only  retained  the  name  of 
the  ancient  Hellenes,  and  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  in  the  sixth 
century,  the  teaching  of  doctrines  opposed  to  Chistianity  was 
forbidden.  From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  century  Slavic  and 
otlier  foreign  people  appeared  in  Greece,  but  they  were  finally 
expelled.  Its  ancient  inhabitants  regained  the  country,  though 
the  Slavic  influence  is  still  evident  in  certain  parts  of  it, 
especially  the  Southern  Peninsula.  In  the  eleventh  century, 
llie  Normans  appeared  from  Sicily  and  plundered  and  ravaged 
the  cities  of  Thebes,  Athens  and  Corinth.  In  1203  the  Latin 
Princes  appeared  in  the  Crusade,  conquered  Constantinople, 
and  divided  Greece  among  them,  establishing  a  number  of 
principalities,  which  Frankish  governments  were  swept  away 
liy  the  Turks  in  1453,  when  they  captured  Constantinople  and 
e.stcnded  their  conquests  in  a  few  years  over  the  whole  country, 
which  they  made  a  portion  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  Abject 
misery  was  the  condition  of  the  country  under  the  Turks.  In 
i6S7the  Christian  League,  under  Venetian  leadership,  besieged 
and  took  .\thens,  but  a  few  years  later  the  Venetians  were  ex- 
pelled, and  the  Moslem  once  more  ruled  Greece,  keeping  it  in 
a  most  deplorable  condition  of  subjugation.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  national  spirit  again  began 
to  assert  itself,  and  secretly  the  preparations  were  begun  for 
throwing  off  the  Ottoman  yoke.     They  were  completed  in  1821, 


K" 


30S 


ASIA. 


when  the  Greeks  arose  in  insurrection  against  the  oppressor. 
On  their  side  was  the  sympathy  of  the  whole  civilized  world, 
and  money  and  men  were  supplied  the  struggling  State  from  all 
directions.  In  1822,  the  Moslems  increased  the  execration  in 
which  they  were  held  by  massacring  over  100,000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  island  of  Scio,  reducnig  the  population  from  120,000 
to  16,000.  Four  years  of  heroic  war  found  the  Greeks  ex- 
hausted and  at  the  mercy,  if  such  existed,  of  the  conqueror,  but 
the  diplomatic  interference  of  England,  France  and  Russia 
stayed  the  ferocious  hand  of  the  Turk,  and  proposed  that  Greece 
should  be  constituted  as  a  tributary  province,  with  the  right  to 
choose  its  own  government.  Greece  was  willing  to  accept  the 
terms;  the  Ottoman  Empire  rejected  them.  War  was  declared 
by  the  allied  powers  against  Turkey,  whose  fleet  was  almost  de- 
stroyed, and  in  1S2S  they  decided  to  create  Greece  an  independent 
kingdom.  The  crown  was  offered  to  two  foreign  princes  and 
was  declined  by  the  first,  while  the  second  was  assassinated. 
In  1S33  Otto,  son  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  assumed  the  reins 
of  government,  and  in  1835  the  capital  was  est.ablished  at 
Athens.  In  1S44,  in  recognition  of  a  popular  clamor,  a  Con- 
stitution was  granted  to  the  people,  and  after  a  stormy  reign 


of  nearly  thirty  years  he  was  requested  to  abdicate,  and 
accepted  the  invitation.  An  election  by  universal  suffrage 
resulted  in  the  choice  of  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who 
accepted  the  throne  on  condition  that  England  surrender  the 
protectorate  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  against  which  the  people 
had  rebelled,  which  was  granted  by  that  power.  In  1863,  the 
new  King  was  crowned  as  George  I.,  whose  reign  has  since 
proved  acceptable  to  the  people.  In  i865,  a  revolution  in 
Crete  strained  the  relations  of  Greece  and  Turkey,  but  the 
danger  was  finally  averted. 

Greece  is  governed  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution 
elaborated  by  the  constituent  assembly  in  1863  and  adopted  in 
1S64.  A  single  chamber  of  representatives,  known  as  the 
BoiiUy  hold  the  legislative  power.  Annual  meetings  are  held 
by  the  Boule,  whose  members  are  elected  by  manhood  suffrage 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
King  and  his  responsible  Ministers,  the  heads  of  the  following 
departments :  Presidency  of  the  Council,  Interior,  Finance, 
Justice,  Education  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  War,  Marine  and 
Foreign  .Affairs.  A  Council  of  State  is  provided  for,  with  power 
to  review  or  amend  bills  passed  by  the  Deputies,  but  of  late 
years  its  services  have  not  been  employed. 


%, 


^^^,  ^A 


PAN, 


0H^ 


^I^-      ^^^^^^^v^^iluBS^^^"* 


■^t^' 


I^LTHOUGH  containing  a  vastly  larger  population 
than  any  other  of  the  continents — its  inhabitants 
in  fact  outnumbering  those  of  the  remainder  of 
the  earth — Asia,  on  account  of  her  not  having 
come  to  any  great  extent  under  the  influences  of 
modern  civilization,  is  as  weak  in  power  as  she  is  strong  in 
numbers.  In  ancient  days  this  was  different:  the  world's  his- 
tory was  then  largely  framed  by  its  Asiatic  sons,  who  contended 
successfully  against  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  later  on  helped  to 
build  up  the  glory  of  the  Macedonian  and  Roman  Empires. 
It  was  from  the  regions  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea  that  the  Huns 
came,  and,  following  the  star  of  empire,  marched  westward 
and  settled  down  in  various  parts  of  Europe.     Over  the  plains 


of  the  Slav  swept  the  victorious  armies  of  Timour  and  Genghis 
Khan,  and  later  the  Caliphs,  at  the  head  of  their  Arabian 
troops,  carried  the  Koran  and  the  sword  throughout  Asia, 
Europe  and  .'\frica,  and  established  religious  nationalities  which 
are,  to  a  certain  extent,  formidable  even  in  this  day  of  their 
decadence.  Before  their  march  the  Roman  Empire  gave  way, 
and  the  Turkish  dominion  raised,  which  for  so  many  years 
held  other  European  powers  in  awe.  With  a  population  of 
834,707,000,  as  compared  with  that  of  Europe,  315,929,000,  it 
seems  as  though  the  day  must  come  when  Asiatic  supremacy 
will  exist  as  a  fact.  Asia  has  a  great  deal  to  learn,  however,  of 
the  modern  .spirit  and  system  of  government,  before  it  can  hope 
to  cope  with  the  more  persistent,  audacious  and  intelligent 
continent  to  the  west  of  it 


\ 


V 


^7" 


CHINA— JAPAN. 


309 


»#<»iiiii>iii<iiiiijiiiiii)iiiiiiiiiii!Xiit"f"iiiii'X'<C"i"S"i"XiiXiiii(tiii'ii»iiia'ii' 


>J^      (gHINA.      ^ 


-'+l*>|^+"- 


;-- VTIIOLOCJY,  rather  than  hislary,  must  be  cred- 
ited with  tlie  earlier  chronicles  of  the  Chinese, 
whose  actual  record,  however,  extends  back 
2,400  years  jirevious  to  the  Christian  era,  and 
contains  the  record  of  a  great  flood,  which 
many  have  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  deluge  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Certain  it  is  that  the  Great  Wall,  which  extends 
1,250  miles  along  the  northern  boundary  of  China,  was  erected 
250  years  before  the  Christian  era,  when  the  Tsin  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Chwang-Siang.  In  the  thirteenth  century  a  Mongol 
dynasty  was  formed  by  Genghis  Khan,  after  his  capture  of 
I'ekin.  European  visits  began  in  this  century,  when  Marco 
Polo  reached  China  by  the  overland  route.  Portuguese  and 
Dutch  traders  followed,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century  En- 
gland visited  the  country,  and  after  several  unsuccessful  negotia- 
tions the  East  India  Company  was  allowed,  in  1684,  to  trade 
with  the  natives.  But  little  was  done,  however,  until  the 
opium  trade  set  in,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
and  soon  attained  enormous  proportions.  An  attempt  was 
made  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  exclude  the  pernicious 
drug,  but  the  traders  of  the  East  India  Company  evaded  the 
restrictions  placed  upon  its  entry,  and  this  led  to  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  war,  known  as  the  opium  war,  which  closed  with  the 
treaty  of  Nankin  and  the  opening  of  five  ports — Canton, 
Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo  and  Shanghai — to  the  British  in 
1842.  American  trade  with  China  was  inaugurated  in  17S4, 
when  the  ship  Empress  made  a  successful  voyage  from  New 


York  to  the  Celestial  Empire.  In  1S44  the  fir.st  American 
treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  between  the  United  States  and 
China  was  negotiated  at  Macao,  and  in  1S67-8  a  more  impor- 
tant one  was  negotiated  by  the  Hon.  Anson  Burlingame,  which 
was  revised  in  18S0,  in  order  that  an  understanding  might  be 
reached  with  the  Chinese  Government  in  relation  to  the  emi- 
gration of  its  subjects  to  this  country,  where  opposition  to 
Chinese  cheap  labor  had  been  aroused  in  California  and  other 
sections.  Such  treaties  as  the  Europeans  have  with  China 
have  been  wrested  from  that  country  by  force  of  arms,  and 
during  a  war  in  i860  the  French  troops  captured  the  Em- 
peror's summer  palace,  at  Pekin,  and  carried  off  several 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  booty.  The  most  important 
event  of  modern  domestic  Chinese  history  was  the  Taeping 
revolution,  which  lasted  from  1S51  to  1S64,  and  had  for  its 
object  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchoo  or  foreign  dynasty. 
Dissensions  among  the  insurgents  and  the  employment  of 
European  and  American  officers  by  the  Government  were  the 
main  causes  of  the  failure  of  the  uprising. 

An  Emperor  rules  China,  aided  by  the  Interior  Council 
Chamber,  which  is  mainly  composed  of  high  nobles.  The 
provinces  are  governed  by  Imperial  Governors  and  Executive 
Boards.  Bribery  and  corruption  prevail  throughout  the  civil 
service,  which  is  a  monstrous  institution.  Competitive  exam- 
ination is  the  basis  of  the  service,  the  intention  being  to  secure 
for  official  positions  the  most  intelligent  and  best  educated 
men  of  the  empire. 


^4-1-1-^^4-^!- 


>C'X 


elAPAN. 


jRIGINALLY  inhabited  by  a  race  known  as  the  Ainos, 
who  had  a  written  language  and  were  fairly  advanced 
in  civilization,  the  island  of  Japan  subsequently  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols,  the  present  occupants 
being  akin  to  the  Chinese,  whom  they  resemble  in 
appearance.  According  to  Japanese  history,  the  ruling  dynasty 
claims  twenty-five  centuries  of  unbroken  succession,  descent 
being  claimed  from  the  first  Mikado,  Jimmu  Tenno,  who  was 


L^ 


reputed  to  have  been  of  divine  descent.  Buddhism  was  intro- 
duced into  Japan  in  the  sixth  century.  Marco  Polo  was  the 
first  European  to  write  of  Japan,  and  the  first  Europeans  to 
land  upon  its  shores  were  Portuguese  mariners.  About  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  one  of  the  smaller  islands  was 
visited  by  Fernam  Mendez  Pinto.  In  1549  St.  Francis  Xavier 
landed  and  introduced  Christianny,  and  he  was  followed  by 
many  others.     In  1615  the  priests  were  exiled,  and  nine  years 


.V 


310 


1;R]'IISH  INDIA. 


later  all  foreigners  except  the  Chinese  and  the  iJutch  were 
expelled  from  the  island,  and  the  emigration  of  natives  was 
prohibited.  In  1637  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  began,  and 
for  over  two  centuries  Japan  was  left  to  itself.  In  1854, 
however.  Commodore  Perry,  of  the  United  States  Navy, 
effected  a  commercial  treaty  with  Japan,  which  resulted  in 
opening  Japanese  ports  to  American  ships,  and  after  a  struggle 
with  the  old  court  party  the  civilization  of  the  West  began  to 
grow  in  popular  favor,  lil^eral  ideas  struck  root,  and  national 
progress  was  evidenced  in  a  number  of  valuable  reforms.  In 
i868  the  executive  power  of  the   Japanese  Government  was 


concentrated  in  the  Mikado,  and  since  then  the  work  of  ad- 
vancement has  gone  on  very  rapidly,  promising  to  open  up  to 
American  enterprise  a  large  field  for  the  exportation  of  her 
machinery  and  other  manufactures. 

Absolute  power  in  temporal  and  spiritual  affairs  is  vested  in 
the  Mikado.  He  is  assisted  in  government  by  an  Executive 
Ministry  similar  to  that  which  existed  during  France's  second 
empire.  A  Senate  of  thirty  members  and  a  Council  of  State 
are  consulted  at  pleasure  by  the  Mikado.  Prefects  govern  in 
the  provinces,  one  being  given  to  each  of  the  seventy-five 
districts  which  make  up  the  Mikado's  realm. 


^®= 


^t=^^^  B^wlSK  India.  ^^ 


<^= 


©^ 

•^ 


^ 


^^ 


,„,^|ARLY  Indian  history,  extending  back  millions  of 
/lEEi  ^  years,'  is  composed  of  a  confused  m.ass  of  fabulous 
[rpl[  chronicles.  Research  by  careful  historians  leads  to 
^Svjl  the  behef  that  the  Aryan  Hindoos  settled  the  coun- 
cj^'  try  some  fifteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  at 
which  time  the  Brahminical  religion  and  the  social  institution 
of  caste  are  believed  to  have  been  in  existence  in  undeveloped 
shape.  About  five  centuries  before  Christ  the  northwestern 
provinces  of  the. country  were  conquered  by  the  Persian  mon- 
arch Darius,  and  later  Alexander  the  Great  invaded  India  and 
conquered  some  of  its  provinces.  In  the  eighth  century  the 
province  of  Scinde  and  the  Southern  Punjaub  were  invaded  by 
the  Mohammedans,  who  were  later  expelled  l^y  the  Hindoos. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  they  returned  and 
conquered  all  Northern  India.  At  the  close  of  the  sixtccenth 
century  occurred  the  invasion  of  Tamerlane.  In  1526  Piaber, 
the  Mogul  Sultan  of  Cabul,  invaded  India,  and  established  the 
Mogul  dynasty,  whose  strength  culminated  with  Aurungzebe, 
who  subdued  almost  the  entire  peninsula,  and  Mohammed 
Shah.  In  1739  occurred  the  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah,  King 
of  Persia,  who  overcame  the  empire  and  occupied  Delhi,  from 
which  city  he  removed  enormous  stores  of  precious  stones  and 
metals.  The  restoration  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  was  followed 
by  another  incursion  of  the  Mahrattas,  who  in  the  eighteenth 
century  were  entirely  overthrown  by  the  Afghans.  European 
attention  was  at  last  called  to  the  country,  and  in  the  sixteenth 
century  settlements  were  made  upon  tlie  coast  by  Portuguese 
e-xplorers  whom  the  Dutch  e.xpelled  later.  Great  Britain,  rep- 
resented by  the  East  India  Company,  effected  settlements 
during  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
eig^xteenth  came  into  conflict  with  the  French,  who  had  also 
gained  a  foothold,  and  after  a  hard   struggle  overcame  them. 


Under  Lord  Olive  the  British  troops  vanquished  tlie  Emperor 
of  Delhi  and  the  King  of  Oude,  and  gained  possession  of 
Bengal,  Berar  and  other  provinces,  which  acquisitions  were 
added  to  as  years  went  by.  For  many  years  British  rule  was 
quietly  submitted  to  by  the  natives,  its  enforcement  being 
accomplished  liy  the  army  of  native  troops,  under  English  offi- 
cers, armed  by  the  East  India  Company. 

In  1S57  a  revolt  occurred,  and  the  Kings  of  Delhi  and  Oude, 
at  the  head  of  the  rebellious  Sepoys,  threatened  for  eighteen 
months  to  wrest  the  mastery  of  India  from  England.  Fright- 
ful massacres,  attended  with  indescribable  atrocities,  were  per- 
petrated by  the  rebels,  and  the  measures  of  reprisal  adopted 
by  the  English  were  hardly  less  terrible.  After  the  rebellion 
had  been  crushed  the  British  Government  assumed  direct  con- 
trol of  the  country,  the  East  India  Company  being  deprived  of 
a  monopoly  which  had  brought  in  an  annual  revenue  of  many 
millions.  Since  tlien  the  British  have  largely  advanced  their 
Indian  frontiers.  In  1S76  Queen  Victoria  wa.,  proclaimed 
Empress  of  India. 

The  Government,  which  regulates  the  affairs  of  nearly  two 
himdred  millions  of  people,  is  practically  a  military  despotism, 
which  is  made  possible  by  the  division  of  the  native  popula- 
tion into  Hindoos  and  Mohammedans.  A  Governor-General, 
appointed  by  the  ruler  of  Great  Britain,  holds  the  executive 
authority  and  acts  under  the  English  .Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  who  is  advised  by  a  Council,  a  majority  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  Lieutenant-Governors  of  the  prov- 
inces and  minor  officers  are  appointed  by  the  Governor-General. 
The  officials  are  almost  all  Englishmen.  Self-government  pre- 
vails in  the  villages  and  townships,  which  levy  and  expend  their 
own  taxes  under  a  system  which  has  prevailed  in  India  for  ages, 
and  which  provides  the  only  exception  to  the  rule  that  all  power 
rests  in  the  hands  of  the  resident  Europeans. 


k- 


\ 


vl 


AFGHANISTAN'  AND  UELOOCHISTAN— PERSIA. 


.3" 


iCl-'<'0''-^i 


>5(X*X)5(X©Xi<X*Xg&x*X*XgBX)5lX5<^<*  ■'l5(X®X*X^X*X*X)5BX*Xli' 


11  HPtiHANISTAN  AND  BSLOOGHISIPAN.  ^ 


['i<x^X)^X)^xi^xaxijBX)^x^xgBxgBxaxaxsx>sxsx^xax)SX)^xi^X)^/: 


a  nation,  Afghanistan,  although  only  dating  from 
1747,  when  the  successful  soldier  Amhed  IChan 
assumed  regal  power,  and  possessing  but  a  small 
territory  and  population,  has,  by  her  wars  with  for- 
eign powers,  so  impressed  the  world  with  the  warlike 
character  of  her  people,  that  her  history  possesses  a  unique 
interest.  Amhed  Khan's  most  important  war  was  with  the 
Mahrattas,  whom  he  overthrew  in  1761,  and  when  he  died, 
twelve  years  later,  he  left  to  his  son,  Timour,  an  empire  reach- 
ing from  the  Indus  to  the  O.xus,  while  Khorassan,  Beloochistan 
and  Scinde  acknowledged  his  rule  as  tributary  provinces.  After 
Timour  came  anarchy,  and  the  Punjaub  and  Scinde  were  lost, 
while  Persian  encroachments  endangered  the  country.  Diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  Engjish,  who  regard  Afghanistan  with 
peculiar  interest,  as  being  the  "key  to  India,"  were  opened 
in  1809,  and  a  permanent  English  resident  at  the  Ameer's 
court  was  appointed  in  1S37.  The  relations  of  the  two  coun- 
tries failed  to  remain  friendly,  and  in  1S3S  Lord  Auckland, 
the  Governor-General  of  P>ritish  India,  declared  war  against 
the  Ameer,  Mohammed  Khan,  who  was  defeated.  Satisfied 
with  the  invasion  they  had  accomplished,  the  English  with- 
drew, leaving  an  army  of  occupation  behind  them.  In  1S41 
Akbar  Khan,  son  of  the  deposed  Ameer,  organized  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  English  occupants  of  the  country,  which 
resulted  in  the  murder  of  the  British  Resident  and  Envoy, 
after  which  the  invaders  promised  to  leave  the  country,  Akbar 
Khan  agreeing  to  provide  them  with  an  escort.  This  promise 
was  not  kept,  and  the  army,  together  with  camp-followers, 
the  whole  amounting  to   about   26,000  people,  while  leaving 


the  country  by  way  of  the  Khyber  Pass,  in  the  depth  of 
winter,  were  attacked  by  the  fanatical  tribes  of  the  districts, 
who  killed  men,  women  and  children.  Of  the  whole  host 
only  one  man  escaped  to  convey  the  tidings  to  the  nearest 
British  port,  Jelalabad.  An  expedition  was  immediately  fitted 
out  in  India,  and  the  country  was  desolated,  the  fortresses  of 
Ghurzee  and  Cabul  being  taken.  Notwithstanding  this  terri- 
ble lesson,  the  Afghans,  in  1S46,  allied  themselves  with  the 
Sikhs  against  the  British,  and  raised  a  revolt  in  the  Punjaub, 
which  was  quelled  only  after  severe  fighting.  The  jjresent 
Ameer,  Shere  Ali,  has  maintained  the  throne  after  many 
vicissitudes  caused  by  the  insurrections  led  by  his  own  rela- 
tives. In  1879  the  inhabitants  of  Cabul  arose  in  revolt,  and 
assassinated  the  British  Resident  and  a  large  number  of  other 
foreigners,  which  led  to  a  war  in  which  the  British  arms,  after 
desperate  fighting,  were  successful,  and  British  influence  in  the 
national  policy  was  firmly  established.  The  Government  of  the 
country  is  a  monarchy.  The  natives  are  divided  into  clans, 
ruled  over  by  chiefs.  Revenue  is  raised  by  taxation,  an  officer 
collecting  it  in  each  province.  Justice  is  administered  in  the 
towns  by  the  Cadis. 

Beloochistan,  a  country  lying  to  the  south  of  Afghanistan, 
is  not  considered  of  strategic  value  by  either  British  or  Rus- 
sians. In  1839  the  British  stormed  the  capital  and  killed  the 
ruler,  after  wliich  they  occupied  the  country  for  several  years. 
In  1854  a  treaty  was  formed  between  England  and  Beloo- 
chistan, which,  however,  has  been  violated,  and  no  diplomatic 
relations  are  now  sustained  between  the  two  countries.  The 
country  is  ruled  by  a  Khan,  who,  however,  has  little  power 
over  the  tribes  who  inhabit  it. 


(T^i?  UTHENTIC   Persian  hi.story  begins  with  the  revolt 
Vs     under  Cyrus  against   Astyages,  the    Median   King, 
y,  y,  ..      which    resulted  in  the  foundation   of    the    Persian 
I  h^yi     Empire.     Joining  with  Cambyses  and  Darius,  Cyrus 
"°?f:i^^     subdued  Lydia  and   Asia    Minor,  and  crowned   his 
career   by  the   capture   of  the  city  of   Babylon,  the  metrop- 
olis of  Assyria.     Darius  carried  the  Persian  arms  to  the  bor- 


•^/3  A^^- 


I^EI^SIA. 


-*->^'^, 

-*->^-^' 


^° 


ders  of  Thrace,  but  was  defeated  at  Marathon,  and  his  son 
Xerxes  was  not  less  unfortunate.  About  330  years  before  the 
Christian  era  Persia  was  invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  of 
Macedon,  who  extinguished  the  empire,  which  up  to  his  com- 
ing had  ruled  the  world.  After  Alexander's  successors  came 
the  Parthian  dynasty,  which  was  overthrown  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, when  the  ancient  laws   and    religion  wc~e  re-established 


R- 


312 


ARABIA— PALESTINE. 


under  a  aescendant  of  the  famous  Cyrus,  and  the  Sassanida; 
dynasty  thus  formed  ruled  with  great  energy  until  62S  A.D. , 
when  its  last  representative  was  slain,  and  the  country  fell  a 
prey  to  the  Mohammedan  Arabians  until  S6S,  when  a  native 
dynasty  was  established.  A  Mongol  invasion  occurred  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  in  the  fourteenth  Tamerlane  swept  the 
land  with  his  Tartar  followers.  Of  the  Suffavean  dynasty  which 
succeeded,  the  most  famous  representative  was  Nadir  Shah, 
who  invaded  India  and  carried  away  $100,000,000  worth  of 
spoils  from  the  city  of  Dellii.  Of  late  years  Persia  has  not 
been  ablf  to  lo  anything  worthy  of  her  ancient  glories.     Rus- 


sian encroachments  have  deprived  her  of  important  provinces.  In 
1856-57  she  engaged  in  war  with  England  and  was  defeated,  which 
event  led  to  a  friendly  feeling  towards  that  country  which,  doubt- 
less, prompted  the  Shah,  Nasr-ed-Din,  in  1S74,  to  visit  Europe. 
The  Government  of  Persia  is  an  unlimited  despotism,  the 
Shah  being  absolute  in  his  monarchial  powers.  Direct  taxa- 
tion defrays  current  expenses,  and  the  country  is  free  from 
national  debt.  Law,  as  laid  down  in  the  Koran,  is  adminis- 
tered by  mollahs  (judges),  whose  decisions  are  given  in  accord- 
ance with  the  side  of. the  case  which  possesses  the  greater 
power  to  bribe  the  court. 


#-*-•# 


fll^ABIA. 


||LAIMING  Jescent  from  Ishmael,  the  Arabs  have 
always  been  and  still  are  a  wandering,  wild,  uncon- 
trolable  peop.e  vhose  career  and  present  condition 
seem  to  fulfil  th;  ingelic  prophecy.  The  aborigines 
of  Arabia  were  p'  obably  the  Cushites,  who  passed 
into  Africa  and  were  succeeded  by  a  rate  descended  from 
Abraham.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  large  num- 
bers of  Jews  entered  Arabia,  which  subsequently  welcom- 
ed the  doctrines  of  Mohamm'^d,  with  whose  coming  the 
history  of  the  country  really  begms.  Becoming  united,  they 
grew  in  power  until  in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  empires 
were  brought  under  their  dominion.     While  producing  impor- 


tant changes  in  the  destinies  of  other  nations,  Arabia  her- 
self underwent  no  great  improvement,  and  when  her  day  of 
conquest  was  over  the  Turks  found  her  an  easy  prey,  and  in 
the  sixteenth  century  captured  Yemen,  which  they  lost  a 
century  later.  The  Portuguese,  too,  conquered  Muscat,  while 
the  Russians  gained  some  temporary  advantages  in  Arabia.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  the  Wahabees  made  their  appearance, 
and,  though  Mehemet  Ali  checked  their  progress,  their  in- 
fluence is  still  felt  throughout  the  land.  This  powerful 
Egyptian  subdued  the  seaboard  of  Hedjaz  and  part  of  Yemen, 
but  in  1S40  he  was  forced  to  withdraw  his  forces  and 
abandon  all  his  conquests  upon  the  Red  Sea. 


""^I^'*^!-'^"- 


*   ©ALBSTINE.  *   51^ 


1*^ 


'OrA,-^ 


K^^«^RIGINALLY  inhabited  by  distinct  nations,  of  whom 
j|ll|  the  Canaanites,  Amorites,  Jebusites,  Kenites  and 
Jhl  II  Perizites  were  the  principal,  and  whose  origin  is  not 
known,  the  land  of  Palestine  was  invaded  by  the 
Israelites  after  their  escape  from  the  hands  of  their 
Egyptian  masters  and  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness. 
Acting  under  tlie  divine  command,  as  interpreted  to  them  by 
their  leaders,  they  entered  upon  a  merciless  war  of  extermina- 
tion of  the  idolatrous  tribes  wlio  inhabited  the  laml,  which  they 
partitioned  off  as  follows :  The  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad 
and  one-half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  took  the  territory  east  of 
the  Jordan;  Judah,  Simeon,  Dan  and  Benjamin  occupied  the 
southern  portion  ;  Zebulon,   Asher  and  Naphtali  obtained  the 


northern  division  ;  while  the  other  half  of  the  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh, together  with  Issachar  and  Ephraim,  secured  the  central 
portion.  Being  provided  for  by  tithes,  the  Levites,  in  their 
priestly  function,  were  not  given  any  separate  territory,  but 
were  scattered  among  the  various  cities  of  the  other  tribes. 
For  over  three  centuries  the  tribes  were  ruled  by  Judges  raised 
to  that  dignity  by  the  people  for  valorous  deeds  in  war  or 
display  of  qualities  of  statesmanship,  and  during  this  time  the 
nation  was  practically  a  confederation  of  republics,  their  bond 
of  luiion  being  made  up  of  their  common  origin,  language  and 
religion,  and  the  ever-present  danger  of  invasion  by  external 
foes.  Among  the  most  famous  of  the  fifteen  Judges  who  ruled 
the    land  were    Gideon,    Jephtha,    Barak,   Samson,   Deborah, 


K- 


V 


PALESTINE. 


313 


Eli,  and  Samuel,  who  was  tlie  last  of  the  Judges  and  the  first 
of  the  Prophets,  but  the  two  latter  exercised  also  priestly 
functions.  Although  their  rule  was  satisfactory,  the  people 
clamored  for  a  King,  and  the  monarchy  was  established  with 
Saul,  a  Benjaminite,  as  ruler.  A  great  warrior,  he  led  the 
hosts  of  Israel  in  a  succession  of  victories,  but  his  merciful 
treatment  of  a  conquered  people  brought  about  the  opposition 
of  Samuel.  The  King's  son-in-law,  David,  having  slain  the 
Philistine  giant  Goliath  in  battle,  became  suddenly  popular, 
and,  as  he  was  taken  up  by  the  priestly  party,  he  first  aroused 
the  jealousy  and  then  incurred  the  enmity  of  Saul,  who  caused 
him  to  flee  from  the  country.  With  an  army  of  brother  out- 
laws David  made  war  upon  the  Philistines,  who  had  befriended 
him  in  his  hour  of  need,  and  on  the  death  of  Saul  and  his  son, 
Jonathan,  his  tribe  of  Judah  proclaimed  him  King.  Saul's 
son,  Ishbosheth,  was  acknowledged  by  the  remainder  of  Israel, 
and  a  civil  war  followed,  which  was  ended  by  the  death  of 
Ishbosheth,  and  the  assumption  of  the  sovereignty  by  David. 
Under  King  David  war  was  actively  pursued  against  the  natives. 
Jerusalem  was  wrested  from  the  Jebusites,  and  the  Israelitish 
domain  extended  south  and  west  to  Egypt  and  north  to  the 
land  of  the  Phrcnicians.  With  the  last-named  people,  who 
had  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization  and  were  learned  in 
the  arts  and  sciences,  the  Hebrews  remained  on  terms  of 
friendship.  David's  successor,  Solomon,  raised  the  power  of 
Israel  to  its  pinnacle  of  glory.  Under  his  rule  commerce  and 
trade  were  cultivated,  the  country  was  fortified,  profitable 
foreign  alliances  were  made,  and  the  beautiful  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem was  built.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  military  arm 
of  the  government  ;  the  army  was  enlarged  and  strengthened, 
and  with  its  aid  neighboring  nations  were  kept  in  subjection 
and  forced  to  pay  heavy  tribute.  Internal  disorder  followed  the 
death  of  Solomon,  whose  last  days  were  not  marked  by  the  wise 
and  strong  government  which  preceded,  and  under  the  rule  of 
his  son,  Rehoboam,  the  heavy  taxation  of  the  people  induced  a 
revolt  of  ten  tribes,  who  proclaimed  Jeroboam  King  in 
Israel,  which  comprised  the  land  beyond  Jordan  and  that  to 
the  north  of  Benjamin.  Judah  and  Benjamin  alone  remained 
loyal.  Many  wars  between  the  rival  nations  followed. 
Under  licentious  Kings  the  people  of  the  ten  tribes  waxed  in 
wickedness,  until  about  700  years  B.C.  the  Assyrians  swept 
down  upon  them,  destroyed  their  capital  of  Samaria  and  car- 
ried the  people  into  captivity.  N^  record  of  their  fate  exists. 
They  disappeared  entirely  from  history,  though  every  now  and 
then  some  one  or  other  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  is  recog- 
nized, according  to  Biblical  prophecy,  as  being  the  identical 
"  ten  tribes "  of  Israel.  In  Rehoboam's  reign  Judah  was 
invaded  by  the  Egyptians,  who  pillaged  the  temple.  Wars 
with  the  bordering  nations  occurred  from  time  to  time,  and 
civil  war  was  frequently  aroused  by  the  misrule  of  wick..'d 
Kings,  whom  even  the  fierce  denunciations  of  the  great  Prophets 
could   not  entirely  restrain.     Weakened  by  these  causes,  the 


country  came  under  tributary  subjection  to  the  Babylonian 
Empire,  and  the  downfall  of  the  people  was  brought  about  by 
the  revolt  of  Zedekiah,  who  declared  the  nation  independent, 
and  defended  gallantly  but  unsuccessfully  the  capital,  Jerusa- 
lem, against  the  Babylonian  armies.  In  588  B.C.  the  city 
was  captured,  its  walls  and  temple  destroyed,  and  its  citizens 
carried  into  Babylon,  where  they  remained  captive  for  seventy 
year.s.  Their  return  to  their  native  land  was  permitted  when 
the  Babylonians  were  vanquished  by  the  Medo-Persians,  and 
Darius,  Ahasucrus  and  other  Kings  allowed  them  to  rebuild 
their  city  and  temple,  and  granted  them  many  additional  privi- 
leges. Under  these  favorable  conditions  they  increased  in 
strength  and  numbers,  and  when,  about  two  centuries  before 
Christ,  the  Syrians  sought  to  prohibit  the  Hebrew  religion, 
they  arose  in  arms  and  fought  for  their  religious  liberty  with 
such  courage  and  vigor  that  the  period  of  these  wars,  extend- 
ing from  167  B.C.  to  105  B.C.,  is  looked  upon  as  the  heroic 
era  of  Jewish  history.  Forty  years  later,  however,  the  Romans 
conquered  the  country,  and  Judea  became  a  province  of  that 
great  power.  Native  rulers,  known  as  tetrarchs,  were  given 
slight  local  power,  but  they  were  powerless  to  check  the 
oppressions  of  the  conquerors,  and  sixty-six  years  after  the 
birth  of  Christ,  whose  earthly  ministry  was  made  while  the 
people  were  in  the  depths  of  misery,  the  Jews  rebelled  and 
brought  upon  their  country  a  scourge  in  the  shape  of  Roman 
armies  under  Vespasian  and  Titus.  After  a  four  years'  siege, 
during  which  the  inhabitants  endured  indescribable  sufferings 
with  unparalleled  fortitude,  Jerusalem  fell ;  the  temple  was 
once  more  abased  ;  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  survived  were 
sold  into  slavery ;  the  Hebrew  nation  as  such  passed  out  of 
existence.  After  the  Roman  rule  passed  away  the  Byzantine 
monarchs  held  the  country.  Christianity  becoming  wide- 
spread, Palestine  became  a  centre  of  religious  interest  as  the 
birthplace  and  scene  of  the  ministry,  death  and  resurrection  of 
the  Savior.  Thousands  of  pilgrims  visited  the  "  Holy  Land," 
and  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  was  commenced.  In  the 
earlier  half  of  the  seventh  century  Palestine  was  conquered 
by  the  Mohammedan  Arabs,  but  in  1099  the  warriors 
of  the  first  Crusade  captured  the  sacred  city,  and  made 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  King  of  Jerusalem,  who  extended 
his  territory  until  it  comprised  the  whole  of  Palestine. 
This  lasted  twenty  years  only,  and  after  further  crusades 
against  the  Saracens,  in  which  the  Christians  were  more  or  less 
successful,  the  latter  were,  in  I2gl,  expelled  by  the  Mame- 
lukes, who  ruled  the  land  until  1517,  when  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  who  still  hold  it.  Several  efTorls  have 
been  made  to  have  the  European  Jews  return  to  their  father- 
land, but  they  have  declined  to  abandon  the  profitable  occupa- 
tions elsewhere  to  become  the  agricultural  colonists  of  a  not 
very  fertile  land.  Under  Turkish  rule  Palestine  is  part  of  the 
province  of  Syria,  and  comprises  the  sub-pashalics  of  Acre  and 
Jerusalem. 


^ 


i, ^  (J)    ^ 


^ 


s^. 


»::>i»i  iji  ^  x  0  •  J  r  i<  ji '!'  C'  -1 0 : :' :  »»»■ 


i  ign jM ji  ijKgi  iji  iji  13"  'f  it"SH;r  - 


'^WM  ^«^    Si  AM. 


^.o^.-;^ 


^  ARLY  ia  the  seventeenth  century  the  Spanish,  Portu- 
'si  ';."  I  guese,  Dutch  and  French  obtained  admission  to  the 
«"Ffl[  Siamese  ports,  and  Englani^  shared  their  privileges 
■^vSJ'  about  half  a  century  later.  Each  of  these  nations 
(Dj^^  made  strenuous  endeavors  to  gain  the  preponderating 
influence  over  the  Siamese,  and  the  French  seemed  for  many 
years  the  favorites ;  but  in  an  outbreak  which  occurred  several 
of  their  missionaries  and  traders  were  slaughtered,  and  this 
event  was  followed,  on  the  part  of  Siam,  by  the  inauguration 


of  a  policy  of  exclusiveness,  which  lasted  until  about  fifty 
years  ago,  when  Great  Britain,  France  and  the  United  States 
made  treaties  with  Siam.  A  duarchial  form  of  government 
prevails,  there  being  two  Kings,  but  the  second  is  hardly  more 
than  a  vice  or  lieutenant.  About  the  court  is  the  Council  of 
Twelve,  and  that  body,  when  the  King  dies,  may  defeat  his 
will  about  the  succession  of  the  throne.  There  are  laws  to 
which  the  King  must  conform,  and  which  render  the  Govern- 
ment, in  effect,  a  constitutional  monarchy. 


ECOND  only  to  Asia  in  point  of  size,  the  continent 
of  Africa,  including  the  islands  contiguous  to  its 
shores,  has  an  area  of  11,854,000  square  miles,  yet 
is  the  least  important  of  aM  the  great  divisions  of 
the  globe,  judged  by  the  standard  of  civilization  and 
commercial  prosperity.  It  is  only  within  a  few  years  past  that 
the  true  quality  of  the  interior  territory  of  Southern  Africa 
has  become  knowni,  through  the  researches  of  English  and 
.\merican  explorers  in  the  "dark  continent."  Attempts  to 
colonize  were  begun  by  the  French,  on  the  west  coast,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (the 
southern  extremity  of  the  continent,  which  was  first  doubled 
by  Vasco  da  Gama)  the  Dutch  established  a  port  in  1650. 
An  English  trading  company,  a  century  later,  also  located 
here.  The  earliest  explorers  were  James  Bruce,  who  in  1772 
visited  .\byssinia  and  discovered  the  sources  of  the  Blue  Nile, 
and  Mungo  Park,  who  ascended  the  Niger  in  the  earlier  years 
of  the  present  century,  and  was  killed  in  1S06  in  the  kingdom 
of  Iloussa  by  the  natives.  The  desire  to  discover  the  source 
of  the  Great  Nile  has  impelled  several  explorers  to  pierce 
Central  Africa.  Up  to  his  time,  the  most  successful  of  these 
was  Dr.  David  Livingstone,  who  travelled  in  1S49  through  the 
country  watered  by  the  Zambesi,  and  made  a  vast  number  of 


/ 


important  discoveries.  Burton,  Speke  and  Baker,  in  their 
hunt  for  the  Nile's  headwaters,  discovered  lakes  Tanganyika, 
Victoria  Nyanza  and  Albert  Nyanza,  which  were  also  visited 
by  Livingstone,  who  defined  the  great  water  system  of  the 
Lualaba  or  Chambeze.  Henry  M.  Stanley,  an  American 
journalist,  acting  in  the  capacity  of  special  correspondent  of 
the  New  York  Hirald,  visited  .\frica  on  a  commission  to  find 
Livingstone,  who  had  not  l»en  heard  from  for  some  years, 
and  in  1871  he  discovered  him  at  Ujiji  in  great  destitution, 
but  still  anxious  to  press  forward  into  the  continent,  for  which 
he  had  organized  a  new  expedition.  In  1S73  Livingstone  died, 
and  in  the  following  year  his  body  was  brought  home  and 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Stanley,  after  parting  with 
Livingstone,  explored  the  Congo  River  and  accomplished  dis- 
coveries which  place  him  in  the  front  rank  of  .\frican  trav- 
ellers. Commerce  is  following  fast  in  the  footsteps  of  these 
adventurous  men,  and  the  colonization  of  the  fertile  territories 
they  have  visited  and  described  is  only  a  matter  of  time. 
Already  the  English  have  established  colonies  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Sierra  Leone,  Natal  and  on  the  Gold  Coast ; 
Liberia,  on  the  West  Coast,  has  been  organized  as  a  republic; 
the  Portuguese  have  dependencies  in  Mozambique,  Angola  and 
Benguela,  while  Spain  has  colonized  Fernando  Po  and  Annobon. 


T 


EGYPT— UPPER  AND  LO^ER  NUBIA. 


315 


a^^ 


aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa    ^^-si'r 


irr^— ...^    BEBEBBEEBBBBEEBEEEEEEEaEEBB 


^ 


-^+#^^Nf+4- 


^'GYPT  is  another  of  those  countries  whose  prehistoric 


T 


,   I     ages  are  wrajjped  in  mystery  as  impenetrable  as  the 
sources  of  her  own  Nile,  whose  exact  location  has 

J 


'      l.afflcd  the  most  enterprising  of  explorers. 


Great 


interest  attaches  to  the  country's  early  annals,  but 
the  stories  of  the  dynasties  which 
succeeded  Menes,  the  founder  of 
Memphis,  of  the  rtile  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, and  the  Ptolemies  and  the 
Cleopatras,  though  pregnant  with 
true  historical  interest,  cannot  here 
be  told,  and  it  will  suffice  to  quote 
the  language  of  a  graceful  historian, 
who  wrote:  "It  (Egypt)  attained 
a  high  position  for  wealth  and  the 
institutions  of  civilized  society  when 
all  the  surrounding  countries  dwelt 
in  the  darkness  of  barbarism.  It 
had  a  well  organized  and  efficient 
government  long  before  the  na- 
tional greatness  of  the  Hebrews." 
Moslem  rule  prevailed  in  the  country 
after  their  conquest  of  it  in  6jO. 
The  Caliphs  were  expelled  by  the 
Turcomans,  who  gave  way  before 
the  Mamelukes  in  1250,  whose  rule 
continued  until  1517,  when  Seli.i:, 
.Sultan  of  Turkey,  put  an  end  ti> 
their  dominion  and  organized  the 
land  as  a  dependency  of  Turkey. 
For  over  two  centuries  the  descend- 
ants of  the  vanquished  Mameluke 
chieftains  opposed  the  Turks.  A 
descent  upon  Egypt  was  made  by 
the  French  under  Napoleon  in  1798, 
but  they  were  obliged  to  withdraw, 
and  the  Mamelukes  were  not  over- 
come until  the  treacherous  massacre 

of  their  leaders  established  the  Pasha  in  quiet  upon  his  vice- 
regal throne.  Mehemet  Ali,  from  an  obscure  position  as  an 
Egyptian  villager,  rose  to  the  position  of  Viceroy,  after  a 
severe  conflict  with  the  Ottoman  forces,  and  under  him  the 
country  made  great  advancement,  and,  while  nominally  tribu- 
tary to  Turkey,  Egypt  enjoyed  nearly  all  the  attributes 
of   an    independent   nation.      He  died   in    1849,   and  in   1S63 


Ismail  came  to  the  throne,  a  man  of  such  Oriental  extrava- 
gance, both  in  public  improvements  and  personal  expenditures, 
that  he  became  bankrupt,  and  his  abdication  was  brought  about 
by  the  combined  pressure  of  his  English  and  French  creditors. 
His  son,  Mehemet  Tewfik,  succeeded  him,  but  the  actual 
_  control  of    the  nation  was  placed 

in  the  hands  of  an  International 
Commission  of  Liquidation.  The 
burden  of  paying  the  interest  on 
the  enormous  national  debt  which 
Ismail  rolled  up,  amounting  at  the 
close  of  iSSoto  about  $5oo,chx),ooo, 
has  rested  heavily  upon  the  Egyp- 
tian people,  and  the  rebellion  against 
Tewfik,  under  Arabi  Bey,  and  the 
war  which  England  waged  against 
the  Egyptians,  in  support  of  the 
Khedive,  are  of  too  recent  occur- 
rence to  require  more  than  a  passing 
mention.  Of  late  years  the  influ- 
ence of  England  and  France  — 
Egypt's  largest  creditors — has  alter- 
nately predominated  in  the  manage- 
ment of  Egyptian  affairs,  but  the 
success  of  the  Engli.sh  arms  in  the 
late  war,  in  which  the  French  de- 
clined to  participate,  has  made  the 
country  virtually  a  protectorate  in 
the  hands  of  F^ngland,  whose  con- 
troj  of  the  Suez  Canal  is  a  matter 
of  vital  importance  to  that  power. 


A  STREET  IN  CAIRO,  EGYPT. 


In  1820  the  Egyptian  Viceroy 
Mehemet  .Vli  iiursued  the  Mame- 
lukes southward  and  into  Nubia,  where  they  took  refuge. 
In  the  following  year  he  conquered  the  country  and  made  it 
an  Egyptian  province,  which  it  has  since  remained.  Lower 
Nubia,  almost  entirely  a  desert,  is  retained  by  the  Egyptians 
as  a  means  of  communication  with  the  upper  province,  which 
contains  a  large  area  of  fertile  land. 


3i6 


^ 


ABYSSINIA— CAPE  COLONY. 


^^ 


'® '^■I'iI''i'«Ii'{>>S' III 'Bi|'']D  III  <5>'Ii  ill  <!■<&€)  CD  Cilt  Oil  ■Ei©€iOIiiiDiI'iS<D'I'ift®ilDOD  CD  (Ii  (Si  <ID 


fiBYSSINIA. 


#■««<#-- 


My 


Of^l 


tradition  says  that  the  famous  Queen  of 
Sheba  included  part  of  tliis  country  within  lier 
realm,  and  that  its  subsequent  rulers  were  descended 
from  her.  Fabulous  as  is  the  early  histoiy  of  the 
country,  there  is  no  doubt  that  its  people  had, 
even  in  remote  antiquity,  made  great  advancement  in  civiliza- 
tion. In  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  Christianity  was 
introduced  and  made  great  headway.  A  couple  of  centuries 
later  the  Aljyssinians  invaded  Arabia  and  conquered  a  portion 
of  the  southwestern  province  of  Yemen.  In  the  tenth  century 
the  reigning  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  a  Jewish  princess, 
after  which  the  country  remained  in  anarchy  for  three  cen- 
turies, when  the  restoration  of  the  empire,  under  Icon  Amlac, 
brought  about  an  improved  condition  of  affairs.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  friendly  relations  were  cultivated  with  the 
Portuguese,  under  the  influence  of  whose  missionaries  the 
royal  family  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  In  1541 
the  Turks  threatened  the  country,  and  the  Portuguese  assisted 


tlie  Abyssinians,  but  were  defeated ;  and  in  1542  it  was  invaded 
by  the  Gallas,  a  race  from  the  south,  who  conquered  and  held 
a  great-part  of  it.  Although  fairly  well  received  at  first,  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  failed  to  gain  a  strong  hold  upon  the 
people,  who,  in  1632,  arose  against  the  priests,  and,  after  killing 
many  of  them,  expelled  the  remainder.  Theo,dore,  who  became 
King  in  1S55,  proved  a  sagacious  and  energetic  monarch,  and 
under  him  Abyssinia  was  extended  over  several  adjacent  prov- 
inces, which  had  for  years  maintained  their  independence.  A 
misunderstanding  occurring  between  him  and  Great  Britain  in 
i860,  he  imprisoned  the  British  Consid,  with  some  missionaries, 
and  treated  them  cruelly  for  some  years.  In  1868  a  British 
army,  under  Lord  Napier,  invaded  the  country,  captured 
Theodore's  stronghold,  Magdala,  and  released  the  prisoners. 
Theodore,  when  the  battle  turned  against  him,  committed 
suicide.  In  18S0  there  was  an  attempt  made  by  the  Egyptians 
to  conquer  Abyssinia,  but  they  were  defeated  and  abandoned 
the  enterprise. 


©1(5-=.^ 


■%1J    (§APE  Colony. 


'N  14S6  Bartholomeu  Dias,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  discov- 
ered the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  Vasco  da  Gama 
sailcil  round  in  the  follo%ving  year.  About  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch  planted  colonies  near 
"(^^  the  Cape,  conquering  and  enslaving  the  natives.  Increas- 
ing in  numbers  and  growing  in  strength,  the  colonists,  in  1795, 
rebelled  against  the  mother  country,  whereupon  the  Prince  of 
Orange  sent  an  English  fleet  which  established  British  rule. 
In  1S02  the  colony  was  restored  to  the  Dutch,  who,  by  1S06, 
had  extended  their  domain  eastward  to  the  Great  Fish  River 


and  westward  nearly  to  the  Orange  River.  In  that  year  the 
British  again  took  possession  of  the  colony,  which  they  have 
since  retained,  though  not  without  great  difficulty  and  expense, 
the  native  Kaffns,  a  handsome  and  warlike  race,  proving  a 
stubborn  enemy,  in  the  attempted  subjugation  of  whom  several 
sanguinary  wars  have  been  waged.  Government  at  the  Cape 
was  established,  as  it  now  exists,  in  1853,  when  the  authority 
was  vested  in  a  Governor  and  an  Executive  Council  approved 
by  the  Crown,  while  a  Legislative  Council  of  twenty-one  mem- 
bers and  a  House  of  Assembly  represent  the  people. 


\. 


*f  IQadagasgai^. 

i)K 


^..oOo.-<^ 


ADAGASCAR  became  know-n  to  commerce  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  at  which 
time  the  greater  part  of  the  island  was  under  the 
rule  of  King  Radama  I.,  with  whom  England 
formed  a  treaty  in  1816.  From  the  English 
Radama  learned  the  European  art  of  war,  and  his  drilled  truojis 
easily  accomplished  the  subjection  of  the  whole  island.  Dying  in 
182S,  he  was  succeeded  by  Ranavala  I.,  who  used  her  power  to 
crush  out  the  Christian  religion,  which  had  been  readily  received 
by  the  natives.  Europeans  were  banished  from  the  island  and 
the  missionary  schools  were  closed.  Her  cruelties  at  last 
aroused  the  Europeans  to  action,  and  in   1845  a  combined  En- 


glish and  French  force  made  an  attack  upon  the  port  of  Tam- 
tave,  but  were  unsuccessful.  Ranavala  died  in  1862  and  was 
succeeded  by  her  son,  Radama  II.,  who  ceded  territory  to 
France.  He  was  assa.s.sinated  in  1863,  and  his  wife,  Rasua- 
herina,  succeeded  him.  At  her  death  a  dispute  between  the 
natives  and  Europeans  over  the  succession  was  ended  by  the 
elevation  of  Rainitaiarivoy  to  the  throne  as  Ranavala  II. 
She  became  a  Christian  and  was  baptized,  together  with  her 
husband,  the  Prime  Minister  and  several  of  the  native  nobility. 
Kalimalaza,  the  chief  idol,  and  the  temple  which  contained  it, 
were  destroyed,  and,  stimulated  by  these  acts  of  devotion,  the 
people  rapidly  became  converted  to  Christianity. 


©HE  Bai^bai^y  States. 


^^^HE  region  in  North  Africa  known  as  Barbary  com- 
'*.lv  prises  the  countries  of  Algeria,  Morocco,  Tunis  and 
W^  Tripoli.  Algeria's  history  runs  back  to  the  time 
of  Carthage.  Moors  and  Numidians  at  this  time 
'T^''  occupied  it ;  later  it  became  a  Roman  province,  and 
after  them  the  Vandals  and  Arabians  held  sway  over  the 
land.  In  the  tenth  century  the  Moors  organized  an  independ- 
ent State,  but  for  several  centuries  Algeria  was  nothing  else 
than  a  nest  of  pirates,  whose  vessels  swept  the  seas  as  far  as  the 
North  Sea,  and  forced  tribute  from  all  countries  which  carried 
on  commerce  by  water.  In  1655  the  capital,  Algiers,  was  at- 
tacked by  the  English,  and  in  1682  and  1683  by  the  French, 
but  no  great  impression  was  made.  A  Spanish  expedition 
against  the  city  in  1775  was  signally  defeated.  In  1815  Com- 
modore Decatur,  of  the  American  navy,  after  defeating  an 
Algerian  squadron  off  Carthagena,  threatened  to  bombard 
Algiers,  and  secured  the  release  of  American  prisoners  held  by 
the  Dey  and  his  abandonment  of  a  claim  he  had  made  for  trib- 
ute. In  1816  a  British  Admiral  bombarded  the  city  and  re- 
leased all  Christians  held  in  bondage.  In  1830  France  sent  an 
expedition  of  100  ships-of-war  and  357  transports  to  Algeria, 
and  July  4  of  that  year  Algiers  surrendered,  and  the  French 


took  possession  of  it  and  established  a  military  regency.  A 
holy  war  was  declared  against  the  invaders,  which,  under  the 
Emir  Abd-el-Kader  was  carried  on  until  1847,  «hen  he 
surrendered  to  General  Lemonciere.  The  French  proclaimeil 
Algeria  a  permanent  possession,  but  the  people  were  restless 
under  the  F'rench  yoke,  the  Kabyles  rising  in  insurrection  in 
1 85 1  and  1857,  and  several  revolts  having  occurred  since.  At 
present  the  country  is  in  quiet  submission  to  France,  where  it 
is  represented  in  the  National  Assembly  by  six  Deputies.  The 
military  rule  was  abandoned  in  1871,  and  a  civil  Governor- 
General  and  a  Colonial  Council  administer  the  affairs  of 
State. 

Morocco,  not  having  enjoyed  the  blessing  of  occupation  by 
foreigners  to  any  very  great  extent,  does  not  show  the  same 
jiromise  of  advancement  which  Algeria  at  present  affords.  Its 
early  history  consists  of  a  succession  of  wars  and  invasions.  In 
the  eighth  century  the  Arabs  conquered  the  country,  and  since 
then  they  have  ruled  it.  In  1471  the  seaport  of  Tangier  was 
captured  by  the  Portuguese,  who  ceded  it  to  the  English  in  the 
.seventeenth  century.  They  held  it  for  only  a  brief  period,  and 
in  1844  it  was  bombarded  by  the  French.  In  1859  the  Span- 
iards declared  war  against  Morocco  and  captured  Tetuan,  these 


\ 


K 


318 


~A 


REPUBLICS  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA. 


visitations  all  resulting  from  the  piratical  habits  of  the  mari- 
time Moors  and  their  enslavement  of  Christians  who  came 
within  their  power.  A  Sultan  rules  over  the  country,  but  his 
control  over  the  interior  is  slight. 

In  the  palmy  days  of  its  great  commercial  city,  Carthage, 
Tu.Nis  was  one  of  the  most  important  countries  of  the  world. 
Its  inhabitants,  descendants  of  the  Phoenicians,  conquered 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  part  of  Spain,  and  visited  the 
Scilly  Islands  and  Albion  in  their  trading  vessels.  Its  famous 
generals,  Hamilcar,  Hannibal  and  Asdrubal,  threatened  the 
Roman  power,  but  the  victory  of  Scipio  brought  the  proud  city 
low,  and  the  country  was  made  a  Roman  province.  Later 
on  the  Vandals  and  Mohammedans  overran  it,  but  in  the 
thirteenth  century  its  people  obtained  their  independence. 
Charles  V.  of  Spain  reduced  Tunis  in  the  sixteenth  century 
and  made  it  subject  to  that  country,  and  in  157S  the  Turks  con- 
quered it.  Like  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  Barbary  States, 
the  Tunisians  practiced  piracy  and  enslaved  Christians,  which 


led  them  into  conflicts  with  various  European  powers.  Tunis 
is  governed  by  a  Governor  or  Bey,  who  receives  his  investiture 
from  Constantinople,  but  wields  absolute  power  locally,  the 
country  not  having  paid  tribute  to  the  Porte  since  1871.  The 
late  rulers — Achmet,  Mohammed  and  Mohammed  Sadyk — 
have  proved  enlightened  sovereigns,  and  under  their  rule  the 
country  has  made  considerable  advancement. 

Tripoli,  the  least  populous  of  the  Barbary  States,  became 
subject  to  Rome  during  the  Punic  wars,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Vandals  in  the  fifth  century,  and  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks  later.  Its  capital,  Tripoli,  was  bombarded  by  the  French 
in  1683,  and  early  in  the  present  century  Commodore  Decatur 
punished  the  inhabitants  for  injuries  their  pirates  had  inflicted 
upon  American  commerce.  From  181 5,  the  time  of  Decatur's 
last  visitation,  piracy  and  Christian  slavery  have  not  existed  in 
Tripoli.  Government  is  administered  by  a  Bey,  who  is  nomi- 
nally a  vassal  of  the  Porte,  but  whose  rule  is  absolute  and  inde- 
pendent of  Turkish  control.  The  dominant  religion  of  all  the 
Barbary  States  is  Mohammedanism. 


*■ 


..Q    • S 


w  I^BPUBiiiGS  IN  South  ^Ipi^iga. 


V 


L 


a .  C"j  . — a 


ARTLV  from  national  sentiment,  but  more  as  a  matter 
of  interest,  the  Dutch  settlers  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  after  the  acquisition  of  their  country  by  Great 
Britain  in  1806,  emigrated  in  large  numbers  and, 
moving  north  and  east,  conquered  from  the  warlike 
Zulus  the  country  which  is  now  known  as  Natal,  and 
settled  there.  More  than  10,000  of  the  Boers,  as  they  were 
called,  had  thus  wandered  away  when  the  British  colonists 
made  claim  to  the  territory  which  they  had  occupied,  and  in 
1842  took  possession  of  it.  Others  of  the  emigrant  Boers  set- 
tled on  the  table-land  region  to  the  north  of  the  Orange  River 
and  founded  the  Orange  Free  State,  whose  President,  in 
1848,  made  an  attempt  to  drive  out  the  British  residents,  but 
was  defeated  and  driven  from  the  country.  In  1851  the  British 
organized  a  colony  of  the  Free  State,  but  in  1854  they  aban- 
doned the  enterprise  and  permitted  the  Boers  to  organize  a 
government  and  guaranteed  them  complete  independence.  A 
third  attempt  by  the  Boers  to  establish  a  republic  resulted  in 
the  colonization  of  the  Transvaal,  whose  independence  was 
acknowledged  in  1852.  Success  crowned  this  elTort  until  the 
year  1877,  when,  the  republic  becoming  bankrupt,  annexation 
to  Great  Britain  was  suggested  as  a  remedy.  A  vote  was  taken 
which  resulted  in  the  British  taking  possession  of  the  country. 
Many  of  the  resident  Boers  claimed  that  only  a  minority  of  the 
inhabitants  voted  upon  the  annexation  question,  and  an  emigra- 
tion westward  began,  which  resulted  in  the  settlement  of  the 
Great  Namaqua  land,  on  the  Western  Coast  north  of  the 
Orange  River,  a  movement  which  was  checked  by  the  British, 


who  claimed  that  the  land  was  under  their  jurisdiction.  In 
1880  the  Transvaal  Boers,  who  had  had  enough  of  British  rule, 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  republic.  War  ensued  and  an  army 
which  tlie  British  sent  from  Natal  to  quell  the  uprising  was 
defeated  with  great  loss.  Further  engagements  with  the  Boers 
proved  disastrous  to  the  British,  who  finally  abandoned  the 
attempt  to  crush  the  republic. 

Among  the  minor  countries  of  Africa  is  Liberia,  a  negro 
republic  on  the  giain  coast  of  Upper  Guinea.  Liberia  is  the 
original  accomplishment  of  an  association  known  as  tlie  Ameri- 
can Colonization  Society,  of  which  Henry  Clay  was  President, 
and  whose  object  was  the  foundation  of  a  colony  of  emanci- 
pated American  slaves.  Failure  attended  the  earliest  attempt 
of  the  society,  but,  having  obtained  a  suitable  location  in  1S21, 
operations  were  commenced  which  resulted  successfully.  A 
town,  which  was  called  Monrovia,  after  the  President  of  the 
United  States  then  in  office,  was  started,  and  a  lot  of  land  was 
given  to  each  settler.  In  1S47  Liberia  declared  an  independent 
republic,  which  in  the  following  year  was  recognized  by  Great 
Britain  and,  later  on,  by  others  of  the  European  powers. 
Although  the  prime  object  of  the  founders  of  the  republic  has 
never  been  realized,  comparatively  few  emancipated  slaves  hav- 
ing left  America  to  settle  there,  Liberia  has  enjoyed  great 
pros))erity  and  a  healthy  growth.  Contiguous  negro  tribes 
have  been  included  within  its  territories,  which  now  contains  a 
population  of  about  three-quarters  of  a  million.  A  President, 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  are  charged  with  the 
government  of  the  republic. 


V- 


_^J 


^ 


OCEAN 


ic/. 


A 


;i9 


SiKRRE  I.F.ONK,  a  British  colonial  settlement  adjacent  to  and 
north  of  Liberia,  was  settled  in  1787  by  a  body  of  several  hun- 
dred destitute  negroes  who  had  been  removed  from  London  by 
a  society  of  philanthropists.  Three  years  later  they  were  joined 
by  over  a  thousand  negroes  from  Nova  Scotia.  Although  so 
near  to  the  negro  republic  founded  under  American  auspices, 
the  latter  is  far  healthier  than  Sierre  Leone,  which,  perhaps, 
accounts  for  its  falling  far  short  of  the  progress  accomplished  in 
Liberia. 

Guinea,  which  includes  the  coasts  of  a  number  of  African 


territories,  was  first  visitetl  by  the  French  in  1 364,  and  was  no 
colonized  until  1481,  when  a  settlement  was  effected  by  the 
Portuguese.  A  number  of  colonies  have  since  been  established 
by  the  English,  French,  Dutch,  Danes  and  Germans.  Guinea 
abuts  upon  the  territory  of  the  King  of  Dahomey,  whose 
atrocities,  in  the  way  of  wholesale  destruction  of  his  subjects' 
lives,  have  gained  him  great  notoriety.  What  is  known  as 
Lower  Guinea,  extending  along  the  Western  coast  of  South 
Africa  and  comprising  the  States  of  Loango,  Congo,  Ango 
and  lienguela,  is  claimed  by  the  Portuguese. 


sCEANICA,  sometimes  called  Oceania,  is  the  name 
applied  to  the  fifth  division  of  the  globe,  which  com- 
prises the  Australian  Continent  and  a  majority  of  the 
islands  lying  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the 
China  Sea  on  the  west,  and  the  American  Continent 
on  the  east.  So  vast  is  the  number  of  the.se  islands  that  only  the 
historical  facts  relating  to  the  largest  of  them  can  be  mentioned. 
Australia  comes  under  its  own  head.  New  Guinea,  the  next 
largest  island  in  the  world,  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
151 1.  Four  years  later  Dutch  navigators  visited  it  and  raised 
on  its  shores  a  fortress  which  w-as  subsequently  abandoned.  " 

Borneo,  which,  until  the  naturalist  Wallace's  explorations 
proved  that  New  Guinea  had  the  gi'eater  area,  was  believed  to 
be  the  largest  island  in  the  world  except  Australia,  was  discov- 
ered in  157S  by  the  Portuguese.  In  1690  they  effected  a  settle- 
ment, but  were  soon  driven  out  from  it.  In  1702  and  1774 
England  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  colonize  the  island,  but 
of  late  years  she  has  managed  to  acquire  a  controlling  influ- 
ence over  the  northwestern  coast  of  the  island. 

Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes  are  among  the  larger  single  islands, 
while  among  the  most  important  gi-oups  are  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, in  which  these  are  included,  and  almost  all  of  which 
have  been  subjugated  by  the  Dutch,  the  Spaniards,  the  Portu- 


guese and  the  British  ;  the  New  Hebrides  and  Polynesia,  which 
general  terms  include,  among  others,  the  Hawaiian,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  1829  the  inde- 
pendence of  these  islands  was  acknowledged  by  the  United 
.States,  who  were  followed  in  1S43  by  the  British,  and  in  1844 
by  the  French.  King  Kalakaua,  who  has  visited  the  United 
States  and  is  in  many  respects  a  progressive  ruler,  is  the  pres- 
ent sovereign  of  tlie  islands. 

New  Caledonia,  an  island  lying  to  the  east  of  Queensland, 
was  taken  possession  of  in  1853  by  the  French,  who  established 
there  a  naval  station  and  a  penal  colony,  which  are  still  main- 
tained. 

New  Zealand  was  first  visited  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Tas- 
man  in  1642.  A  colony  was  first  established  in  1^40.  Gold 
fields  were  discovered  in  1857  which  brought  a  large  immigra- 
tion. Executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  Governor  appointed 
by  the  Crown  ;  there  is  also  a  General  Assembly  consisting  of 
a  Legislative  Council  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 

Tasmania,  formerly  known  as  Van  Dieman's  Land,  ceased 
being  a  penal  colony  in  1S53,  since  which  time  its  population 
and  prosperity  have  largely  increased.  A  Governor  appointed 
by  the  Crown  holds  the  executive;  there  are  also  a  Legislative 
Council  and  a  House  of  Assembly. 


320 


AUSTRALIA. 


l^-grrr?^- 


^^OTHING    was  known  of  this  vast  island  until   1606, 

wlien  a  Dutch  sea-captain,   sent    from   Java  in   the 

^  ;      )  acht  Duyfen  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  if  the  New 

Lyj/t     Guinea  coast,  viewed  its  northern  shores.     A  Portu- 

~<^\S  guese  navigator  the  same  year  passed  through  Torres 
Strait.  In  1619  the  western  coast  was  seen  by  a  Dutch  captain, 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  Endracht's  Land,  and  in  1622  the  south- 
west coast  was  discovered.  Tasmania  was,  in  1642,  visited  by 
Tasman,  who,  a  month  afterwards,  visited  New  Zealand.  Fre- 
quent new  discoveries  were  made  from  time  to  time,  and  in  1770, 
Captain  Cook,  then  on  his  first  voyage,  explored  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  eastern  coast,  which  he  called  New  .South  Wales. 
Passing  through  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  Dr.  Bass,  a 
navy  surgeon,  ascertained  the  separation  of  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania. In  17S8  the  English  established  a  penal  station  at 
Botany  Bay,  New  South  Wales,  which  was  afterwards  removed 
to  Sydney.  The  existence  of  a  convict  colony  in  their  midst 
did  not  harmonize  with  the  spirit  of  those  who  formed  a  free 
colony  in  New  South  Wales,  and  the  station  was  removed  to 
Tasmania,  where  it  remained  until  its  abolition,  in  1853. 
Strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  induce  immigration  to  the 
colony,  but  up  to  1S50  only  50,000  Europeans  had  settled 
there.  A  year  later,  however,  the  discovery  of  gold  in  a  dis- 
trict of  New  South  Wales  induced  thousands  to  go  to  the 
mines,  and  within  a  year  the  population  had  increased  by 
200,000.  All  ordinary  occupations  were  given  up,  the  gold 
fever  became  epidemic,  business  was  abandoned,  values  were 
inflated,  and  when  the  inevitable  crash  came,  a  large  amount  of 
suffering  occurred.  At  last  the  crisis  was  ])assed,  and,  settling 
down  to  the  development  of  the  country,  the  pcoole  soon  f<jund 


that  it  had  vast  natural  resources  which  outweighed  in  impor- 
tance even  the  gold  mines  in  productiveness.  A  Governor, 
nominated  by  the  Queen,  holds  the  executive  power  in  New 
South  Wales,  and  all  enactments  passed  by  the  lower  Legisla- 
ture require  royal  sanction  before  becoming  law. 

QUEENSL.4.ND,  the  colony  which  occupies  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  continent,  was  established  in  1859.  It  has  a  Par- 
liament of  two  houses,  the  Legislative  Council  and  Legislative 
Assembly.  A  Governor  appointed  by  the  Queen  holds  the 
executive  power. 

South  Australia  was  first  colonized  in  1836  by  British 
emigrants,  who  suffered  greatly  during  the  earlier  years  of  their 
settlement.  Copper  mines  of  great  richness  were  discovered  in 
1843,  which  gave  impetus  to  the  colony.  Executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  an  Execu- 
tive Council  composed  of  the  responsible  Ministers  and  mem- 
bers especially  appointed.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
Parliament  elected  by  the  people,  voting  as  one  district. 

Victoria  was  settled  in  1835,  ^""^  '"  1840  an  attempt  was 
made  to  form  a  Government  distinct  from  that  of  New  South 
Wales,  which  was  unsuccessful.  In  1851  the  colony  became 
independent,  and,  the  rush  to  the  mines  occurring  in  that  year, 
arrivals  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  a  month 
began  to  swell  its  population.  The  Government  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  colonies. 

'Western  Australia  was  first  settled  in  1S29,  and  its  devel- 
opment was  slow  for  many  years.  Lately,  however,  there  has 
been  a  marked  increase  of  agricultural  prosperity.  A  Governor 
and  a  Legislative  Council  administer  and  frame  the  laws. 


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secede.     Jefferson  Davis, 
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Periods. 


"1 


PGLITIGAL  PARTIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


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.±. 


-s^Ttie  EigFiteen  Decisive  Battles  ef  the  World.    IT, 

(Name  of  Victorious  Nation  Appears  First.) 


uest 

pendence 

Invasion  resisted - 

Ir.ternational  and  political. 


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MILilTARY  and  NAVAL  STREMITH  ofYARIGcIS  GGcINTRmS. 

Baseil  (in  tlic  iiuiiierlciil  strength  of  the  respective  armies  on  a  war  footing;  where  more  than  one  number  Is  given,  besides 
llic  number  of  war  vessels,  the  first  represents  the  standing  army 

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NORWAY 

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■War  footing  J 
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A  DICTIONARY  or  DATI-.S 


._ 9 


^ 


337 


The  World's   Progress  as  shown   in   an  Alohabetical   Record   of   Notable   Events  and   Discoveries. 

<:> — * — <> 


Air-Ba'.loons  invcincil  Ijy  Gusm^ic,  a  Jesuit,  it) 
172^.     Revived  in  France  I.y  M.  Montgolficr,  in 

Air-Ghins  invcnicd  by  Guhr,  of  Nuremberg,  in 

Air-Pumps  invented  in  1650. 

Algebra  known   in    Kurope  in    1300;  in   gL-ncral 

use  in  i3yo. 
AJmanaCS   I'n'^t  published   in    1470,  by    Mariin 

Hkus,  ;i(  iJiitl.i.    'I'he  first  almanac  in  England 

was  printed  at  Oxfurd,  in  1673. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  passed  by  Congress 

III  i;l>>,   ifxpircd,  l»y  l.Tiutaliun,  Jan.  26,  1801. 
Alphabet.      Ilic  Ionic  alphabet  was  introduced 
<))   years    before  Christ,      before  this   lime  the 

Greek  letters  were  but  sixteen  in  number. 
Anaesthesia  discovered  1844. 

Anchors  iiuenttd  in  387. 

Anti  Slavery  Society  (American)  organized 
i)ec.  6,  iS33,al  Phil.idelphia. 

Arg'and  XianipS  invented  by  Aime  Argand,  nf 
(.Liiev.i    ;.L)uul  the  year  1782. 

Arquebus  i -troduced  about  1520,  and  remained 
in  use  until  after  1567,  when  the  matchlock  sup- 
planted it.  In  i6j<>  the  flint  lock  was  invented, 
and  the  inusket  was  introduced. 

BankinST*  The  first  bank  in  Europe  was  the 
Hank  of  Venice,  1171.  The  Bank  of  England 
was  established  in  1694,  the  Bank  of  North 
America,  1781. 

Barometers  invented  in  1626;  wheel  barometers 
111  1665.  phosphoric  in  1675,  pendant  in  1695,  and 
inarim:  in  1  7".,, 

Batter  in  gT'It^-m     invented     441     years    before 

Christ. 
Bayonets  invented  at    Bayonne  in  1670.     First 

Used   in   l-'.ngland   in    1693.     At   first   these    had 

wundni  handles  fitting  into  the  guns,  but  in  1699 

the  sui,ket  bayonet  was  introduced. 
Bellows. — Strabo  informs  us  that  the  invention 

ol  bellows  is  due  to  the    Scythian  philosopher, 

Anacharsis,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Solon. 
Bells  invented  by  Fanlinus,  bisliop  of  Nola,  in 

Campagnia,  in  or  about  the  year  400.  They  were 

first  used  in  France  in  550,  ill  Greece  in  864,  and 

in  the  churches  of  Europe  in  900,     In  Switzer- 

l.iinl  they  first  appeared  in  1020. 
Blanlzets  first  made  in  England  in  1340. 
Blood,  '  irculation  of,  discovered  in  1619. 
Blue  I  Prussian)  first  made  in    Berlin,  in    1704. 
Bombs  invented  at  Venlo,  in  1588,  and  used  first 

ii:  llie  service  of  France  in  1634. 
Books,  in  their  present  form,  were  invented  by 

Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  in  887. 
Boots  invented  907  years  before  Christ. 
Boston  Fire  Nov.  9,  1S72.     Loss,  $73,600,000. 
Bread  first  made  with  yeast  by  the  English  about 

1650, 
Bricks  first  used  in  England  by  the  Romans.    In 

I' .^5  tlieir  regular  size  was  fixed  by  Charles  I. 
Bridgres.     The  fir<.t  bridge  of  stone  in   England 

w.is  ili.it  built  at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  in  1087. 
Buckles  invented  about  1680. 
Bullets  of  stone  used  in  1514.     Iron  bullets  first 

nieiiliuncd  in  1550. 


Bullion  (Assaying  of)  introduced  in  1354. 

Butter. —  I  l.c  first  mention  of  butter  is  that  of 
Herodotus,  who,  in  describing  the  Scythians, 
says  :  "  These  people  pour  the  milkof  their  mares 
into  wooden  vessels,  c;iusc  it  to  be  violently 
stirred  or  shaken  by  their  blind  slaves,  and  sep- 
arate the  part  that  arises  to  the  surface,  as  they 
consider  it  more  vahiable  than  that  which  is  col- 
lected heluw  It."  Soon  after  the  ileath  of  Hippoc- 
rates, we  read  that  the  Greeks  thnui;ht  the  but- 
ter which  the  Thracians  ate  a  womlorful  kind  of 
food.  The  ancient  Ethiopians  appear  to  have 
used  butter  as  food.  The  ancient  Germans  were 
biitter-ni.ikers. 

Calioo-Printing:  and   the  Dutch-loom  engine 

flisL  i.se.l  ru  i'.7o. 

Camera  ObSCUra  invented  by  Haptista  Porta, 

in  i5'5- 
Canal. — The  first   English    navigable  canal  was 

lin.slicd  in  1134. 
Candles   of  tallow  took  the   pl.icc  of  preparetl 

s|)liiuers  of  wood  in  1290. 

Cannon  invented  in  1:130.  First  used  by  the 
En^llsh  in  1346;  used  first  in  England  in  1445: 
in  Denmark  in  13^4;  by  the  Spaniards  in  1406. 
The  first  iron  cannon  were  made  in  England,  in 

^1547. 

Caps  first  worn  in  1449. 

Cards  invented  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI., 

in  i,,8..>. 

Carriagres    introduced   in  England  in    1580;  in 

\'i*:nna  in  1  ^15. 
Chain    Shot    invented  by   De  Wit,    Dutch  Ad- 

iLiirai,  ill   1606. 

Chess  invented  608 years  before  Christ. 

Chicag-O  Fire,  Oct.  8-ir,  1871.  Loss,  $290,- 
..•oo.txxj;  about  25'»  persons  perished,  and  98,5o«.> 
rendered  destitute  ;  25,moo  buildings  destroyed. 

Chimes  on  Bells  invented  at  Alvest  in  1487. 
Chimneys  first  introduced  in  England  in  lacx), 

but  at  fust  otily  in  the  kitchen  or  large  hall. 
Ch'.na  made  at  Dresden,  in  Saxony,  in  1706  ;  at 

Chelsea  (England)  ii»i752;   by  Mr.  Wedgwood 

in  176J. 

Civil  Rig-hts  Bill  pa<;sed  by  Congress  1866. 
Civil   Service   Reform    Bill   introduced   in 

congress  j.iii.  20,  1667,  Act  for  rules  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  President  for  civil  service  cvani 
inaiions  passed  March  3,  1871,  and  commls- 
sinniTs  fnr  th.it  purpose  appointed  June  28,  with 
G.  W.  Ctirtis  as  Lhairnian. 

Clay's  Compromise,  tariff,  1833  ;  slavery, 1850. 

Clocks*  called  water-clocks,  were  first  used  in 
koine  158  years  before  Christ.  Clocks  and  diaK 
were  first  put  up  in  cliurclies  in  913,  In  801 
clocks  were  made  to  strike  the  hours  by  the 
Arabians,  and  by  the  Italians  in  1300.  A  strik- 
ing-clock was  used  at  Westminster  in  1368.  The 
first  portable  striking-clock  was  made  in  i;3o. 
Kichard  Harris,  of  London,  invented  clucks 
with  pendulums  about  1041.  To  distinguish 
these  from  dials,  they  were  first  called  sun- 
"  nocturnal,  or  night-dials."  Repeating  clut  ks 
and  watches  were  invented  by  a  maker  nan;cd 
Harlow  in  1676. 

Coaches.  Covered  carriages  appear  to  have 
been  used  by  the  old  Romans.  In  the  year 
1588,  Duke  Julius  of  Brunswick  published  an  act 


against  riding  in  coaches.  Philip  II,  of  Pomcr- 
ania-Stettin,  published  a  similar  document  in 
1608.  Coaches  appear  to  have  been  used  in 
France  very  early.  An  ordinance  of  Philip  the 
Fair,  issued  in  1294,  for  suppressing  luxury,  for- 
bids citizens'  wives  to  rid*^  in  coaches.  Coaches 
were  first  used  in  England  in  1565,  the  first  being 
that  made  for  the  Earl  of  Rutland.  In  1601  an 
act  was  p.issed  lo  jirevent  men  riding  in  coaches, 
on  the  score (.■(  its  effeminacy.  Coaches  began  ID 
be  common  in  16  -5,  and  were  petitioned  against 
by  the  saddlers  and  others.  Hackney  coaches 
introduced  in  1634.  In  1661,  a  stage  coach  was 
two  days  goinK  from  London  lo  (.Jxford,  and  the 
"Flying  Coach"  was  thirteen  hours,  even  in 
summer  weather,  when  the  roads  were  at  their 
best. 
Coal  first  dug  for  fuel  in  1234. 

Coin.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  Pliidon,  King 
ot  Argos,  869  B.C.  In  Rome,  silver  money  was 
first  ucined  ^69  B.C.  Gold  and  silver  coins  first 
used  in  the  East.  Coin  first  used  in  Britain  25 
B.C.,  and  in  Scotland  not  until  24S  years  later. 
In  iioi,  round  comis  were  first  used  in  England. 
Silver  halfpence  and  farthings  were  coined  in  the 
reign  of  John,  anl  pence  were  the  largest  cur- 
rent Coins.  Gold  was  first  coined  in  England  in 
1087;  in  Bohemia  in  1301.  In  1531,  groats  and 
half-gruats  were  the  largest  silver  roin  in  Eng- 
land. Gold  was  first  coined  in  Venice  in  1346. 
Shillings  were  first  coined  in  England  in  1068. 
Crowns  and  half-crowns  were  first  coined  in 
1551,  Henry  III  introduced  copper  money  into 
France  in  158M.  Copper  money  introduced  into 
England  by  James  I  in  1620.  The  process  of 
milling  coin  introduced  in  1662.  The  mint  of 
tlie  United  States  of  America  was  established  in 
>7'>3- 

Coining*  with  a  die  first  invented  in  1617,  and 
lirsl  used  in  Engl.md  in  1620. 

Compass  (Mariner's)  invented  in  China  1120 

B.C.;  Used  in  Venice  1260;  improved  at  Naples 
in  1302.  Its  variations  observed  in  1500;  its 
dipping  in  1576 

Copyrigrht.  Th  .-  cpyright  law  was  first  passed 
by  Congress  in  1791,  the  term  being  made  four- 
teen years  ;  amended,  and  term  extended  to  28 
years,  with  renew.d  for  14  more,  in  1831. 

Cotton.  The  first  raised  in  the  United  States 
was  in  1621,  in  Virginia;  first  exported  from  U. 
S.  in  1747. 

Cotton  Gin  invenied  in  1793,  by  Eli  Whitney. 
Culverins  lust  nude  in  England  in  1534. 
D ag"u e IT eo types  first  made  in  France,  1839. 
Declaration  of  American  Independence,  1776; 
recugtiuioii,  i  78^. 

Delf  (or  Delft)  earthenware  invented  at  Fircnzc 

in  1^50. 
Diamonds  first  cut  and  polished  at  Bruges  ini489. 
Dice  invented  1500  B.C. 
Dipping"  lieedle  invented  by  Robert  Norman, 

Distilling  first  practiced  in  1150. 

DivingT'Bell.  This  machine  appears  to  have 
been  known  in  1309.  and  repealed  mention  of  its 
use  occurs  in  historical  chruniclcs  from  that  date. 

Electric  Iji^ht.  Invented  at  London,  in  1874, 
by  two  Russians,  Lodyguiii  and  Kosloff.     The 


k- 


33^ 


A  DICTIONARY  OF   DATES. 


"71 


Jablochkoff  candle  proved  successful  in  1878  iu 
lighting  the  streets  of  Paris.  In  the  United 
States,  the  Sawyer-Man  light  appeared  in  187S, 
and  Kdison  began  his  expenments  in  electric 
lighting  in  the  same  year. 

Emancipation  Proclamation.    January  i, 

1KD3. 

Engraving"  on  metal  invented  in  1423;  on  cop- 
per in  1511.  Iiuproved  process  introduced  by 
Prince  Rupert  ot  Palatine  in  1648.  Engraving 
process  for  tints  invented  by  Barable,  a  French- 
man, in  1761.  Engraving  on  wood  invented  at 
Flanders  in  1423,  and  revived  in  1511  by  Albert 
Durer.  Engraving  on  glass  invented  at  Paris  in 
1799,  by  Bundier. 

Envelopes  for  letters  were  first  used  in  1839. 

Etching*  on  coppt-r  with  aqua  fortis  was  intro- 
duced in  1512. 

Ether  was  first  used  in  surgical  operations  in 
1844. 

Express.  The  first  American  express  was  ope- 
rated between  New  York  and  Boston,  in  1821,  by 
\V .  F.  H.irnden. 

False  TTair  introduced  by  the  courtesans  in 
1 1  aly ,  and  first  brought  into  England  from 
France  in  1572. 

Fenian  Raids  into  Canada,  May  31.  1866;  re- 
sumed Fel)ruiiry  3,  1870. 

Filibustering  raids  of  Wm.  Walker,  1853-60. 

Fire  Eng'ines,  to  force  water,  existed  in  very 
ancient  tunes.  The  first  of  the  kind  now  in  \ise, 
but  of  a  vastly  inferior  character,  was  invenie'l 
by  two  Dutchmen,  each  named  Jan  van  der 
Heide,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1518.  In  1657  an  im- 
proved engine  was  introduced  at  Nuremberg  by 
John  Hantsch.  Fire-engines  were  first  known 
at  Paris  in  1699.  The  first  volunteer  fire  com- 
pany in  America  was  the  Union  of  Philadelphia, 
about  1736. 

Flag*.  The  American  flag  was  first  used  by 
Washington  at  Cambridge,  January  i,  1776. 

Fortification.  The  present  mode  introduced 
about  i5-«-j. 

Forks  are,  comparatively  speaking,  quite  a 
modern  invention.  They  were  firstknownin  Italy 
toward  the  end  of  the  islh  century.  They 
began  to  be  known  in  France  by  the  end  of  the 
i6tli  century.     Introduced  in  England  in  1608. 

Free  Soil  Party.     The  first  national  conven- 

nori  uas  IkjUI  ..t  lUilT.^tu,  Aug.  9,  1848. 

Fugitive    Slave  Law  passed    by  Congress, 

Sept.    12,    1850. 

Gamut  in  music  invented  by  Guy  L'Aretin  in 
I  -.25. 

Gas  was  first  evolved  from  coal  by  Dr.  Clayton  in 
1739.  Its  fij-st  application,  as  an  illuminating 
medium,  was  maile  by  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Corn- 
wall, England,  in  1792.  Sir  H.  Davy,  before  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  declared  it 
was  not  practicable  to  light  London  with  gas. 
The  first  display  of  gaslight  was  in  Birmingham, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  peace  rejoicings  of  1802. 
It  was  introduced  for  lighting  the  shops  and 
streets  of  London,  generally,  in  1S14.  In  the 
United  States  it  was  introduced  in  1822,  iii 
Boston. 

Gilding,  with  gold  leaf,  invented  in  1273. 

Glass  introduced  into  England,  by  Benedict,  a 
monk,  in  674.  First  used  in  England,  forbotiles, 
etc.,  in  1557.  The  first  plate-glass,  made  at 
I.ambcth,  in  1673.  Window  glass  first  made  in 
luiyland  III   1357. 

Grist  Mills  invented  in  Ireland  in  214. 

Gunpowder  was  invented  by  the  monk  Schwartz 
in  i_vi',  although  used  by  the  Chinese  A.D.  80. 
The  liyzantines  used  Greek  fire  A.D.  668. 

Guns  invented  in  1330;  used  by  the  Moors  at  tlie 
siege  of  Algeciras,  in  Spain,  in  1344  ;  at  the  baltie 
of  Crccy  in  1516,  and  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in 
the  year  following.  Adopted  by  Denmark  in 
1354;  used  by  the  Venetians,  at  sc.-i,  against  the 
Genoese,  in  1377.  First  used  by  the  Spanisli  in 
1J06.  The  early  English  guns  were  first  made 
of  brass  in  16^5  ;  in  1547  they  were  made  of  iron. 
Bombs  antl  mortars  were  invented  in  1543. 


Hartford  Convention  (anti-war) ,  Dec.i  5,1814. 

Handkerchiefs  were  first  manufactured  at  Pais- 
ley, in  bcolland,  in  1743. 

Heraldry  ori^^inated  in  the  year  1100. 

Homoeopathy  was  introduced  into  the  United 
ht.Ucs  m  1825, 

Horseshoes.  Although  the  ancients  protected 
the  hoots  of  their  horses  with  some  covering, 
horseshoes,  of  the  kinil  now  known,  were  not  in 
general  use  until  the  ninth  century. 

Hour-Glasses  invented  in  Alexandria  240. 

Hydrometer.  The  oldest  mention  of  this  in- 
strument belongs  to  the  5th  century,  but  its 
invention  has  been  attributed  to  Archimedes. 

Infallibility.  The  dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility 
prumulgatea  in  1870. 

Inoculation  for  small-pox,  first  tried  on  crimi- 
nals In  17J1.  Vaccine  discovered  by  Dr.  Jenner 
in  1796. 

Insurance.  The  first  fire  insurance  office  in 
America  was  in  Boston,  1724.  The  first  for  life 
insurance  in  London, 1772;  the  first  American,  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1812.  Marine  insurance  dates 
back  to  1598  in  England,  and  to  1721  in 
America. 

Interior  Department  established  March  3, 
1849- 

Jesuits.       The    order  was  founded  by    Ignatius 

I^u^ola  in  1541. 
Judiciary   Act   passed  by   Congress    Feb.    13, 

Knitting  StockblgS  invented  in  Spain  about 

1550. 
Knives  were  first  used  In  England  about  1550. 
Know-Nothing  Party    (American)  arose    in 

New  York  ui  185,3.     National  platform  adopted 

and  candidate  for  the    P.'-esidency  (Fillmore)   in 

1856. 

Lace.  The  knitting  of  lace  is  a  German  inven- 
tion, first  known  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century. 

Lamp  (Sir  Humphry  Davy's  safety)  for  pre- 
venting explosions  by  fire  damp  in  coal  mines, 

Lanterns  invented  by  Alfred  the  Great  890. 

Leyden  Jar  invented  in  1745. 

Liberty  Party,  national  conventional  Buffalo, 
Aug.  ju,  1843. 

liibrary.  The  oldest  American  library  is  that  of 
Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  1638.  The  first 
subscription  library  was  established  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1731. 

Lig'htning'-rods  were  first  used  by  Benjamin 
Franklin  about  1752. 

Life-Boats  i  nvcnted  by  Greathead,  who  recei  verl 
a  premium  front  Parliament  in  May,  1802. 

Linen  when  first  made  in  England  was  regarded 
as  a  great  luxury,  and  was  very  costly.  A  com- 
pany of  linen-weavers  from  the  Netherlands  was 
established  in  London  in  13S6. 

Lithog"raphic Printing"  first  brought  into  Eng- 
land III  i;S(ii. 

Mag'ic  Lanterns  invented  in  1252. 

Mag-na  Charta  signed  1215. 

Mag-nifyingr-Glasses  first   made   in    England 

by  Kuger  BaLoii  i.-O). 
Maps  and  Globes  invented    by  Anaximander 

6.>:>  B.C. 
Marble  Paper.     A  German  invention  belonging 

u>  tlic  i/th  ceiitui-y. 
Matches.      Friction  matches  first  used  in  1829. 
Mecklenburg-  county,   N.    C,    Declaration    of 

Imlependi-iiee  issued  May  31,  1776. 

Medicinal  Simples  first  brought  into  Europe, 

fioni  ihe  E.isl,  111  l^-oa. 

Microscopes  first  used  in  Germany  In  1621.  Im- 
proved by  Torriielli  in  1624. 

Military  Academy,  West  Point,  founded  by 
Cungress  Mareli  lO,  1S02. 

Missouri  Compromise  pnsscd  March  3.  1S20, 

and  re^jealed  M.iy  24,  1854.     It  restricted  slavery 
to  south  of  36  '  30'. 


Mirrors  (Silvering)  invented  by   Praxiteles   228 

years  B.C. 
Monroe  Doctrine  declared  in  the  message  of 

President  Monroe,  Dec.  2,  1823. 
Mormons  arrived   at    Salt   Lake   Valley,    Utah, 

July  24,  1S47. 
Musical  Notes  invented  in  1070;  improvedi33o  ; 

printed  1^02. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  tolerating  Protestants,  issued 
April  13,  159S;  revocation,  Oct.  22,  1685. 

Needles  first  made  in  England  by  a  native  of 
India  in  1545;  re-invented  by  Christopher  Green- 
ing in  1560. 

Netherlands,  revolt  of,  1565  to  1580. 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of,  Jan.  8,  1815,  Jackson 
defeating  the  British.  Captured  by  Farragut 
April  26,  1862. 

Newspaper.  The  first  authentic  newspaper 
was  printed  in  1494;  first  daily,  Frank/ort 
Gazette,  1615.  The  first  English  was  the  Weekly 
/veives,  1622;  the  first  in  France,  Gazette  de 
Francf,  1631.  The  first  advertisement  appeared 
in  164S.  The  first  American  newspaper  was 
printed  in  Boston,  Sept.  25,  i6go,  and  was  called 
Publick  Occurrences,  Foreign  and  Domestic. 
The  first  continuously  printed  in  America  was 
the  Boston  Netvs  Letter,  1702;  first  daily.  The 
Pennsyh'ania  Packet,  1784, 

Nullification  Ordinance  passed  by  South 
Carolina  Nov.  19,  1S32.  The  proclamation  of 
President  Jackson  denouncing  the  same  was 
issued  Dec.  10,  1832. 

Omnibuses  were  first  used  in  New  York  in  1S30. 

Organs  WL-re  invented  in  750, 

Ostend  Manifesto,  issued  Oct.  21,  1S54. 

Paper  Hang'ingrs.  The  invention  of  hangings 
ot  paper  to  t.ike  llie  place  of  other  more  costly 
hangings,  has  been  attributed  to  a  manufacturer 
of  paper  hangings,  named  Breiikopf,  of  Leipsic. 
That  kind  known  as  velvet-paper  is  said  10  have 
been  invented  by  Jerome  Lanyer,  an  English- 
man, who  received  a  patent  lor  it  in  1634,  al- 
though the  invention  has  also  been  claimed  for 
Francois,  a  Frenchman,  who  is  asserted  to  have 
introduced  it  at  Rouen  in  1620. 

Paper  made  of  cotton,  in  use  in  1000.  Made  of 
linen  rags  in  1319.  First  introduced  in  England 
in  1588.  White  paper  first  made  there  in  1690. 
Paper  was  made  from  straw  in  1800. 

Paper  Money  first  used  in  America  in  1740,  and 
revived  in  178S. 

Parchment  invented  by  King  Attains,  of  Per- 
g.inuis,  bi-7  r.  C. 

Patent  Right  Law^  first  enacted  in  U.  S.,  April 
15,  179^.. 

Paving  with  Stones  lirst  introduced  at  Purls 
in  1 1S6. 

Philadelphia  was  foundtd  by  William  Pcnn  in 
168^.  Kiuis,  native  American  and  Irish,  May  6 
to  8,  1844. 

Penny  Post  introduced  for  London  and  its  sub- 
urb-, by  an  upholsterer  named  Murray  in  1681. 
Adopteil  by  the  government  in  1711.  First  set 
up  in  1 774  in  Dublin.  C.irrled  out  on  an  enlarged 
scale  in  1794,  and  made  atwopenny  post  in  1801. 

Pens.  Ihe  style,  or  point  or  bone  an  1  metal, 
which  was  used  for  writing  on  tables  coated  with 
wa.\,gave  place  to  the  reed,  poinled  and  split, 
and  used  as  a  pen  with  some  colored  litjuids. 
These  were  gradually  abandoned  in  favor  of 
quills.  The  first  known  record  of  (luills  being 
used  for  pens  is  that  of  Isidore,  who  died  In  636' 
but  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  at  an 
earlier  date.  The  substitution  of  steel  fur  quill 
pens  took  place  early  in  the  present  century,  yet, 
strange  to  say,  nothing  is  known  with  certainty 
of  the  person  who  first  invented  the  metallic  pen. 

Phonograph  invented  in  1877  by  T.  A.  Edison. 

Phosphorus  first  made  in  1677. 

Photog-raphs  were  first  produced  in  England  in 
18.. J  ;   iii-rlecied  in  1841. 

Pianoforte  i:ivented  about  1710  in  Italy. 

Pilgrims  l.mded  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  Dec.  21, 
i(,2o,  alihough  the  date  is  commonly  given  as 
Dec.  22. 


\ 


V 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


^ 


339 


Pins  were  brought  from  France,  and  first  used  in 
England  by  Caihcrine  Howard.  Queen  of  Henry 
VIH.  Before  ihat  time  both  scxts  used  ribbons, 
loop-holes,  iaccs  with  points  and  tags,  hooks  and 
eyes,  and  small  skewers  made  of  gold,  silver,  ami 
bra-.s.  Pins  were  first  made  by  machinery  in 
Am.-rica  in  iSj;2. 

Pipes  of  Xiead,  for  walcr,  first  cast  in  1539. 

Pistols  first  used  by  the  cavalry  in  1544. 

Pitch  and  tar  first  made  from  pit  coal  at  HristuI 
in  i77[). 

Plaster  of  PcixiS.  Castinc  with  it  from  the 
f.iLf  iiiveiued  in  1470. 

Porcelain  "f  Sa\ony  greatly  improved  in  1767. 

Port- Holes  introduced  fur  ships  of  war  in  1545. 

Post-Offi.Ce  first  established  between  Vienna  and 
Brussels  in  1516.  Po^ts  established  regiiUirly 
between  Lontlon  and  all  the  principal  town>4 
throughont  England  11  1635.  Postage  stamps 
were  introduced  in  England  in  1840;  in  the 
United  Stales  in  iG.v7. 

Pottery    improved    greatly    by    Wedgwood     in 

Printing'.  The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
used  clay  tablets,  and  wooden  blocks  were  used 
by  the  Chinese  as  early  as  952.  Printing  from 
movable  types  was  invented  by  Faust  in  1441, 
and  made  public  by  Gutenberg  in  14341 -ilthough 
the  invention  is  also  claimed  for  L.  Koster  of 
Haarlem  as  early  as  14:13.  The  first  Hible  was 
printed  by  Faust  and  Schoflfcr  in  1456,  and  they 
also  printed  the  first  book  with  date,  a  Laiiii 
Psalter,  in  1457.  Wooden  type  first  introduced 
into  England,  by  William  Caxton,  a  London 
merchant,  in  1477.  The  first  English  press  was 
set  up  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  it  remained 
until  1494.  The  first  American  book,  "  Escala 
Espiritual,"  was  printed  by  Juan  Hablas,  Mexico, 
about  1535.  Tlie  first  press  in  the  United  States 
was  that  of  St';phen  Daye,  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1639.     Printing  in  colors  was  first  introduced  in 

Pyramids  tirst  erected  about  2170  B.C. 
Q.uicksilver  first  used  for  refining  silver  ore  in 

Railroad.  The  first  passenger  railroad  was 
opened  in  England  Sept.  27,  1825;  the  first  in 
America,  lialiimore  anil  Ohio,  182S,  alihougli 
freight  was  moved  by  rail  at  the  granite  nuarrics 
of  Quincy,  Mass.,  as  early  as  1826.  Tne  first 
steam  railroatl  was  operated  in  the  United  States 
in  1830,  from  Albany  to  Schenectady — 16  miles. 

Reformation  m  Germany,  1517;  in  England, 

Republican  Party.     The  first  convention  was 

helrl  at  rmsburgh,  Feb.  22,  1856. 

Resumption  of  Specie  T'ayments  in  the  United 
States — Act  approved  1875;  took  effect  Jan.  1, 
1879. 

Ribbon  Looms.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
these  looms  were  first  known  to  the  Swiss,  but 
other»claim  their  invention  for  a  German  in  the 
town  of  Danlzic  in  the  iGth  century. 

Rulingr-MacbineS  invemeil  by  a  Dutcliman 
in  London  \n  1792. 

Saddles.  Pliny  informs  us  that  one,  Pele- 
throiiiiis,  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  piece  of 
leather  fastened  to  the  back  of  a  horse  fur  the 
accommodation  of  its  rider.  For  a  long  time 
these  cloths  and  pieces  of  leather  were  rcgardeil 
as  immanly,  and  were,  therefore,  regarded  by 
soldiers  with  great  scorn.  The  old  German 
races  despised  the  Roman  cavalry  for  riding  on 
such  effeminate  contrivances.  Saddles  of  the 
kind  now  used  appear  to  have  been  in  use  in 
385.  Side-saddles  first  used  in  1380,  Previous 
to  their  introduction  women  always  rode  astride. 

Sailcloth  fir>.t  made  in  England  in  1590. 

Saltinjo:  Herrings  after  the  Dutch  method  first 

used  ill  1.116. 

Saltpeter  first  manufactured  in  England,  in  1625. 

Saws.  Theinventor  of  thesawts  said,  by  the  old 
Greek  writers,  to  be  Talus  or  Pcrdox.  Pliny 
ascribes  the  mvcntjon  to  Dccdalus.but  Hardouin 
affirms  that  the  passage  in  which  he  tlocs  so  refers 
to  Talus,  and  not  toDocdalus.     Talus  was  the 


son  of  a  sister  of  Dccdalus,  and  the  invention  is 
said  to  be  due  to  his  using  the  jawbone  of  a  snake 
lo  cut  through  a  piece  of  wood.  His  master 
grew  jealous  of  the  honor  Talus  won  by  this  in- 
vcniton,  and  caused  him  to  be  privately  put  to 
de.Uli. 

Sedan  Chairs  introduced  into  England  in  1734. 

Sewing  Machine  first  patented  in  England,  in 
1735.  The  first  complete  machine  was  con- 
structed by  an  American,  Elias  Howe,  in  1846. 

Sextant  invented  by  Tyflio  Brahe,  at  Augsburg, 

Shay's  Rebellion,  in  Massachusetts,  1786-87. 

Sleepingr-Cars  were  first  used  in  1B58.  Pull- 
in, ui's  patent  d.ites  from  1S64. 

Soap  first  made  in  Lonrlon  and  Bristol  In  1524. 
Tlic  first  e.\prcss  mention  of  soap  appears  in 
Pliny  and  G.ilen.  The  former  speaks  of  it  as  an 
invention  of  the  Gaids. 

Speaking'-TrumpetS  invented  by  Kircher,  a 
Jesuit,  111  I'js'. 

Spinning-- Wheel  invented  at  Brunswick,  1530. 

Spectacles  invented  by  Spina,  a  monk,  of  Pisa, 
u)  1^99. 

Stamp  Act  enacted  ALarch  22,  17G5;  repealed 
March  19,  1766. 

Statutes  "f  the  United  States  first  revised  and 
codilied  ia  1873. 

Steam.  The  steam  engine  boilerwas  discovered 
by  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  in  1663.  New- 
commen's  engine  was  patented  in  1 705,  and  the  in- 
vention was  perfected  by  James  Watt,  in  1773. 
The  high  pressure  engine  was  invented  by  an 
American,  Oliver  Evans,  in  1779.  The  first 
steam  vessel  of  which  there  is  any  record  was 
that  of  Papin  (France^  in  1707.  Then  follow 
those  of  Jonathan  Hulls  (England),  1736;  Will- 
iam Henry  {Conestoga  river.  Pa.),  1763;  James 
Rumsey  (Md.),  1786;  John  Fitch  {Defaware 
river),  same  year.  In  1806  Robert  Fulton  con- 
structed the  Clermont,  which  plied  regularly  be- 
tween New  York  and  Alb.iny,  at  a  speed  of  five 
miles  per  hour.  The  first  steamer  crossing  the 
.Atlantic  made  the  voyage  from  Savannah  to 
Liverpool  in  twenty-five  days,  A.D.  1819. 

Steel.  The  invention  of  steel  is  of  very  great  an- 
tu|uity,  as  the  process  of  hardening  iron  is  de- 
scribed in  the  Old  Testament  (Isaiah  xliv,  12). 
The  helmet  of  Hercules,  described  in  Hesiod, 
appears  to  have  been  of  steel.  Homer  refers  to 
the  process  of  hardening  steel  by  immersing  it, 
while  red  hot,  in  cold  water. 

Stereotype  Printing  invented  by  William 
( oil,  a  gi>ldsnii  h,  ul  l!ldinburgh,  in  1735. 

Stirrups,  according  to  a  statement  matle  by  the 
Emperor  Mauritius,  were  first  used  in  the  6th 
century.  Hippocrates  and  Galen  speak  of  a 
disease  which,  in  their  time,  was  occasioned  by 
long  and  fre(iuent  riding,  because  the  legs  hung 
down  without  any  support. 

Sugar  is  first  mentioned  in  625  by  Paul  Fginetla, 
a  physician.  It  came  originally  from  China  and 
the  East;  was  produced  in  Sicily  in  1148,  in 
Madeira  in  1419,  in  the  Canary  Islands  in  1503, 
and  in  the  West  Indies  by  the  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards  in  1510.  In  1641  it  was  cultivated  at 
Barbadoes.  Sugar-refining  was  first  carried  out 
by  a  Venetian  in  1503,  and  this  process  was 
adopted  in  F^ngland  in  1569.  Sugar  cane  was 
first  cultivated  in  the  United  States  in  1751,  near 
New  Orleans,  the  first  sugar  mill  being  con- 
structed in  1758. 

Sunday  Schools  were  first  established  by 
Robert  Kaike^,  Gloucester,  England,  in  1781. 

Sun-dials  invented  558  B.C.  The  first  in  Rome, 
308  ]i.C.,w.is  that  erected  by  Papirius  Cuisor, 
when  time  w.is  divideil  into  hours. 

Tanningr  Leather.    A  new  and  more  expedi- 

liuus    method   than  that    previously  in   use  was 

invented  in  1795. 
Tax.     I'hc  first  tax  levied  on  the  people  w.-xs  by 

Solon,  54  t  B.C. 
Tea  fir^t  known  in  Europe  in  iGio,  being  brought 

from  India  by  the  Dutch. 
Teleerraphs  fmcchanic.»l)  invented  in  1687.   First 

useu  hy  the  French  in  1794.  and  by  the  English 

in  1 796.    The  first  electric  telegraph  was  operated 


from  Paddington  to  Drayton,  England,  in  1835. 
the  same  year  in  which  Morse's  telegraph  was 
invented.  The  first  telegraph  line  in  operation 
in  America  was  between  Baltimore  and  Washing- 
ton in  1844.  The  first  submarirte  cable  was  laid 
in  i8>i,  between  Dover  and  Calais,  and  the  first 
Atlantic  cable  was  operated  in  1858. 
Telephone.  A.  Graham  Bell  first  presented  a 
speaking  telephone  at  the  Centennial  txposilion, 
Philadelphia,  in  1876. 

Telescopes.  The  first  reflecting  telescope  made 
on  the  principle  discovered  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
in  1692. 

Thread  first  made  at  Paisley  in  1722. 

Thermometers    first    invented    by  Drebcl.    a 

Dutchni.oi.  in   i6jo  ;  improved  by  Reaumur  in 

1730,  and  by  Fahrenheit  in  1749. 
Tobacco  was  first  introduced  into  England,  from 

Virginia,  in  1583.  ^ 

Union    of  England    an<l    Scotland,    1707;    Great 

liiitainand  Ireland,  1801. 

Vaccination.     See  Inoculation. 
Ventilators  first   introduced  by  the    Rev.    Dr. 

Haiesin  174U. 

Violins  of  the  modern  kind  invented  about  1477. 
Introduced  into  England  by  Charles  11. 

Wall-papers  first  used  in  Spain  and  Holland  in 

1555.  Fluck  or  velvet  wall-papers  were  first  used 
in  ifi^-o. 
War  Ships.  In  1814  Sir  Robert  Seppings  in- 
troduced \'.trious  most  important  improvements 
for  the  construction  of  war  ships.  The  lower 
parLs  of  the  frames  of  ships  of  war  were  then, 
for  the  first  lime,  fiUetl  in,  a  system  of  diagonal 
trussing  was  introduced,  the  stern  was  altered  in 
form ,  so  that  it  no  longer  remained  open  to  the 
fire  of  an  enemy,  and  the  upper  decks  were  en- 
larged. Sir  W.  Symontls  altered  them  so  as  to 
decrease  the  quantity  of  ballast  required  in  1832. 
In  the  International  Exhibition  of  1851  various 
improvements  in  this  direction  were  shown,  but 
great  iron-cased  ships  were  not  then  thought  of 
In  July,  1854,  the  first  of  a  new  class  of  screw, 
gim  vessels  was  launched  for  use  during  the 
Russian  war.  To  operate  with  these,  vessels  of 
iron  were  constructed  to  bombard  the  fortresses 
in  the  Baltic.  The  first  French  iron-cxscd  ship 
was  a  frigate  called  the  "  Gloire."  and  this  was 
qtnckly  followed  by  the  first  English  ship  of 
tnat  kind,  the  "  Warrior."  Since  then  vessels  of 
this  kind  have  been  subject  to  a  variety  of  alter- 
ations and  experiments  tending  to  improve  both 
their  strength  and  their  sailing  qualities  The 
first  battle  between  iron  ships  of  war  occurred  in 
the  war  for  the  Union,  the  Merriinac  and  Mon- 
itor being  the  contestants. 

"Watches  were  invented  at  Nuremberg  in  1477. 
and  were  first  introduced  into  England  from 
Germany  in  1577. 

Water  Mills  for  grinding  com  are  said  to  have 
been  inveiued  by  Belisarius  when  Rome  was  be- 
sieged by  the  (Kiths  in  55^*  Pliny,  however, 
mentions  ulicels  turned  by  water. 

W"eather- Cocks.  The  earliest  mfntion  of  a 
weather-cock  is  that  made  by  Vitruvius,  con- 
cerning that  on  the  lower  built  at  Athens  by  .^n- 
dronicus  Cyrrhe>tes. 

Wild-Fire  invcntird  by  a  Greek  in  663, 

Wilmot  Proviso,  to  restrict  slaver>',  oflTered  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,  Aug.  8,  1846,  by 
David  Wilmot,  of  Pa. 

Wire  invented  at  Nuremberg  in  1351. 

Wire-Drawinff.  The  first  record  we  have  of 
this  .irt  IS  probably  that  contained  in  Holy  Writ, 
where  we  are  told  that  gold  \4.is  beaten  and  cut 
to  threads,  so  that  it  could  be  interwoven  in 
cloth.  The  present  mode  of  forming  metallic 
threads,  that  known  as  wire-drawing,  was  first 
known  in  the  14th  cenlurj'. 

Woolen  Cloth,  .-\tthough  the  making  of 
woolen  cloth  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  arts,  its 
manufacture  was  not  known  in  France  until 
1646,  when  it  was  made  at  Sedan.  It  was  first 
made  in  England  in  1331,  but  was  not  dyed  or 
dressed  untrl  \.M^-,. 

Yellowstone  National  Park  established  by 

Act  of  Congress,  Fcl*.  28,  1871. 


/ 


\ 


\ 


340 


SCIENTIFIC    DEPARTMENT. 


/I 


. •^^^^i 111  -'^f ii^t ii'rai  ^ 


19     # 


lil 


'C'^'        O^i       ff''^^^  ^^^       ^^" 


'^^Tx'^'^  "v^'^'^* 


I5-^:i!5N:?-!^^^'3 


j^  pimple  Explaoahioo  of  all  ti^e  ^c\euee<^. 


"■ffT 


E  are  all  children  of  one  Father,  and 
His  works  it  should  be  our  delight 
to  study.  As  the  child,  standing  by 
its  parent's  knee,  asks  explanations  alike  of  the 
simplest  phenomena  and  of  the  most  profound 
problems,  so  should  man,  turning  to  Nature,  the 
living,  visible  oracle  of  his  Creator,  continually 
ask  for  knowledge. 

In  scientific  language,  Nature  is  defined  as 
"the  united  totality  of  all  that  the  senses  can 
perceive  ;  "  in  the  language  of  theology,  it 
"embraces  everything  that  cannot  be  made  by 
man,"  hence  is  synonymous  with  "  God's  crea- 
tion" 

In  Nature  there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance. 
Every  effect  has  its  cause,  as  Nature  herself  is 
but  a  name  for  an  effect  whose  cause  is  God. 
When  Newton  observed  an  apple  fall  to  the 
ground  he  asked  the  cause,  and  in  answer  to  his 
inquiry  came  one  of  the  grandest  discoveries  of 
science — a  discovery  which  let  in  a  flood  of 
light  upon  the  human  mind,  and  led  the  way  to 
the  true  knowledge  of  many  things  theretofore 
.shrouded  in  error  or  mystery.  Montgolfier  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  air-balloons  while  watch- 
ing fogs  floating  in  the  atmosphere,  and  all  the 


'&- 


wonderful  discoveries  of  science  may  thus  be 
traced  to  simple  phenomena,  carefully  pondered 
and  diligently  studied  in  all  their  bearings  as  to 
cause  and  effect. 

"  Nature,"  says  Whipple,  "  does  not  capri- 
ciously scatter  her  secrets  as  golden  gifts  to  lazy 
pets  and  luxurious  darlings,  but  imposes  tasks 
when  she  presents  opportunities, and  uplifts  him 
whom  she  would  inform.  The  apple  that  she 
drops  at  the  feet  of  Newton  is  but  a  coy  invita- 
tion to  follow  her  to  the  stars."  The  greatest 
philosophers  have  been  those  who  have  clung 
to  the  demonstrative  sciences,  and  have  held 
that  a  simple  truth,  well  ascertained,  is  greater 
than  the  most  ingenious  theory  founded  upon 
questionable  premises.  The  discoveries  of 
Newton  have  borne  the  searching  test  of  time 
because  he  snatched  at  nothing,  leaped  over  no 
chasm  to  establish  a  favorite  dogma,  but  learned 
to  read  Nature  correctly  by  regarding  the 
merest  trifles  as  well  as  the  highest  phenomena. 
Thus  he  discovered  a  letter  in  each  atom,  a  word 
in  each  blade  of  grass,  a  sentence  in  each  phe- 
nomenon, and  in  the  volume  thus  composed  he 
read  the  wisdom  and  the  power  of  the  Almighty. 
Every  flower,  every  ray  of  light,  every  drop  of 


-A 


SCIENTIFIC»DEPARTMENT. 


341 


dew,  each  flake  of  snow,  the  lowering  cloud,  the 
bright  sun,  the  pale  moonj  the  azure  of  the 
heavens  by  day  and  the  twinkling  stars  of  night, 
all  are  eloquent  of  the  great  Hand  that  made 
thcni. 

From  the  earliest  ages  man  has  sought  to 
read  the  open  leaves  of  the  book  of  Nature,  but 
even  now,  after  centuries  of  research  and  dis- 
covery, he  docs  not  grasp  it  all,  cause  and  effect 
being  followed  up  step  by  step  until  the  mind  is 
lost  in  the  search.  One  discovery  only  leads  to 
another,  and  the  scientist  of  twenty  centuries 
hence  will  be  compelled  to  acknowledge  that 
one-half  of  the  wonderful  book  is  still  a  mys- 
tery. However,  all  may  peruse  its  pages,  and 
all  will  find  pleasure  and  profit  in  observing 
what  is  daily  going  on  around  them  in  earth, 
sea  and  sky.  It  is,  indeed,  only  by  a  study  of 
the  material  world  that  discoveries  are  accom- 
plished. Let  an  attentive  observer  watch  a  ray 
of  light  passing  from  the  air  into  the  water,  and 
he  will  see  it  deviate  from  the  straight  line  by 
refraction.  Let  him  seek  the  origin  of  a  sound, 
and  he  will  discover  that  it  results  from  a  shock 
or  a  vibration.  This  is  physical  science  in  its 
infancy. 

In  the  pages  following  it  is  purposed  to  pre- 
sent in  brief  and  entertaining  form  much  useful 
as  well  as  practical  scientific  knowledge.  It  has 
been  sought  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  the  un- 
initiated, in  as  simple  and  practical  a  way  as 
possible,  a  general  idea  of  the  various  branches 
of  science,  as  well  as  to  state  scientific  facts 
briefly  and  in  proper  consecutive  order,  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  advanced  student  may  freshen 
his  memory  and  revive  his  interest.  Technical 
terms  have  been  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
and  where  they  are  used  of  necessity  the  con- 
text will  furnish  ample  explanation. 

When  a  person  who  is  a  stranger  seeks  to  be 


directed  to  some  point  in  a  large  and  poorly 
laid-out  city,  whose  streets,  courts  and  places 
start  from  everywhere  and  end  nowhere,  cross- 
ing each  other  in  a  perverse  and  confusing  man- 
ner, it  were  worse  than  useless  to  attempt  to 
give  him  all  the  directions  at  once.  The  better 
way  would  be  to  point  out  to  him  the  general 
direction,  and  then  let  him  inquire  as  he  pro- 
gresses on  the  journey.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  said  that  there  is  nothing  so  conducive 
to  loss  of  time  as  short  cuts  to  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  them.  They  generally  verify 
the  axiom  that  "  Haste  makes  waste."  Willi 
these  introductory  remarks  we  will  take  the 
reader  to  the  broad  fields  of  Science,  and  point 
out  to  him  the  general  direction  of  the  respec- 
tive paths,  noting  in  our  way  the  most  promi- 
nent turns,  and  if  our  readers  desire  more  spe- 
cific information  we  will  refer  them  to  the 
writings  of  those  great  men  who  have  devoted 
their  lives  to  the  solution  of  Nature's  problems, 
and  have  enabled  us  to  give  the  reason  for  many 
things  which,  but  for  their  genius  and  unremit- 
ting labors,  would  still  be  shrouded  by  the  veil 
of  ignorance. 

Among  the  various  works  that  have  aided  in 
the  familiar  exposition  of  science  presented  in 
this  work  may  be  mentioned  the  following : 
"  Les  Recreations  Scicntifiques,"  by  Gaston 
Tissandier ;  "  Astronomy,"  in  the  series  of  iV«c/ 
Works  on  Physics  by  J.  A.  Giilet  and  W.  J. 
Rolfe ;  "  Physik  und  Meteorologie,"  by  Dr.  E. 
Lommel ;  "The  Teacher's  E.xaniiner,"  by  A.  H. 
Thompson  ;  "  Guide  to  Familiar  Science,"  by 
Rev.  E.  C.  Brewer  ;  "  Lockyer's  Solar  Physics," 
Njwcomb's  "  Popular  Astronomy,"  etc.,  etc. 
We  desire  in  an  especial  manner  to  thank  Pro- 
fessors Rolfe  and  Giilet  for  the  use  of  a  number 
of  beautiful  and  accurate  astronomical  illustra- 
tions from  their  excellent  work. 


/ 


_\ 


342   . 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 


!K:5 


ACURAL 


B 


RILOWPRY 


PHYSICS  ANO 

CHEMISTRY. 

HYDROSTATICS 

AND   HYDRAULICS. 

OPTICS    AND  ' 

ACOUSTICS. 

il:      MAGNETISM  and 

ELECTRICITY. 


THE    FORCES    OF  NATURE,  AND  THE    LAWS  WHICH    GOVERN  THEM. 
THE    ELEMENTS    OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 


nATURE  is  revealed  to  us  by  objects  and  by  phenomena. 
An  object  is  a  thing  which  occupies  space  and  which  is 
susceptible  to  feeling  and  to  sight.  The  heavenly  bodies 
may  also  be  classed  as  objects,  although  we  cannot  touch  them. 
Phenoviena  include  those  results  which  are  perceptible  by  only 
one  sense,  as  thunder.  Liglit  and  sound  may  also  be  classed  as 
phenomena.  A  stone  is  a  natural  object.  We  take  it  up,  open 
our  fingers,  and  it  falls.  The  motion  of  that  object  is  a  phe- 
nomenon. We  know  it  falls  because  we  see  it  fall,  and  it 
possesses  what  we  term  weight;  but  we  cannot  tell  why  it 
possesses  weight.  A  cause  of  a  phenomenon  being  independent 
of  human  will  is  called  a  foixe,  and  the  stone  falls  by  the  force 
of  gravitation^  or  that  natural  law  wliich  compels  every  material 
object  to  approach  every  other  material  object.  A  single  force 
may  produce  a  great  number  of  plienomena. 

Nature  being  revealed  to  us  by  objects,  and  by  means  of 
phenomena,  we  have  two  branches  of  science  extending  from 
such  roots,  namely,  Natural  History, the  Science  of  Objects; 
and  Natural  Philosophy,  the  Science  of  Phenomena. 

Both  of  these  branches  have  been  subdivided  thus  : 


Natural  History. 


Natural  Philosophy. 


\      Biology, 
referring  to  Minerals,  etc. 


I  Zoology,  referring  to  Anim.als. 
liotany,  referring  to  Plants. 
Mineralogy,  ) 
Geology,       y 
{   Physics.     Phenoiltena  without  essential   change 

Iof  the  objects. 
Chemistry.      Phenomena    with    change   of  the 
objects. 
Physiology.    Phenomena  of  animated  objects. 

The  two  great  divisions  comprehend,  in  their  extended  senses, 
all  that  is  known  respecting  the  material  world. 

We  have  spoken  of  objects.  Objects  occupy  space.  What  is 
space  ?  Space  is  magnitude  which  can  be  conceived  as  extend- 
ing in  three  directions — length,  breadth  and  depth.  Matter 
occupies   portions   of  space,  which    is   infinite.     Matter,  when 


finite,  is  termed  a  body  or  object.  A  molecule  is  the  smallest 
portion  of  a  body  which  we  can  conceive  of  as  retaining  its 
identity.     An  atom  is  a  division  of  a  molecule. 

Suppose  we  take  a  quantity  of  water  and  conceive  it  to  lie 
divided  until  we  reach  a  limit.  The  last  particle  which  we  could 
call  water  would  be  a  molecule.  Now  let  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity be  passed  through  a  quantity  of  water,  and  it  is  separated 
into  two  gases,  essentially  different  from  each  other,  and  differ- 
ent from  water.  A  given  quantity  of  water  will  produce  a 
certain  quantity  of  gas,  the  proportion  in  volume  of  the  two 
kinds  being  as  i  to  2.  If  one  pint,  say,  of  water  produces 
one  volume  of  one  gas,  and  two  of  the  other,  one-half  pint 
would  produce  one-half  the  amount  of  one  gas  and  one-half 
the  amount  of  the  other,  and  so  on  down  until  we  have  made 
the  ultimate  division,  which,  for  convenience,  we  call  a  molecule. 
Then  we  can  truly  say  that  the  molecule  is  composed  of  two 
parts  of  one  gas  and  one  part  of  the  other,  and  for  convenience 
we  call  these  parts  of  the  molecules,  atoms. 

Physics  deals  only  with  masses  and  molecules.  Chemistry 
deals  with  atoms.  When  we  tear  a  piece  of  paper  in  pieces,  or 
grind  it  to  a  pulp,  we  separate  molecules  and  have  effected  a 
physical  change  only.  When  we  burn  the  paper  in  the  fire  we 
separate  atoms  and  have  effected  a  chemical  change.  In  tlie 
first  case  we  have  effected  a  change  of  form,  but  the  matter  is 
identically  the  same.  In  the  second  case,  the  gases  and  ashes 
produced  by  the  burning  are  totally  different,  and  the  paper  has 
lost  its  identity. 

The  sounding  of  a  bell  and  the  falHngof  a  stone  axe  physical 
phenomena,  for  the  object  which  causes  the  sornd  or  tlie  fall 
undergoes  no  change.  Heat  is  set  free  when  coal  burns,  and 
this  disengagement  of  heat  is  a  physical  phenomenon;  but  the 
change  during  combustion  which  coal  undergoes  is  a  chemical 
phenomenon. 


/ 


-^l 


Q fc^ 


NATURAL  PHHrf)SOPHY  — PHYSICS.: 


343 


The  General  Properties  of  Matter 

Are  magnitude,  impenelrability,  inertia,  diviiibitity,  porosity, 
elasticity,  coinpressibility,  expansibility  and  indestructibility. 

Magnitude  is  the  property  of  occupying  s]\icc.  Size  is  the 
amount  of  space  a  body  lilts.  Every  body  has  three  dimensions 
—  length,  breadth  and  thickness;  and,  in  order  to  measure 
these,  some  standard  of  measurement  is  required. 

Impenetrability  is  the  property  of  so  occupying  space  as  to 
exclude  all  other  bodies ;  for  no  two  bodies  can  occupy  the 
same  space  at  the  same  time.  We  sometimes  speak  of  one  sub- 
stance jicnetrating  another.  Thus,  a  needle  penetrates  clolh,  a 
nail  penetrates  wood,  etc. ;  but  on  a  moment's  reflection  it  will 
be  plainly  seen  that  they  merely  push  aside  the  fibers  of  the 
eloth  or  wood,  and  so  press  tliem  closer  together. 

Inertia  is  the  property  of  passiveness.  Matter  has  no  power 
of  putting  itself  in  motion  when  at  rest.  A  body  will  never 
change  its  place  unless  moved,  and  if  once  started  will  move 
forever  unless  stopped.  It  is  difficult  to  start  a  wagon  because 
we  have  to  overcome  its  inertia,  which  tends  to  keep  it  at  rest. 
When  the  wagon  is  in  motion  it  requires  as  great  an  exertion  to 
stop  it,  since  then  we  have  again  to  overcome  its  inertia,  which 
tends  to  keep  it  moving. 

Inertia  causes  the  danger  of  jumping  from  cars  when  in 
motion.  The  body  has  the  speed  of  the  train,  while  the  motion 
of  the  feet  is  stopped  by  contact  with  the  ground.  One  should 
jump  as  nearly  as  he  can  in  the  direction  in  which  the  train  is 
moving,  and  with  his  muscles  strained,  so  as  to  break  into  a  run 
the  instant  his  feet  touch  the  ground.  Then  with  all  his  strength 
lie  can  gradually  overcome  the  inertia  of  his  body,  and  after  a 
few  feet  can  turn  as  he  pleases. 

Divisibility  is  that  property  of  a  body  which  allows  it  to  be 
separated  into  parts.  It  would  be  impossible  to  find  a  particle 
so  small  that  it  still  could  not  be  made  smaller.  Practically 
speaking,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  divisibility  of  matter;  but 
philosophers  hold  that  there  is  in  theory.  When  we  attempt  to 
show  how  far  matter  can  be  divided,  the  brain  refuses  to  grasp 
the  infinity.  A  pin's  head  is  a  small  object,  but  it  is  gigantic  com- 
pared to  some  animals,  of  which  millions  would  occupy  a  space  no 
larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin.  These  tiny  animals  must  have 
organs  and  veins,  and  those  veins  must  be  full  of  blood  globules. 
Prof.  Tyndall  says  a  drop  of  blood  contains  three  millions  of 
red  globules.  But  there  is  something  even  more  astonishing  than 
this.  It  is  stated  that  there  are  more  animals  in  the  milt  of  a 
single  codfish  than  there  are  men  in  the'  world ;  and  that  one 
grain  of  sand  is  larger  than  four  millions  of  these  animals, 
each  of  which  must  be  possessed  of  life  germs  of  an  equal 
amount,  which  would  grow  up  as  it  grew  to  maturity.  This 
carries  us  back  again,  and 

"  Imagination's  utmost  stretch 
In  wonder  dies  away." 

Porosity  is  the  property  of  having  pores.  By  this  is  meant 
not  only  such  pores  as  are  familiar  to  all,  and  to  which  we  refer 
when,  in  common  language,  we  speak  of  a  porous  body,  as  bread, 
wood,  unglazed  pottery,  a  sponge,  etc.,  but  a  finer  kind,  as  in- 
visible  to  the  eye  as  the   .atoms  themselves.     These  pores  are 


caused  by  the  fact  that  the  molecules  of  which  a  body  is  com- 
posed are  not  in  actual  contact,  but  are  separated  by  extremely 
minute  sp.ices. 

Elasticity  is  classed  both  among  the  general  and  the  specific 
properties  of  matter.  It  is  thought  that  all  bodies  have  elas- 
ticity, yet  some  have  it  in  such  a  degree  that  it  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  other  bodies. 

Compressibility  is  that  property  of  matter  by  virtue  of  which 
it  may  be  made  to  occupy  less  space.  It  is  a  result  of  porosity, 
the  molecules  being  pressed  closer  together. 

Expansibility  is  the  opjiosite  of  compressibility. 

Indestructibility  is  the  jiroperty  which  renders  matter  inca- 
pable of  being  destroyed.  No  particle  of  matter  can  be  annihi- 
lated, except  by  God,  its  creator.  We  may  change  its  form,  but 
we  cannot  deprive  it  of  existence. 

The   Specific   Properties   of  Matter 

Are  those  which  are  found  only  in  p.articular  kimls  of  matter. 
The  most  important  are  ductility,  malleability,  tenacity,  elas- 
ticity, hardness  and  brittleness. 

A  ductile  body  is  one  which  can  be  drawn  into  wire.  Some 
of  the  most  ductile  are  gold,  silver,  and  platinum. 

A  malleable  body  is  one  which  can  be  hammered  or  rolled 
into  sheets.  Gold  is  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals,  and  can 
be  beaten  into  sheets  552V55  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Copper  is 
so  malleable  that  it  is  said  that  a  workman,  with  his  hammer, 
can  beat  out  a  kettle  from  a  solid  block  of  the  metal. 

A  tenacious  body  is  one  which  cannot  be  easily  pulled  apart. 
Iron  is  the  most  tenacious  of  the  metals. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  elasticity — elasticity  of  compression, 
elasticity  of  expansion,  and  elasticity  of  torsion. 

Solids — Liquids — Gases. 

Matter  is  present  in  Nature  in  three  conditions.  We  find  it 
as  a.  solid,  a  liquid,  and  a.  gas.  To  test  the  actual  existence  of 
matter  in  one  or  other  of  these  forms  our  senses  help  us.  We 
can  touch  a  solid,  or  taste  it  and  see  it.     But  touch  is  the  test. 

A  solid  is  a  body  whose  molecules  cohere  so  that  their  rela- 
tive positions  cannot  be  changed  without  the  application  of  con- 
siderable force.     A  solid  will  retain  any  shape  given  it. 

A  lii/uid  is  a  body  whose  molecules  cohere  so  slightly  that 
their  relative  positions  may  be  changed  on  the  application  of 
slight  force.  A  liquid  will  assume  the  fonn  of  the  vessel  con- 
taining it,  and  the  free  surface  will  always  be  horizontal,  each 
molecule  seeking  its  lowest  level  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

A  gas  is  a  body  whose  molecules  sep.irate  almost  indefinitely 
from  each  other.  Essentially  there  is  no  difierence  between  a 
gas  and  a  vapor.  The  term  gas  is  generally  applied  to  those 
bodies  which  are  ordinarily  in  a  ga.seous  state,  and  the  term 
vapor  to  that  which  is  formed  by  heating  a  licjuid  or  solid. 
Steam  is  the  vapor  of  water,  but  it  is  a  gas  as  much  as  oxygen 
or  hydrogen. 

The    Forces   of    Nature. 

Force  is  a  cause — the  cause  of  motion  or  of  rest.  It  requires 
force  to  set  an  object  in  motion,  and  this  object  would  never 
stop  unless  some  other  force  or  forces  preventeil  its  movement 


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344 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY-  PHYSICS. 


beyond  a  certain  point.  Force,  therefore,  is  the  cause  of  a 
change  of  "  state  "  in  matter.  The  forces  of  Nature  are  three  in 
number — gravity,  cohesion,  and  affinity,  or  chemical  attraction. 

Gravity. 

Gravity,  ox  gravitation,  is  the  mutual  attraction  between  dif- 
ferent portions  of  matter  acting  at  all  distances — the  force  of 
attraction  being,  of  course,  in  proportion  to  the  respective  mass 
of  the  bodies.  The  greatest  body,  so  far  as  our  purposes  are 
concerned,  is  the  earth,  and  the  attraction  of  the  earth  is  gravity, 
or  what  we  call  weight.  If  we  jump  from  a  chair  we  shall 
come  to  the  floor,  and  if  there  were  nothing  between  us  and  the 
actual  ground,  sufficient  to  sustain  the  force  of  the  attracting 
power  of  tlie  earth,  we  should  fall  to  the  earth's  surface.  In  a 
teacup  the  spoon  will  attract  air-bubbles,  and  large  air-bubbles 
w  ill  attract  small  ones,  till  we  find  a  small  mass  of  bubbles 
formed  in  the  center  of  the  cup  of  tea.  Divide  this  bubble,  and 
the  component  parts  will  rush  to  the  sides  of  the  cup. 

Two  balls  of  equal  magnitude  will  attract  each  other  with 
equal  force,  and  will  meet,  if  not  opposed,  at  a  point  half-way 
between  the  two.  But  they  do  not  meet,  because  the  attraction 
of  the  earth  is  greater  than  the  attraction  they  relatively  and 
collectively  exercise  toward  each  other.  If  the  size  of  the 
balls  be  different,  the  attraction  of  the  greater  will  be  more 
evident. 

FALLING   BODIES. 

Gravity  is  the  cause  of  the  phenomena  of  falling  bodies,  be- 
cause eveiy  object  on  the  surface  of  the  eanh  is  very  much 
smaller  than  the  earth  itself,  and,  therefore,  all  bodies  fall  toward 
the  center  of  the  earth.  On  the  earth  a  body,  if  let  fall,  will 
pass  through  a  space  of  si.iteen  feet  in  the  first  second ;  and  as 
the  attraction  of  the  earth  still  continues  and  is  exercised  on  a 
body  already  in  rapid  motion,  this  rate  of  progress  must  be  pro- 
portionately increased.  The  space  a  falling  body  passes  through 
has  been  calculated,  and  found  to  increase  in  proportion  to  the 
square  of  the  time  it  takes  to  fall.  For  instance,  suppose  you 
drop  a  stone  from  the  top  of  a  cliff  to  the  beach,  and  it  occupies 
two  seconds  in  falling.  If  you  multiply  2  by  2  and  the  result  by 
16,  you  will  find  how  high  the  cliff  is  —  64  feet.  The  depth  of 
a  well  can  be  ascertained  in  the  same  way,  leaving  out  the  effect 
of  air  resistance. 

But  if  we  go  up  into  the  air,  the  force  of  gravity  will  be 
diminished.  The  attraction  will  be  less,  because  we  are  more 
distant  from  the  center  of  the  earth.  This  decrease  is  scarcely, 
if  at  all,  perceptible,  even  on  very  high  mountains, because  their 
size  is  not  great  in  comparison  with  the  mass  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. The  rule  for  this  is  that  gravity  decreases  in  proportion  to 
the  square  of  the  distance.  So  that  if  at  a  certain  distance  from 
the  earth's  surface  the  force  of  attraction  be  i,  if  the  distance  be 
doubled  the  attraction  will  be  only  one-quarter  as  much  as  be- 
fore— not  one-half. 

Gravity  has  exactly  the  same  influence  upon  all  bodies,  and 
the  force  of  the  attraction  is  in  proportion  to  the  mass.  All 
bodies  of  equal  mass  will  fall  in  the  same  time  in  a  given  dis- 
tance. Two  corns,  or  a  coin  and  a  feather,  in  vacuo,  will  fall 
together.     But  in  the  air  the  feather  will  remain  far  behind  the 


coin,  because  nearly  all  the  atoms  of  the  former  are  resisted  by 
the  air,  while  in  the  coin  only  some  particles  ai-e  exposed  to  the 
resistance,  the  density  of  the  latter  preventing  the  air  from  reach- 
ing more  than  a  few  atoms,  comparatively  speaking. 

Drops  of  water  falling  from  tlie  clouds  do  not  strike  with  a 
force  proportional  to  the  laws  of  falling  bodies.  This  is  because 
they  are  so  small  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  nearly  destroys 
their  velocity.  If  it  were  not  for  this  wise  provision,  a  shower 
of  raindrops  would  be  as  fatal  as  one  of  minle  bullets. 

The  weight  of  a  body  varies  on  diffei-ent  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface.  It  will  be  least  at  the  equator :  (i  J  because,  on 
account  of  the  bulging  form  of  our  globe,  a  body  is  there 
pushed  out  from  the  mass  of  the  earth,  and  so  removed  from  the 
center  of  attraction ;  {2)  because  the  centrifugal  force  is  there 
the  strongest.  It  will  be  greatest  at  the  poles  :  (i)  because,  on 
account  of  the  flattening  of  the  earth,  a  body  is  there  brought 
nearer  its  mass  and  the  center  of  attraction;  (2)  because  there 
is  no  centrifugal  force  at  those  points.  At  the  center  of  the 
earth  the  weight  of  a  body  is  nothing,  because  the  attraction  is 
there  equal  in  every  direction. 

THE  CENTER  OF  GRAVITY. 
The  center  of  gravity  is  that  point  on  which,  if  supported,  a 
body  will  balance  itself.  In  our  daily  actions  are  found  many 
physiological  applications  of  the  center  of  gravity.  When  we 
wish  to  rise  from  the  chair,  we  bend  forward,  in  order  to  bring 
the  center  of  gravity  over  our  feet,  our  muscles  not  having 
sufficient  strength  to  raise  our  bodies  without  this  aid.  And 
when  we  walk,  we  lean  forward,  so  as  to  bring  the  center  uf 
gravity  as  far  in  front  as  possible. 

SPECIFIC   GR.WITY. 

Specific  gravity  is  the  weight  of  a  substance  compared  ^\  itli 
the  weight  of  the  same  bulk  of  another  substance.  It  is  re.dly 
a  method  of  findnig  tlie  density  of  a  body.  Water  is  taken  as 
the  standard  for  solids  and  liquids,  and  air  for  gases. 

THE   PENDULUM. 

The  pendulum  consists  of  a  weight  so  suspended  as  to  swing 
freely.  Its  movements  to  and  fro  are  termed  vibrations  or 
oscillations.  The  path  through  which  it  passes  is  called  the  arc, 
and  the  extent  to  which  it  goes  in  either  direction  is  styled  its 
amplitude. 

As  "  heat  expands  and  cold  contracts,"  a  pendulum  increases 
in  length  in  summer  and  shortens  in  winter.  Therefore,  a 
clock  loses  time  in  summer  and  gains  in  winter. 

CENTRIFUGAL  AND  CENTRIPETAL  FORCE. 

Centrifugal  force,  wdiich  means  "flying  from  the  center,"  is 
the  force  which  causes  an  object  to  describe  a  circle  with  uni- 
form velocity,  and  fly  away  from  the  center.  The  force  that 
counteracts  it  is  called  tlie  centripetal  force. 

To  represent  its  action,  an  ordinary  glass  tumbler  may  be 
used.  The  tumbler  should  be  placed  on  a  round  piece  of  card- 
board, held  firmly  in  place  by  cords.  Some  water  is  then 
poured  into  the  glass,  and  it  can  be  swung  to  and  fro  and  round, 
without  the  water  being  spilt,  even  when  the  glass  is  upside 
down. 


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NATURAL  I'HIjrfJSOI'HV  — PHYSICS. 


345 


Cohesion. 

Cohtiion  is  the  attraction  of  particles  of  Ixjdies  to  each  other 
at  very  small  distances  apart.  Cohesion  has  received  various 
names  in  order  to  express  its  various  degrees.  For  instance,  we 
say  a  body  is  tough  or  brittle,  or  soft  or  hard,  according  to  the 
degrees  of  cohesion  the  particles  e.xercise.  We  know  if  we 
break  a  glass  we  destroy  the  cohesion  ;  the  particles  cannot  be 
reunited.  Most  liquid  particles  can  be  united,  but  not  all.  Oil 
will  not  mix  with  water. 

The  force  of  cohesion  depends  upon  heat.  Heat  expands 
everything,  and  the  cohesion  diminishes  as  temperature  in- 
creases. 

Tliere  are  some  objects  or  substances  upon  the  earth  the 
particles  of  which  adhere  much  more  closely  than  others,  and 
can  only  be  separated  with  very  great  difficulty.  These  are 
termed  solids.  There  are  other  substances  whose  jjarticlcs  can 
ca.sily  be  ilivided,  or  their  position  altered.  These  arc  called 
fluids.  .'\  third  class  seem  to  have  little  or  no  cohesion  at  all. 
Tliese  are  termed  gases. 

ADHESION. 

Adhesion  is  also  a  form  of  altr.iction,  and  is  cohesion  existing 
on  the  surfaces  of  two  bodies.  When  a  fluid  adheres  to  a  solid 
we  say  the  solid  is  wet.  We  turn  this  natural  adhesion  to  our 
own  purposes  in  many  ways — we  whitewash  our  walls,  and 
paint  our  houses ;  we  paste  our  papers  together,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  fluids  will  not  adhere.  Oil  and 
water  have  already  been  instanced.  Mercury  will  not  stick  to  a 
glass  tube,  nor  will  the  oiled  glass  tube  retain  any  water.  We 
can  show  the  attraction  and  repulsion  in  the  following  manner : 
Let  one  "glass  tube  be  dipped  into  water  and  another  into  mer- 
cury; you  will  see  that  the  water  will  .isceml  slightly  at  the  side, 
owing  to  the  attraction  of  the  gbss,  wliile  the  mercury  will  be 
higher  in  the  center,  for  it  possesses  no  attr.iction  for  the  glass. 
If  small,  or  what  are  termed  capillary  (or  hair)  tubes,  be  used, 
the  water  will  rise  up  in  the  one  tube,  while  in  the  other  the 
mercury  will  remain  lower  than  the  mercury  outside  the  tube. 

The  law  of  adhesion  is  what  necessitates  the  spout  on  a 
pitcher.  The  water  would  run  down  the  side  of  the  pitcher  by 
the  force  of  adhesion,  but  the  spout  throws  it  into  the  hands  of 
gravitation  before  adhesion  can  catch  it. 

Affinity,  or  Chemical  Attraction. 

Affinity,  or  chemical  attraction,  is  the  force  by  which  two 
different  bodies  unite  to  form  a  new  and  different  body  from 
either.     This  force  will  be  fully  considered  in  Chemistry. 

It  is  needless  for  us  to  dwell  upon  the  uses  of  these  forces  of 
Nature.  Gravity  and  cohesion  being  left  out  of  our  world,  we 
can  imagine  the  result.  The  earth  and  sun  and  planets  would 
wander  aimlessly  about ;  we  should  float  away  into  space,  and 
everything  would  fall  to  pieces,  while  our  bodies  would  dissolve 
into  tTieir  component  parts. 

Motion. 

Afotion  is  a  change  of  place.  Absolute  motion  is  a  change 
without  reference  to  any  other  object.  Relative  motion  is  a 
change  with  reference  to  some  other  object. 


Kest  is  either  absolute  or  relative.  Velocity  is  the  rate  at 
which  a  body  moves.  Force,  a.s  has  been  said,  is  that  which 
tends  to  protluce  or  destroy  motion. 

The  principal  resistances  to  /notion  arc  friction,  resistance  of 
the  air,  and  gravity. 

Friction  is  the  resistance  caused  by  the  surface  over  which  a 
body  moves.  If  the  surface  of  a  body  could  be  made  perfectly 
smooth,  there  would  be  no  friction ;  but  in  spite  of  the  most 
exact  and  complete  polish,  the  microscope  reveals  minute  projec- 
tions and  cavities. 

Momentum  is  the  quantity  of  motion  in  a  body. 

Two  laws  of  motion  :  :.  A  body  once  set  in  motion  tends  to 
move  forever  in  a  straight  line.  2.  A  force  acting  upon  a  body, 
in  motion  or  at  rest,  produces  the  same  effect,  whether  it  acts 
alone  or  with  other  forces. 

Circular  motion  is  a  variety  of  compound  motion  jirodnced 
by  two  forces,  called  the  centrifugal  and  the  centripetal.  The 
former  tends  to  drive  a  body  from  the  center ;  the  latter  tends  to 
draw  a  body  toward  the  center. 

Refected  motion  is  produced  by  the  reaction  of  any  surface 
against  which  an  elastic  body  is  thrown. 

Curved  motion. — Whenever  two  or  more  instantaneous  forces 
act  upon  a  body,  the  resultant  is  a  straight  line.  When  one  is 
instantaneous  and  the  other  continuous,  it  is  a  curved  line.  And 
when  a  body  is  thrown  into  the  air,  unless  it  be  in  a  vertical 
line,  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  instantaneous  force  of  projection  and 
the  continuous  force  of  gravity,  and  so  passes  through  a  line 
which  curves  toward  the  earth. 

Machines 

linable  us  to  apply  and  direct  the  forces  of  nature.  The  lever 
and  the  inclined  plane,  and  their  modifications,  the  screw,  the 
wedge,  the  wheel  and  axle  and  the  pulley,  constitute  the  elemen- 
tary fonns  of  machinery. 

Power  or  energy,  multiplied  by  the  distance  through  which  it 
moves,  equals  the  weight,  load  or  resistance  multiplied  by  the 
distance.  The  fundamental  law  is,  that  what  is  gained  in  power 
is  lost  in  time  or  distance.  Thus,  two  pounds  of  power  moving 
through  ten  feet  equals  twenty  pounds  moving  through  one  foot. 

A  lever  is  an  inflexible  bar  capable  of  turning  on  a  fixed 
point.  The  force  used  is  called  the  power,  the  object  to  be 
moved,  the  weight,  and  the  fixed  point  or  pivot,  the  fulcrum. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  levers,  .as  follows:  I.  Power  at  one 
end,  weight  at  the  other,  fulcrum  lictween  them.  2.  Power  at 
one  end,  fulcrum  at  the  other,  and  weight  between  them.  3. 
Fulcrum  at  one  end,  weight  at  the  other,  and  power  between 
them. 

The  compound  lever  consists  of  several  levei-s  connected 
together  in  such  a  way  that  the  short  arm  of  one  acts  upon  the 
long  arm  of  the  next,  and  so  on. 

The  wheel  and  axle  is  a  modification  of  the  lever  in  which 
the  center  of  the  axis  of  the  wheel  is  the  fulcrum,  the  distance 
from  the  rim  of  the  wheel  to  the  axis,  or  the  length  of  the  crank, 
the  long  arm,  and  the  distance  from  the  circumference  of  the 
axis  to  its  center,  its  short  arm. 

The/«//c/is  a  modification  of  the  lever  in  which  the  distances 


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NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY-  PHYSICS. 


from  the  axis  to  the  circumference  represent  equal  arms  of  the 
lever.  No  advantage  is  gained  in  a  fixed  pulley  except  change 
of  direction.  By  means  of  a  number  of  movable  pulleys  the 
power  distance  is  increased,  the  cord  having  to  pass  through  a 
greater  distance  to  gain  greater  power. 

The  inclined  plane  is  a  smooth,  hard  surface  inclmed  so  as  to 
make  an  angle  with  direction  of  the  force  to  be  overcome. 
Comparing  it  .with  the  lever,  the  length  corresponds  to  the  long 
arm  and  the  height  to  the  short  arm. 

The  wedge  is  simply  a  movable  inclined  plane,  its  power 
depending  upon  friction  as  well  as  upon  its  form. 

The  scre^v  is  an  inclined  plane  wound  around  a  cylinder. 

Perpetual    Motion. 

Nothing  can  be  more  utterly  impracticable  than  to  make  a 
machine  capable  of  perpetual  motion.  No  machine  can  pro- 
duce power ;  it  can  only  direct  that  which  is  applied  to  it.  We 
know  that  in  all  machinery  there  is  friction ;  hence,  this  must 
ultimately  exhaust  the  power  and  bring  the  motion  to  rest. 
These  principles  show  the  uselessness  of  all  such  attempts. 

HYDROSTATICS    AND    HYDRAULICS. 

J/ydroslatics  treats  of  liquids  at  rest.  Its  principles  apply  to 
all  liquids,  but  water,  on  account  of  its  abundance,  is  taken  as 
the  type  of  the  class,  and  all  experiments  are  based  upon  it. 

Liquids  transmit  pressure  in  all  directions.  PaseaFs  law  is 
as  follows  :  Pressure  exerted  anywhere  upon  a  mass  of  liquid  is 
transmitted,  undiminished,  in  all  directions,  and  acts  with  the 
same  force  upon  equal  surfaces,  and  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  those  surfaces.  A  necessary  inference  from  this  law- 
is  that  surfaces  of  vessels  sustain  a  pressure  proportional  to  their 
area. 

A  practical  application  of  Pascal's  law  is  the  hydrostatic 
press,  more  generally  called  the  hydraulic  press.  This  is  a  very 
powerful  machine,  liy  means  of  which  a  pressure  of  several  hun- 
dred tons  may  be  obtained. 

Artesian  wells  are  so  named  because  they  have  been  used  for 
a  long  time  in  the  province  of  Artois,  in  France ;  "they  were, 
however,  employed  by  the  Chinese,  from  early  ages,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  procuring  gas  and  salt  water.  These  are  on  the  principle 
above  stated,  tliat  liquids  press  equally  in  all  directions — that 
water  "  always  seeks  its  level."  By  boring  through  strata  of 
rocks,  or  earth  impervious  to  water,  and  striking  a  Irasin  of  water 
which  has  descended  from  a  greater  height,  through  a  porous 
strata,  a  well  is  formed  which  throws  water  to  almost  the  height 
of  tlie  fountain  head,  being  retarded  only  by  friction  and  resist- 
ance of  the  air. 

The  surface  of  slanding  water  is  said  to  be  level ;  this  is  true 
for  small  sheets  of  water,  but  for  larger  bodies  an  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  circular  figure  of  the  earth. 

The  spirit  level  is  an  instrument  used  by  builders  for  leveling ; 
it  consists  of  a  slightly  curved  glass  tube,  so  nearly  full  of  alco- 
hol that  it  holds  only  a  bulible  of  air.  When  the  level  is  hori- 
zontal, the  bubble  remains  at  the  center  of  the  tube. 

Modern  engineers  carry  water  across  a  river  by  means  of 
pipes  laid  under  the  bed  of  the  river,  knowing  that  the  water 


will  rise  on  the  opposite  side  to  its  level.  The  ancients  appear 
to  have  understood  this  principle,  but  were  unable  to  construct 
pipes  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure. 

Hydraulics  treats  of  liquids  in  motion.  In  this,  as  in  hydro- 
statics, water  is  taken  as  the  type.  In  theory,  its  principles  are 
those  of  falling  bodies,  but  they  are  so  modified  by  various 
causes  that  in  practice  they  cannot  be  relied  upon,  except  as 
verified  by  experiment.  The  discrepancy  arises  from  changes  of 
temperature,  which  vary  the  fluidity  of  the  liquid,  from  friction, 
the  shape  of  the  orifice,  etc. 

A  fall  of  only  three  inches  per  mile  is  sufficient  to  give  motion 
to  water,  and  produce  a  velocity  of  as  many  miles  per  hour. 
The  Ganges  descends  but  Soo  feet  in  1,800  miles;  its  waters 
require  a  month  to  move  down  this  long  inclined  plane.  A  faU 
of  three  feet  per  mile  will  make  a  mountain  torrent. 

Barker's  Mill  consists  of  an  upright  cylinder  with  horizontal 
arms,  and  with  apertures  in  the  opposite  sides,  the  cylinder  being 
so  arranged  as  to  turn  easily.  When  water  is  poured  into 
the  cylinder,  the  pressure  being  equal  in  all  directions,  it  would 
remain  at  rest,  did  it  not  flow  out  at  the  orifices,  thus  relieving 
tlie  pressure  on  the  one  side,  causing  the  arm  to  move  in  the 
opposite  direction  and  the  cylinder  to  revolve.  The  Turbine 
water-wheel  is  a  practical  application  of  this  principle. 

PNEUMATICS 

Treats  of  the  general  properties  and  the  pressure  of  gases. 

Gases  have  weight,  compressibility,  expansibility  aiid  elas- 
ticity, and  the  principles  of  transmission  of  pressure,  specific 
gravity  and  buoyancy  of  liquids  apply  to  them  as  well.  The 
pressure  of  the  air  has  been  several  times  referred  to.  The  force 
of  air  can  very  soon  be  shown  as  acting  with  considerable  pres- 
sure on  an  egg  in  a  glass.  By  blowing  in  a  small  wine  glass, 
containing  a  hard-boiled  egg,  it  is  possible  to  cause  the  egg  to 
jump  out  of  the  glass,  and  with  practice  and  strength  of  lungs  it 
is  not  impossible  to  make  it  pass  from  one  glass  to  another.  The 
force  of  heated  air  ascending  can  be  ascertained  by  cutting  a 
card  into  a  spiral  and  holding  it  above  a  lamp  or  a  stove.  The 
spiral,  if  lightly  poised,  will  revolve  rapidly. 

The  barometer  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  pressure  of 
air,  and  consists  essentially  of  an  apparatus,  first  used  by  Torri- 
celli,  who  took  a  glass  tube  about  a  yard  in  length,  closed  at  one 
end,  and  filled  it  with  mercury.  Placing  his  thumb  over  the 
closed  end,  he  immersed  it  in  a  vessel  of  mercury.  Removing 
his  thumb,  the  mercury  sank  until  it  stood  at  the  height  of  30 
inches.  The  space  above  the  mercury  was  as  nearly  a  complete 
vacuum  as  has  ever  been  attained.  By  this  experiment  he 
proved  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  a  column  of  liquid  which  it  will  sustain. 

The  barometer  is  used  to  indicate  tlie  weather,  and  to 
measure  the  height  of  mountains. 

Three  opposing  forces  act  on  the  air,  viz.:  gravity,  which 
binds  it  to  the  earth,  and  the  centrifugal  and  the  repellant  (Iieat) 
forces,  wlrich  tend  to  hurl  it  off'  into  space.  Under  the  action  of 
the  latter  forces,  the  atmosphere,  like  a  great  bent  spring,  is  ready 
to  bound  away  at  tlie  first  opportunity ;  but  the  attraction  of  the 
earth  holds  it  firmly  in  its  place. 


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NATURAL  JIHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS. 


347 


The  rise  and  fall  of  the  barometric  column  shows  that  the  air 
is  lighter  ill  foul  and  heavier  in  fair  weather.  In  fair  weather, 
the  moisture  of  the  air  is  an  invisible  vapor,  mingled  with  it,  and 
adding  to  its  pressure,  while  in  foul  weather  the  vapor  is  sepa- 
rated in  the  form  of  clouds. 

The  common  pump  is  an  application  of  air  pressure.  The 
piston,  or  sucker,  being  raised,  the  water  is  forced  up  the  tube 
by  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well, 
there  being  no  resistance  in  the  tube,  for  the  piston  lifts  out  the 
air.  As  the  piston  descends,  the  valve  in  it  opens  upward  and 
allows  the  water  to  pass  through  above  the  valve,  which,  closing 
as  it  rises  again,  the  water  is  lifted  out  and  more  is  forced  into 
the  tube  below.  Owing  to  the  necessary  imperfection  of  the 
parts,  water  cannot  be  raised  by  atmospheric  pressure  more  than 
about  27  feet. 

The  air-pump  is  a  machine  for  removing  the  air  from  within 
a  vessel.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder  supplied  with  a  valve  open- 
ing inward  and  one  ojiening  outward,  and  a  piston  fitting  accu- 
rately. When  th.e  piston  is  raised,  tlie  air  rushes  into  the  cylinder 
through  the  first  valve  to  fill  the  vacuum.  As  the  cylinder 
descends,  the  air  closes  the  first  valve  and  opens  the  second,  and 
is  driven  out,  every  stroke  of  the  piston  thus  removing  a  portion 
of  air.  The  escape  valve  may  be  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  or 
in  the  piston  itself. 

The  sip/ion  consists  of  a  tube,  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  U, 
with  unequal  arms.  Fill  the  siphon  with  water,  closing  both 
ends  with  the  fingers.  Insert  the  short  arm  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
with  the  long  arm  on  the  outside,  with  its  end  lower  than  the 
end  of  the  short  arm.  The  column  of  water  in  the  long  arm 
will  run  out  by  its  own  weight,  and  the  tendency  would  be  to 
produce  a  vacuum  in  the  bend  of  the  tube,  but  the  water  is 
forced  up  by  the  pressure  of  air  through  the  short  arm,  and  thus 
the  stream  is  kept  up  so  longas  the  outside  arm  is  lower  at  its 
orifice  than  the  orifice  of  the  inside  arm.  The  flow  may  be 
started  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the  long  arm  by  suction,  and 
then  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  fill  the  siphon  with  water. 

ACOUSTICS. 

Acoustics  treats  of  the  doctrine  of  sound.  The  term  sound  is 
used  in  two  senses  —  the  subjective,  that  which  ha.s  reference  to 
<iur  mind  ;  and  the  objective,  that  which  refers  only  to  the  objects 
around  us. 

In  the  subjective  sense,  sound  is  the  sensation  produced  upon 
the  organ  of  hearing  by  vibrations  in  matter.  In  this  use  of  the 
word,  there  can  be  no  sound  where  there  is  no  ear  to  catch  the 
vibrations. 

In  the  objective  sense,  sound  is  those  vibrations  of  matter 
capable  of  producing  a  sensation  upon  the  organ  of  hearing.  In 
this  use  of  the  word,  there  can  be  a  sound  in  the  absence  of  the 
ear.  An  object  falls  and  the  vibrations  are  produced,  though 
there  may  be  no  organ  of  hearing  to  receive  an  impression  from 
them. 

The  velocity  of  sound  depends  on  the  elasticity  and  density 
of  the  medium  through  which  it  passes.  The  higher  the  elastic- 
ity, the  more  promptly  and  rapidly  the  motion  will  be  trans- 
mitted, since  the  elastic  force  acts  like  a  bent  spring  between  the 


molecules.  The  greater  the  density,  the  more  molecules  to  be 
set  in  motion,  and  hence  the  slower  the  transmission. 

Sound  travels  through  the  air  (at  the  freezing  |K>int)  at  the 
rate  of  1,090  feet  per  second.  A  rise  in  temperature  diminishes 
the  density  of  the  air,  and  thus  sound  travels  faster  in  warm  and 
slower  in  cold  air.  Through  water  sound  travels  at  the  rate  of 
4,700  feet  per  second.  Water  is  denser  than  air,  and  for  that 
reason  sound  should  travel  in  it  much  slower;  but  its  elasticity, 
which  is  measured  by  the  forje  required  to  compress  it,  is  so 
much  greater  that  the  rale  is  quadrupled.  .Sound  travels  through 
solids  faster  than  through  air ;  and  the  velocity  in  iron  is  nearly 
ten  times  greater.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  all  sounds 
travel  with  the  same  velocity. 

When  a  sound-wave  strikes  against  the  surface  of  another 
medium,  a  portion  goes  on  while  the  rest  is  reflected.  The  law 
which  governs  reflected  sound  is  that  of  reflected  motion — fie 
angle  of  incidence  is  equal  lo  that  of  reflection. 

The  air  at  night  is  more  homogeneous  than  by  day ;  conse- 
<iuently,  sounds  are  heard  more  clearly  and  farther  Ihan  in  the 
daytime. 

If  two  sounds  meet  in  exactly  opposite  phases,  and  the  two 
forces  are  equal,  they  will  balance  each  other,  and  silence  will 
ensue.  Thus,  a  sound  added  lo  a  sound  will  produce  silence. 
In  the  same  way,  two  motions  may  produce  rest ;  two  tights  may 
cause  darkness ,   and  two  h:ats  may  produce  cold. 

The  difference  between  noise  and  music  is  only  that  between 
irregular  and  regular  vibrations.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause 
which  sets  the  air  in  motion,  if  the  vibrations  be  uniform  and 
rapid  enough,  the  sound  is  musical.  If  the  ticks  of  a  watch 
could  be  made  with  sufficient  rapidity,  they  would  lose  their 
individuality,  and  blend  into  a  musical  lone. 

Wind  instruments  produce  musical  sounds  by  means  of  in- 
closed columns  of  air.  Sound-waves  run  backward  and  forward 
through  the  tube,  and  act  on  the  surrounding  air  like  the  vibra- 
tions of  a  cord. 

The  Telephone  is  an  instrument  which  has,  in  a  few  years, 
come  into  almost  general  use,  and  which  is  beginning  to  rival 
the  electric  telegraph  as  a  means  of  rapid  communication.  I!y 
means  of  it  articulate  speech  or  other  sounds  are  reproduced  at 
great  distances.  In  the  acoustic,  or  string  telephone,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  have  a  membrane  which  can  be  set  in  vibration  by 
the  impulses  of  the  air  made  by  the  voice  on  an  instrument,  and 
a  string  or  wire  attached  to  it  to  carry  the  vibrations  to  a  similar 
membrane  at  the  other  end.  This  second  membrane  gives 
back  lo  the  air  the  .same  kind  of  vibration  received  at  the  other 
end.  In  the  electric  telephone  the  vibrations  of  the  membrane 
cause  changes  in  the  electric  current,  produce<l  by  a  battery, 
these  changes  being  capable  of  reproducing  the  same  kind  of 
vibrations  in  the  membrane  at  the  opposite  end. 

The  Microphone  is  an  instrument  which,  in  its  main  features, 
consists  of  a  carbon  "  pencil,"  so  suspended  that  one  end  rests 
upon  a  carbon  '•  die."  The  inslrumeni,  being  connected  with  a 
telephone  by  the  circuit  wires,  will  rejiroduce  faint  sounds  very 
distinctly.  The  upright  carbon  is  thrown  into  vibrations  by  the 
impulse  of  the  sound,  which  alternately  lengthens  and  shortens 
it.     This,  by  impairing  or  strengthening  the  connection  of  the 


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348 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


circuit,  alternately  lessens  and  strengthens  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent. Corresponding  to  these  electric  changes,  the  membrane 
of  the  telephone  vibrates  and  gives  out  sound.  It  is  so  sensitive 
that  the  walking  of  a  fly  on  the  sounding-board  may  be  dis- 
tinctly heard  at  the  telephone,  and  the  ticking  of  a  watch  sounds 
like  blows  of  a  hammer. 

The  Phonograph  is  an  instrument  which  registers  the  difter- 
ent  vibrations  produced  by  sound,  and  reproduces  them  in  cor- 
respondence with  this  registratiorh  It  consists  of  a  mouth-piece 
and  vibrating  membrane,  the  same  as  the  telephone,  with  a 
needle  attached  to  the  center  of  the  membrane,  the  vibrations  of 
which  cause  the  needle  to  make  impressions  on  a  strip  of  tin  foil, 
rolled  on  a  grooved  revolving  cylinder.  By  so  adjusting  the 
machine  that  the  needle  may  retrace  its  path  on  the  tin  foil,  the 
membrane  is  set  in  vibration  again  and  the  sounds  are  given 
back  exactly  as  they  were  received.  Articulate  speech,  as  well 
as  all  other  noises,  is  reproduced  with  wonderful  distinctness. 

With  the  Photophone,  sounds  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  by 
means  of  light.  Changes  are  produced  in  the  electric  current 
by  the  light  falling  on  a  plate  of  "selenium."  With  this  excep- 
tion the  principle  is  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  telephone. 

The  Audiphone  is  an  instrument  to  convey  sound  to  the  ear, 
to  supplement  it  when  partial  or  temporary  deafness  has  occur- 
red. The  instrument  has  the  appearance  of  a  large,  black  fan, 
is  made  of  vulcanized  rubber,  and  consists  of  a  long,  flexible 
disc,  supported  by  a  handle.  To  the  upper  edge  of  the  "  fan  " 
are  attached  cords,  which  pass  through  a  clip  on  the  handle. 
If  the  person  who  wishes  to  hear  by  means  of  the  audiphone 
will  hold  the  fan  against  the  upper  teeth — the  convex  side  of  the 
fan  outward  —  he  or  she  will  hear  distinctly,  for  the  vibrations 
of  sound  are  collected  and  strike  upon  the  teeth  and  bones,  and 
act  upon  the  auditory  ner\'es  from  within,  precisely  as  the  vibra- 
tions act  from  without  through  the  auricle. 

The  Topophone,  an  apparatus  for  discovering  the  position  of  a 
sound,  is  based  upon  the  well-known  theory  of  sound-waves.  It 
is  claimed  for  this  apparatus  that  it  stands  in  the  same  relation 
to  the  sailor  as  his  old  and  trusty  friends  the  compass  and 
sextant,  as  it  will  tell  him  whence  a  sound  arises,  and  this  in  a 
fog  is  no  mean  advantage.  The  whole  theory  of  the  topo- 
phone, however,  depends  for  its  usefulness  upon  the  same  note 
being  sounded  by  all  horns  and  whistles.  The  note  C  treble, 
caused  by  about  260  vibrations  per  second,  has  been  found 
most  applicable,  and  if  all  whistles  and  fog-horns  can  by  law  be 
com])eUed  to  adjust  themselves  to  this  note,  the  topophone  will 
prove  a  real  and  lasting  benefit. 

OPTICS 

Is  the  science  which  treats  of  light  and  vision.  Light  is  a 
vibratory  motion,  like  sound  and  heat,  transmitted  through  a 
medium  called  ether.  This  medium  is  a  very  elastic  substance 
surrounding  us,  and  constituting  a  kind  of  universal  atmosphere, 
diffused  throughout  all  space.  It  is  so  subtle  that  it  fills  the 
pores  of  all  bodies,  eludes  all  chemical  tests,  passes  in  through 
the  glass  receiver  and  remains  even  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air- 
pump. 


A  htmiiwiis  body  is  one  that  emits  or  sends  forth  light.  .\ 
non-liiniiitoiis  body  is  one  that  reflects  lighf,  and  is  visible  only 
in  the  presence  of  a  luminous  body.  A  mediujn  is  any  sub- 
stance through  which  light  passes.  A  traftsparent  body  is  one 
that  offers  so  little  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  light  that  we 
can  see  objects  through  it.  A  translucent  body  is  one  that  lets 
some  light  pass,  but  not  enough  to  render  objects  visible  through 
it.     An  opaque  body  is  one  that  does  not  transmit  light. 

The  three  great  laws  governing  light  are  :  I.  Light  passes  off' 
from  a  luminous  body  equally  in  every  direction.  2.  Light 
travels  through  a  medium  of  uniform  density  in  straiglit  lines. 
3.  The  intensity  of  light  decreases  as  the  square  of  the  distance 
increases. 

The  velocity  of  light  is  about  185,000  miles  per  second.  This 
is  so  great  that,  for  all  distances  on  the  earth,  it  is  practically  in- 
stantaneous. 

When  a  beam  of  light  from  a  luminous  body  falls  upon  the 
surface  of  an  opaque  body  a  portion  is  rejected  and  a  portion 
absorbed.  When  light  passes  from  one  medium  tp  another  of 
diflerent  density  it  is  refracted,  that  is,  bent  out  of  its  regular 
course. 

Diffraction  of  light  is  caused  by  a  beam  of  light  passing  along 
the  edge  of  some  opaque  body.  As  the  waves  of  ether  strike 
against  it,  they  put  in  motion  another  set  of  waves  on  the  oppo- 
site side  which  interfere  with  the  first  system. 

The  rainbow  is  formed  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the 
sunbeam  in  drops  of  falling  water.  Halos,  coronas,  sundogs, 
circles  about  the  moon,  the  gorgeous  tinting  at  sunrise  and  sun- 
set, are  all  producetl  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the  sun's 
rays  when  passing  through  the  clouds  in  the  upper  regions  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  phenomenon  familiarly  known  as  the 
"sun's  drawing  water"  consists  merely  of  the  long  shadows  of 
broken  clouds. 

The  mirage  is  fully  explained  under  the  head  of  Physical 
Geography. 

If  a  sunbeam  be  passed  through  a  prism  the  light  is  decom- 
posed and  appears  as  a  band  of  seven  colors,  viz.:  violet,  indigo, 
blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  red.  These  are  called  the  colors  of 
the  solar  spectrum. 

A  le7is  is  a  transparent  body,  generally  of  glass,  having  one  or 
two  curved  surfaces.  A  convex  lens  converges  the  rays  of  light, 
or  brings  them  to  a  focus  at  a  point,  varying  in  distance,  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  convexity.  A  concave  lens  causes  the  rays 
of  light  to  diverge.  If  the  eye  be  placed  at  the  point  where  the 
rays  from  an  object  are  brought  to  a  focus  by  a  convex  lens,  the 
object  will  appear  magnified,  while  tlie  same  object  seen  through 
a  concave  lens  will  appear  diminished.  A  "  burning  glass  "  is 
a  convex  lens,  converging  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Rays  which  pass  through  a  lens  near  the  edge  arc  brought  to 
a  focus  sooner  than  those  near  the  center ;  therefore,  when  an 
image  is  clear  around  the  edge,  it  will  be  indistinct  at  tlie  center, 
and  vice  versa.  This  wandering  of  the  rays  from  the  focus  is 
termed  spherical  aberration. 

Chromatic  aberration  is  caused  by  the  different  refrangibiliiy 
of  the  several  colors  which  compose  white  light.  The  violet, 
being  bent  most,  tends  to  come  to  a  focus  sooner  than  the  red. 


-M 


■fW 


NATURAL  PHILOSOP.HY— PHYSICS. 


349 


wliich  is  bent  least.  This  causes  the  play  of  colors  seen  around 
tlie  image  produced  by  an  ordinary  gl.nss.  It  is  remedied  by 
using  a  second  lens  of  different  dispersive  power,  which  counter- 
acts the  effects  of  the  first. 

Alicroscopes  are  of  two  kinds — simple  and  compound.  Tlie 
former  consists  of  a  double  convex  lens ;  the  biter  cunlains  al 
least  two  lenses. 

Telescopes  are  of  two  kinds — -redecling  and  rcfr.-icting.  The 
formir  contains  a  large,  metallic  mirror,  which  rellects  the  rays 
of  light  to  a  focus;  the  latter,  like  the  microscope,  contains  an 
oliject-lens  which  forms  an  image. 

The  opera-glass  contains  an  object-glass  anil  an  eye-piece. 
The  latter  is  a  double  concave  lens.  This  increases  the  visual 
angle  by  diverging  the  rays  of  light,  which  would  otherwise 
come  to  a  focus  beyond  the  eye-jiiece. 

The  camera  used  by  photographers  contains  a  double  convex 
lens,  which  throws  an  inverted  image  of  the  object  upon  the 
ground  glass  screen. 

The  three  kinds  of  mirrors  are  plane,  concave  and  con\ex. 
The  first  has  a  fiat  surface;  the  second,  one  like  the  inside,  and 
the  third,  one  like  the  outside  of  a  watch  crystal.  The  general 
principle  of  mirrors  is  that  tlie  image  is  always  seen  in  tlie  direc- 
tion of  the  reflected  ray  as  it  enters  the  eye. 

HEAT 

Is  now  known  to  Ije  a  series  of  vibrations,  or  vibratory  motions, 
as  sound  vibrations,  which  we  cannot  hear  nor  see,  but  the 
effects  of  which  are  known  to  us  as  light  and  heat.  In  other 
words,  heat  is  now  believed  to  be  the  effect  of  the  rapid  motion 
of  all  the  molecules  of  a  body.  If  this  motion  be  increased  the 
body  is  said  to  be  heated ;  if  decreased,  it  is  cooled.  Cold  is  a 
merely  relative  term,  indicating  the  absence  of  heat  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree. 

The  sources  of  heat  are  the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  mechanical 
and  chemical  action.  The  greater  part  of  the  heat  of  our  globe 
comes  from  the  sun,  and  oidy  a  very  minute  ijuantity  from  the 
other  heavenly  bodies.  Great  heat  may  be  developed  by 
mechanical  action,  as  friction  and  concussion.  Count  Rumford 
caused  water  to  boil  by  the  friction  of  metals.  A  blacksmith 
can  make  a  piece  of  iron  red  hot  by  hammering.  The  flint 
strikes  fire  from  the  steel,  particles  of  the  metal  being  lorn  off 
and  healed  to  redness.  Chemical  action  is  seen  in  the  combus- 
tion of  fuel,  the  union  of  oxygen  with  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

All  bodies  expand  under  tlie  effects  of  heat,  for  by  its  addi- 
tion the  molecules  are  urged  into  swifter  motion,  and  therefore 
pushed  further  apart,  increasing  the  size  of  the  body.  Hence 
the  law,  "  Heal  expands  ;  cold  contracts." 

If  heat  be  applied  to  a  liijuid,  the  temperature  rises  until  the 
boiling  point  is  reached,  when  it  slops.  The  expansion,  how- 
ever, continues  until  the  motion  is  so  violent  .is  to  overcome  the 
cohesive  force  and  to  throwoff  particles  of  the  liijuid.  When  we 
heat  water,  the  bubbles  which  pass  off  first  contain  merely  the 
air  dissolved  in  the  liquid ;  next  bubbles  of  steam  fonn  on  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  vessel,  and,  rising  a  little  distance,  are 
crushed  in  by  the  cold  water  and  condensed.     In  breaking  they 


produce  that  peculiar  sound  known  as  "  simmering,"  and  ascend 
higher  and  higher  as  the  temperature  of  the  water  rises,  until  at 
last  they  break  at  the  surface,  and  the  steam  passes  off  into  the 
air. 

Any  substance  wliicli  increases  the  cohesive  power  of  water 
elevates  the  boiling  point,  anil  for  this  reason  salt  water  boils  at 
a  higher  temperalure  than  fresh  water. 

Evaporation  is  a  slow  formation  of  vapor,  which  takes  place 
at  all  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is  hastened  by  an  increase  of 
surface  and  a  gentle  heat.  This  principle  is  made  useful  in  the 
arts  for  separating  a  solid  from  the  licpud  which  holds  it  in 
solution. 

Vacuum  pans  are  largely  em]iloyed  in  condensing  milk,  in 
ihe  manufacture  of  sugar,  etc. ;  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  air 
above  the  liquid  in  the  vessel  may  be  exhausted,  and  then  the 
evaporation  takes  place  very  rapidly,  and  at  so  low  a  tempera- 
lure  that  all  danger  of  burning  is  avoided. 

Absorption  and  reflection  are  intimately  connected  with  7adi- 
ation.  A  good  absorber  is  also  a  good  radiator,  but  a  good 
reflector  can  be  neither.  Snow  is  a  good  reflector  but  a  ))oor 
absorber  or  radiator.  Light  colors  absorb  less  and  rcHect  more 
than  dark  colors.  White  is  the  best  reflector,  and  black  the  best 
al)Sorber  and  radiator. 

On  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  where  "  the  soil  is  fire  and  the  wind 
is  flame,"  the  dry  air  allows  the  heat  to  escape  through  it  so 
readily  lliat  ice  is  sometimes  formed  at  night.  The  dryness  of 
the  air  at  great  elevations  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  cnldiiess 
which  is  there  felt  so  keenly. 

The  thermometer  is  an  instrument  to  measure  the  tempeia- 
ture  l)y  means  of  the  expansion  of  mercury.  Tho  principal 
scales  used  are:  Fahrenheit's,  in  which  the  space  lietween  the 
two  fixed  points,  boiling  and  freezing,  is  divided  into  iSo 
degrees  ;  the  Centigrade,  in  which  this  space  is  divided  into  loo 
degrees;  Reaumur's,  in  which  it  is  divided  into  So  degrees. 
Mercury  freezes  only  at  39°  Fahr.  below  zero,  and  consequently 
it  is  most  generally  used  in  thermometers.  Alcohol  is  used  only 
for  very  low  temperatures. 

Water  changes  from  the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  stat<,  or  boil.s, 
at  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  Asweascend 
above  this  level  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  less,  and  it 
boils  at  a  lower  degree. 

The  steam  engine  is  a  machine  for  using  tlie  elastic  force  of 
steam  as  a  motive  power.  There  are  two  classes  of  engines — 
the  high-pressure  and  the  low-pressure.  In  the  former  the 
steam,  after  being  employed  to  do  its  work,  is  forced  out  into 
the  air ;  in  the  latter  it  is  condensed  in  a  separate  chamlier  by  a 
spray  of  cold  water.  As  the  steam  is  condensed  in  the  low- 
pressure  engine  a  vacuum  is  formed  behind  the  piston,  while 
the  piston  of  the  high-pressure  engine  acts  against  the  pressure 
of  the  air.  The  governor  is  an  apjiaratus  for  regulating  the 
supply  of  steam.  When  a  machine  is  going  too  fast,  the  balls 
fly  out  by  centrifugal  force  and  shut  off  a  portion  of  the  steam ; 
when  too  slowly,  they  fall  back,  and,  opening  the  valve,  let  on 
the  sleam  again.  "Xhe/ly-^vheel,  by  its  inertia,  serves  to  render 
the  movement  of  the  machinery  uniform. 


^. 


Al 


35° 


-7\ 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHV—  PHYSICS. 


MAGNETISM    AND    ELECTRICITY. 

Magnetism  is  tliat  branch  of  science  which  treats  of  the 
properties  of  the  magnet.  Certain  specimen*  of  iron  ore  have 
the  property  of  attracting  iron  and  some  of  its  ores,  and  are 
called  natural  magnets  or  loadstone.  When  freely  suspended 
they  will  point  to  the  poles.  An  artificial  magnet  is  a  magnet- 
ised piece  of  steel,  either  straight  or  bent  in  the  form  of  a 
horseshoe. 

The  production  of  magnetism  by  induction  is  a  curious 
phenomenon.  If  a  permanent  magnet  is  brought  near  a  hand- 
ful of  iron  nails  it  will  attract  them  to  it,  and  as  soon  as  a  nail 
becomes  altaclied  to  the  magnet  it  becomes  a  magnet  itself  and 
attracts  another  nail,  which  in  turn  becomes  a  magnet  and 
attracts  another,  and  so  on,  the  magnetic  power  of  each  new 
nail  attracted  becoming  constantly  less  than  that  of  the  preced- 
ing one.  It  is  not  even  necessary  that  the  nail  should  alKoIutely 
touch  tlie  niagnet  in  order  to  assume  this  magnetic  power,  for  it 
will  be  transmitted  through  short  spaces  from  one  to  the  other. 
This  power  whicli  a  body  acquires  by  being  brought  near  a 
magnet  is  called  magnetic  induction.  An  important  fact  in 
this  connection  is  that  when  a  coil  of  iron  wire  is  made  to  sur- 
round a  permanent  magnet  it  becomes  magnetic  itself  by  induc- 
tion, and  is  capable  of  inducing  magnetism  in  another  bar  of 
iron  surrounded  l.y  it.  This  principle  is  made  practical  use  of 
in  the  construction  of  the  telephone  and  magnetic  telegraph. 

The  greatest  electric  power  of  a  magnet  is  at  its  ends,  which 
are  called  poles.  The  end  pointing  to  the  north,  when  sus- 
pended, is  the  north  or  positive  pole,  the  other  being  the  south 
or  negative.  Like  jioles  repel,  and  unlike  poles  attract  each 
ot!icr. 

The  compass  is  a  magnetic  needle  used  by  mariners,  sur\*ey- 
ors,  etc.  It  is  very  delicately  poised  over  a  card,  on  which  the 
"  points  of  the  compass  "  are  marked.  The  needle  does  not 
often  point  directly  north  and  south.  The  "line  of  no  varia- 
tion" as  it  is  called,  runs  in  an  irregular  course  through  the 
United  .States  from  Cape  Lookout,  across  Lake  Erie  to  Hudson's 
]!ay.  East  of  tl-.is  tl'.e  variation  is  toward  the  west,  and  west  of 
it  it  is  toward  the  east.  The  earth  itself  is  a  great  magnet,  and 
this  explains  why  the  needle  points  north  and  south. 

A  dipping  needle  is  one  which  is  free  to  turn  in  a  vertical 
j>lane.  At  the  equator  it  is  horizontal,  but  as  it  is  carried 
toward  the  north  it  dips,  or  inclines  toward  the  center  of  the 
earth.  At  a  place  near  Hudson's  Bay  it  stands  vertical.  This 
is  ciUed  the  north  magnetic  pole.  It  does  not  coincide  with 
the  geographical  pole. 

Electricity  is  that  science  which  unfolds  the  ]>henomena  and 
laws  of  the  electric  fluid.  Electricity  may  be  generated  by 
means  of  friction,  percussion,  heat,  cliemical  action,  cleavage, 
and  by  magnets.  The  effects  of  electricity  in  its  various  forms 
are  manifested  as  attraction,  repulsion,  light,  heat,  violent  com- 
motions and  chemical  decomposition. 

The  first  method  of  producing  electricity,  discovered  in  the 
earlier  ages,  was  by  rulibing  amber,  and  so  the  term  electricity 
was  derived  from  the  Greek  word  elektron,  signifying  amber. 
It  was  aftenvard  found  that  certain  other  suti^tances,  when 
rubbed,  assumed  electrical  properties,  and  would  attract  or  repel 


other  materials.  This  electricity  produced  by  rubbing  or  fric- 
tion can  be  held  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  hence  it 
has  received  the  name  of  stationary  or  statical  electricity.  This 
is  the  only  form  of  electricity  that  we  can  store  up  and  keep  for 
a  time.  What  is  known  now  as  the  storage  battery  does  not 
really  store  up  electricity,  but  only  energy,  which  can  be  trans- 
formed into  electricity  at  will. 

Dynamical  electricity,  or  electricity  in  motion,  circulates  only 
in  a  conductor  or  along  a  wire,  and  cannot  be  held.  It  w:S  first 
discovered  by  Galvani  in  experimenting  on  frogs'  legs,  and 
hence  it  is  often  called  galvanic  electricity.  It  is  now  ordinarily 
produced  by  means  of  galvanic  batteries  and  dynamo  machines. 
The  third  form  of  electricity  is  called  magnetic  electricity,  or 
magnetism. 

According  to  the  generally  accepted  theory,  there  ai-e  two  so- 
called  electrical  fluids,  and  these  two  are  commingled  in  equal 
proportions  in  all  bodies ;  and  hence  all  the  processes  for 
getting  electricity  must  result  in  puUing  these  two  electrical 
fluids  apart,  and  in  taking  a  portion  of  one  away  from  a  body. 
These  two  fluids  are  called,  one  positive  and  the  other  negative 
electricity.  It  is  found  that  when  two  bodies  are  electrified 
with  the  same  kind  of  electricity  they  repel  each  other;  but 
when  the  two  bodies  are  charged  with  opposite  kinds  of  elec- 
tricity, or  when  one  body  is  charged  with  either  kind  while  the 
other  is  left  in  its  normal  condition,  then  the  two  bodies  attract 
each  other. 

When  a  piece  of  sealing-wax  is  rubbed  it  manifests  electrical 
properties  for  some  time,  but  certain  other  substances,  like 
mctali,  for  instance,  after  being  rubbed  in  the  same  manner, 
show  no  electrical  properties,  and  this  is  because  the  electricity 
easily  gets  away  from  them.  Thus  we  find  that  wliile  certain 
substances  remain  electrified  for  some  time,  others  do  not,  and 
hence  these  bodies  are  named  conductors  and  non-conductors. 
These  terms  are  not  absolute,  but  only  comparative.  Tlie 
metals,  carbon,  gypsum  and  acids  are  called  good  conductors, 
while  amber,  glass,  sulphur  and  silk  are  poor  conductors.  If 
we  want  to  insulate  electricity  and  keep  it  from  running  off  into 
surrounding  objects,  we  surround  the  object  containing  it  with  a 
poor  conductor.  Thus,  the  glass  insulators  on  telegraph  poles 
prevent  the  electricity  from  leaving  the  wires  and  running  oft' 
into  the  ground,  and  the  non-conducting  materials  placed  around 
the  wires  of  the  Atlantic  cable  so  protect  it  that  a  small  charge 
of  electricity  will  carry  a  message  from  here  to  Europe. 

Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  experimenting  with  statical 
electricity,  because  it  so  easily  gels  away.  All  substances  are 
conductors  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  including  the  dust  in  the 
air  and  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  Perfect  insulation  and 
a  warm,  dry  air  are,  therefore,  favorable  conditions  for  holding 
st.itical  electricity.  The  reason  it  w'as  not  used  earlier  for  prac- 
tical purposes  was  because  it  was  so  difiicult  to  manage.  The 
electricity  which  is  produced  on  glass  by  friction  is  called  vitreous 
or  positive,  while  that  produced  in  the  same  manner  on  shellac 
or  sealing-wax  is  called  resinous  or  negative  electricity. 

All  bodies  are,  as  has  been  said,  charged  w'ith  an  equal  amount 
of  the  two  electrical  fluids  called  positive  and  negative,  but  when 
a  body  is  electrified  these  two  fluids  are  separated  so  tliat  one 


/ 


\ 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 


35' 


remains  in  excess  of  tlie  other.  There  is  always  a  passage  of  the 
electrical  fluid  in  two  directions,  along  a  conductor,  but  when  the 
direction  of  the  current  is  spoken  of,  it  is  the  direction  of  the 
positive  current  that  is  always  meant.  Statical  electricity  can 
also  be  produced  by  pressure,  as  when  certain  crystals  are  firmly 
pressed  together;  by  cleavage,  as  when  two  layers  of  mica  are 
split  apart;  and  by  heat,  as  well  as  by  friction.  It  may  also  be 
produced  by  torsion.  It  is  found  that  the  charge  of  electricity, 
if  collected  in  a  spherical  body,  is  on  the  outside,  and  not  within 
the  body ;  and  if  it  is  not  a  spherical  body,  the  electricity  collects 
chiefly  at  the  ])art  most  nearly  pointed. 

Electrical  Machines. 
Machines  for  producing  statical  electricity  are  usually  based 
on  the  friction  method.  The  old-fashioned  machine  consisted  of 
a  circular  glass  plate,  which  was  rotated  between  two  cushions, 
and  the  electricity  thus  ]iroduced  was  taken  ofl"  and  carried  to  a 
metallic  cylinder,  called  the  prime  conductor,  by  means  of  metal 
points.  Silk  and  glass  as  insulators  prevented  the  electricity 
from  running  ofi"  into  neighboring  objects.  More  recently 
machines  have  been  constructed  on  the  principle  of  induction,  as 
illustrated  in  the  electrophorus. 

The   Leyden  Jar. 

The  condensation  of  electricity  is  illustrated  in  the  Leyden  jar. 
This  is  a  sort  of  bottle,  lined  up  to  a  short  distance  from  its  top, 
both  inside  and  outside,  by  tin-foil,  and  in  the  stopper  is  a  brass 
knob,  which  is  connected  with  the  tin-foil  on  the  inside  of  the 
jar  by  a  chain.  When  the  knob  is  charged  with  positive  elec- 
tricity from  a  machine,  it  collects  on  the  tin-foil  inside  the  jar, 
while  a  corresponding  amount  of  negative  electricity  collects  on 
the  outside  of  the  jar.  By  this  means  a  large  amount  of  elec- 
tricity may  be  collected  and  held  by  the  jar  until  discharged,  by 
making  connection  between  the  tinfoil  on  the  inside  and  that  on 
the  outside  of  the  jar.  The  electricity  is  held,  not  on  the  tin-foil, 
but  on  the  surface  of  the  glass.  This  is  proved  by  means  of  a  jar 
that  can  be  taken  to  pieces  after  being  charged.  Although  the 
two  pieces  of  metal  which  lined  the  inside  and  outside  are  now 
brought  in  contact,  yet  when  the  whole  is  put  together  again, 
the  charge  is  found  to  remain,  and  it  is  discharged  by  connecting 
the  knob  with  the  metal  lining  of  the  outside.  All  that  these 
metal  linings  accomplish  here  is  to  make  a  large  conducting  sur- 
face over  the  whole  of  the  glass  upon  which  the  electricity  collects. 

The  discharge  of  electricity  from  such  a  jar,  or  a  battery  of 
several  of  them  connected,  ])roduces  a  variety  of  results.  The 
spark  will  pa.ss  through  a  thin  ])late  of  glass  or  a  card,  and  make 
a  hole  in  them  by  disrupting  them  ;  or,  in  passing  through  points 
of  metal,  it  he.its  them  to  a  high  temperature  and  vaporizes  them, 
so  that  we  get  luminous  ciTccts  from  them. 

Lightning 

Is  only  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar  on  the  grand  scale  upon 
which  Nature  performs  her  operations.  Two  clouds  charged 
with  opposite  electricities,  and  separated  by  the  non-conducting 
air,  approach  each  other.  When  the  tension  becomes  sufficient 
to  overcome  the  resistance,  the  two  forces  rush  together  with  a 
blincHng  flash  and  terrific  peal.     The  lightning  moves  along  the 


line  where  there  is  the  least  resistance,  and  so  describes  a  zig-zag 
course.  If  we  can  trace  the  entire  length,  we  call  it  chain  light- 
ning ;  if  we  only  see  the  flash  through  intervening  clouds,  it  is 
sheet-lightning ;  and  if  it  is  the  reflection  of  distant  discharges, 
we  term  it  heat-lightning.  The  report  of  thunder  is  caused  by 
the  clashing  of  the  atoms  of  displaced  air.  The  rolling  of  the 
thunder  is  produced  by  the  reflection  of  the  sound  from  distant 
clouds.  Sometimes  the  clouds  and  the  earth  become  charged 
with  opposite  electricities,  separated  by  the  non-conducting  air. 

Lightning-rods  are  based  on  the  principle  that  electricity 
always  seeks  the  best  conductor. 

Providence  has  provided  a  harmless  conductor  in  every  leaf, 
spire  of  grass,  and  twig.  A  common  blade  of  grass,  pointed  by 
Nature's  ex(]uisite  workmanship,  is  three  times  more  eflcclual 
than  the  finest  cambric  needle,  and  a  single  pointed  twig  than 
the  metallic  point  of  the  best  constructed  rod. 

The  duration  of  the  lightning  flash  has  been  estimated  at  one- 
millionth  of  a  second.  Some  idea  of  its  instantaneousness  can 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  revolved  so 
rapidly  as  to  become  invisible  by  daylight,  can  be  distinctly  seen 
by  a  spark  from  a  Leyden  jar.  Wheatstone  considered  the  ve- 
locity of  lightning  through  a  copper  wire  to  be  288,000  miles  jier 
second. 

Lightning  sometimes  passes  upwanl  from  the  earth,  both 
quietly  and  by  sudden  discharge. 

Dynamical  Electricity. 
Now,  a  few  words  in  regard  to  dynamical  electricity.  Galvani 
discovered,  in  experimenting  on  frogs,  that  when  two  pieces  of 
metal,  like  copper  and  zinc,  were  placed  in  contact  with  the 
frog's  leg  and  their  ends  connected,  a  movement  of  the  leg 
would  take  place.  Volta  developed  the  voltaic  pile,  which  at 
first  consisted  of  alternate  layers  of  zinc,  wet  paper,  and  copper, 
piled  one  on  top  of  the  other  in  varying  numbers.  It  was  found 
that  when  the  top  layer  was  connected  with  the  bottom  one,  by 
means  of  wires,  a  current  of  electricity  was  set  up.  It  became 
understood  then,  that  the  electricity  was  produced  by  the  chem- 
ical action  of  the  water  in  the  paper  on  the  zinc,  and  so  more 
solvent  fluids  came  to  be  used  instead  of  water,  and  cloth  was 
substituted  for  the  paper. 

The  Galvanic  Battery 
Is  simply  a  combination  by  which  we  jiroduce  this  chemical 
action,  and  zinc  is  the  metal  acted  upon.  If  a  piece  of  cojiper 
and  a  piece  of  zinc  be  placed  in  water,  containing  a  little  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  the  ends  of  the  copper  and  zinc  be  brought 
together,  or  connected  by  wires,  a  current  of  electricity  will  be 
established  between  them.  A  spark  may  be  seen  in  the  dark  if 
the  two  wires  are  brought  near  together,  but  not  in  actual  con- 
tact. This  electricity  is  produced  by  the  chemical  action  of  the 
acid  on  the  metal,  and  is  called  voltaic  or  galvanic  electricity. 
A  glass  vessel  containing  the  metals  and  acid  is  called  a  cell, 
and  several  cells  connected  together  constitute  the  battery.  The 
metal  plate  in  which  the  chemical  action  is  greatest  is  called  the 
positive  plate,  and  the  other  the  negative  plate.  The  free  ends 
of  the  wires  are  called  electrodes.  The  one  attached  to  the  posi- 
tive plate  is  the  negative  electrode,  and  vice  versa. 


Ji, 


K" 


352 


/ 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


While  zinc  is  universally  used  for  one  element,  the  second 
element  in  the  battery  may  be  composed  of  different  kinds  of 
metals,  according  to  convenience. 

A  difficulty  in  using  zinc  as  the  positive  element  was  soon 
found  in  the  fact  that  little  local  currents  were  set  up  between 
it  and  the  impurities  contained  in  it,  and  this  caused  an  unneces- 
sary waste  of  the  zinc.  So  it  became  customary  to  amalgamate 
the  zinc  in  order  to  prevent  this  local  action  of  the  lluid  upon  it. 
The  next  improvement  made  was  to  prevent  the  little  bubbles 
of  hydrogen  from  collecting  on  the  surface  of  the  copper,  thus 
keeping  the  liquid  from  coming  in  contact  with  it  in  all  parts — 
that  is,  to  prevent  the  "polarization"  of  the  copper.  For  this 
pui-pose  certain  substances  came  to  be  used  to  absorb  the 
hydrogen.  The  first  of  these  substances  was  the  sulphate  of 
copper  as  used  in  the  Daniells  battery.  This  consisted  of  a 
copper  vessel  containing  a  porous  cylinder  in  which  was  sus- 
pended a  rod  of  zinc.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid  was  contained  in 
this  cylinder,  and  in  the  copper  vessel  outside  of  the  cylinder 
was  placed  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper.  In  this  battery 
the  hydrogen  set  free  decomposes  the  sulphate  of  copper,  form- 
ing with  it  sulphuric  acid,  and  sets  free  copper  which  collects 
on  the  copper  element. 

Grove's  battery  consists  of  a  glass  vessel  containing  a  porous 
cup,  surrounded  on  the  outside  by  a  coil  of  amalgamated  zinc, 
and  on  the  inside  is  suspended  a  rod  of  platinum,  instead  of 
copper.  The  vessel  outside  of  the  porous  cup  is  filled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  inside  with  strong  nitric  acid.  The 
nitric  acid  absorbs  the  liydrogen  set  free  by  the  sulphuric  acid 
and  zinc.  In  the  bichromate  battery,  the  bichromate  of  potash 
dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid  is  used  to  absorb  the  hydrogen,  and 
chromic  acid  is  formed.  So  the  three  substances  in  use  for 
absorbing  the  hydrogen  in  different  kinds  of  batteries  are  sul- 
phate of  copper,  nitric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potash.  Bunseu 
suggested  the  use  of  gas  carbon  to  take  the  place  of  the  copper. 
I  lis  battery  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  carbon  immersed  in  a  vessel 
containing  nitric  acid,  and  within  this  cylinder  is  a  porous  cell 
containing  sulphuric  acid,  in  which  the  zinc  is  suspended.  To 
avoid  using  the  porous  cups,  the  force  of  gravity  has  been 
brought  into  play  in  the  construction  of  the  so-called  "gravity 
battery."  This  consists  of  a  glass  vessel  with  plates  of  copper 
at  its  bottom,  and  upon  this  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  are 
scattered,  while  over  all  is  poured  pure  water,  in  the  upper  por- 
tion of  which  is  suspended  a  plate  of  zinc.  A  very  little 
sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  start  the  battery,  and  then  its  action 
will  keep  up.  Gravity  here  keeps  the  two  liquids  apart — the 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  at  the  bottom,  and  the  dilute 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid  at  the  top.  This  battery  produces  a 
constant  current,  and  will  run  for  a  very  long  time.  The 
Leclanchc  batteiy  consists  of  a  porous  cup  containing  sal  ammo- 
niac, in  which  is  suspended  a  rod  of  zinc,  and  this  cup  is 
surrounded  by  the  oxide  of  manganese  as  a  depolarizer, 
immersed  in  which  is  the  carbon.  This  battery  is  used  when  a 
current  of  electricity  is  desired  for  a  very  short  time  at  once,  as 
in  striking  burglar  alamis,  signal  bells,  etc.  The  galvanic  bat- 
tery is  now  being  replaced  for  many  purposes  by  dynamo-electric 
machines. 


Electrolysis  and  Galvanoplasty. 

A  current  of  electricity  passed  through  certain  substances  will 
decompose  them,  and  tliis  process  is  called  electrolysis.  Water 
may,  for  example,  be  thus  separated  into  two  gases,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  The  process  of  depositing  metals  by  means  of  elec- 
tricity is  known  ai  galvanoplasty. 

Electroplating,  sometimes  called  galvanizing,  is  the  process 
of  coating  one  metal  with  another  by  means  of  a  galvanic 
battery.  Gold  and  silver  are  deposited  most  readily  on  German 
silver,  brass,  copper,  or  nickel  silver,  the  last  mentioned  being  a 
composition  of  copper,  zinc  and  nickel.  Vessels  to  be  plated 
with  silver,  for  example,  are  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  then  hung 
in  a  solution  of  silver  from  the  negative  pole,  while  a  plate  of 
silver  is  suspended  on  the  positive  pole.  In  about  five  minutes 
a  mere  "blush"  of  the  metal  will  be  deposited,  which  perfectly 
conceals  the  baser  metal  and  is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish. 

A  vessel  is  gold-lined  by  filling  it  with  a  solution  of  gold,  sus- 
pending in  it  a  slip  of  gold  from  the  positive  pole  of  the  batteiy, 
and  then  attaching  the  negative  pole  to  the  vessel;  while  the 
current  passing  through  the  liquid  causes  it  to  bubble  like  soda- 
water,  and  in  a  few  moments  deposits  a  thin  film  of  gold. 

Electrotyping  is  a  process  much  used  in  copying  medals, 
wood  cuts,  type,  etc.  An  impression  of  the  object  is  taken 
with  gutta-percha,  or  wax  ;  the  surface  to  be  copied  is  l^rushed 
over  with  black-lead  to  render  it  a  conductor.  The  mold  is 
then  suspended  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  from 
the  negative  pole  of  the  battery;  a  plate  of  copper  is  hung 
opposite  on  the  positive  pole.  The  electric  current  decomposes 
the  sulphate  of  copper ;  the  metal  goes  to  the  negative  pole  and 
is  deposited  upon  the  mold,  while  tlie  acid,  passing  to  the 
positive  pole,  dissolves  the  copper,  and  thus  preserves  the 
strength  of  the  solution. 

The   Electric  Light,  Telegraph,   Etc. 

If  a  strong  current  of  electricity  is  sent  along  a  good  con- 
ductor, it  passes  very  easily;  but  if  passed  along  a  poor  con- 
ductor, it  makes  it  hot.  This  is  the  principle  upon  which  is 
based  the  incandescent  electric  light.  A  current  sent  over  a  fine 
thread  of  carbon  heats  it  to  a  white  heat,  and  thus  produces  a 
brilliant  light.  The  same  principle  holds  in  the  arc  light,  where 
the  air  acts  as  the  poor  conductor.  Here  two  pointed  sticks  of 
carbon  are  placed  in  contact  until  a  current  is  started  through 
them,  and  then  they  are  gradually  separated  for  a  short  distance, 
when  the  resistance  oft'ered  by  the  air  to  the  passage  of  the  elec- 
tricity from  one  point  to  the  other  heats  them  to  incandescence, 
and  small  particles  of  carbon  in  a  state  of  combustion  are  broken 
off  and  carried  through  the  air,  thus  causing  an  arc  of  light 
between  the  carbon  points.  The  incandescent  electric  light  and 
the  arc  light  form  two  systems  of  electric  ligliting. 

The  galvanometer  is  the  most  convenient  method  of  measmiug 
a  current  of  electricity.  This  is  a  rotating  needle,  .around  whicli 
the  current  is  passed. 

The  electric  telegraph  is  an  arrangement  for  sending  messages 
by  means  of  signals  made  liy  breaking  and  closing  a  voltaic 
circuit. 

The  telephone,  microphone,  etc.,  have  been  explained  under 
the  head  of  Acoustics. 


VL- 


SI 


\ 


NATURAL  PI%lLOSOFHV  — CHIIIIISTKV. 


353 


^Tfe 


1^2  -^  C H E M ISTR Y.  •:•  i^Mf'-^- 


-^=:H<es^ 


/T^IIEMISTRY  is  the  science  of  atoms.  Il  detects  their  rela- 
l/,  live  poHcr,  their  laws  of  comljination  and  their  means  of 

"^  decomposition.  It  enables  us  to  understand  tlie  construc- 
tion of  bodies,  and  is  one  of  the  most  instructive  and  useful 
studies.  As  astrology  preceded  astronomy,  so  alchemy  paved 
the  way  for  chemistry.  For  centuries  learned  but  misguided 
men  sought  in  vain  the  "  elixir  of  life,"  a  universal  medicine  to 
enable  man  to  attain  the  longevity  of  the  antediluvians,  and 
groped  for  the  "philosopher's  stone,"  which,  it  was  believed, 
could  turn  the  baser  metals  into  gold  and  silver.  Gradually, 
however,  the  fallacy  of  alchemy  was  revealed,  until  Chemistry 
enlightened  the  world  and  demonstrated  that  it  is  impossible  to 
change  one  element  into  another. 

In  nature  we  have  simple  and  compound  bodies,  and  the 
former  are  called  c-lemenls.  These  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  so-called  elements  —  earth,  air,  fire  and  water,  which 
are  really  compound  bodies.  An  element  in  chemistry  is  any 
substance  which  cannot  be  separated  into  two  or  more  distinctly 
different  substances.  The  number  of  these  simple  elements  at 
present  recognized  is  65,  divided  into  non  metallic  and  metallic. 
The  non-metallic  elements  are  called  "metalloids."  The  list  of 
the  elements  is  as  follows : 


Non-Metallic 
Elements. 


"1  f 

>  Gaseous  < 


Solid 


Oxygen 

Hydrogen' 

Nitrogen 

Chlorine 

Iodine 

Fluorine 

Carbon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Arsenic* 

SiRcon 

Boron 

Silenium 

Tellurium 

Bromine Fluid 

Metals. 

Aluminium    

Antimony  (Stibium). 

Barium 

Bismuth 

Cadmium  

Cxsium 

Calcium   

Cerium  

Chromium 

Cobalt 

Copper   

Didymium  

Erbium 

Gallium 

Glucinum 

Gold 

Indium 


O 
H 
N 

CI 

I 

F 

C 

S 

P 

As 

Si 

B 

Se 

Te 


•  32 
■   3' 

•  75 
.  28 
.   It 

•  79 
.129 
.  80 


Al 

Sb 

Ba 

Bi 

Cd 

Cs 

Ca 

Ce 

Cr 

Co 

Cu 

D 

E 

Ga 

Gl 

Au 

In 


•  27 
.122 

•137 
.210 

.112 

•'33 
.  40 
.141 

•  52 

•  58 
■  63 
•'47 

•  70 

•  9 
•■97 
.113 


Metals, 
(continued.) 


E2.5» 


Iridium 

Iron 

Lanthanum   

Lead    

Lithium 

Magnesium    

Manganese 

Mercury 

Molybclenuin 

Nickel 

Niobium  (Columbium) 

Osmium   

Palladium 

Platinum 

Potassium  (Kalium).. 

Rhodium    

Rubidium 

Ruthenium 

Silver  (.-Vrgentum). 

Sodium  (Natrium)  . . . . 

Strontium 

Tantalum 

Terbium 

Thallium    

Thorium 

Tin  (Stannum) 

Titanium    

Tungcstcn  (Walpam). 

Uranium 

Vanadium 

Yttrium 

Zinc 

Zirconium , 


Ir  . 
Fe  . 
La  . 
Pb  . 
Li  . 
Mg  . 
Mn  . 
Hg. 
Mo  . 
Ni  . 
Nb  . 
Os  . 
PI  . 
Pt  . 
K  . 
Rh  . 
Rb  . 
Ru  . 
•Ag  • 
Na  . 
Sr  . 
Ta  . 
Tr  . 
Tl  . 
Th  . 
Sn  . 
Ti  . 
W    . 

u    . 

V  . 

Y  . 
Zn  . 
Zr    . 


,.  56 
.139 
.207 

•  7 
, .  24 
.  ■  55 
..200 

.96 
■  58 

•  94 
■99 

.106 

■■97 
..  39 
..104 
,.  85 
,.104 
,.108 

•  =3 

•  87 
,.182 

.204 
.230 
.118 

•  50 
..84 
.240 

•  5' 

•  93 

•  6s 
.  89 


*  Sometimes  considered  ; 
stance. 


non-metallic  and  sometimes   a   metallic  sub- 


The  term  "combining  weight"  requires  a  little  explanation. 
Water,  for  instance,  is  made  up  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
certain  proportions.  The  proportions  are  in  eighteen  grains  or 
parts  of  water,  sixteen  parts  (by  weight)  of  oxygen,  and  two 
parts  (by  weight)  of  hydrogen.  These  arc  llie  weights  or  |)ro- 
portions  in  which  oxygen  and  hydrogen  combine  to  form  water, 
and  such  weights  are  always  the  same  in  these  proportions. 
Chemical  combination  always  occurs  for  certain  substances  in 
certain  proportions  which  never  vary  in  tliose  compounds,  and 
if  we  wish  to  extract  oxygen  from  an  oxide  v.e  must  take  the 
"g^'^S^'e  amount  of  the  coml)iiiing  weights  of  the  oxide,  and 
we  shall  find  the  pro]7ortion  of  oxygen ;  for  the  compound 
always  weighs  the  same  as  the  sum  of  the  elements  that  com])"SC 
it.  To  return  to  the  illustration  of  water.  The  molecule  of 
water  is  made  up  of  one  atoiu  of  oxygen  and  two  atoms  of 
hydrogen.  One  atom  of  the  former  weighs  sixteen  times  the 
atom  of  the  latter.  The  weight-,  given  in  the  foregoing  table  are 
atomic  weights,  and  the  law  of  their  proportions  is  called  the 
Ato7ttic  Theory. 

An  atom  in  chemistry  is  usually  considered  tlie  smallest 
quantity  of  matter  that  exists,  ami  is  indivisible.  A  molecule  is 
sitpposed  to  contain  two  or  mtue  atoms,  and  is  the  smallest  jior- 
tion  of  a  compound  body.  The  standard  atom  is  hydrogen, 
whicli  is  put  down  as  I,  because  we  find  that  when  one  part  by 
weight  of  hydrogen  is  put  in  combination,  it  must  have  mr'uy 
more  parts  by  weight  of  others  to  form  a  compound.  Two  grains 
of  hydrogen,  combining  with  sixteen  of  oxygen,  makes  eighteen 
of  water,  as  we  have  already  seen. 

The  red  oxide  of  mercury  contains  sixteen  parts  by  weight  of 
oxygen  to  two  hundred  parts  by  weight  of  mercury  (we  see  the 
same  numbers  in  the  table);  these  combined  make  two  hundred 
and  sixteen  parts  of  oxide.  So,  to  obtain  sixteen  pounds  of 
oxygen,  we  must  get  two  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds  of  the 
powder.  It  is  the  same  all  through,  and  it  will  be  found  by 
experiment,  that  if  any  more  parts  than  these  fixed  proportions 
be  taken  to  form  a  compound,  some  of  that  element  u^ed  in 
excess  will  remain  free.  Lime  is  made  up  of  calcium  and  oxy- 
gen. We  find  calcium  combining  weight  is  forty,  oxygen 
sixteen.  Lime  is  oxide  of  calcium  in  these  proportions  (by 
weight). 

When  we  wish  to  express  the  number  of  atoms  in  a  compound, 
we  write  the  number  underneath  when  more  than  one ;  thus 
water  is  H^  O.     Sulphuric  acid,  Hj  SO4. 

In  chemistry  we  have  acids,  alkalis  and  salts,  with  metallic 
oxides,  termed  bases,  or  bodies  that,  when  combined  with  acids, 
form  salts.     Alkalis  are  bases. 


354 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY  — CHEMISTRY. 


Acids  are  compounds  which  possess  an  acid  taste,  impart  red 
color  to  vegetable  blues,  but  lose  their  qualities  when  combined 
with  bases.  Hydrogen  is  present  in  all  acids.  There  are  insol- 
uble acids.  Silicic  acid,  for  instance,  is  not  soluble  in  water, 
has  no  sour  taste,  and  will  not  redden  the  test  litmus  paper.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  substances,  not  acids,  which  possess 
the  characteristics  of  acids,  and  most  acids  have  only  one 
or  two  of  these  characteristics.  Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that 
the  term  "  acid  "  has,  in  a  measure,  dropped  out  from  scientific 
nomenclature,  and  salt  of  hydrogen  ha-s  been  substituted  by 
chemists.  For  popular  expo>ition,  howe\'er,  the  term  is  re- 
tained. 

Alkalis  are  bases  distinguished  by  an  alkaline  taste.  The 
derivation  is  from  the  .Arabic,  al-kali.  They  are  chaiacterized 
by  certain  properties,  and  they  change  vegetable  blues  to  green, 
and  will  restore  the  blue  to  a  substance  which  has  been  red- 
dened by  acid.  They  are  soluble  in  water,  and  the  solutions 
are  caustic  in  their  effects.  Potash,  soda  and  ammonia  are 
alkalis,  or,  chemically,  the  oxides  of  potassium  ;  sodium,  ammo- 
nium, lithium  and  ccesium  are  all  alkalis.  Potash  is  .sometimes 
called  "  caustic "  potash.  There  are  alkaline  earths,  such  as 
oxides  of  barium,  strontium,  etc.  Bases  may  be  defined  as  the 
converse  of  acids. 

Acids  and  alkalis  are  then  evidently  opposite  in  character, 
and  yet  they  readily  combine,  and  we  find  that  unlike  bodies  are 
very  fond  of  combining  (just  as  opposite  electricities  attract  each 
other),  and  the  body  made  by  this  combination  differs  in  its 
properties  from  its  constituents. 

Salts  are  composed  of  acids  and  bases,  and  are  considered 
neutral  compounds,  but  there  are  other  bodies,  not  salts,  which 
likewise  come  under  that  definition — sugar,  for  instance.  As  a 
rule,  when  acids  and  alkalis  combine  salts  are  found. 

Chemical  phenomena  are  divided  into  two  groups,  called  in- 
organic and  organic,  comprising  the  simple  and  compound 
aspects  of  the  subject,  the  elementary  substances  being  in  the 
first,  and  the  chemistry  of  animals  or  vegetables,  or  organic  sub- 
stances, in  the  latter.  In  the  inorganic  section  we  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  elements  and  their  combinations  so  often  seen 
as  minerals  in  nature.  Chemical /riy>ara//oKi  are  artificially  pre- 
pared. To  consider  these  elements  we  must  have  certain  appli- 
ances, and  indeed  a  laboratory  is  needed.  Heat,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  plays  a  great  part  in  developing  substances,  and 


by  means  of  heat  we  can  do  a  great  deal  in  the  way  of  chemical 
decomposition.  It  expands,  and  thus  diminishes  cohesion;  it 
counteracts  the  chemical  attraction.  Light  and  electricity  also 
decompose  chemical  combinations. 

The  earth,  and  its  surrounding  envelope,  the  atmosphere,  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  elements,  which  in  myriad  combinations 
give  us  everything  we  possess.  The  air  we  breathe,  the  water 
we  drink,  the  fire  that  warms  us,  are  all  made  up  of  certain  ele- 
ments or  gases.  Water  is  hydrogen  and  oxygen ;  air,  oxygen 
and  nitrogen  Fire  is  combustion  evolving  light  and  heat. 
Chemical  union  always  evolves  heat,  and  when  such  union  pro- 
ceeds very  rapidly  fire  is  the  result. 

But  in  all  these  combinations  not  a  particle  or  atom  of  matter 
is  ever  lost.  It  may  change  or  combine  or  be  "  given  off,"  but 
the  matter  in  some  shape  or  way  exists  still.  We  may  bum 
things,  and  rid  ourselves,  as  we  think,  of  them.  We  do  rid  our- 
selves of  the  compounds,  but  the  elements  remain  somewhere. 
We  only  alter  the  condition.  During  combustion,  as  in  a  candle 
or  a  fire,  the  simple  bodies  assume  gaseous  or  other  forms,  such 
as  carbon,  but  tliey  do  not  escape  far.  True,  they  pass  beyond 
our  ken,  but  nature  is  so  nicely  balanced  that  there  is  a  place 
for  everything-  and  everything  is  in  its  place,  under  certain  con- 
ditions which  never  alter.  We  cannot  destroy  and  we  cannot 
create.  We  may  prepare  a  combination,  and  science  has  even 
succeeded  in  producing  a  form  like  the  diamond — a  crystal  of 
carbon  which  looks  like  that  most  beautiful  of  all  crystals,  but 
we  cannot  make  a  diamond  after  all.  We  can  only  separate  the 
chemic.il  compounds.  We  can  turn  diamonds  into  charcoal,  it 
is  true,  but  we  cannot  create  **  natural"  products.  We  can  take 
a  particle  of  an  element  and  hide  it,  or  let  it  pass  beyond  our 
ken,  and  remain  incapable  of  detection,  but  the  particle  is  there 
all  the  time,  and  when  we  retrace  our  steps  we  shall  find  it  as 
it  was  before. 

This  view  of  chemistry  carries  it  as  a  science  beyond  the  mere 
holiday  amusement  we  frequently  take  it  to  be.  It  is  a  grand 
study — a  study  for  a  lifetime.  The  more  we  inquire,  the  more 
we  shall  find  we  have  to  learn.  In  this  work  it  was  only  pos- 
sible to  give  a  brief  introduction.  There  are  numerous  excellent 
treatises  on  chemistry,  but,  exhaustive  as  they  are,  they  do  not 
tell  us  all.  Nature,  however,  is  always  willing,  like  a  kind, 
good  mother,  to  render  up  her  secrets,  if  we  inquire  respectfully 
and  lovingly. 


/ 


-^1 


JC" 


"71 


ASTRONOMY. 


^Hr'Hr'HHrgg 
•**••****»  fit' 


^TRonomYj 


a 


The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens  as  Revealed  by  the  Telescope. 

A  History  of  the  Progress  of  Astronomical  Science. 


ASTRONOMY  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  the  laws  which  govern  them.  The  space  in 
which  the  celestial  orbs  are  set  is  infinite  and  known  as 
the  "firmament"  or  "heaven."  We  can  see  a  few  stars,  com- 
paratively speaking,  but 
there  are  numbers  whose 
light  has  never  yet  reached 
the  earth.  When  we  calm- 
ly reason  upon  the  im- 
measurable distances,  and 
the  awful  rapidity  of  mo- 
tion, with  the  masses  of 
matter  thus  in  movement, 
we  are  constrained  to  ac- 
knowledge that  all  our 
boasted  knowledge  is  as 
nothing  in  the  wondrous 
dispensation  of  Him  who 
"  telleth  the  number  of  the 
stars  and  calleth  them  all 
by  their  names." 

Astronomy  is  the  most 
ancient  of  all  sciences. 
The  study  of  the  stars  is, 
without  doubt,  as  old  as 
man  himself,  and  hence 
many  of  its  discoveries  date 
back  of  authentic  records, 
amid  the  dim  mysteries  of 
tradition. 

The  Chinese  possess  an 
account  of  a  conjunction  of  four  planets  and  the  moun,  which 
must  have  occurred  a  century  before  the  flood.  They  have  also 
the  first  record  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  took  place  about 
two  hundred  and  twenty  years  after  the  deluge. 


The  Chaldean  shepherds,  watching  their  flocks  by  night  under 
the  open  sky,  cnuid  not  fail  to  become  familiar  with  many  of 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  Chaldeans  in- 
vented the  sun-dial,  and  also  discovered  the  "Saros,''  or  "Chal- 
dean Period,"  which  is  the 
length  of  time  in  which  the 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and 
moon  repeat  t!xmselves  in 
the  same  order. 

Thales,  who  was  noted 
for  his  electrical  discov 
eries,  and  acquired  much 
renown,  established  the 
first  school  of  astronomy 
in  Greece.  lie  taught  that 
the  earth  is  round,  and  that 
the  moon  receives  her  light 
from  the  sun.  He  also 
introduced  the  division  of 
the  earth's  surface  into 
zones,  and  the  theory  of  the 
obliquity  ff  the  ecliptic. 
He  jiredicted  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun  which  is  memorable 
in  ancient  history  as  having 
terminated  a  war  between 
the  Medes  and  the  Lyd- 
ians.  These  nations  were 
engaged  in  a  fierce  battle, 

but  the  awe  produced  bv 
Solar  System.  .        ,     ,       .  /.     , 

the  darkennig  of  the  sun 

was  so  great  that  both  sides  tlirew  down  their  arms  and  made 

l>eace. 

Anaximander  and  .\naxagoras  were  pupils  of  Thales.    Ana.\- 

imander  taught  that  the  stars  are  suns,  and  that  the  planets  are 


^ 


M 


K" 


3S6 


-^ 


ASTRONOMY. 


inhabited.  Anaxagoras  maintained  that  there  is  but  one  God, 
that  the  sun  is  soUd,  and  as  large  as  tlie  country  of  Greece,  and 
attempted  to  explain  eclipses  and  other  celestial  phenomena  by 
natural  causes.  For  hii  audacity  ami  impiety,  as  his  countrymen 
considered  it,  he  and  his  family  were  doomed  to  perpetual  ban- 
ishment. 

Pythagoras  founded  the  second  celebrated  astronomical  school 
at  Crotona,  at  which  were  educated  hundreds  of  enthusiastic 
pupils.  He  knew  the  causes  of  eclipses,  and  calculated  them 
by  means  of  the  Saros.  Pythagoras  was  most  emphatically  a 
dreamer.  He  conceived  a  system  of  the  universe  in  many  re- 
spects correct ;  yet  he  advanced  no  proof,  and  made  few  con- 
verts to  his  views,  and  they  were  soon  well  nigh  forgotten.  He 
held  that  the  sun  is  the  cenier  of  the  solar  system,  and  that  the 
planets  revolve  about  it  in  circular  orbits ;  that  the  earth  revolves 
daily  on  iti  axis,  and  yearly  around  the  sun  ;  that  Venus  is  both 
morning  and  evening  star;  lh.it  the  planets  are  inhabited  —  and 
he  even  attempted  to  calculate  the  size  of  some  of  the  animals 
in  the  moon  ;  that  the  planets  are  placed  at  intervals  correspond- 
ing to  the  scale  in  music,  and  that  they  move  in  harmony,  mak- 
ing the  "music  of  the  spheres,"  but  that  this  celestial  concert  is 
lieard  only  by  tlie  god.s — the  ears  of  man  being  too  gross  for 
such  divine  melody.  Pythagoras  believed  tlie  sun  to  be  44,000 
miles  from  the  earth,  and  75  miles  in  diameter. 

Eudoxus  held  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  set,  like  gems,  in 
hollow,  transparent  crystal  globes,  so  pure  that  they  do  not 
obstruct  the  view,  and  that  they  all  revolve  around  the  earth. 

llippaichus,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century  B.C.,  has 
been  called  the  "  Newton  of  Antiquity."  He  was  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Greek  astronomers ;  he  calculated  the  length 
of  the  year  within  six  minutes,  discovered  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  and  made  the  first  catalogue  of  the  stars  —  i,oSi  in 
number. 

Egypt,  as  well  as  Chaldea,  was  noted  for  its  knowledge  of  the 
sciences  long  before  they  were  cultivated  in  Greece.  It  was  the 
practice  of  Grecian  philosophers,  before  asjjiring  to  the  rank  of 
teacher,  to  travel  for  years  through  these  countries,  and  gather 
wisdom  at  its  fountain-head.  Pythagoras  thus  spent  thirty  years 
in  traveling. 

About  two  hundred  years  after  Pythagoras  the  celebrated 
school  of  Alexandria  was  established.  Here  were  concentrated 
in  v.ast  libraries  and  princely  halls  nearly  all  the  wisdom  and 
learning  of  the  world ;  here  flourished  all  the  sciences  and  arts, 
under  the  patronage  of  generous  kings. 

The    Ptolemaic    System. 

Ptolemy  of  .\lexandria  (A.D.  130-150)  was  the  founder  of 
a  theory  called  the  Ptolemaic  system,  based  largely  upon  the 
materials  gathered  by  previous  astronomers,  such  as  Hipparchus, 
already  mentioned,  and  Eratosthenes,  who  computed  the  size  of 
the  earth  by  means  even  now  considered  the  best — the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian.  The  advocates  of  the  Ptolemaic 
theory  assumed  that  every  planet  revolves  in  a  circle,  and  that 
the  earth  is  the  fixed  center  around  which  the  sun  and  the  heav- 
enly bodies  move.  They  conceived  that  a  bar,  or  something 
ec[uivalent,  is  connected  at  one  end  \\'ith  the  earth;  that  at  some 


part  of  tliis  bar  the  sun  is  attacheil ;  while  between  that  and  the 
earth,  Venus  is  fastened,  not  to  tlie  bar  directly,  but  (o  a  sort  of 
crank;  and  farther  on.  Mercury  is  hitched  on  in  the  same  way. 
They  did  not  fully  understand  the  nature  of  these  bars — v\'hetlier 
they  were  real  or  only  imaginary — but  they  did  comprehend  their 
action,  as  they  thought;  and  so  they  supposed  the  bar  revolved, 
carrying  the  sun  and  planets  along  in  a  large  circle  about  the 
earth;  while  all  the  short  cranks  kept  flying  around,  thus  sweep- 
ing each  planet  through  a  smaller  circle. 

The  movements  of  the  planets  were  to  the  ancients  extremely 
complex.  Venus,  for  instance,  was  sometimes  seen  as  "  evening 
star"  in  the  west;  and  then  again  as  "morning  star"  in  the 
east.  Sometimes  she  seemed  to  be  moving  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  sun,  then,  going  apparently  behind  the  sun,  she  appeared 
to  pass  on  again  in  a  course  directly  opposite.  At  one  time  she 
would  recede  from  the  sun  more  and  more  slowly  and  coyly, 
until  she  would  appear  to  be  entirely  stationary;  then  she  would 
retrace  her  steps,  and  seem  to  meet  the  sun.  All  these  facts 
were  attempted  to  be  accounted  for  by  an  incongruous  system  of 
*' cycles  and  epicycles." 

The  system  of  Ptolemy  passed  current  for  1400  years,  and 
during  this  *ime 

Astrology 
was  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  knowletlge. 
Star  diviners  were  held  in  the  greatest  estimation,  and  the  issue 
of  any  important  undertaking,  or  the  fortune  of  an  individual,  was 
foretold  by  means  of  horoscopes  representing  the  position  of  the 
stars  and  planets.  The  system  of  the  astrologers  was  very  com- 
plicated, and  contained  regular  rules  to  guide  the  interpretation, 
so  intricate  that  years  of  study  were  required  for  their  mastery. 
Venus  foretold  love;  Mars,  war;  the  Pleiades,  storms  at  sea. 
Not  only  the  ignorant  were  the  dupes  of  this  system.  Lord  Bacon 
believing  in  it  most  firmly. 

The   Copernican   System. 

The  system  as  now  accepted  is  called  the  Copernican  system, 
after  Nicholas  Kopernik,  or  Copernicus,  who,  in  1543,  breaking 
away  from  the  theory  of  Ptolemy,  revived  that  of  Pythagora-s. 
He  saw  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  considering  the  sun  the  grand 
center  about  which  revolve  the  earth  and  all  the  planets.  He 
noticed  how  constantly,  when  we  are  riding  swiftly,  we  forget 
our  motion,  and  think  that  objects  really  stationary  are  gliding 
by  us  in  the  contrary  direction.  He  applied  this  thought  to  the 
movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  maintained  that,  instead 
of  the  starry  hosts  revolving  about  the  earth  once  in  twenty-four 
hours,  the  earth  simply  turns  on  its  own  axis;  that  this  produces 
the  apparent  daily  revolution  of  the  sun  and  stars,  while  the 
yearly  motion  of  the  earth  about  the  sun,  transferred  in  the  same 
manner  to  that  body,  would  account  for  its  various  move- 
ments. 

Tycho  Brahe  opposed  the  Copernican  theory,  but  made  many 
important  investigations.  Therv  came  Kepler,  wlio  adopted  the 
Copernican  theory,  and  whos'".  observations  upon  the  planet  M  ars 
cleared  away  many  complications.  He  laid  down  three  laws,  as 
follows:  /.  Planets  rmolve  in  ellipses^  luith  the  sun  at  one 
focus.      2.   A  line   coinectin::;  the  center  of  the  earth  with  the 


K- 


ASTRONOMY. 


center  of  Ihe  sun  passes  over  equal  spaces  in  equal  times.  J.  The 
squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  of  the  planets  about  the  sun  are 
proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 
Kepler  also  remarked  tliat  gravity  was  a  power  existing  be- 
tween all  bodies,  and  reasoned  upon  the  tides  being  caused  by 
tlic  attraction  of  the  moon  for  the  waters.  About  this  time,  viz.: 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  telescope  was  in- 
vented, and  logarithms  came  into  use.  The  telescope  did  not 
penetrate  into  Southern  Europe  till  1608-9. 

Galileo,  who  had  discovered  the  laws  of  the  pendulum  and 
of  falling  bodies,  learned  that  a  Dutch  watchmaker  had  invented 
ft  contri\ance  for  making  distant  objects  appear  near.  ^Yith  his 
profound  knowledge  of  optics  and  pliilosopliical  instruments,  he 
instantly  cauglit  the  idea,  and  soon  had  a  telescope  completed 
that  would  magnify  thirty  times.  With  this  instrument  he  ex- 
amined the  moon,  discovered  its  mountains  and  valleys,  and 
watched  the  dense  shadows  sweep  over  its  plains.  Near  Jupiter 
he  saw  three  bright  stars,  as  he  considered  them,  which  were 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  Shortly  after,  he  noticed  those  stars 
liad  changed  their  relative  positions.  Being  somewhat  per- 
plexed, he  waited  three  days  for  a  fair  night  in  which  to  resume 
liis  observations.  The  fourth  night  was  favorable,  and  he  again 
found  the  three  stars  had  shifted.  After  continued  observations 
he  discovered  a  fourth  star,  and  finally  found  that  they  were  all 
rapidly  revolving  around  Jupiter,  each  in  its  elliptical  orbit,  with 
its  own  rate  of  motion,  and  all  accompanying  the  planet  in  its 
journey  around  the  sun.  Here  was  a  miniature  Copernican 
system,  hung  up  in  the  sky  for  all  to  see  and  examine  for  them- 
selves. Galileo  met  with  the  most  bitter  opposition.  A  great 
many  refused  to  look  through  the  telescope,  lest  they  might  be- 
come victims  of  the  philosopher's  magic.  Some  prated  of  the 
wickedness  of  digging  out  valleys  in  the  fair  face  of  the  moon  ; 
while  others  doggedly  clung  to  the  theory  they  had  held  from 
their  youth  up. 

Then  Newton  promulgated  his  immortal  discovery  of  the  l.iw 
of  gravitation — that  ez'ery particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  at- 
tracts every  other  particle  of  matter  with  a  force  directly  propor- 
tional to  its  quantity  of  matter,  and  decreasing  as  the  square  of 
the  distance  increase.'' — and  the  relations  of  the  sun  and  planets 
became  more  evident. 

Subsequent  researches  brought  astronomy  into  prominence 
moie  and  more.  The  spectroscope  has,  in  the  able  hands  of 
living  astronomers,  revealed  to  us  elements  existing  in  the 
vapors  and  composition  of  the  sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies. 
Stars  are  now  known  to  be  suns,  some  bearing  a  great  resem- 
blance to  our  sun,  others  differing  materially.  The  nebula; 
have  been  analyzed,  and  found  to  be  stars,  or  gas,  burning  in 
space— hydrogen  and  nitrogen  being  tlie  chief  constiluents  of 
this  glowing  matter.  Instruments  for  astronomical  observation 
have  now  been  brought  to  a  pitch  of  perfection  scarcely  ever 
dreamed  of,  and  month  by  month  discoveries  are  made  and  re- 
corded, while  calculations  as  to  certain  combinations  can  be 
made  with  almost  miraculous  accuracy.  The  transit  of  V'enus, 
the  approaches  of  comets,  eclipses,  and  the  movements  of  stars, 
are  now  known  accurately  and  commented  on  long  before  the 
events  can  take  place. 


THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM, 

Gravitation  is  the  force  which  keeps  the  planets  in  their 
orbits.  The  sun  attracts  the  planets,  and  they  influence  him  i;i 
a  minor  degree.  Likewise  the  moon  and  stars  and  our  eartli 
attract  each  other.  But  as  the  sun's  mass  is  far  greater  than  the 
masses  of  the  planets  he  influences  them  more,  and  could  absorb 
them  all  without  inconvenience  or  disturbance  from  his  center 
of  gravity. 

Every  body  will  remain  at  rest  unless  force  compels  it  to 
change  its  position,  and  it  will  then  go  on  forever  in  a  straight 
path,  unless  something  stops  it.  But  if  this  body  be  acted  on 
simultaneously  by  two  forces  in  different  directions  it  will  go  in 
the  direction  of  the  greater  force.  Two  ei|ual  forces  will  tend 
to  give  it  an  intermediate  direction,  and  an  equal  opposing 


The  Surface  of  the  Sun  as  seen  through  a  Powerful  Telescope. 

force  will  stop  it.  The  last  axiom  but  one — viz.,  the  two  equal 
forces  in  different,  not  opposing  directions — gives  us  the  key  to 
the  curving  line  of  the  planetary  motions.  Were  it  not  for  the 
attraction  of  the  sun,  the  planets  would  fly  off  at  a  tangent ; 
wdiile,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  the  impelling  force  as  great 
as  it  is,  they  would  fall  into  tlie  sun.  Thus  they  take  an  inter- 
mediate line,  and  circle  round  the  center  of  the  solar  system — 
the  Sun. 

The  solar  system  consists  of:  (l)  The  sun— the  center;  (2) 
the  major  planets— Vulcan  (undetermined).  Mercury,  Venus, 
Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  Neptune  ;  (3)  the  asteroids, 
or  minor  planets,  at  present  (Januar)',  1SS5)  244  in  number; 
{4)  the  satellites,  or  moons,  which  revolve  around  the  difTerenl 
planets;  (5)  meteors  and  shooting  stars;  (6)  comets. 


R- 


M 


35'^ 


ASTRONOMY. 


The  stars  called  planets  have  certain  motions,  going  from  east 
to  west,  from  west  to  east,  and  sometimes  again  appearing  quite 
motionless.  This  change  of  place,  appearing  now  at  one  side 
of  the  sun  and  now  at  another,  has  given  them  their  title  of 
"  wanderers."  The  planets  and  their  satellites,  the  asteroids, 
comets  and  meteors,  all  circle  round  the  sun  in  more  or  less 
rjgular  orbits.  And  there  must  be  families  of  comets  that  have 
not  yet  appeared  to  us,  and  whole  systems  of  meteors  as  yet 
unseen. 

THE    SUN. 

When  we  consider  the  power  and  grandeur  of  the  sun,  we 
may  well  feel  lost  in  the  contemplation.  He  balances  the 
planets  and  keeps  them  in  their  orbits.  He  gives  us  light  and 
heat,  and  in  darkness  nothing  will  come  to  maturity.  We  obtain 
rain  and  dew  owing  to  his  evaporative  power,  and  no  action 
could  go  on  upon  the  earth  without  him. 

The  sun  is  not  solid  so  f:ir  as  we  can  tell.  It  is  apparently  a 
mass  of  white-hot  vapor,  and  is  enabled  to  shine  by  reason  of 
its  own  light,  which  the  planets  and  stars  cannot  do,  they  shin- 
ing only  by  the  sun's  reflected  light.  From  this  we  might  con- 
clude that  the  sun  is  entirely  gaseous,  but,  in  the  recent  researches 
in  spectrum  analysis,  the  light  of  the  sun  has  been  examined  by 
means  of  the  spectroscope,  and  split  up  into  i:s  component  colors, 
and  scientists  have  discovered  that  a  number  of  elements  exist 
in  the  sun  in  a  vaporous  state.  Hydrogen  is  there,  with  other 
gases  unknown  to  us,  and  many  metals,  discovered  by  their 
spectra,  which  are  the  same  under  similar  circumstances.  The 
sun  is  supposed  to  be  spherical  in  shape  —  not  flattened  at  the 
poles,  as  our  earth  is — -and  to  be  compose  1  of  materials  similar 
to  those  which  constitute  the  earth,  only  that  in  the  sun  these 
materials  are  s;ill  in  a  heated  condition.  Thus  we  can  argue,  by 
analogy  from  the  spectra  of  earthly  elements,  that  as  the  sun  and 
star  light  give  us  similar  spectra,  the  heavenly  bodies  are  com- 
posed of  the  >ame  elements  as  our  globe. 

When  the  surface  of  the  sun  is  examined  with  a  good  tele- 
scope, under  favorable  atmospheric  conditions,  it  appears  to  be 
composed  of  minute  grains  of  intense  brilliancy  and  of  irregular 
fjrm,  floating  in  a  darker  medium  and  arranged  in  groups  and 
streaks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  With  a  rather  low  power  the  gen- 
eral eflect  of  the  surface  is  much  like  that  of  rough  drawing- 
paper. 

The  sun's  average  distance  from  the  earth  is  91,500,000  miles. 

The  volume  of  the  sun  is  1,253,000  times  that  of  the  earth, 
but  its  density  is  only  about  one-fourth  that  of  the  earth.  The 
attraction  of  gravitation  at  the  sun  must  be  more  than  that  of  the 
earth's  surface  twenty-seven  times.  A  body  dropped  near  the 
surface  of  the  sun  would  fall  436  feet  in  the  first  second,  and 
would  then  have  attained  a  velocity  of  ten  miles  a  minute. 

The  light  of  the  sun  is  equal  to  5,563  wax  candles,  held  at  a 
di-,tance  of  one  foot  from  the  eye.  It  would  require  800,000 
full  moons  to  produce  a  day  as  brilliant  as  one  of  cloudless  sun- 
shine. 

The  amount  of  heat  we  receive  annually  is  sufficient  to  melt  a 
layer  of  ice  thirty-eight  yards  in  thickness,  extending  over  the 
whole  earth. 


The  sun  appears  to  be  about  half  a  degree  in  diameter,  so  that 
360  disks  like  the  sun,  laid  side  by  side,  would  make  a  half  cir- 
cle of  the  celestial  sphere.  It  seems  a  little  larger  to  us  in  win- 
ter than  in  summer,  as  we  are  3,000,000  miles  nearer  it. 

The  sun  makes  the  apparent  circuit  of  the  heavens  in  365  d. 
6  /;.  9  m.  9.6  s. ;  the  transit  from  one  vernal  equinox  to  the  next 
being  only  365  d.  5  /;.  48  m.  48.6  s.,  owing  to  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  explained  elsewhere. 

The    Sun's    Apparent    Motion. 

If  we  rise  early  in  the  morning  we  shall,  as  the  reader  will 
say,  see  the  sun  rise — that  is,  he  appears  to  us  to  rise  as  the 
earth  rotates.      By  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  3)  we  can 


%: — 

r-C 

■^^f\\ 

^^^ 

/v^S^\ 

s^N.  y^^xv^ 

s/    '^^^ 

j^^\\       \ 

South\           -*^^^si--Ji.. 

*:i 

\        / 

^.  "^^Z 

P\^^ 

^7^ 

H' 

.Vor(» 


7: 
Fig.  3.     The  Sun's  Apparent  Motion. 

understand  how  Sol  makes  his  appearance,  and  how  he  comes  up 
again.  The  earth  rotates  from  west  to  east,  and  so  the  sun 
appears  to  move  from  east  to  west.  If  we  look  at  the  diagram 
we  shall  see  that  after  rising  at  O  the  sun  advances  toward  the 
meridian  in  aa  oblique  arc  to  A,  the  highest  or  culminating 
point — midday.  He  then  returns,  descending  to  W;  this  path 
is  the  diurnal  arc.  At  Q  similarly,  during  his  passage  in  the 
nocturnal  arc,  he  reaches  the  lowest  or  inferior  culmination. 
H  H  is  the  meiidian. 

On  the  2ist  of  March  this  path  brings  the  sun  on  the  "  equi- 
noctial" line.  Day  and  night  are  then  of  equal  duration,  as 
the  arcs  are  equal.  So  this  is  the  vernal  (or  spring)  equinox. 
Some  weeks  after  the  sun  is  at  midday  higher  up  at  S',  and  so, 
the  diurnal  arc  being  longer,  the  day  is  longer.  (Z  is  the 
zenith,  Z'  is  the  nadir,  P  P'  is  tlie  celestial  axis.)  From  tliat 
time  he  descends  again  toward  the  equinoctial  to  the  autumnal 
equinox,  and  so  on,  the  diurnal  arc  becoming  smaller  and 
smaller  until  the  winter  solstice  is  reached  (S). 

Now,  the  sun  has  a  two-fold  apparent  motion  —  viz.,  a 
circular  motion  obliquely  ascending  from  the  horizon,  which  is 
explained  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  and  by  our  position,  o,  to 
the  earth's  axis,  /  /',  and  also  by  a  rising  and  setting  motion 
between  the  solstitial  points,  S  and  S',  which  causes  the  inequal- 
ity of  the  days  and  nights.  Independently  of  the  daily  motion 
of  the  sun,  we  observe  that  at  tlie  summer  solstice,  on  the  2  \  st 
of  June,  at  midday,  the  sun  is  at  S',  and  one  half  year  later, 
viz.,  on  the  21st  of  December,  'at  midnight,  the  sun  is  at  s, 
from  which  he  arrives  again  in  the  space  of  half  a  year  at  S' ; 
so  we  are  able  to  represent  this  annual  motion  of  the  sun  by  a 


^ 


.ASTRONOMY. 


l-fL. 


=^" 


359 


circle,  the  diameter  of  whiclt  is  the  line  S'  s.     This  circle  is 
calleil  the  Ecliplic. 

The  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  S'  s,  cuts  the  plane  of  the  equinoc- 
tial, A  Q,  at  an  angle  of  23^°,  and  the  a.\is  of  the  ecliptic,  S"' 
s",  makes  the  same  angle  with  the  axis  of  the  heavens,  P  P. 
The  two  parallel  circles  S'  s'  and  S  s  include  a  ione  extend- 


Fig.  4.    The  Ecliptic. 

ing  to  both  sides  of  the  e(|uiiuiclial,  and  beyond  which  the  sun 
never  passes.  These  circles  are  called  the  Iropits,  from  trr/io, 
I  turn,  because  the  sun  turns  back  at  these  points,  and  again 
approaches  the  etiuinoctial.  The  parallel  circles  S"  s"  and 
g///  j///  Jescribed  by  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic,  S'"  s" ,  about  the 
celestial  poles,  P  P,  are  called  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles. 

Whenever  the  sun  crosses  the  equinoctial,  there  is  the  equi- 
nox; but  the  points  of  intersection  are  not  invariably  the' same 
every  year.  There  is  a  gradual  westerly  movement,  so  it  is  a 
little  behind  its  former  crossing-place  eveiy  year.  This  is  the 
"precession  of  the  equinoxes"  because  the  time  of  the  equi- 
noxes is  hastened,  but  it  is  really  a  retrograde  movement. 
Ilipparchus  discovered  this  motion,  which  amounts  to  about 
fifty  seconds  in  a  year.  So  the  whole  revolution  will  be  com- 
pleted in  about  28,000  years. 

Sun-Spots. 

Sun-spots,  as  they  are  g'^ncrnlly  called,  are  hollows  in  the 
sun's  vapory  substance,  and  are  of  enormous  extent;  and  there 
are  brilliant  places  near  those  spots,  which  are  termed  faculce. 
These  spots  have  been  observed  to  be  changing  continuously, 
and  passing  from  east  to  west  across  the  sun,  and  then  to  come 
again  at  the  east,  to  go  over  the  same  space  z^ain.  Now  this 
fact  has  proved  that  the  sun  turns  around  upon  his  axis,  and, 
although  he  does  not  move,  as  we  imagine,  from  east  to  west, 


round  the  earth,  the  orb  lioes  move  —  in  fact,  the  sun  has  three 
motions  :  one  on  his  axis;  secondly,  a  motion  about  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  solar  system,  and  a  progressive  movement 
toward  the  constellation  Hercules. 

Solar  Prominences. 

During  solar  eclipses  the  sun  exhibits  what  are  termed  "red 
prominences," — the  luminous  vapors  existing  around  it.  When 
the  orb  is  eclipsed,  bright-colored  vapors  can  be  seen  shooting 
out  from  underneath  tlie  dark  shadow.  These  red  prominences 
were  first  observed  in  1842,  and  in  1851  it  was  proved  that  they 
appertained  to  the  sun,  for  the  moon  hid  them  as  the  eclipse 
began.  "  The  luminosity  of  these  prominences  is  intense,"  says 
Secci,  "  and  they  often  rise  to  a  height  of  80,000  miles,  and  occa- 
sionally to  more  than  twice  that;  then,  bending  back,  they  fall 
again  upon  the  sun  like  the  jets  of  fountains.  Then  they  spread 
into  figures  resembling  gigantic  trees,  more  or  less  rich  in 
branches.*' 

THE    PLANETS. 

The  ancients  knew  fivr  of  the  planets  and  named  them 
Mercitrv,  I'tnus,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Siitiirn.  In  later  years  a 
great  number  were  discovered,  but  we  must  confine  ourselves 
to  the  consideration  of  the  principal  ones,  eight  in  number,  in- 
cluding our  OM  n  Earth,  Uranus  and  Xcpttine  completing  the 
list.  Of  these,  Venus  and  Mercury  are  the  interior  (or  inferior) 
planets,  moving  between  us  and  the  sun  ;  the  others  are  called 
exterior  (or  superior),  and  pass  quite  round  the  heavens.  All 
the  planets  are  spheroids,  and  they  vary  greatly  in  size.  Their 
comparative  distance  and  magnitude  are  thus  interestingly 
illustrated  by  Sir  John  Hcrschel : 

"  Choose  any  well-leveled  field,  ami  on  it  place  a  globe  two 
feet  in  diameter  to  represent  the  sun.  Mercury  will  be  repre- 
sented by  a  grain  of  mu.stard  seed  on  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  164  feet  in  diameter  for  its  orbit;  Venus,  a  pea,  on  a 
circle  284  feet  in  diameter ;  the  Earth,  also  a  pea  on  a  circle 
430  feet ;  Mars,  a  rather  l.irge  pin's  head  on  a  circle  of  654  feet ; 
Juno,  Ceres,  Vesta,  and  Pallas,  grains  of  sand  in  orbits  of  1,000 
to  1,200  feet;  Jupiter,  a  moderate-sized  orange  on  a  circle 
nearly  half  a  mile  across;  Saturn,  a  small  orange  on  a  circle 
four-fifths  of  a  mile ;  and  Uranus,  a  full-sized  cherry,  or  small 
plum,  upon  the  circumference  of  a  circle  more  than  a  mile  and 
a  half  in  diameter." 


Comparative  Table  showing  the  Diameter.  Distance  from  the  Sun 

,  Volume 

Density,  etc 

.,  of  the  Planets  of  the  Solar  System.' 

Diameter 
in 

Miles. 

Mean  distcince 

from  the  sun. 

in  miles, 

(about). 

.Sidereal  period 

of  revolution. 

(Length  of 

year). 

Time  of 
rotation  on 
their  axes. 

Average 

velocity. 
Miles  per 
second. 

Volume, 
earth  being  1. 

Density,     '       ...  ■   .  . 
..'       1       Weight, 

bei"g',.     ^  earth  bLgi. 

Date  of 
Discovery. 

The  Sun  

Mercury 

888,646 

7,926 

4,070 

92,164 

75,070 
36,216 

33,6"o 

35,000,000 

66,000,000 

91,000,000 

139,000,000 

476,000,000 

873,000,000 

1,753,000,000 

2,746,000,000 

.1.       Ii.     m. 

87    23     16 

224     16     30 

365      6      9 

686    23     31 

4.332     14      2 

10,759       5     16 

30,686     17    21 

60,126     17      s 

d.         h. 

24       sH 
23      "H 

23  56 

24  37  >S 
9       SSH 

10      15 
9       30 

30 

23 
18 

■5 
8« 

""iH 

>.4"5.225.oo 
0.05 
0.99 
1.00 
0.13 
1,491.00 
773.00 
86.50 
76.60 

0.25 

1.22 
0.90 
1.00 
.0.97 
0.22 
0.13 
0.16 
0.32 

354.9.'6oo 
0.07 
0.91 
1.00 

0.13 

101.36 
M-25 
18.98 

Ariiiqiiily. 

Antiquity. 

Earth    

Antiquity. 
Antiquity. 
Antiquity. 
Herschcl.  1781. 

Qalle,  1846. 

*  The  planet  Vulcan,  discovered  in  1859,  ^"'■'  having  its  orbit  nc.>:t  to  the  sun,  i-i  still  undetermined.    Prof.  Tlce  estimates  that  its  diame  er  is  as  large  ; 
that  of  Uranus. 


/ 


rv 


360 


ASTRONOMY. 


The  planets  revolve  upon  their  axes  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  earth.  This  we  know  by  telescopic  observation  to  be  the 
case  with  many  planets,  and  by  analogy  the  rule  may  be  ex- 
tended to  all.  Conformably  to  the  principles  of  gravitation, 
their  velocity  is  greatest  at  those  parts  of  their  orbit  which  are 
nearest  the  sun,  and  least  at  the  parts  which  are  most  distant 
from  it ;  in  other  words,  they  move  quickest  in  perihelion,  and 
slowest  in  aphelion. 

The  question  whether  the  planets  are  inhabited  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  answered.  There  are  many  who  think  that  the 
only  object  God  can  possibly  have  in  making  any  world  is  to 
form  an  abode  for  man.  Our  own  e.irth  was  evidently  fitted  up, 
although  perhaps  not  created,  for  this  express  purpose.  When 
we  turn  to  the  planets  we  do  not  know  but  God  has  other  race, 
of  intelligent  beings  who  inhabit  them,  or  even  entirely  different 
ends  to  attain.  Of  this,  however,  we  are  fully  assured,  that,  if 
inhabited,  the  conditions  on  which  life  is  supported  vary  much 
from  those  familiar  to  us. 


Fig.  5.     General  Appearance  uf  a  Sun  Spot. 

Satcllilci,  or  "planetary  moons''  are  plainly  perceived  at- 
tending upon  the  great  planets.  One  we  are  all  familiar  with — 
the  moon,  which  lends  a  beauty  to  our  ni;;hts  which  no  other 
light  that  we  can  command  can  ever  do. 

Mars  possesses  two  moons  and  Jupiter  four  ;  Uranus  rejoices 
in  the  latter  number;  Neptune  has  only  one;  no  less  than  eight 
satellites  wait  upon  Saturn.  No  doubt  there  are  many  more  of 
these  moons  to  be  found,  and  every  year  will  doubtless  bring  us 
further  knowledge  res|)ecting  them.  Mars'  moons  were  dis- 
covered only  ill  1S77,  although  known  to  exist.  Jupiter's  moons 
are  supposed  to  be  as  large  as  our  own  moon  ;  Neptune  and 
Uranus  can  boast  of  equally-sized  attendants. 

MERCURY. 

The  distance  of  Mercury  from  the  sun  is  less  than  half  that  of 
our  earth,  and  so  it  receives  much  more  heat  and  light  than  we 
do.     The  sun  to  the  Mercurians,  if  there  be  any  inhabitants  upon 


the  planet,  must  appear  about  seven  times  larger  than  he  does 
to  us.  When  the  sky  is  very  clear  we  may  sometimes  see 
Mercury,  just  after  the  setting  of  the  sun,  as  a  bright,  sparkling 
star  near  the  western  horizon.  Its  elevation  increases  evening 
by  evening,  but  never  exceeds  30°.  And  if  we  watch  it  closely, 
we  shall  find  that  it  again  approaches  the  sun  and  becomes  lost 
ill  his  rays.  Some  days  afterward,  just  before  sunrise,  wt  can 
see  the  same  star  in  the  east,  rising  higher  each  morning,  until 
its  greatest  elevation  _,» 

equals  that  which  it 
before  attained  in  the 
west.  Mercury's  or- 
bit is  the  most  eccen- 
tric of  any  of  the 
eight  principal  plan- 
ets, so  that,  although 
when  in  perihelion  it 
approaches  to  within 
28,000,000  miles,  in 
aphelion  it  speeds 
away  15,000,000 
miles  farther,  or  to 
the   distance   of  43,- 

000,000  miles.     Being  so  near  the  sun,  its  motion  in  its 
correspondingly  rapid  —  thirty  miles  per  second. 


Fig.  6. 


A  Sun-Spot  as  seen  by  Secchi, 

[■bit  is 


VENUS. 

Venus,  the  nearest  |)lanet  to  tlic  earth,  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  latter.  This  planet  is  both  a  morning  and  evening 
star,  and  is  very  brilliant — so  much  so,  that  close  observation 
with  the  telescope  is  impossible.  When  at  her  nearest  point 
she  is  invisible,  as  she  passes  between  us  and  the  .sun,  and  of 
course  when  fully  illuminated  she  is  directly  beyond  the  sun. 
and  inclosed  in  his 

rays.  But  under  ^^li'^  A  #  1  ilffU  ^i'^ 
other  circunistan 
ces  she  is  distinctly 
visible  as  a  cres 
cent  in  the  even 
ing,  and  nearly  full 
as  a-  morning  star 
Venus  has  long 
been  celebrated  as 
the  morning  and 
evening  star,  as 
"Lucifer"  and 
**  Hesperus  "  ^*&-  7"     ^  Sun-Spot  as  seen  by  Nasmith. 

That  Venus  possesses  an  atmosphere  denser  than  our  own  can 
scarcely  be  doubted.  The  observations  made  during  successive 
transits  seem  to  have  established  the  fact  that  aqueous  vapor 
exists  around,  and  water  in,  Venus.  No  satellite  can  be  found, 
although  the  ancients  reported  such  an  attendant.  A  transit  of 
Venus,  like  one  of  Mercury,  is  simply  a  passing  of  the  planet 
across  the  illuminated  disc  of  the  sun.  The  transits  afford 
means  to  ascertain  the  volume,  distance,  etc.,  of  the  sun.  The 
l.ist  occurred  in    18S2,  and  there  will  not  be  another  for  nunc 


/ 


\ 


"71 


GASTRONOMY 


36. 


than  a  hundred  years.  The  seasons  in  Venus  must  be  verj' 
different  from  ours.  As  Iier  inclination  is  greater  than  that  of 
our  earth,  and  as  the  sun  is  so  much  nearer  to  lier  than  to  us, 
her  tropical  and  polar  regions  are  close,  and  a  vertical  sun  is 
scarcely  enjoyed  Ijy  two  places  for  three  successive  days,  and  she 
may  have  two  winters  and  summers,  two  springs  and  autumns. 


Fig.  8.     A  Solar  Prominence. 

The  evidence  of  an  atmosphere,  as  well  as  of  mountains,  rests 
very  much  upon  tlie  peculiar  appearance  attending  her  crescent 
shape.  The  luminous  part  does  not  end  abruptly  ;  on  the  con- 
trary its  li^ht  diminishes  gradually.  This  diminution  may  be 
entirely  explained  by  the  twilight  on  the  planet.  The  existence 
of  an  atmosphere  which  diffuses  the  rays  of  liglit  into  regions 
where  the  sun  has  already  set,  has  hence  been  inferred.  Thus, 
on  Venus,  the  evenings,  like  ours,  are  lighted  by  twilight,  and 
the  mornings  by  dawn.  The  edge  of  the  illuminated  portion  of 
the  planet  is  uneven  and  irregular,  and  this  appearance  is  doubt- 
less the  effect  of  shadows  cast  by  mountains. 

OUR  EARTH  AND  HER  SATELLITE. 

It  seems  rather  strange  to  class  our  earth,  which  is  dark  and 
opaque,  and  which  appears  to  us  so  vast,  among  the  bright 
heavenly  bodies.  Nevertheless  it  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
principal  planets  of  the  solar  system,  and  although  we  see  in  it 
no  motion,  while  the  orbs  about  ub  seem  constantly  changing 
their  position,  science  has  demonstrated  that  it  revolves  around 
the  sun,  in  an  orbit  of  nearly  600,000,000  miles,  at  the  tremen- 
dous rate  of  eighteen  miles  per  second,  or  65,000  miles  an  hour. 
To  other  worlds  our  earth  appears  as  a  star  does  to  us.  In 
studying  astronomy  we  must  consider  that  it  is  a  planet  shining 
brightly  in  the  heavens,  held  in  its  course  by  the  invisible  power 
of  gravitation,  and  that  in  reality  it  is  small  and  insignificant 
beside  some  of  the  mighty  globes  that  so  gently  shine  upon  us 
from  distances  almost  inconceivable ;  that  our  earth,  in  fact,  is 
only  one  atom  in  a  universe  of  worlds,  all  firm  and  solid,  and 
all,  perhaps,  equally  well  fitted  to  be  the  abode  of  life. 

Science  teaches  us  that  the  earth  was  doubtless  once  a  glow- 
ing star,  and  under  the  head  of  Physical  Geography  we  can  see 


that  the  Scriptures  confirm  this  doctrine.  The  crust  upon  which 
we  thrive  is  only  the  cinders  and  ashes  of  a  fearful  conflagra- 
tion, and  the  air  we  breathe  is  only  the  gas  left  over  when  the 
fuel  was  consumed. 

The  earth  has  two  motions — one  from  cast  to  west,  in  its 
course  round  the  sun,  and  one  on  its  own  axis.  If  we  send  a 
ball  rolling  we  perceive  that  it  turns  round  as  it  proceeds.  So 
the  earth  turns  on  its  axis,  the  extremities  of  which  are  called 
the  polts.  The  horizon  appears  to  us  stationary,  and  so  the 
stars  we  see  at  night  seem  to  move.  Those  on  the  west,  which 
are  passed  over  and  hidden,  seem  to  have  sunk  or  set,  and  those 
on  the  east  seem  to  have  moved  above  or  risen.  The  sun  seems 
to  move  by  day,  and  the  stars  by  night,  but  this  is  a  mere  optical 
delusion — a  delusion  in  which  the  untaught  mind  is  confirmed 
by  the  relative  fixity  of  everything  on  our  globe,  the  apparent 
rest  of  everything  around. 

The  earth's  rotation,  according  to  sidereal  time,  is  less  than 
solar  time,  and  we  have  365  solar  days  and  366  sidereal 
days.  A  person  going  round  the  world  would  gain  or  lose  a 
day,  as  he  traveled  east  or  west,  according  to  his  reckoning  as 
compared  with  the  reckoning  of  friends  at  home.  We  can  best 
ascertain  the  earth's  motion  tiy  watching  the  stars  rise  and  set. 
The  earth  proceeds  at  its  tremendous  pace  round  the  sun  in  an 
ellipse  or  oval  track,  600,000,000  miles  in  length,  from  whicli  it 
never  moves,  year  by  year,  in  any  appreciable  degree.  Now 
what  prevents  this  earth  of  ours  from  rushing  off  by  itself  into 


The  Earth  in  Space. 


space?  The  reason  is  because  the  sun  holds  it  back.  The 
force  of  the  sun's  gravitation  is  so  enormously  great  that  it  suf- 
fices to  retain  our  globe  and  all  the  planets  in  their  various 
orbits,  and  to  counteract  the  force  which  launches  them  through 
space.  If  the  earth  were  suddenly  to  increase  her  velocity  or 
the  sun   to  contract  his  mass,  we  should  be  flung  into  infinite 


-sN- 


K 


362 


ASTRONOMY. 


'.^ 


space,  and  in  a  short  time  would  be  frozen  up  completely.  Our 
present  diurnal  course  would  probably  proceed,  but  all  life 
would  cease  as  we  whirled  with  distant  planef!  through  in- 
finity. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  earth  were  to  stop  suddenly, 
an  amount  of  heat  would  be  engendered  sufficient  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  a  globe  of  lead  the  same  si^e  as  our  globe 
384,000°  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer,  and,  as  Prof.  Tyndall 
says,  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  our  planet  would  be 
reduced  to  vapor.  But  against  such  a  catastrophe  we  are  as- 
sured by  the  immutability  of  God's  laws.  The  variation  in  the 
earth's  revolution  has  not  exceeded  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
second  in  2,000  years. 

The  Seasons. 
In  the  diagram  (Fig.  10)  we  shall  at  once  find  the  explana- 
tion of  the  constantly   recurring  seasons,   and   the   amount   of 


Fig.  10.     The  Seasons. 

our  globe  which  is  illuminated  by  the  sun  at  various  times.  It 
will  be  easily  understood  that  the  poles  have  six  months  day 
and  six  months  nijht.  When  the  earth  is  at  an  e  [uinox,  one- 
half  of  the  surface  is  illuminated  and  the  other  half  in  shade  ; 
therefore  the  days  and  nights  are  equal.  But  when  the  north 
pole  turns  more  and  more  toward  the  sun,  the  south  pole  is 
turning  away  from  it  in  the  same  ratio, — the  days  and  nights  re- 
spectively are  getting  longer  and  longer,  and  at  the  north  and 
south  poles  day  and  night  are  continuous,  for  the  small  spaces 
round  the  poles  are,  diving  a  certain  period,  wholly  in  sunshine 
and  shade  respectively. 

When  the  earth  is  in  Libra,  and  also  when  in  .\ries,*  the  rays 

*\V'hcn  wc  say  that  the  earth  is  in  Libra,  we  mean  that  a  spectator  placed 
at  the  sun  would  sec  the  earth  in  that  part  of  the  heavens  which  is  occu- 
pied by  the  sign  of  Libra.     See  Zodiac  (Dictionary  of  Astronomical  Terms). 


strike  vertically  at  the  equator,  and  more  and  more  obliquely  in 
the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  as  the  distance  from  the 
equator  increases,  until  at  the  poles  they  strike  almost  horizon- 
tally. This  variation  in  the  direction  of  the  rays  produces  a 
corresponding  variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  heat  and 
light  at  different  places,  and  accounts  for  t'.ie  difference  between 
the  torrid  and  polar  regions.  As  the  earth  changes  its  position, 
the  angle  at  which  the  rays  strike  any  portion  is  varied.  For  in- 
stance, take  the  earth  as  it  enters  Ca|;ricomus,  and  the  sun  in 
Cancer.  He  is  now  overhead  23 1^°  north  of  the  equator.  His 
rays  strike  less  obliquely  in  the  northern  hemisphere  than  when 
tlie  earth  was  in  Libra.  Let  six  months  elapse  :  The  earth  is 
now  in  Cancer  and  the  sun  in  Capricornus ;  and  he  is  overhead 
23/4°  south  of  the  equator.  His  rays  strike  less  obliquely  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  than  before,  but  in  the  northern  hem- 
isphere more  obliquely. 
These  six  months  have 
changed  the  direction  of 
the  sun's  rays  on  every 
part  of  the  earth's  stirface. 
This  accounts  for  the  dif- 
ference in  temperature  be- 
tween summer  and  winter. 
At  the  equinoxes  one- 
half  of  each  hemisphere  is 
illuminated;  hence  the 
name  equinox  [ajiius, 
equal,  and  nox,  night). 
At  these  points  of  the  orbit 
the  days  and  nights  are 
equal  over  the  entire  earth, 
each  being  twelve  hours  in 
length. 

When  the  earth  is  at  the 
summer  solstice,  about  the 
2lst  of  June,  the  sun  is 
overhead  23^^°  north  of 
the  equator,  and  if  its  ver- 
tical rays  could  leave  a 
golden  line  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  as  it  revolves, 
they  would  mark  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  The  sun  is  at  its  furthest  northern  declination, 
ascends  the  highest  it  is  ever  seen  above  our  horizon,  and  rises 
and  sets  23  '2°  north  of  the  east  and  west  points.  It  seems  now 
to  stand  still  in  its  northern  and  southern  course  ;  and  hence  the 
name  solstice  (  sol,  the  sun,  sto,  to  stand).  The  days  in  the  north 
temperate  zone  are  longer  than  the  nights.  It  is  our  summer, 
and  the  21st  of  June  is  the  longest  day  of  the  year.  In  the 
south  temperate  zone  it  is  winter,  and  the  shortest  day  of  the 
year.  The  circle  that  separates  day  from  night  extends  23^2° 
beyond  the  north  pole  ;  and  if  the  sun's  rays  could  in  like  man- 
ner leave  a  golden  line  on  that  day,  they  wouUl  trace  on  the  earth 
the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  the  noon  of  the  long,  six-months  polar 
day.  The  reverse  is  true  at  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  it  is  there 
the  midnight  of  the  long,  six-months  polar  night. 


\ 


ASTRONOMY. 


363 


The  earth  crosses  the  aphehon  point  the  1st  of  July,  when  it 
is  at  its  furtliest  distance  from  the  sun,  which  is  then  said  to  be 
in  apogee.  The  sun,  each  day  rising  and  setting  a  trifle  further 
toward  the  south,  passes  through  a  lower  circuit  in  the  heavens. 
We  reach  the  autumnal  equinox  the  22d  of  September.  The 
sun  being  now  on  the  equinoctial,  if  its  vertical  rays  could  leave 
a  line  of  golden  light,  they  would  mark  on  the  earth  the  circle  of 
the  equator.  It  is  autumn  in  the  north  temperate  zone,  and 
spring  in  the  south  temperate  zone.  The  d.iys  and  nights  are 
equal  over  the  wliole  earth, 
the  sun  rising  at  6  A.M.,  and 
setting  at  6  P.M.,  exactly  in 
the  east  and  west  where 
the  equinoctial  intersects  tlie 
horizon. 

The  sun,  after  passing  the 
equinoctial  —  "crossing  the 
line,"  as  it  is  called  — sinks 
lower  toward  the  southern 
horizon  eaclt  day.  We  reach 
the  winter  solstice  the  21st  of 
December.  The  sun  is  now 
directly  overhead  23)^°  south 
of  the  equator;  and  if  its  rays 
could  leave  a  line  of  golden 
light,  they  would  mark  on 
the  earth's  surface  the  Trop- 
ic of  Capricorn.  It  is  at  its 
furthest  southern  dechnation, 
and  rises  and  sets  23^° 
south  of  tlie  east  and  west 
points.  It  is  our  winter,  and 
the  2ist  of  December  i-i  the 
shortest  day  of  the  year.  In 
the  south  temperate  zone  it 
is  summer  and  the  longest 
day  of  the  year.  The  circle 
tli.it  separates  day  from  night 
extends  23^^°  beyond  the 
south  pole ;  and  if  the  sun's 
rays  in  like  manner  could 
leave  a  line  of  golden  light, 
they  would  mark  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle.  It  is  there  the 
noon  of  the  long  six-months 
polar  day.  At  the  Arctic 
Circle  the  reverse  is  true; 
the  rays  fall  23^°  short  of 

the  north  pole,  and  it  is  there  the  midnight  of  the  long  six- 
months  polar  night.  Here,  again,  the  sun  appears  to  us  to  stand 
still  a  day  or  two  before  retracing  its  course,  and  it  is  therefore 
called  the  winter  solstice. 

The  earth  reaches  its  perihelion  about  the  31st  of  December. 
It  is  then  nearest  the  sun,  which  is,  therefore,  .said  to  be  \nptri- 
gee.  The  sun  rises  and  sets  each  day  further  and  further  north, 
and   climbs   up  higher  in  the  heavens   at   midday.     Our  days 


Fig. 


gradually  increa.se  in  length,  and  our  nights  shorten  in  the  same 
proportion.  On  the  21st  of  March  the  sun  reaches  the  equi- 
noctial, at  the  vernal  equinox.  He  is  overhead  at  the  equator, 
and  the  days  and  nights  are  again  equal.  It  is  our  spring,  but 
in  the  south  temperate  zone  it  is  autumn. 

We  are  nearer  the  sun  by  3,000,000  miles  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  The  obliqueness  with  wliich  tlie  rays  strike  the  norlli 
temperate  zone  at  that  time  prevents  our  receiving  any  special 
benefit  from  this  favorable  position  of  the  earth.     We   notice 

that  we  do  not  have  our  great- 
est heat  at  the  time  of  the 
summer  solstice  nor  our 
greatest  cold  at  the  time  of 
the  winter  solstice.  After 
the  2lst  of  June,  the  earth, 
already  warmed  by  the 
genial  spring  days,  continues 
to  receive  more  heat  from  the 
sun  by  day  than  it  radiates 
by  night;  thus  its  temperature 
still  increases.  On  the  other 
hand,  after  the  21st  of  De- 
cember, the  earth  continues 
to  become  colder,  because 
it  loses  more  heat  during  the 
night  than  it  receives  during 
the  day. 

As  the  sun  is  not  in  tlie 
center  of  the  earth's  orbit,  but 
at  one  of  lis  foci,  that  portion 
of  the  orbit  which  the  earth 
passes  through  in  going  from 
the  vernal  to  the  autumnal 
equinox  comprises  more  than 
one-half  the  entire  ecliptic. 
On  this  account  the  summer 
is  longer  than  the  winter. 

The  velocity  of  the  earth 
varies  in  different  portions  of 
its  orbit.  Wlien  p.Tssing  from 
the  vernal  equinox  to  aphe- 
lion, the  attraction  of  the  sun 
tends  to  check  its  speed ; 
from  that  point  to  the 
autumnal  e<iuinox,  the  attrac- 
tion is  partly  in  the  direction 
cf  its  motion,  and  so  in- 
creases its  velocity. 
If  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic  the 
sun  would  always  appear  to  move  through  the  equinoctial.  He 
would  rise  and  set  every  day  at  the  same  jioints  on  the  horizon, 
and  pass  through  the  same  circle  in  the  heavens,  while  the  days 
and  nights  would  be  equal  the  year  round.  There  would  be 
near  the  equator  a  fierce  torrid  heat,  while  north  and  south  the 
climate  would  melt  away  into  temperate  spring,  and,  lastly,  into 
the  rigors  of  a  perpetual  winter. 


Moon  by  Earth-light. 


/ 


^ 


IV 


364 


ASTRONOMY, 


If  the  equator  were  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  odd  results 
would  follow.  To  a  spectator  at  the  equator,  as  the  earth  leaves 
the   vernal   equinox,   the   sun   would    each    day  pass   through 


Fig.  12.     Telescopic  View  of  the  Full  Moon. 

a  smaller  circle,  until  at  the  summer  solstice  he  would 
reach  the  north  pole,  when  he  would  halt  for  a  time 
and  then  slowly  return  in  an  inverse  manner.  In  our 
own  latitude,  the  sun  would  make  his  diurnal  revolu- 
tions in  the  way  we  have  just  described,  his  rays  shining 
past  the  north  pole  further  and  further,  until  we  were  in- 
cluded in  the  region  of  perpetual  day,  when  he  would 
seem  to  wind  in  a  spiral  course  up  to  the  north  pole,  and 
then  return  in  a  descending  curve  to  the  equator. 

The  sun  and  moon  appear  flattened  when  near  the 
horizon  because  the  rays  from  the  lower  edge  pass  through 
a  denser  layer  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are,  therefore,  re- 
fracted about  4'  more  than  those  from  the  upper  edge. 
The  effect  of  this  is  to  make  the  vertical  diameter  appear 
about  4'  le;s  than  the  horizontal,  and  so  distort  the  figure 
of  the  disk  into  an  oval  shape. 

The  dim  and  ha/y  appearance  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
when  near  the  horizon  is  caused  not  only  by  the  rays  of 
light  having  to  pass  through  a  larger  space  in  the  atmos- 
phere, but  also  by  their  traversing  the  lower  and  denser 
part.  The  intensity  of  the  solar  light  is  so  greatly  di 
minished  by  passing  through  the  lower  strata,  that  we  are 
enabled  to  look  upon  the  sun  at  that  time  without  being 
dazzled  by  his  brilliant  beams. 


The  glow  of  light  after  sunset,  and  before  sunrise,  which  we 
term  twilight,  is  caused  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the 
sun's  rays  by  the  atmosphere. 

The  diffiised  light  of  day  is  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  twilight.  The  atmosphere  reflects 
and  scatters  the  sunlight  in  every  direction.  Were  it 
not  for  this,  no  object  would  be  visible  to  us  out  of  di- 
rect sunshine ;  every  shadow  of  a  passing  cloud  would 
be  pitchy  darkness ;  the  stars  would  be  visible  all  day ; 
no  window  would  admit  light  except  as  the  sun  shone 
directly  through  it,  and  a  man  would  require  a  lan- 
tern to  go  around  liis  house  at  noon. 

The  blue  light  reflected  to  our  eyes  from  the  atmos- 
phere above  us,  or  more  probably  from  the  vapor  in  the 
air,  produces  the  optical  delusion  we  call  the  sky. 
Were  it  not  for  this,  every  time  we  cast  our  eyes  up- 
ward we  should  feel  like  one  gazing  over  a  dizzy  prec- 
ipice ;  while  now  the  crystal  dome  of  blue  smiles  down 
upon  us  so  lovingly  and  beautifully  that  we  call  it 
heaven. 

THE    MOON. 

"Fancy,"  says  Lockyer,  "a  world  without  ice, 
cloud,  rain,  snow;  without  rivers  or  streams,  and  there" 
fore  \rithout  vegetation  to  support  animal  life; — a 
world  without  twilight  or  any  gradations  between  the 
fiercest  sunshine  and  the  blackest  night ; — a  world, 
also,  without  sound,  for,  as  sound  is  carried  by  the 
air,  the  highest  mountain  on  the  airless  moon  might 
be  riven  by  an  earthquake  inaudibly."  If  it  were 
possible  to  reach  the  moon,  as  Jules  Verne's  travelers 
did,  we  should  find  a  very  irregular  and  corrugated 


Fig.  13.     A  Map  of  the  Moon. 


Al 


Kr 


"71 


STRONOMY. 


365 


surface  —  plains  and  mountains  without  water.  There  being 
no  atmosphere,  we  should  be  able  to  see  the  stars  in  the  day- 
time. The  appearance  of  our  earth  from  the  moon,  and  the 
beauty  of  the  stars  in  the  unclouded  and  waterless  space 
arornd  the  satellite,  must  be  very  grand,  as  depicted  in  a 
measure,  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  II). 

When  we  look  steadily  at  the  full  moon  through  a  telescope 
we  perceive  upon  its  surface  dark  and  liglit  tracts,  called  "  seas," 
though  they  are  dried  up  now.     Thus,  we  hear  of  the  "  Sea  of 

o 


Fig.   14.    The  Moon's  Path  through  Space. 


Serenity,"  the  "  Sea  of  Storms"  and  the  "Sea of  Tranquility." 
The  hill  ranges  extend  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  the  elevation 
reaches  30,000  feet,  and  even  more.  The  so-called  craters  do 
not  resemble  volcanoes  when  viewed  closely,  but  appear  like 
basins  or  valleys  surrounded  by  lofty  hills.  One  great  plain, 
called  Copernicus,  is  more  than  fifty  miles  across. 

The  moon  moves  around  us  in  271/.  "jh.  43W.  11.46U.  Its 
diameter  is  about  2,160  miles,  and  it  is  much  less  dense  than 
our  earth,  and  so  the  force  of  gravity  is  less  there  than  here. 
Its  mean  distance  from  us  is  238,833  miles.  The  moon  goes 
through  certain  changes  or  phases  every  twenty-nine  days  or  so ; 
and  while  rotating  on  its  own  axis  our  satellite  goes  round  the 
earth,  so  that  we  only  see  one  side  of  the  moon,  inasmuch  as 
the  two  motions  occupy  almost  exactly  the  same  length  of  time. 
So  we  generally  see  the  same  space  of  the  moon,  though  at 
times  there  is  a  slight  variation.  This  movement  or  swaying  of 
the  central  point  is  called  the  moon's  "  libration,"  and  is  an 
optical  effect,  due  to  the  inequalities  in  the  motion  of  the  moon 
in  its  orbit,  and  to  the  inclination  of  its  equator  and  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic. 

The   Phases   of  the   Moon. 

The  moon,  as  we  have  seen,  revolves  around  the  earth  in  the 
same  time  as  she  turns  upon  her  own  axis,  and  always  presents 
one  side  to  us  when  she  appears.  Any  one  can  ascertain  this  if 
he  will  put  a  candle  upon  a  round  table,  and  walk  round  it 
facing  the  candle.  The  experimentalist  will  find  that  he  will 
turn  upon  his  own  axis  as  well  as  turn  around  tlie  table.  Thus 
we  shall  see  how  the  moon  changes. 

The  time  intervening  between  one  "  new  "  moon  and  another 
is  29a'.  12^.  44W.  2s.,  and  is  termed  a  synodic  revolution.  This 
is  longer  than  the  sidereal  revolution,  because  the  earth  is  also 
moving  in  the  same  direction,  and  the  moon  has  to  make  up  the 
time  the  earth  has  got  on  in  front,  as  it  were.  So  the  moon 
travels  nearly  thirteen  times  round  the  earth  while  the  latter  is 
going  round  the  sun. 

The  revolutions  of  the  moon  have  been  a  measurement  of 
time  for  ages,  and  her  varying  appearances  during  lunation  are 
always  observed  with  interest.     The  illustration  (Fig.  15)  will 


assist  us  materially.  The  sun's  rays  fall  in  a  parallel  direction 
uoon  the  earth  and  moon,  and  let  us  suppose  that  S  is  the  sun 
in  the  diagram  and  T  the  earth ;  c  at  the  various  points 
is  the  moon,  the  capital  letters.  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  indicating  the 
planet  as  she  appears  from  the  sun,  and  the  small  letters  show- 
ing how  she  appears  to  us  from  the  earth.  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  sun,  earth  and  moon  are  in  conjunction — that  is,  in  a  direct 
line.  The  pha.ses  C  and  G  are  the  moon's  "  quadratures."  At 
A  we  see  the  sun  shining  on  the  moon,  but  we  only  have  the 
dark  side.  It  is  then  "  new  moon."  But  by  degrees,  as 
she  goes  round  in  her  orbit,  we  perceive  a  small  crescent- 
shaped  portion,  lighted  up  by  the  sun  at  B  and  b.  At  (' 
we  have  the  first  quarter  or  half-moon,  and  so  on  to  the 
last  quarter. 

The  moon  revolves  round  the  earth  in  a  changeable 
ellijitical  orbit,  intersecting  the  ecliptic  at  certain  jKiints 
called  nodes.  When  the  moon  is  nearest  to  the  earth  she 
is  said  to  be  in  ptrigee ;  when  farthest  from  us  she  is 
in  apo'^ee.  The  line  uniting  these  points  is  the  line  of  apsides, 
the  diflference  in  distance  being  about  4,000  miles. 

Eclipses. 
The  moon  passes  the  sun  periodically,  and  so,  if  she  moved 
in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  eclipses  of  the  sun 


Fig.  15.    The  Phases  of  the  Moon. 

and  moon  twice  a  month ;  but,  as  the  orbit  is  incliued  a  little, 
she  escapes  by  moving  north  or  south. 

There  are  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  of  the  moon.  The  former 
occur  at  the  time  of  new  moon,  and  the  latter  at  full  moon  ; 
and  this  will  be  at  once  understood  when  we  remember  that 
the  sun  is  eclipsed  by  the  moon  passing  between  us  and  tlie 


VL 


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366 


ASTRONOMY. 


sun  ;  and  the  moon  is  eclipsed  because  the  siiadmv  of  Ihe  earth 
falls  upon  her  when  she  is  opposite  the  sun,  and  therefore  "  full." 

There  arc  total,  partial,  and  annular  eclipses.  The  last  of 
these  terms  is  derived  from  "annulus,"  a  ring;  for  a  ring  of 
light  is  left  around  the  dark  portion  eclipsed,  and  is  only  seen 
in  solar  eclipses.  In  one  sense  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  is  really  an 
eclipse  of  the  earth,  because 
it  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of 
the  moon  falling  upon  the 
earth. 

Various  singular  appear- 
ances always  attend  a  total 
eclipse.  Around  the  sun  is 
seen  a  beautiful  corona,  or 
halo  of  light,  like  that  which 
painters  give  to  the  head  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Flamesofa 
blood-red  color  pby  round 
the  disk  of  the  moon ;  and, 
when  only  a  mere  crescent  of 
the  sun  is  visible,  it  seems  to 
resolve  itself  i  nto  bright  spots, 
interspersed  with  dark 
spaces,  havingthe  appearance 
of  a  string  of  bright  beads. 

The  Tides. 

Tlie  ebb  and  flow  of  tidal 
waters  depend  upon  the  moon 
to  a  great  extent.  Twice  ev- 
ery day  we  have  the  tides, 
twelve  hours  apart,  and  the 
flow  and  ebb  are  merely  examples  of  the  attraction  of  gravita- 
tion which  is  exercised  on  all  bodies,  whether  liquid  or  sol'.d. 
The  tides  may  be  compared  to  a  great  wave,  which,  raised  by 
the  moon's  attraction,  follows  her  in  her  course  round  the  earth. 
The  sun  ah,o  aids  in  this  effect,  but  as  the  moon  is  so  much 
nearer  the  earth  her  influence  is  far  greater.  The  tides  are 
highest  at  the  equator  and 
lowest  at  the  poles,  because  the 
tropics  are  more  exposed  to 
the  lunar  attraction. 

MARS 

Appears  to  the  naked  eye  as  a 
bright  red  star,  rarely  scintillat- 
ing, and  shining  with  a  steady 
light,  which  distinguishes  it 
from  the  fixed  stars.  Its  ruddy 
appearance  has  led  to  its  being 
celebrated  among  all  nations. 
The  Jews  gave  it  the  appellation  of  "blazing,"  and  it  bore  in 
other  languages  a  similar  name.  The  orbit  of  Mars  is  exterior 
to  the  earth's,  as  is  proved  by  his  never  appearing  "  horned," 
nor  ever  passing  across  the  sun's  disc.  Therefore,  no  transits 
of  Mars  can  take  place  as  transits  of  Venus  and  Mercury.     When 


Fig.   17. 


in  "  opposition,"  or  on  the  opposite  side  of  us  from  the  sun. 
Mars  is  at  his  brightest.  This  happened  in  September,  1877. 
He  will  come  close  again  to  us  in  1S92.  Of  all  the  planets  Mars 
has  the  most  eccentric  orbit.  He  curls  about,  so  to  speak,  in 
loops  and  curves,  in  a  very  iiTegular  manner,  and  therefore  his 
distance  from  the  earth  varies  considerably. 

Mars  is  most  like  the  earth 
of  all  the  planets,  and  its  in- 
habitants—  if,  indeed,  it  is 
now  inhabited  —  must  have 
a  beautiful  view  of  us  when 
the  weather  is  fine,  for  we 
are  so  much  larger.  When 
examined  with  a  good  tel- 
escope, the  seas  and  con- 
tinents of  Mars  can  be  dis- 
tinctly perceived.  At  the 
poles  there  appears  to  be  a 
white  or  snowy  region  at 
varying  periods,  which  would 
lead  us  to  the  conclu'iion  that 
the  atmospheric  changes  and 
the  seasons  are  similar  to  our 
own ;  and  as  the  inclination 
of  the  planet  is  nearly  the 
same  as  the  earth,  this  sup- 
position may  be  accepted  as 
a  fact. 

The  seasons  of  Mars  are 
not  equal,  in  consequence  of 
his  wandering  propensities, 
and  winter  is  warmer  up 
there  than  our  winter,  while  summer  is  cooler  than  our  sum- 
mer. That  there  are  clouds  and  an  aqueous  atmosphere  sur- 
rounding tlie  planet  we  learn  from  analysis  and  spectroscopic 
obser\'ation.  Respecting  the  question  of  habitation,  Richard 
Proctor  says ;  "  I  fear  my  own  conclusion  about  Mars  is  that 
his  pre-ent  condition  is  very  desolate.     I  look  on  the  ruddiness 

of  tint  as  one  of  the  signs  that 
the  planet  of  war  has  long 
since  passed  its  prime.  There 
are  lands  and  seas  in  Mars,  the 
vapor  of  water  is  present  in 
his  air,  clouds  form,  rains  and 
snows  fall  upon  his  surface, 
and  doubtless  brooks  and  rivers 
irrigate  his  soil,  and  carry  down 
the  moisture  collected  on  hi^ 
wide  continents  to  the  seas 
whence  the  clouds  had  origin- 
ally been  formed.  But  I  do  not 
think  there  is  much  vegetation  on  Mars,  or  that  many  living  crea- 
tures of  the  highertypes  of  Martian  life  as  it  once  existed  still  re- 
main. All  that  is  known  about  the  planet  tends  to  show  that  the 
time  when  it  attained  that  stage  of  planetary  existence  through 
which  our  earth  is  now  passing  must  be  set  millions  of  years. 


The  Corona  as  seen  in  1857. 


The  Rotation  of  Mars,  as  shown  by  the  Movement  of 
the  Spots  on  its  Disc. 


y^ 


"K^ 


.*»ASTRONOMY. 


~7 


367 


perhaps  hundreds  of  millions  of  years  ago.  He  has  not  yet,  in- 
deed, reached  that  airless  and  waterless  condition,  that  extrem- 
ity of  internal  cold,  or  in  fact  that  utter  unfitness  to  support 
any  kind  of  life,  which  would  seem  to  prevail  in  the  moon. 
The  planet  of  war  in  some  respects  resembles  a  desolate  liattle- 
field,  and  I  fancy  that  there  is  not  a  single  region  of  the  earth 
now  inhabited  by  man  which  is  not  infinitely  more  comfortable 
as  an  abode  of  life  than  the  most  favored  regions  of  Mars  at  the 
present  time  would  be  for  creatures  like  ourselves." 

Mars  is  attended  by  two  satellites,  or  moons,  discovered  in 
1877 — both  being  very  small,  their  diameter  not  exceeding  six 
miles,  although  late  astronomers  have  reasoned  that  they  must 
be  three  times  as  large. 

JUPITER,    THE    GIANT    PLANET, 

Is  thirteen  hundred  times  larger  than  our  earth.  His  inclination 
is  very  small,  and  he  therefore  enjoys  very  small  changes  of 
seasons.  He  has  four  satellites.  Jupiter  himself  was  well 
known   to   the   ancients,    liut    his   moons    were   discovered   liy 


Fig.  18.    Jupiter  as  shown  by  the  Telescope. 

Galileo.  These  moons  were  found  to  revolve  around  Jupiter  in 
times  varying  from  nearly  two  days  to  nearly  sixteen  days,  ac- 
cording as  they  were  at  a  less  or  greater  distance  from  him. 
They  were  also  found  to  have  their  times  of  eclipses  and 
transits.  They  act  with  respect  to  Jupiter  very  much  as  the 
inner  planets  act  with  respect  to  the  sun,  for  observation  showed 
Galileo  that  the  satellites  sometimes  appeared  on  one  side  of  the 
planet,  and  at  other  limes  on  the  opposite  side. 

Jupiter  is  the  largest  of  the  planets,  and  only  Venus  is 
brighter.  He  revolves  at  a  distance  of  476,00x3,000  of  miles 
from  the  sun,  and  his  year  is  equal  to  nearly  twelve  of  ours, 
while  his  day  is  scarcely  ten  hours  long,  showing  a  rapidity 
more  than  twenty  times  the  rate  of  our  earth.  Jupiter,  there- 
fore, must  have  a  very  much  greater  diameter  than  the  earth. 

There  is  much  less  sunlight  and  heat  found  on  Jupiter  than 
upon  earth,  because  he  is  so  much  farther  from  the  sun    than 


we  are.  There  is  but  little  difference  in  the  length  of  his  days 
and  nights,  which  are  each  of  alx)ut  five  hours'  duralion.  .\t  the 
poles  the  sun  is  visible  for  nearly  six  years,  and  then  remains  set 
for  the  same  length  of  time.  The  seasons  var)'  but  slightly. 
Summer  reigns  near  the  e<iuator,  while  tlie  temperate  regions 
enjoy  perpetual  spring. 

When  Jupiter  is  examined  with  the  telescope  it  will  be  seen 
that  he  is  crossed  by  belts  of  vapor ;  and  when  we  con>ider  the 
results  of  the  spectrum  analysis  of  the  planet,  we  may  fairly 
assume  that  Jupiter  is  in  a  very  heated  state,  and  that  we  can- 
not really  perceive  tlie  actual  body  of  the  planet.  There  is  an 
immense  quantity  of  water  thus  surrounding  Jupiter,  and  he 
seems  to  be  still  in  the  condition  in  which  our  earth  was  before 
geology  grasjis  its  state,  and  long  ere  vegetation  or  life  appeared. 
The  waters  have  yet  to  be  "  gathered  together  unto  one  place," 
and  the  dry  land  has  yet  to  appear.  Under  tliese  conditions  we 
can  safely  assume  that  there  are  no  inhabitants  on  the  "  giant 
planet."  The  belts  or  zonesof  Jupiter  v.ary  in  hue,  and  the  con- 
tinual changes  which  are  taking  place  in  this  cloud  region  tend 
to  show  that  disturbances  of  great  magnitude  and  importance 
are  occurring. 

It  is  useless  to  speculate  upon  what  will  h.ippen  in  Jupiter 
when  the  disc  is  eventually  cooled.  The  planet,  we  know,  has 
not  nearly  reached  maturity;  the  earth  is  in  the  full  ])rime  of  its 
life,  and  the  moon  is  dead  and  deserted.  What  the  millions  of 
years  which  must  elapse  before  Jupiter  has  cooled  may  bring  forth 
we  need  not  try  to  find  out.  The  earth  will  then,  in  all  proba- 
bility, be  as  dreary  as  the  moon  is  now,  and  we  shall  have  re- 
turned to  dust. 

The  velocity  of  light  was  discovered  by  an  attentive  exam- 
ination of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons,  by  Romer,  a  Danish 
astronomer,  in  1617,  who  was  led  to  discover  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  Before  him,  it  had  been  considered  instantan- 
eous. He  noticed  that  the  observed  times  of  the  eclipses  were 
sometimes  earlier  and  sometimes  later  than  the  calculated  times, 
according  as  Jupiter  was  nearest  or  farthest  fromthe  earth.  His 
investigations  convinced  him  that  it  requires  about  16^  minutes 
for  light  to  traverse  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  Romer's  conclusion 
has  since  been  verified  by  the  phenomena  of  aberration  of  light. 

SATURN 

Is  an  immense  globe,  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  bright  ring, 
or,  rather,  series  of  rings,  and  attended  by  eight  moons.  He 
appears  to  possess  much  the  same  constitution  as  Jupiter,  but 
is  enveloped  in  an  even  denser  atmosphere.  He  revolves  on 
an  inclined  axis,  and  has  seasonal  alterations  of  unequal 
length.  The  rings  of  Saturn  are  apparently  broad,  and  flat, 
and  thin,  resembling  roughly  the  horizon  of  a  globe,  and  are 
supposed  to  be  a  close  agglomeration  of  stars,  or  satellites, 
revolving  around  the  planet,  and  encircling  him  in  a  belt. 
The  two  outermost  rings  are  very  bright,  the  inner  ring  being 
darker,  and  partially  transparent,  for  the  ball  of  Saturn  can  be 
perceived  through  it.  The  rings  are  not  always  so  plainly  seen 
as  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  19).  Sometimes  they  appear  as  a 
mere  line  of  light  on  each  side  of  the  planet.  This  occurs  at 
the  time  of  the  equinox.     By  degrees,  however,  as  they  become 


-ij 


\ 


K" 


368 


ASTRONOMY. 


inclined,  they  appear  broader.  The  inner  ring  may  be  fonned 
of  vapor,  but  the  outer  ones  are  of  something  more  solid,  as 
indicated  by  the  shadows  they  cast  upon  the  planet,  and  it  casts 
upon  them  at  certain  times.  Saturn  possesses  eight  moons, 
seven  of  them  revolving  in  orbits  on  the  plane  of  the  rings 
but  one  more  inclined. 

Saturn,  on  account  of  its  distance,  shines  with  a  feeble, 
but  steady,  pale  yellow  light,  which  distinguishes  it  from  the 
fixed  stars.  Its  orbit  is  so  vast  that  its  movement  among 
the  constellations  may  be  easily  traced  through  one's  lifetime. 
It  requires  two  and  a  half  years  to  pass  through  a  single  sign 
of  the  zodiac;  hence,  when  once  known,  it  may  be  easily 
found  again. 

As  the  earth  and  Saturn  occupy  different  portions  of  their 
orbits,  the  <listances  between  them  at  different  times  may  vary 
200,000,000  miles. 

The  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  at  Saturn  are  only  jjj  tliat 
which  we  receive.  The  axis  of  the  planet  is  inclined  from  a 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  about  31°.  The  seasons, 
therefore,  are  similar  to  those  on  the  earth,  hut  on  a  larger  scale. 


Fig.  ig.     Saturn  and  his  Rings. 

The  sun  climbs  in  summer  about  8°  higher  above  the  horizon,  and 
sinks  correspondingly  lower  in  winter.  The  tropics  are  16°  further 
apart,  and  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  8°  further  from  the 
poles.  Each  of  Saturn's  seasons  lasts  more  than  seven  of  our 
years.  There  is  about  fifteen  years'  interval  between  the  autumn 
and  spring  equinoxes,  and  between  the  summer  and  winter 
solstices.  For  fifteen  years  the  sun  shines  on  the  north  pole, 
and  a  night  of  the  same  length  envelopes  the  south  pole. 

URANUS. 

Uranus  was  discovered  by  Herschel,  in  17S1,  and  has  been 
called  after  its  discoverer,  and  sometimes  the  "  Georgium  Sidus." 
It  revolves  at  an  enormous  distance  from  the  sun — viz. :  1,753,- 
000,000  of  miles.  It  takes  about  eighty-four  of  our  years  (30,686 
days]  to  go  round  the  sun,  and  possesses  four  moons.  It  is  very 
much  larger  than  the  earth — about  four  times  the  diameter,  and 
forty  times  its  volume.  We  can  only  speculate  concerning  its 
physical  constitution,  which  is  assumed  to  be  similar  to  that  of 
Jupiter,  while  the  changes  of  temperature  and  seasons  must  vary 
immensely.  Uranus  has  four  moons,  called  .\riel,  Umbriel,  Ti- 
tania  and  Oberon.  The  outer  pair  can  be  seen  without  much 
difficultv. 


NEPTUNE 

Is  the  far-off  sentinel  at  the  very  outposts  of  tlie  solar  system. 
The  existence  of  this  planet  was  determined  by  calculation 
before  it  had  been  seen  at  all.  Uranus  was  observed  to  be  dis- 
turbed in  his  orbit,  moving  sometimes  faster  than  at  others ; 
and  even  before  Uranus  had  been  discovered  Saturn  and  Jupiter 
had  been  seen  to  be  affected  by  some  body  in  the  system.  Lever- 
rier  determined  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this,  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  some  other  planet  was  influencing  Uranus.  The 
Newtonian  theory  here  received  a  most  convincing  proof.  While 
Leverrier  was  calculating,  Mr.  Adams,  of  Cambridge,  leaped  to 
the  same  conclusion,  and  wrote  the  result  of  his  calculations  to 
Professor  Airy,  and  the  planet  was  seen,  but  not  reported  upon. 
Meantime  Leverrier  published  his  calculations,  and  ihe  observers 
at  Berlin  detected  the  new  planet  in  September,  1846. 

Very  little  can  be  said  concerning  Neptune,  as  its  distance  is 
too  great  for  observation.  It  has  one  moon,  which  moves  round 
the  planet  in  5  d.  21  /;.,  and  is  of  great  size. 

THE   ASTEROIDS,    OR   MINOR    PLANETS. 

Tlie  .\steroids  are  smaller  planets  circuh.ling  outside  the 
orbit  of  Mars.  They  are  all  at  distances  from  the  sun  ranging  ' 
between  200,000,000  and  300,000,000  miles,  the  periods 
of  sidereal  revolution  ranging  from  1,100  to  3,000  days. 
Consequently  their  years  are  from  three  to  nine  times  as  long 
as  ours.  Nearly  250  of  these  minor  jjlanets  have  been  dis- 
covered, and  they  are  all  very  much  smaller  than  the  earth, 
some,  indeed  being  only  a  few  miles  in  diameter. 

In  olden  times  astronomers  noticed  a  very  considerable 

gap  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  which  was  remarkable  when 

the  regular  progression  of  the  distances  between  the  planets 

was  remembered.     The  discovery  of  Ceres  in   iSoi  led  to 

other  discoveries,    and  now   we  have  nearly  two   hundred 

aaeroids.     Pallas  was  discovered  in  1802;  Juno,  1804;  Vesta, 

1807;  AsTRi^A,  1845,  and  since  1848  every  year  has  added  to 

the  list. 

The  hypothesis  that  all  these  asteroids  are  fragments  of  one 
large  planet  which  has  been  destroyed  was  started  by  Olbers; 
and  in  confirmation  of  this  view  it  has  been  determined  that  the 
asteroids  have  essentially  the  same  character.  The  orbits  of 
these  minor  planets  are  different  from  the  larger  "wanderers," 
and  cross  each  other,  so  that  a  collision  may  one  day  ensue. 

Vesta  is  the  first  in  order  in  the  system,  and  revolves  in  1,325 
days,  at  a  mean  distance  of  225,000,000  of  miles  from  the  sun. 
Juno  and  Ceres  take  each  about  four  of  our  years  to  revolve  in 
their  orbits,  at  greater  distances  still,  averaging  260,000,000 
of  miles.  Pallas  and  Ceres  are  most  alike  in  their  periods  and 
distance  from  the  sun.  The  principal  asteroids  are  only  about 
300  miles  in  diameter. 

METEORS. 

Meteors  are  small  erratic  bodies  rushing  through  the  planet- 
ary system,  and,  getting  hot  in  the  process,  appear  in  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  our  earth  as  "  shooting  stars."  Some 
of  these  falling  bodies  have  reached  the  earth,  and  such    are 


l_ 


■>^ 


K" 


ASTRONOMY. 


369 


'-^ 


called  "aerolites"  or  ''meteorites."  Numbers,  of  course,  are 
burnt  u\>  before  they  reach  us,  and  who  can  tell  what  destruction 
such  a  catastrophe  may  represent,  or  whether  it  be  or  be  not  an 
inhabited  world  which  has  thus  been  plunged  to  destruction  by 
fire  ?  They  are  of  a  metallic  or  stony  nature.  On  certain  nights  in 
August  and  November  it  has  been  calculated  that  these  meteors 


Fig.  20.     An  Exploding  Meteor. 

will  appear.  They  fall  from  certain  constellations,  after  which 
they  are  named ;  as  T^eonides,  from  Leo,  in  the  November 
displays. 

The  star  showers  sometimes  present  the  appearance  of  a  beau- 
tiful display  of  rockets.     Millions  of  them  rush  round 
the  sun,  and  when,  as  occasionally  happens,  our  earth 
comes  near  them,  we  have  a  grand  display  of  celestial 
fireworks. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  average  number  of  meteors 
tliat  traverse  the  atmosphere  daily,  and  which  are 
large  enough  to  be  visible  to  the  eye  on  a  dark,  clear 
night,  is  7,500,000;  and  if  to  these  the  telescopic 
meteors  be  added,  the  number  will  be  increased  to 
400,000,000.  In  the  space  traversed  by  the  earth 
there  are,  on  the  average,  in  each  volume  the  size  of 
our  globe  (including  its  atmocphere),  as  many  as 
13,000  small  bodies,  each  one  capable  of  furnishing 
a  shooting  star  visible  under  favorable  circumstances 
to  the  naked  eye. 

COMETS. 

It  has  been  lately  suggested  that  there  is  a  great 
degree  of  affinity  between  comets  and  meteors  —  in 
fact,  that  a  comet  is  merely  an  aggregation  of  meteors. 
Comets  have  been  supposed  to  be  bodies  of  burning 
gas.  Their  mass  is  very  great,  and  their  lirilliant  tails 
are  many  millions  of  miles  in  extent.  In  their  orbits, 
they  differ  greatly  from  the  planets.  While  the  latter 
are  direct  in  their  wanderings,  comets  are  most  irreg- 
ular and  eccentric.  When  first  seen,  the  comet  re- 
sembles a  faint  spot  of  light  upon  the  dark  back- 
ground of  the  sky.  As  it  comes  nearer,  the  brightness 
increases  and  the  tail  begins  to  show  itself 

The  term  comet  signifies  a  hairy  body.  A  comet  consists 
usually  of  three  parts  :  the  nucleus,  a  bright  point  in  the  center 
of  the  head;  thecoma  (hair),  the  cloud-like  mass  surrounding 


the  nucleus;  and  the  tail,  a  luminous  train  extending  generally 
in  a  direction  from  the  sun. 

It  is  not  understood  whether  comets  shine  by  their  own  or  by 
reflected  light.  If,  however,  their  nuclei  consist  of  white-hot 
matter,  a  passage  through  such  a  furnace  would  be  anything  but 
desirable  or  satisfactory. 

It  is  to  Halley  that  the  discovery  of  the  elliptical  orbit  of 
comets  is  due.  A  comet  had  been  observed  in  1607,  and  llalley 
made  a  calculation  that  it  would  reappear  in  1757.  The  expected 
visitor  passed  the  perihelion  in  1759.  This  comet,  on  its  appear- 
ance at  Constantinople,  is  said  to  have  caused  much  consterna- 
tion, and  Christians  regarded  it  as  a  ''sign,"  for  the  Turks 
had  just  then  captured  Constantinople  and  were  threatening 
Europe.     Halley's  comet  was  last  observed  in  1835. 

Encke's,  Biela's  and  the  comets  of  1843  and  1858  are  com- 
paratively recent.  Others  came  in  1861,  1874,  1883.  In  1881 
two  comets  appeared.  Some  comets  of  antiquity  were  ver)' 
remarkable,  and  are  reputed  to  have  eciualed  the  sun  in  magni- 
tude. One  tail  is  usually  supposed  to  be  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  a  comet,  but  in  1774  one  appeared  with  six  tails, 
arranged  something  like  a  fan.  Sometimes  the  tail  is  separateii 
from  the  head.  Some  comets  appear  at  regular  inter\'als,  and 
their  approach  can  be  determined  with  accuracy.  Of  course  we 
only  see  those  which  are  attracted  by  the  sun,  or  those  which 


Fig.  21.    Various  Forms  of  Comets. 

revolve  in  the  solar  system.     There  must  be  thousands  of  other 
comets  which  we  never  see  at  all. 

The  comet  of  1680  pursued  its  course  for  two  months  at  a 


v 


■^ 


37° 


— ' 


ASTRONOMY. 


J- 


/ 


velocity  of  Soo.ooo  mile^  an  hour.  The  tail  was  estimated  to 
e.\tend  123,000.000  of  miles,  and  a  length  of  60,000,000  of 
miles  was  emitted  in  two  days.  This  comet  appeared  B.C.  34, 
and  again  at  intervals  of  about  575  years,  and  will  reappear 
about  2255. 

Biela's  comet  was  the  cause  of  much  anxiety  in  1832,  for  a 
collision  with  the  earth  was  feared.  A  month,  however,  inter- 
vened between  the  period  at  which  the  comet  was  expected  at 
a  certain  place  in  the  system  and  the  earth's  arrival  at  that  spot, 
and  so  the  comet  was  60,000,000  miles  away  when  the  collision 
was  apprehended.     What  the  effect  of  such  a  collision  would 


Fig.  22.    Orbits  of  the  Comets. 

be,  cannot  be  said.  Wonderful  atmospheric  phenomena  and 
increased  temperature  would,  however,  certainly  result.  If 
comets,  as  is  believed,  consist  partly  of  solid  particles,  a  collision 
would  certainly  be  unpleasant;  but  their  weight  is  probably  a 
mere  nothing  compared  to  their  vapory  volume,  which  must  be 
enormous.  That  the  tails  must  be  of  a  very  attenuated  medium, 
is  evident,  as  the  stars  can  be  seen  through  them,  although  a 
ver)'  thin  cloud  will  obscure  a  star. 

THE    ZODIACAL    LIGHT. 

This  phenomenon,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  western  horizon 
on  any  clear  winter  or  spring  evening,  after  twilight,  and  also  in 
the  eastern  horizon,  just  before  daybreak,  in  summer  or  autumn, 
consists  of  a  faint  luminosity,  extending  out  on  each  side  of  the 
sun,  and  lying  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  can  gen- 
erally be  traced  to  about  90  degrees  from  the  sun,  growing 
fainter  as  it  rises  above  the  horizon.  In  a  ver)-  clear  tropical 
atmosphere,  however,  it  forms  a  complete  ring,  and  may  be 
traced  all  the  way  across  the  heavens.     These  appearances  seem 


to  indicate  that  it  is  due  to  a  lens-shaped  appendage  surrounding 
the  sun  and  extending  a  little  beyond  the  earth's  orbit.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the  phenomenon,  but  the 
most  probable  theory  is  that  it  is  due  to  an  immense  number  of 
meteors  revolving  round  the  sun,  and  which  lie  mostly  within 
the  earth's  orbit,  each  reflecting  a  sensible  portion  of  sunlight, 
but  far  too  small  to  be  separately  visible. 

THE  FIXED  STARS. 

Those  stars  which  shine  with  a  clear,  distinct  light,  and  visibly 
change  their  position  with  respect  to  the  others,  are  called 
planets,  and  these  have  been  fully  described  according  to  their 
order  in  our  solar  system.  Those  stars  which  apparently  re- 
main immovable,  and  shine  with  a  shifting,  twinkling  light, 
are  \i\vatA  fixed  stars,  although  it  is  now  known  that  they  also 
are  in  motion.  Arcturus,  for  instance,  moves  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  miles  a  second,  and  others  less,  but  only  the  rates  of  a 
few  are  known. 

In  the  daytime  we  cannot  see  the  stars  because  of  the  supe- 
rior light  of  the  sun ;  but  with  a  telescope  they  can  be  traced, 
and  an  astronomer  will  find  certain  stars  as  well  at  noon  as  at 
midnight.  When  looking  at  the  sky  from  the  bottom  of  a  . 
deep  well  or  lofty  chimney,  if  a  bright  star  happens  to  be  di- 
rectly overhead,  it  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  even  at 
middn)'. 

In  reality,  we  never  see  the  stars.  This  assertion  seems  par- 
adoxical, yet  it  is  strictly  true.  So  far  are  the  stars  removed 
from  us  that  we  see  only  the  light  they  send,  but  not  the  sur- 
face of  the  worlds  themselves. 

The  number  of  the  stars  is  beyond  our  calculation.  Those 
visible  only  in  the  telescope  amount  to  millions,  and  are  called 
telescopic  stars.  The  stars  visible  to  the  unaided  eye  amount  to 
about  six  thousand.  There  are  more  visible  in  the  southern 
than  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  magnitudes  of  the 
stars  range  in  classes  according  to  the  brightness  of  the  stars 
observed,  for  this  is  really  the  test  from  the  first  magnitude  to 
the  sixth ;  after  that  the  telescopic  stars  are  seen  up  to  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth.  We  can  only  see  about  three  thousand 
stars  at  one  time  from  any  place,  although,  as  remarked  above, 
many  millions  may  be  observed  with  a  good  telescope,  and  as 
many  more,  probably  twenty  mil-  ^ 

lions,  are  invisible. 

The  Motion  of  the  Heaven- 
ly Bodies. 
Attentive   observation  of  the 
starry  heavens  will  convince  us 
that  all  the  visible  stars  describe 
circles  which  are  the  smaller  the 
nearer  the  stars  are  to  a  certain 
point  of  the  heavens,  P(  Fig.  23). 
Near  this  point  there  is  a  toler- 
ably  bright  star,  the    Pole-star,   which    appears  to  the  eye  as 
always  occupying  the  same  position.     A  line,  P  P',  drawn  from 
the  star  through  the  center  of  the  earth,  C,  represents  the  axis 


Fig.  33.    The  Celestial  Axis 


^ 


<2 _j»- 


ASTRONOMY. 


371 


around  which  all  llie  heavenly  liodies  perforin  their  apparent 
motions.  The  part  of  the  celestial  axis,  I'P',  passing  through 
the  earth,  is  the  earth's  axis;  the  North  Pole,/>,  is  on  the  same 
side  as  the  Pole-star,  and  the  South  Pole,  /'.  is  on  the  opposite 
side.  Thus//'  is  the  earth's 
axis,  and  the  line  a(/,  the 
plane  of  which  cuts  the 
earth's  axis  at  right  angles, 
is  the  equator,  equally  dis- 
tant from  both  poles.  Now 
if  we  suppose  the  plane  of 
the  equator  to  be  extended 
to  the  heavens,  we  have  the 
celestial  equator,  A  Q,  or 
equinoctial,  dividing  the 
heavens  into  the  northern 
and  southern  liemispheres. 
The  equinoctial  cannot  be 
actually  described  or  made 
visible,  but  its  line  of  direction 
may  be  imagined  by  observ- 
ing the  stars  through  which 
it  passes. 

By  assigning  to  an  observer 
stations  on  the   earth's  sur- 
face differing  in  relation  to  the  earth's  axis,  the  aspects  of  celestial 
phenomena  will  be  essentially  modified.     One  of  these  stations 
may  be  supposed  to  be,  for  example,  at  one  of  the  two  poles,  at 
/,  or  at  any  point  of  the  equator,  as  at  </, 
or,  finally,  on   any  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  which  lies  between   the  pole  and 
the  equator,  as,  for  example,  0. 

The  Constellations. 


Fig.  24.     Thi 


grouped.  The  brighter  stars  have  all  proper  names,  but  most  of 
the  names  have  dropped  entirely  out  of  astronomical  use, 
though  many  are  popularly  retained.  The  brighter  stars  are 
now  generally  designated  by  the  leitersof  the  Greek  alphabet  — 

(lip/ia,  beta,  gamma,  Jella, 
etc., —  to  which  is  appended 
the  genitive  of  tlie  Latin 
name  of  the  constellation. 
Thus  Aldeboran  would  be 
designated  as  Alpha  Tauri. 
When  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet  are  exhausted,  those 
of  the  Roman  alphabet  are 
employed.  The  fainter  stars 
in  a  constellation  are  usually 
designated  by  some  system 
of  numbers. 

Double  and  Multiple 
Stars. 

Many  stars  which  appear 
single  to  the  naked  eye  are 
really  double  when  seen 
through  the  telescope,  that 
is,  they  are  composed  of  a 
Pairs  of  stars  are  not  considered 


Constellation    Ursa   Major,  or  the  Great  Bear,  contain- 
ing the  Great  Dipper,  or  Charles'  Wain. 


At  a  very  early  period  in  the  history 
of  a.stronomy  the  observers  of  the  heavens 
grouped  stars  together  in  fancied  resem- 
blances to  men  and  animals,  and  these 
consltllations,  as  they  are  termed,  are  com- 
binations of  fixed  stars.  Many  of  the  con- 
stellations are  familiar  by  name  to  every- 
body. Illustrations  of  some  of  the  more 
interesting  are  given.  We  shall  find  that 
the  forms  are  in  greater  part  due  to  the 
imagination  of  the  ancients,  and  do  not 
bear  out  our  ideas  of  the  animals,  etc.,  they 
are  supposed  to  represent,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  cro^s  and  rccross  with  other  con- 
stellations in  the  skies  in  a  very  puzzling 
manner.  The  twelve  maps  of  tlie  stars  pre- 
sented in  subsequent  pages  will,  however, 
enable  us  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 
stellations as  they  appear  on  the  sky  on 
any  night  during  the  year. 

The    arrangement   of  the  constellations    is    plunged   in  the 
obscurity    of    ages,   but   B.C.   370  there   were    forty-five   thus 


Fig.  25. 


pair  of  stars  lying  side  by  side. 

double  unless  the  comjionents  are  so  near  together  that  they 
both  appear  in  the  field  of  view  when  examined  with  a  tele- 
scope. When  what  appears  as  a  single  star 
is  resolved  into  more  than  two  components 
by  the  telescope,  it  is  called  a  multiple 
star. 

New  and  Variable  Stars. 

There    are    many  stars    which    undergo 

changes    of    brilliancy,   sometimes   slight, 

but    occasionally    very     marked.      These 

changes,   in  some    cases,    are    apparently 

irregular,  and  in  others  periodic.     .Ml  such 

stars    are  said    to   be   variable.     Algol,  in 

the  constellation  Perseus,  is  a  variable  star, 

whose  period  is  now  known  tu  be  2d.  20/1. 

49  m.     Mira,  in  the  constellation  Cetus,  is 

generally  invisible,  but  at  intervals  of  about 

eleven  months  it  shines  forth  as  a  star  of  the 

second  or  third  magnitude.      The  star  ri  of 

the  constellation  .Vrgo  (Eta  Argiis),  in  the 

southern  hemisphere,  is  perhaps  the  most 

remarkable   variable  star   in   the  heavens. 

It  was  fir.st  observed  by  Sir  John  Ilerschel, 

while  at  the  Cape   of  Good    Hope.     lie 

says:    "On  the   i6th  of  December,   1837, 

my  astonishment   wa-s  excited  by  the  ap- 

Virgo  (The  Virgin).  pearance  of  a  new  candidate  for  distinction 

among  the  very  brightest  stars  of  the  first  magnitude  in  a  part 

of  the  heavens  where  I  was  certain  that  no  such  brilliant  object 

had  ever  been   seen.     *     *     *      I   finally  became  satisfied  of 


372 


ASTRONOMY. 


^_^—     ' 

/?*=: 

■BSID^Jiflll^BII^^I 

y^~\ 

A^-lfj 

X                      J 

..^^^"^  HfApl^  - 

7/  fy^ 

vn  ^)/  ^  ■ 

(  4.  V'^A  J 

€/  c-3^^f. 

its  identity  with  my  old  acquaintance  Eta  Argus^  although 
its.  light  was  nearly  tripled."  It  continued  to  increase  until 
January  2,  183S,  then  faded  a  little  till  April  following.  In 
1842  and  1843  •'  blazed  up  brighter  than  ever,  and  in  March  of 

the  latter  year 
was  second  only 
to  Sirius.  Dur- 
ing the  twenty- 
five  years  follow- 
ing it  slowly  but 
steadily  dimin- 
ished; in  1S67 
it  was  barely  vis- 
ible to  the  naked 
eye,  and  the  next 
year  it  vanished 
entirely  from  the 
unassisted  view, 
and  has  not  yet 
begun  to  recover 

its  brightness. 
Fig.  26.    Orion  and  Taurus.  ., 

Ntw  or  tempo- 
rary stars  are  such  as  have  suddenly 
appeared,  and  even  become  very  brilliant, 
and  then  faded  away  and  disappeared. 
They  are  now  classified  by  astronomers 
among  the  variable  stars,  their  changes 
being  of  very  irregular  and  fitful  character. 
In  1572  an  apparently  new  star  appeared 
in  Cassiopeia,  and  was  first  seen  by  Tycho 
Brahe  on  November  n,  when  it  had 
attained  the  first  magnitude.  It  became 
rapidly  brighter,  rivaling  Venus  in  splen- 
dor, so  that  good  eyes  could  discern  it 
in  full  daylight.  In  December  it  began 
to  wane,  and  in  the  following  May  it 
had  disappeared  entirely.  Kepler's  star, 
first  seen  in  October,  1604,  in  Ophiuchus, 
began  to  fade  in  the  following  winter, 
but  remained  visible  throughout  1605, 
disappearing  entirely  early  in  1606.  It  was  noted  for  its  bril- 
liant scintillation.  Astronomers  suppose  that  this  star  also  ap- 
peared in  393,  798  and  1203,  which  would  make  it  a  variable 
star  with  a  period  of  a  little  over  400  years.  In  May,  1866,  a 
star  of  the  second  magnitude  suddenly  appeared  in  Corona 
Borealis,  and  this  is  the  most  striking  case  of  the  kind  in  recent 
times. 

Distance  of  the  Stars. 
Such  is  the  distance  of  the  stars  that  only  in  a  comparatively 
few  instances  has  any  displacement  of  these  bodies  been  detected 
when  viewed  from  opposite  points  of  the  earth's  orbit  —  that  is, 
from  points  185,000,000  miles  apart^and  then  only  by  the 
most  careful  and  delicate  measurement.  Half  of  the  above  dis- 
placement, or  the  displacement  of  the  star  as  seen  from  the 
earth  instead  of  the  sun,  is  called  the  parallax  of  the  star.  In 
no  case  has  a  parallax  of  one  second  as  yet  been  discovered. 
The  distance  of  a  star  whose  parallax  is  one  second  would  be 


206,265  times  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  or  about 
19,000,000,000,000  miles.  It  is  quite  certain  that  no  star  is 
nearer  the  earth  than  this.  Light  has  a  velocity  which  would 
take  it  seven  and  a  half  times  around  the  earth  in  one  second ; 
but  it  would  require  more  than  three  years  to  reach  us  from  the 
distance  named.  If  the  Almighty,  in  his  inscrutable  wisdom, 
should  blot  all  the  stars  out  of  existence,  it  would  be  more  than 
three  years  before  we  should  miss  a  single  one.  The  star  a  in 
the  constellation  of  the  Centaur  is  supposed  to  be  the  nearest  of 
the  fixed  stars,  and  it  is  estimated  that  it  would  take  its  light 
about  three  years  and  a  half  to  reach  us.  It  has  also  been  esti- 
mated that  it  \\'ould  take  light  over  16  years  to  reach  us  from 
Sirius,  about  18  from  Vega,  about  25  from  Arcturus  and  over  40 
from  the  Pole-star.  The  stars  named,  however,  are  comparatively 
near  to  us,  and  there  are  many  so  far  removed  that  their  light 
requires  a  thousand  years  to  reach  the  earth. 

Proper  Motion  of  the  Stars. 
The  discovery  of  the  real  motion  of  the  stars,  called  their 
"  proper  motion,"  is  due  to  Halley.     He  noticed  that  three  very 
bright  stars,  Sirius,  Aldeboran  and  Arcturus,  were  not  in  the 
places  assigned  to  them.     The  stars  have  come  to  be  universally 
denominated  as  Jixed  because  they  seem 
to  retain  their  relative  positions  from  year 
to  year.      Although    moving  at  the  rate 
of  many  miles  a  second,  their  distance  is 
so  enormous  that,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
it  would  be  thousands   of   years  before 
this  rate  of  motion  would  produce  a  suf- 
ficient displacement  to  be  noticeable  to  the 
unaided  eye.     In  the  course  of  ages,  how- 
ever, a  marked  change  in  the  configura- 


Fig.  37.    Coma  Berenices   (Berenices  Hair). 


tion  of  the  stars  will 
be  produced. 

The  stars  in  all 
parts  of  the  heavens 
are  found  to  move 
in  all  directions,  and 
with  all  sorts  of  ve- 
locities. When,  how- 
ever, their  motions  are 
averaged,  there  is 
found  to  be  an  appar- 
ent proper  motion 
common  to  all  the 
stars.      Those  in  the 


Fig.  38.    Arcturus  and  Bootes. 


neighborhood  of  Hercules  appear  to  be  approaching  us,  and 
those  in  the  opposite  part  of  the  heavens  appear  to  be  receding 
from  us.     In   other  words,  all  the   stars  appear  to  be  moving 


;Nr 


ASTRONOMY. 


373 


VJ> 


p    W    ASTERION 


away  from   Hercules   and  towards   the   opposite   part   of  the 
heavens. 

Astronomers  hold  that  this  apparent  common  motion  of  the 

stars  is  due  to 
tlie  real  motion 
the  sun  and  the 
planets  of  his 
system  through 
space.  Wheth- 
er this  motion  of 
the  sun  is  in  a 
straight  line  or 
around  some  dis- 
tant center,  has 
not  been  deter- 
mined, but  it  is 
estimated  that 
our  great  lumin- 
ary moves  along 
his    path   at  the 


Gj^^ 


€J  J 


^c^J 


Fig.  29.    Canes  Venatici  (The  Hunting  Dogs). 

rate  of  about  1 50,000,000  miles  a  year. 
In  some  cases,  groups  of  stars,  prob- 
ably forming  connected  systems,  have  a 
common  proper  motion,  entirely  different 
from  that  of  the  stars  around  and  among 
them.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of 
this  kind  occurs  in  the  constellation 
Taurus.  Proctor  has  shown  that  five  of 
the  seven  stars  forming  the  Great  Dipper 
have  a  common  proper  motion,  and  he 
proposes  for  this  phenomenon  the  name  of 
Slardri/l. 


]  I.  \^ 


NEBUL.*;    AND    STAR- 
CLUSTERS 

Fig.  30.    Leo 
.■\re  numerous  in  the  heavens.     The  most 

important  are  those  in  Orion  and  in  Andromeda.     But  there 

are  other  very  beautiful  "  patches"  of  luminous  matter,  or  cloud 

appearances,  composed    of  stars  invisible  to  the    naked    eye. 

There  must  be  thousands  of  these  star-clouds. 

The  nebulae  present  the  appearance  of  various  forms  —  circu- 
lar, elliptical,  annular  and  spiral.  Sometimes  one  or  more 
minute  stars  are  enveloped  in  a  nebulous  haze,  and  are  hence 
called  nebulous  stars.  The  great  nebula  of  Andromeda  is  one 
of  the  few  that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  One  can  see  at  a 
glance  that  it  is  not  a  star,  but  a  mass  of  diffused  light,  and  it 
has  sometimes  very  naturally  been  mistaken  for  a  comet.  Its 
spectrum  suggests  that  it  is  really  an  immense  star-cluster,  so  dis- 
tant that  the  highest  telescopic  power  cannot  resolve  it,  yet  in 
the  largest  telescopes  it  looks  more  like  a  gas  than  in  those  of 
moderate  sire. 

The  great  nebula  of  Orion,  surrounding  the  middle  star  of  the 
three  forming  the  sword,  has  above  all  others  excited  the  wonder 
of  observers.  In  its  center  are  four  stars,  easily  distinguished  by 
a  small  telescope,  together  with  two  smaller  ones  requiring  a 


nine-inch  telescope  to  be  well  seen.  Besides  these,  the  whole 
nebula  is  dotted  with  stars.  A  good  eye  will  perceive  that  what 
appears  as  a  single  star,  instead  of  looking  like  a  bright  point, 
has  a  hazy  appearance,  due  to  the  surrounding  nebula.  Huyghens 
first  described  the  object  in  1659.  He  says:  "  There  is  one 
phenomenon  among  the  fixed  stars  worthy  of  mention,  which,  so 
far  as  I  know,  has  hitherto  been  noticed  by  no  one,  and  indeed 
cannot  be  well  observed  except  with  large  telescopes.  In  the 
sword  of  Orion  are  three  stars  quire  close  together.  In  1656, 
as  I  chanced  to  be  viewing  the  middle  one  of  these  with  the 
telescope,  instead  of  a  single  star,  twelve  showed  themselves  (a 
not  uncommon  circumstance).  Three  of  these  almost  touched 
each  other,  and  with  four  others  shone  through  a  nebula,  so  that 
the  space  around  them  seemed  far  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the 
heavens,  which  was  entirely  clear,  and  appeared  quite  black ; 
the  effect  being  that  of  an  opening  in  the  sky,  through  which  a 
brighter  region  was  visible." 

The   Nebular   Hypothesis. 

What  is  termed  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  was  put  forward  by 
Laplace,  and  by  it  he  endeavored  to  account  for  the  regular 
development  of  the  stellar  system,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  an 
immense  nebular  cloud.  This  immense 
mass  would  rotate  and  contract,  and  the 
outer  portions  would  separate  and  develop 
into  rings  like  Saturn's  rings.  Then  the 
rings  break  into  separate  portions,  and 
each  portion  condenses  into  a  planet,  or 
the  small  "  bits "  travel  round  the  sun 
like  asteroids,  and  in  this  manner  various 
systems  were  formed.  This  theory  was 
considered  to  be  quite  exploded  when 
stars  were  discerned  in  nebulae  by  the 
more  recent  telescopes;  but  then  the 
spectroscope  came  to  our  aid,  and  it  was 
(The  Lion).  discovered  that  there  were  some  nebulae 

which  aresimply 
masses  of  glow- 
ing gas  or  aggre- 
gations of  stones 
which  are  dash- 
ing against  each 
other  in  so  forci- 
ble a  manner  as 
to  produce  heat 
and  luminosity. 
Proctor  has  put 
forward  a  hy- 
pothesis that  the 
star  or  meteor 
showers  are  the 
original  cause  of 
the  sidereal  sys-  "'e-  3>-    Corvus  (The  Crowl. 

tem,  and  that  this  rain  of  meteors  has  fallen  for  all  time,  grad- 
ually consolidating  into  orbs. 


■       'M%^ 


K" 


374 


ASTRONOMY. 


"71 


THE    MILKY    WAY 

Is  a  whitish,  vapory-looking  belt,  and  is  composed  of  multi- 
tudes of  millions  of  suns,  of  which  our  own  sun  itself  is  one,  so 
far  removed  from  us  that  their  light  mingles  and  makes  only  a 
fleecy  whiteness.  Philosophers  have  frequently  discoursed 
upon  this  phenomenon,  but  all  .statements  must  remain  more  or 
less  speculative.     From  Kepler's  to  the  pre^elU  time  astiono- 


Fig.  32.     A  Spiral  Nebula. 

mers  have  been  considering  the  Milky  Way,  but  an  actual 
knowledge  is  still  beyond  us.  It  is  agreed,  however,  that  the 
galaxy  is  not  a  continuous  stream,  but  a  series  of  luminous 
patches,  most  extraordinary  aggregations  of  stars,  which  it  is 
not  only  impossible  to  count,  but  each  of  which  appears  to  be 


independent  of  the  others.  "  Tlie  sidereal  system,"  says  Proctor, 
in  his  Universe  of  Stars,  "  is  altogether  more  complicated, 
altogether  more  varied  in  structure  than  has  hitherto  been  sup- 
posed. Within  one  and  the  same  region  co-exist  stars  of  many 
orders  of  real  magnitude,  the  greatest  being  thousands  of  times 
larger  than  the  least.  All  the  nebulne  hitherto  discovered, 
whether  gaseous  or  stellar,  irregular,  planetary,  ring-formed,  or 
elliptic,  exist  within  the  limits  of  the  sidereal  system.  They  all 
form  part  and  parcel  of  that  wonderful  system  whose  nearer 
and  brighter  parts  constitute  the  glories  of  our  nocturnal 
heavens." 

And  a  little  reflection  will  .show  how  true  this  is.  Not  very 
long  ago  in  the  world's  life  the  solar  system  was  supposed  to 
consist  of  one  sun  with  a  few  planets  wandering  around  him. 
Then  some  more  were  found,  and  they  were  called  *'  satellites." 
For  a  long  time  man  fancied  he  had  reached  the  "  ultima  thule  " 
of  astronomy  in  these  depths  ;  but  the  whole  idea  was  changed 
when  it  was  discovered  that  beyond  Mars  there  lie  the  asteroids 
and  the  host  of  bodies  in  this  solar  system  which  we  cannot  do 
more  than  allude  to.  Then  when  we  consider  this  "  sun  "  of 
ours,  which  we  think  so  enormous,  and  which  keeps  in  subjec- 
tion and  illuminates  so  many  heavenly  bodies,  and  when  we 
reflect  that  there  are  in  space,  and  visible,  stars  many  times 
larger  than  our  ruling  orb,  each  a  sun,  and  that  our  sun  would, 
if  placed  where  the  great  Sirius  glows,  be  but  a  speck  in  the 
firmament,  and  his  system  invisible  to  our  eyes,  we  may  well 
wonder  at  the  magnitude  of  the  subject  and  bow  down  before 
the  wisdom  and  power  of  Him  "  at  whose  sight  all  the  stars 
hide  their  diminished  heads." 


!+- 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  ASTRONOMIGAL  DEFINITIONS. 


Aphelion.  That  point  of  a  planet  ur  comet's 
orbit  which  is  most  distant  from  the  sun;  the 
opposite  point  is  called  the  perihelion. 

ApOg^ee.     The  point  of  a  planet's  orbit  farthest 

from   the    earth.    (Generally    used    only    when 

speaking  of  the  moon.) 
Apsides  (plural  o{  Apsis.)     The  two  points  of  an 

orbit  whicn  are  respectively  the  greatest  and  least 

distance  from  the  central  body. 

Axis.  A  real  or  imaginary  straight  line  on  which 
a  body  revolves  or  is  supposed  to  revolve. 

Azltnuth.  An  arc  of  the  horizon  intercepted 
between  the  meridian  of  the  place  and  a  vertical 
circle  pa.ising  through  the  center  of  any  object. 
See  Nadir  and  /.enitlt. 

O^estial  Globe.  An  artificial  globe  represent- 
ing the  constellations  and  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac 
in  their  pl.ices  in  the  heavens. 

Celestial  Sphere.  The  blue  arch  of  the  sky 
as  It  appc.irs  spread  above  lis. 

Circumference.     The  line  that  goes  round  or 

tncomp.'ts.scs  :i  circular  figure. 


Colures.  Two  circles  dividing  the  ecliptic  into 
four  equal  parts,  and  making  the  seasons.  The 
"equinoctial  colure"  passes  through  the  equi- 
noxes at  Aries  and  Libra.  The  other,  north  and 
south,  is  the  "  solstitial  colure." 

Conjunction.  Planets  are  in  conjunction  with 
each  other  when  in  the  same  sign  and  degree.  A 
planet  with  the  sun  between  it  and  the  earth  is  in 
conjunction  with  the  sun. 

Declination.  The  distance  of  the  heavenly 
hiid.e>  from  the  equinoctial  measured  as  a  meri- 
dian. In  other  words,  latitude  upon  a  celestial 
globe.  The  Tropics  indicate  the  limits  of  the 
sun's  declination. 

Decree.  The  j6oth  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle. 

Diameter.  A  right  line  passing  through  tlic 
CL-nttr  of  a  circle  or  sphere. 

Disc.     The  apparently  flat  surface  of  a  planet. 

Diurnal.  Constituting  the  measure  of  a  day. 
Diurnal  arc ,  the  arc  described  by  the  sun  during 
the  daytime  or  while  above  the  horizon.     Diur- 


nal circle,  tlic  apparent  circle  described  by  a  celes- 
tial body  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  rotation. 

Ecliptic.  1  he  earth's  orbit  about  the  sun,  or  the 
sun  s  apparent  path  through  the  heavens.  The 
sun,  of  course,  does  not  actually  move,  and  there- 
fore the  track,  or  supposed  circle,  is  really  the 
earth's  motion  observable  (rom  the  sun  When 
the  moon  is  near  this  circle  eclipses  happen. 
The  ecliptic  cuts  the  equinoctial  at  an  angle  of 
23'-"  28',  one-half  being  to  the  north  and  the  other 
to  the  south  of  the  equinoctial.  The  poles  of  the 
ecliptic  arc  the  points  where  the  axis  of  the 
earth's  orbit  meets  the  celestial  sphere. 

SlUiptical.     Oval  or  oblong,  with  rounded  ends. 

Epicycle.  A  circle  in  the  center  of  a  greater 
circle. 

Equator.  An  imagijiary  great  circle  on  the 
earth's  surface,  everywhere  equally  distant  from 
the  two  poles  and  dividing  the  earth  into  two 
hemispheres.  The  equator  0/  the  keaz'ens  is  a 
great  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere,  coincident 
with  the  plane  of  the  eartli's  equator,  and  called 
the  equinoctial. 


7- 


^ 


ASTRONOMY 


^ 


375 


£)QuinoctiaL  The  plane  of  the  equator  ex- 
tended to  the  heavens.  When  the  sun  appears 
in  that  line  the  days  and  nights  arc  of  equal  dura- 
lion — 12  hours  each.  This  occurs  about  the  21st 
of  March  and  the  23d  of  September.  The  term 
equinoctiiit  is  from  the  two  Latin  words  eqttaes, 
equal,  and  nojc,  night. 

£Q,uinoxes.  The  points  where  the  equinoctial 
and  the  ecliptic  (the  sun's  apparent  path  through 
the  heavens)  intersect.  The  vernai  equinox  is 
the  place  where  the  sun  crosses  the  equinoctial, 
commonly  called  "crossing  the  line,"  in  going 
north,  which  occurs  about  the  21st  of  March. 
The  autuntttal  equinox  is  the  place  where  the 
sun  crosses  the  equinoctial  in  going  south,  which 
occurs  about  the  21st  of  September. 

Horizon.  i'he  rational  horizon  is  the  great 
circle  passing  through  the  center  of  the  Ciirth, 
separating  the  visible  from  the  invisible  heavens. 
The  sensiolc  (apparent)  horizon  is  the  small  circle 
where  the  cann  and  sky  seem  to  meet.  It  is 
parallel  to  the  rational  horizon,  but  distant  from 
It  the  semi-diameter  of  the  earth.  No  two  places 
have  the  same  sensible  horizon. 

Latitude.  The  distance  from  the  ecliptic  at  a 
right  angle  north  or  south.  Parallels  of  latitude 
are  familiar  circles  parallel  to  the  equator.  Lati- 
tude and  longitude  upon  a  celestial  globe  are 
known  respectively  as  "declination"  and  "right 
ascension." 

Long'itude.  The  distance  in  degrees,  reckoned 
from  the  vernal  equinox,  on  the  ecliptic,  to  a  circlc 
al  right  ingles  to  it  passing  through  the  heavenly 
body  whose  longitude  is  designated. 

LlUiar.     Relating  to  the  moon. 

Lunation.  The  period  of  a  synodic  revolution 
of  the  moon,  or  the  period  from  one  new  moon  to 
the  next. 

Meridians.  Circles  passing  through  the  poles 
at  right  angles  lo  the  equinoctial.  Every  place  is 
supposed  lo  have  a  meridian,  but  astronomers 
apply  only  twenty-four  to  the  heavens,  and  they 
represent  the  sun's,  or  the  planets',  "move- 
ments "  every  hour— 15°  being  one  hour,  360*^ 
being  24  hours. 

Nadir  and  Zenith.  The  poles  of  the  horizon. 
'Ihe  zenith  is  the  point  directly  overhead,  and  the 
nadir  the  one  directly  under  foot.  Azimuth 
circles  are  circles  drawn  through  these  points. 

NoctumaL     Relating  to  night. 

Nodes.  The  opposite  points  of  a  planet  where 
its  orbit  cuts  the  ecliptic  or  the  earth's  orbit. 

Occident.  The  western  quarter  of  the  hemi- 
sphere. 

Occultation.  The  hiding  of  a  heavenly  body 
from  sight  by  the  intervention  of  some  other  of 
the  heavenly  bodies. 

Opposition.  A  planet  with  the  earth  between 
It  jnd  the  sun  is  in  opposition. 

Orbit.  The  path  described  by  a  planet  revolving 
round  the  sun.  The  plane  of  the  orbit  is  an 
imaginary  surface  cutting  through  the  center  of 
the  sun  and  the  planet  and  extending  to  the  stars. 
The  inclination  of  an  orbit  is  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  with  reference  to  the  plane  ot  the  earth. 

Orient.  The  part  of  the  horizon  where  the  sun 
first  appears  in  the  morning. 


Orrery.    An  apparatus  illustrating,  by  means  of 

small  balls  mounted  on  rods  and  moved  by  wheel- 
work,  the  size,  motions,  positions,  orbits,  &c.,  of 
the  bodies  of  the  solar  system. 

Oscillation.  Moving  backward  and  forward,  or 
swinging  like  a  pendulum  ;  vibration. 

Parallax,  l  he  difference  between  the  position 
of  a  body  as  seen  from  some  point  on  the  earth's 
surface  and  its  position  as  seen  from  some  other 
Conventional  point,  as  the  earth's  center  or  the 
sun. 

Parallel.  A  line  which,  throughout  its  whole 
extcnt,  is  equidistant  from  another  line. 

Parhelion.  A  mock  sun  or  meteor,  appearing 
in  the  form  of  a  bright  light  near  the  sun,  and 
sometimes  tinged  with  colors  like  the  rainbow, 
with  a  luminous  train. 

Penumbra.  The  shadow  cast,  in  an  eclipse, 
where  the  light  is  only  partly  cut  oft"  by  the  in- 
tervening body  ;  the  space  of  partial  illumination, 
between  the  umbra,  or  perfect  shadow,  and  the 
light, 

Perigree.     The  opposite  oi  apoget. 
Perihelion.     That  point  in  the  orbit  of  a  planet 
ur  comet  in  which  it  is  nearest  10  the  sun. 

Radius  Vector.  A  line  drawn  from  a  planet 
to  the  sun,  wherever  the  pl.inei  may  be. 

Ilig-ht  A.SCension.  Corresponds  to  "longi- 
tude "  on  a  celestial  globe. 

Sidereal.  "  Measured  by  the  apparent  motion 
of  the  stars.     See  Time, 

Si^n.  The  twelfth  part  of  the  ecliptic  or  zodiac. 
See  Zodiac. 

Solstices.  The  points  in  the  ecliptic  at  which 
the  sun  is  furthest  from  the  equ.itor,  north  or 
south,  namely,  the  first  point  of  Cancer  and  the 
first  point  of  Capricorn,  the  former,  about  the 
2ist  of  June,  being  called  the  summer  solstice, 
and  the  latter,  about  the  21st  of  December,  the 
winter  solstice. 

Spectroscope.  An  optical  instrument  used  in 
determining  the  physical  constitution  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  by  analyzing  their  light. 

Sphere.  '  An  orb,  or  star.  2.  The  apparent 
surface  of  the  heavens,  which  seems  to  the  eye 
spherical,  and  in  which  the  heavenly  bodies  ap- 
pear to  have  thtir  places. 

Time*  "App.irent"  time  is  indicated  by  the 
sun;  "  sidereal  "  time  by  the  stars.  Mean  time 
is  that  marked  by  a  perfect  clock,  giving  every 
day  in  the  year  pqual  length.  A  sidereal  day  is 
the  exact  interval  of  tim^*  in  which  the  earth  re- 
volves on  its  axis.  It  is  found  by  marking  two 
successive  passages  of  a  star  across  the  meridian 
of  any  place.  This  so  absolutely  uniform  that 
the  length  of  the  sidereal  day  has  not  varied 
i-ioo  of  a  second  in  2,00  years.  The  sidereal 
day  is  divided  into  twenty-four  equal  portions, 
which  are  called  sidereal  hours,  and  each  of  these 
into  sixty  portions,  termed  sidereal  minutes,  etc. 
A  solar  day  is  the  interval  between  two  suc- 
cessive passages  of  the  sun  across  the  meridian 
of  any  place.  If  the  earth  were  stationary'  in  its 
orbit,  the  solar  day  would  he  of  the  same  length 
as  the  sidereal;  but  while  the  earth  is  turning 
around  on  its  axis,  it  is  going  forward  at  the  rate 


of  360°  in  a  year,  or  about  1°  p^  day.  When 
the  earth  has  made  a  complete  revoluiion,  it 
must,  therefore,  perform  a  part  of  another  revo- 
lution through  this  additional  degree,  in  order  to 
bring  the  same  meridian  vertically  under  the  sun. 
One  degree  of  diurnal  revolution  is  about  equal 
to  four  minutes  of  time;  hence,  the  solar  day  is 
about  four  minutes  longer  than  the  sidereal  day. 
■I'he  civil  day  extends  from  midnight  10  midnight. 
The  present  methoii  of  dividing  the  day  into  two 
portions  of 'twelve  hour^  each,  waa  adopted  by 
Hipparchus,  150  years  B.C.,  and  ift  now  in  gen- 
eral use  over  the  civilized  world.  U*itil  recently, 
however,  very  many  nations  lerriiinated  one  day 
and  commenced  the  next  at  sunset.  Under  this 
plan,  10  o'clock  on  one  day  would  not  mean  the 
same  as  ro  o'clock  on  another  day.  The  Puri- 
tans commenced  the  day  at  6  p.m.  The  Baby- 
lonians, Persians,  and  modern  Greeks  begin  the 
day  at  sunrise. 

Transitu  i.  The  passage  of  a  smaller  heavenly 
body  across  the  disc  of  a  larger;  as  of  Venus  or 
Mercury  across  the  sun's  disc.  2,  The  passage 
of  a  body  over  the  meridian  of  a  place,  or 
through  the  field  of  a  telescope. 

"Veortical.  Planets  are  vertical  when  directly 
overhead. 

Zenith.     See  Nadir. 

Zodiac.  A  girdle  emending  8°  on  each  side  of 
the  ecliptic,  in  which  space  of  16'^  the  planets 
move.  The  zodiac  is  divided  into  twelve  parts  of 
30*^  each,  called  tnc  "  Signs."  Their  names  aie 
as  under  written : 

Northern  Signs. 

Spring. 

Aries,  the  Ram,  March. 
Taurus,  the  Bull,  April. 
Gemini^  the  Twins,  May. 

Summe*. 

Cancer,  the  Crab,  June. 
Leo,  the  Lion,  July. 
yirgOf  the  Virgin,  August. 

Southern  Signs. 
Autumn. 
Libra,  the  Balance,  September. 
Scorpio,  the  Scorpion,  October. 
Sagittarius,  the  Archer,  November. 

//  'inter. 

Capricornvs ,  the  Goat,  December. 

Aquarius,  the  Waterbearer,  January. 

Pisces,  the  Fishes,  February. 
The  signs  are  reckoned  from  the  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  ecliptic  and  equator  at  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  names  were  originally  the  names 
of  the  constellations  occupying  severally  the 
divisions  of  the  zodiac,  by  which  they  are  now 
retained.  In  consequence  of  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  however,  the  signs  hav;,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  became  separated  about  30  degrees 
from  these  constellations,  and  each  of  the  latter 
now  lies  in  the  sign  next  in  advance,  or  to  the 
east  of  the  one  which  bears  its  name.  The  con- 
stellation Aries  now  lies,  for  instance,  in  the  sign 
Taurus,  etc. 


V— 


:a 


^ 


376 


HOW    TO    READ    THE    SKY. 


How  -^TO  •>  Read  •>the  ■>  Sky. 


Half-Hours  with  the  Stars:    A  Plain  and   Easy  Guide  to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Constellations. 

--^-WITH  TWELVE  MAPS  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  TRUE  FOR  EVERY  YEAR.-r- 

BY  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  B.A.,  F.R.A.S. 


IT  is  very  easy  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  stars,  if  the  learner 
sets  to  work  in  the  proper  manner.  But  he  commonly  meets 
with  a  difficulty  at  the  outset  of  his  task.  He  provides  him- 
self with  a  set  of  the  ordinary  star-map^,  and  then  finds  himself 
at  a  loss  how  to  make  use  of  them.  Such  maps  tell  him  nothing 
of  the  position  of  the  constellations  on  the  sky.  If  he  happen  to 
recognize  a  constellation,  tlien,  indeed,  his  maps,  if  properly  con- 
structed, will  tell  him  the  names  of  the  stars  forming  the  constel- 
lation, and  also  he  may  be  able  to  recognize  a  few  of  tlie  neigh- 
boring constellations.  But  when  he  has  done  this,  he  may  meet 
with  a  new  difficulty,  even  as  respects  this  very  constellation. 
For  if  he  look  for  it  again  some  months  later,  he  will  neither 
find  it  in  its  former  place,  nor  will  it  present  the  same  aspect, — 
if,  indeed,  it  happen  to  be  above  the  horizon  at  all. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  what  the  learner  wants  is  a  set  of  maps 
specially  constructed  to  show  him  in  what  part  of  the  sky  the 
constellations  are  to  be  looked  for.  He  ought,  on  any  night  of 
the  year,  to  be  able  to  turn  at  once  to  the  proper  map,  and  in 
that  map  he  ought  to  see  at  once  what  to  look  for,  toward  what 
point  of  the  compass  each  visible  constellation  lies,  and  how  high 
it  is  above  the  horizon.  And,  if  possible  (as  the  present  work 
shows  is  the  case),  one  map  ought  to  suffice  to  exhibit  the  aspect 
of  the  whole  heavens,  in  order  that  the  beginner  may  not  be  con- 
fused by  turning  from  map  to  map,  and  trying  to  find  out  how 
each  fits  in  with  the  others. 

It  is  to  fulfill  these  requirements  that  the  present  maps  have 
been  constructed.  Each  exhibits  the  aspect  of  the  who'e  sky  at  a 
given  day  and  hour.  The  circumference  of  the  map  represents 
the  natural  horizon,  the  middle  of  the  map  representing  the  part 
of  the  sky  which  lies  immediately  overhead.  If  the  learner  hold 
one  of  these  maps  over  his  head,  so  as  to  look  vertically  upward 
at  it,  the  different  parts  of  the  horizon  marked  in  round  the  cir- 
cumference being  turned  toward  the  proper  compass  points,  he 
will  see  the  same  view  of  the  heavens  as  he  would  if  he  were  to 
lie  on  his  back  and  look  upward  at  the  sky,  only  that  the  map  is 
a  planisphere,  and  the  sky  a  hemisphere. 

But,  although  this  illustration  serves  to  indicate  the  nature  of 
the  maps,  the  actual  mode  of  using  them  is  more  convenient. 

Let  it  first  be  noted  that,  properly  speaking,  the  maps  have 
neither  top,  bottom,  nor  sides.  Each  map  may  be  held  with  any 
part  of  the  circumference  downward ;  then  the  center  of  the  map 
is  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  top  for  that  part  of  the  circumference. 
The  portion  of  the  map  lying  beneath  the  center  represents  the 
portion  of  the  sky  lying  between  the  point  overhead  and  a  cer- 


tain portion  of  the  horizon  —  the  part,  in  fact,  corresponding  to 
the  particular  part  of  the  circumference  which  is  turned  down- 
ward. Thus,  if  on  any  night  we  wish  to  learn  what  are  the  stars 
toward  the  north,  we  look  for  the  map  corresponding  to  that 
night.  At  the  hour  named  the  stai-s  toward  the  north  will  be 
those  shown  between  the  center  of  the  map  and  the  top;  and,  of 
course,  we  hold  the  map  upside  down,  so  as  to  bring  the  center 
above  the  northern  part  of  the  circumference. 

Again,  it  must  be  noted  that,  although  the  maps  are  neces- 
sarily arranged  in  a  certain  order,  there  is  in  reality  no  first  or 
last  in  the  series.  The  map  numbered  I.  follows  the  map  num- 
bered XII.  in  exactly  the  same  manner  that  the  latter  follows  the 
map  numbered  XI.     The  maps  form  a  circular  series,  in  fact. 

The  only  reason  for  numbering  the  maps  as  at  present  is  that 
the  map  numbered  I.  happens  to  exliibit  tlie  aspect  of  the  sky  at  a 
convenient  hour  on  the  night  of  January  i .  It  will  be  found 
th.it  the  dates  follow  on  with  intervals  of  three  or  four  days  right 
round  the  year,  the  end  of  the  year  falling  in  the  left-hand  column 
of  Map  I.,  while  the  beginning  of  the  year  is  in  the  middle  column 
of  the  same  map.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  the 
dates  have  not  been  thrown  in  so  as  to  fall  regularly  round  the 
year,  but  correspond  with  the  variations  due  to  the  earth's  varia- 
ble motion  round  the  sun. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  a  map  can  always  be  found  cor- 
responding to  a  convenient  hour  on  any  night  of  the  year,  except 
only  in  midsummer,  when,  on  a  few  of  the  dates,  night  has  not 
begun  at  the  hour  named.  It  was  impossible,  without  spoiling 
the  regularity  of  the  dating,  or  adopting  an  inconveniently  late 
hour  for  all  the  maps,  to  avoid  this  difficulty.  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  difficulty  disappears  at  once  when  the  student  is  told 
that  on  any  date  named  under  a  map,  the  aspect  of  the  sky  two 
hours  later  than  that  named,  is  that  represented  in  the  following 
map.  Thus,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  June  21,  the 
aspect  of  the  stars  is  as  shown  in  Map  VI.,  but  the  stars  cannot 
be  seen,  because  it  is  still  daylight ;  at  ten  o'clock,  however,  on 
the  same  night,  the  aspect  of  the  sky  is  that  shown  in  Map  VII , 
as,  indeed,  the  first  date  under  that  map  shows. 

Next  as  to  finding  the  north  point,  or  any  point  of  the  com- 
pass which  will  enable  the  obser\-er  to  determine  the  rest.  If 
he  is  only  familiar  with  the  aspect  of  those  seven  bright  stars  of 
the  Great  Bear  which  have  been  called  Charles'  Wain,  the 
Butcher's  Cleaver,  the  Great  Dipper,  and  by  other  names,  he 
can  always  determine  the  north  point  by  means  of  the  two  stars 
called  the  pointers,  since  these  seven  stars  never  set.     In  the 


i^ 


HP' 


W    TO   READ   THE   SKY. 


377 


-/ 


explanation  of  each  map  it  is  shown  where  the  Great  Bear  is 
to  be  looked  for  on  each  night,  the  observer  being  assumed  to 
have  such  a  general  knowledge  of  the  direction  of  the  compass- 
points  as  will  suffice  for  the  purpose  of  finding  so  marked  a 
collection  of  stars.  Thus  the  pole-star  is  found,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  such  observations  as  are  here  considered,  this  star 
may  be  looked  upon  as  marking  the  exact  direction  of  the  north. 

It  is  worth  noticing  that  the  stars  called  the  Guardians  of  the 
Pole  form  no  bad  time-piece  when  used  with  the  aid  of  such 
maps  as  the  present.  They  revolve  round  the  pole  once  in 
twenty-four  hours  (less  about  four  minutes),  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  that  of  a  clock's  hands.  But  stars  near  the  equator, 
whose  motions  are  much  more  rapid,  afford  a  yet  better  measure 
of  time,  if  the  direction  of  the  south  point  is  well  determined. 

It  will  be  well  for  the  student  to  remember  that  the  planets 
Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  will  at  times  appear  among 
the  constellations  here  shown.  Venus  and  Jupiter  can  always 
be  recognized  by  their  superior  light,  and  Mars  and  Saturn  by 
the  steadiness  with  which  they  shine.  As  they  never  appear, 
save  among  the  zodiacal  constellations,  it  becomes  very  easy  to 
recognize  them. 

The  following  list  exhibits  the  names  of  all  the  stars  of  the 
first  three  magnitudes  to  which  astronomers  have  given  names ; 
at  least,  all  those  whose  names  are  in  common  use : 

a  Andromeda  (Andromeda) Alpheralz. 

ji  "  Mirach  Mizar. 

y  "  Almach. 

a  Aquarii  (Aquarius — The  Water- Bearer) Sadalmelik. 

(3         " Sadahund. 

<!         "        Skal. 

a  Aquila  (Aquila — The  Eagle) Altair. 

I)        "         Alshain. 

y       "        Tarazsd. 

a  Arietis  (Aries — The  Ram) Hamal. 

/3       '*         Sheratan, 

y       "        AUsartim. 

a  Auriga  (Auriga — The  Waggoner,  or  Charioteer) ....  Capella. 

/?       "         Menkalinan. 

a  Booth  (Bootes) Arelurus. 

/J      "       ...    Nekkar. 

t      "        Izar,  Mizar,  Mirack. 

1      "        Muphrid. 

a  Canum  Ven.  (Canes  Venatici — The  Hunting  Dogs)  Cor  Caroli. 

a  Cams  Majoris  (Canis  Major — The  Great  Dog) Sirius. 

/3      "  "  Mirzam. 

t      "  "         Adara. 

a  Canis  Minoris  (Canis  Minor — The  Little  Dog)  ....  Procyon. 

P      "  "  Gomeisa. 

a'  Caprieomi  (Capricomus — The  Goat) Secunda  Giedi. 

&  " Deneb  Algiedi. 

a  Cassiopeia  (Cassiopeia) Schedar. 

/3  "  Chaph. 

a  Cephei  (Cepheus) Alderamin. 

/5       "        Alphirk. 

y       "        Errai. 

a  Ceti  (Cetus — The  Whale,  or  The  Sea  Monstei) Menkar. 

P     "      Jjiphda. 

C     "     Baten  Kaitos. 

0     " A/ira. 

a  Co/umia  (Columbae — The  Dove) Phact. 


a  Corona Bor.  (Corona  Borealis — Northern  Crown).  .Alphecca. 

a  Corvi  (Corvus — The  Crow ) Alchiha. 

6      "        Algores. 

a  Craleris Alkes. 

a  Cygni  (Cygnus — The  Swan) Arided,  Deneb,  Adige. 

/?      "       Albireo. 

a  Draconis  (Draco) Thuban. 

ji         "  AlwaiJ. 

y         "  £lanin. 

/?  Eridani  (Eridanus) Cursa. 

y         **  , Zaurac. 

a  Geminorum  (Gemini — The  Twins) Castor. 

^  "  Pollux. 

y  "  Alhena. 

fi  •<  IVasat. 

£  "  AUbsuta. 

a  Herculis  (Hercules) Ras  Algethi. 

j3         "         Korneforos. 

a  Hydra  (Hydra — The  Water  Snake) .  .  .Alphard,  Cor  Hydra. 

a  Leonis  (Leo — The  Lion) Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 

J       "        Deneb  Aleet,  Denebola,  Deneb. 

y       " Algeiba. 

i       "        Zosma. 

a  Leporis  (Lepus)    Ameb. 

a  Libra  (Libra — The  Scales) Zuben  el  Genubi. 

j}       "        Zuben  el  Chamali. 

y       "       Zuden  Hakrabi. 

a  Lyra  (The  Lyra — The  Lyre) Vega. 

j3     '"       Sheliak. 

y      "       Sulaphat. 

a  Ophiuchi  (Ophiuchus — The  Serpent-Bearer) . . .  Ras  Alhague. 

jS         "  Ccbalrai. 

a  Orionis  (Orion) Betelgeux. 

ji        "        Rigel. 

y        "        Bellatrix. 

S        "        Mintaka. 

£        "       Alnilam. 

a  Pegasi  (Pegasus) Markab. 

P       '<        Seheat. 

y       ••       Algenib. 

£       "       Enif. 

f       "       Homan. 

a  Persei  (Perseus) Mirfak. 

/?       "        Algol. 

a  /"(.taV^Jw/.  (PiscisAustralis — The  Southern  Fish)  Fomalhaut. 

f  Sagittarii  (Sagittarius — The  .\rcher) Kaus  Australis. 

a  Scorpionis  (Scorpio — The  Scorpion). ^w/flf-w,  Cor  Scorpionis. 

a  Serpentis  (Serpens — The  Serpent) Unukalhai. 

a  Tauri  (Taurus— The  Bull) Aldebnran. 

^       "       Nath. 

r)       "       Alcyone  ( Pleiad). 

a  Ursa  Majoris  (Ursa  Major — The  Great  Bear) Dubhe. 

f)  "  "         Merak. 

y  "  "        Phecda. 

f  "  '< Alioth. 

f  "  " Mizar. 

ri  "  "        Alkaid,  Benetnasch. 

I  "  <•         Talitha. 

a  Ursa  Minoris  (Ursa  Minor— The  Little  Bear) Polaris. 

3      "  •<         Kochab. 

a  Virginis  (Virgo — The  Virgin) Spiea,  Azimeek,  Spica. 

n         •«  Zavijava. 

F         "  Vindemiatrix . 


/ 


Map  I- half-hour  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  JANUARY. 

•NOZiaoHNaaHxaoN 


^WUtheRN    HORIl*^'*" 


Dec.  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:    Dec.  24,  9:45;    Dec.  28,  9:30;  Jan.  1,  9:15;  Jan.  5,  9:00;  Jan.  8.  8:45; 

Jan.  12.  8:30;  Jan.  16,  8:15 ;  Jan.  20,  8:00. 


y^HE  Great  Bear  lies  toward  the  northeast.  The  Pointers  are 
\^)  uppermost,  and  the  pole  star  is  toward  the  left.  The  two  stars 
known  as  the  Guardians  of  the  Pole  (,J  and  y  of  the  Little  Bear) 
hang  below  the  pole-star,  slightly  toward  the  right.  The  Dragon 
forms  a  loop  of  stars  below  the  Little  Bear.  The  Ljre  is  low  down  on 
the  lefl,  its  chief  star,  Vega,  scintillating  brilliantly.  Still  further  on 
the  left,  almost  due  northwest,  is  the  fine  cross  of  Cygnus.  Following 
the  direction  indicated  by  the  upright  of  the  cross,  rai'e  the  eyes  toward 
the  point  overhead,  and  recognize  the  constellation  Ca.ssiopeia,  by  the 
five  bright  stars  forming  a  figure  resembling  the  letter  W  (now  raised 
on  end,  the  points  of  the  W  to  the  left).  Returning  to  the  horizon, 
and  looking  further  around  to  the  left,  we  see  due  west  the  constella- 
tion Pegasus,  or  the  Winged  Horse.  Me  is  now  inverted,  his  head 
being  close  to  the  horiion  on  the  right.  The  square  of  Pegasus, 
formed  by  the  bright  stars  Rigel,  Betelgeux,  Bellatri.x  and  Alpherat, 
will  attract  the  observer's  notice,  and  lead  him  to  the  constellation 
Andromeda,  Alpherat  being  in  Andromeda's  head.  The  length  of 
this  constellation  is  now  almost  vertical,  and  1  etween  the  feet  of  An- 
dromeda and  the  point  overhead  lies  the  constellation  Perseus.  Notice 
Algol  (the  Demon  Star  of  the  Arabs),  lying  due  southwest,  close  up  to 
the  point  overhead.  Of  the  variations  of  this  remarkable  star  a  great 
deal   might  be  said.     Usually  the  observer  will  .see  it  of  the  second 


magnitude,  however,  as  it  only  remains  a  fourth  magnitude  star  for 
about  twenty  minutes.  Immediately  below  Perseus  is  Aries,  recogniz- 
able by  the  three  stars  which  form  the  Ram's  head.  Below  that  again 
is  Cetus,  the  Whale.  Due  south  lies  Eridanus,  consisting  chiefly  ol 
small  stars,  which  cover  a  wide  expanse  of  sky.  Above  is  Taurus, 
recognizable  at  once  by  the  Pleiades  and  Aldeboran.  Still  turning 
toward  the  left  we  see  Orion,  nearly  upright,  but  with  his  shoulders 
slightly  thrown  back.  Immediately  below  Betelgeux  (Ibt-al  Jauza,  the 
Giant's  Shoulder)  is  Canis  Major,  on  his  hind  feet,  and  throwing  a 
forepaw  toward  the  Little  Hare  (a  constellation  of  small  stars  directly 
below  Orion).  Observe  the  leading  star  of  the  Dove  (a  Columbae) 
directly  below  a  Leporis.  Almost  due  west,  and  midway  between  the 
horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  are  the  twin  stars  Castor  and  Pollux, 
Castor  being  uppermost.  Still  higher  lies  Auriga,  the  star  Capella, 
always  a  very  conspicuous  object,  shining  very  'orilliantly  at  this  eleva- 
tion. Canis  Minor  lies  below  the  feet  of  the  Twins.  Obserie  the 
small  cluster  Pnesepe,  or  the  Beehive  (only  visible  on  very  clear 
nights) ;  it  lies  now  almost  exactly  midway  between  Castor  and  the 
horizon.  Further  to  the  left,  and  near  the  horizon,  is  the  Lion.  It  is 
well  to  notice  "The  Sickle"  (the  group  of  stars  formed  by  RegtJus, 
'/>  ;,  /'■  f,  and  two  small  stars),  as  this  ii  a  well-marked  object. 


Map  ll.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  FEBRUARY. 


MOiiaoH  NaanxMom 


Southern  horizo'*- 


Jan.  20.  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:  Jan.  23,  9:45:  Jan.  27,  9:30:    Jan.  31.  9:15; 

Feb.  11.  8:30 ;    Feb,  15.  8:15 :  Feb.  19,  8:00. 


Feb.  4.  9:00;  Feb.  7,  8:45: 


"7^  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  midway  between  the  horizon  and^  the 
\G\  point  overhead,  and  toward  the  northeast.  The  "pointers"  are 
^■^^  uppermost,  and  the  pole-star  lies  toward  the  left  (as  shown  in  the 
map).  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  seen  below,  and  toward  the  right. 
Immediately  below  the  pole  lies  the  Dragon's  Head,  the  body  and  tail 
extending  toward  the  right,  to  a  point  between  the  pointers  and  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole.  Vega  is  seen  just  above  the  horizon,  slightly 
to  the  left  of  the  north  point.  Further  to  the  left  is  the  upper  part 
of  Cygnus,  above  which  is  the  inconspicuous  Cepheus.  Due  north- 
west and  high  above  the  horizon,  is  Cassiopeia,  the  W  being  now  in 
this  position  ^.  Further  to  the  left,  and  close  to  the  horizon,  is  the 
Flying  Horse.  The  square  of  Pegasus  stands  just  above  the  horizon. 
The  upper  corner  (Alpherat)  of  the  square  belongs  to  Andromeda,  still 
inverted ;  and  above  the  feet  of  Andromeda  we  see  Perseus.  Algol  is 
now  due  west.  Below  Algol,  but  slightly  to  the  left,  is  Aries;  and 
still  lower,  and  further  to  the  left,  Cetus  appears,  the  figure  presented 
by  its  principal  stars  reminding  one  of  the  Mantis  insect.  It  is  now 
setting.  The  star  Mira  may  not  be  visible,  as  this  is  a  variable,  invis- 
ible at  regular  intervals  for  months  together.  Notice  Eridanus  setting 
toward  the  southwest,  and  Taurus  above;  and  then  turn  to  Orion, 
almost  due  south,  standing  erect  in  all  his  glory,  at  the  greatest  elevation 


he  ever  attains  in  our  latitude.  To  the  left,  low  down,  we  see  the 
Greater  Dog,  Sirius,  now  shining  with  his  full  splendor.  The  dog  is 
still  rampant;  indeed,  he  is  never  seen  otherwise  in  our  latitudes. 
Looking  upward,  and  somewhat  further  to  the  kft,  a  most  due  south- 
east,  we  see  the  Twins,  their  feet  resting  on  the  borders  of  the  Milky 
Way.  Still  higher  is  Auriga,  now,  in  fact,  ..verhead.  Below  the  Twins 
see  the  Little  Dog.  Below  this  constellation  ihe  stern  of  the  ship  Argo 
is  rising  into  view.  But  as  the  part  of  this  constellation  which  rises 
above  our  horizon  contains  no  conspicuous  stars,  we  need  not  pay  much 
attention  to  it  at  this  stage  of  our  stargazing. 

Somewhat  to  the  east  of  southeast  we  see  a  single  conspicuous  sar 
—though  several  small  stars  arc  seen  in  the  neighborhood.  I  his 
is  Cor  Hydne,  the  Heart  of  the  Sea  Serpent.  The  Arabian  astronomers 
gave  to  this  star  the  name  of  Al  Fard,  or  The  Solitary  One.  Leo  bes 
Toward  the  east,  and  between  the  Sickle  in  Leo  and  tJie  Lesser  Dog 
we  recognize  Pnesepe,  and  the  two  small  stars  on  either  side,  known  to 
the  ancients  as  the  Aselli.  • 

We  have  now  come  round  again  to  the  Great  Bear.  Observe  how 
much  larger  an  extent  of  sky  this  o.nstcllation  covers  than  is  commonly 
assigned  to  it  by  beginners.  Below  the  Bear's  tail  the  head  and 
shoulders  of  Bootes  are  rising  into  view. 


Map  III- half-hour  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  MARCH. 


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•^"'My^ra 


Southern  horizo**' 


Feb.  19,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening  ;    Feb.  22,9:45:   Feb,  26,  9:30;   March  2,  9:15  , 

March  13,  8:30  ;   March  17,  8:15  ;  March  21.  8:00. 


March  6,  9:00  ;  March  9,  8:45  ; 


"y^  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  approaching  the  point  overhead,  but  is 
\C)  easily  recognized  toward  the  northeast.  The  Pointers,  as  shown, 
indicate  the  pole-star  toward  the  left,  and  considerably  below 
them.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  now  lie  on  the  right  of,  and  some- 
what below  the  pole-star.  Vega  shines  just  above  the  horizon, 
immediately  below  them.  Between  lies  the  Dragon's  Head;  and  we 
see  the  body  and  tail  of  the  Dragon  curving  round  between  the  head 
and  the  Guardians  of  the  Pole.  The  upper  part  of  Cygnus  is  now  all 
that  can  be  seen  of  this  constellation,  almost  due  north  on  the  horizon. 
P'urlher  to  the  left,  and  well  raised  above  the  horizon,  we  see  Cassi- 
opeia. Andromeda  is  now  approaching  the  horizon,  her  head  almost 
touching  it  toward  the  northwest.  Next  on  the  left  is  Aries,  and 
above  Arie-s  is  Perseus.  Above  Perseiis  is  Auriga,  Capella  being  almost 
due  west.  Cetus  has  nearly  set,  only, its  head  being  visible  above  the 
horizon.  Above  Eridanus  (now  neafly  set)  is  Taurus,  very  favorably 
situated  for  observation.  The  Pleiades  lie  due  west,  and  Aldeboran  — 
a  brilliant  red  star  —  to  their  left.  Orion  is  toward  the  southwest, 
bending  forward  toward  the  west.  Above  him,  but  somewhat  to  the 
left,  are  the  Twins,  Castor  still  uppermost.     Below  the  Twins  are  the 


two  Dogs,  Canis  Major  toward  the  south-southwest,  and  low  down. 
Cor  Hydn«  lies  midway  between  the  south  and  the  southeast,  and  is 
well  raised  above  the  horizon.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  blank 
this  part  of  the  heavens  appears,  .so  far,  at  least,  as  conspicuous  stars  are 
concerned.  Toward  the  southeast  is  Alkes,  the  chief  star  in  the  Cup; 
and  we  notice  the  Crow  just  risint^  into  view  toward  the  left.  Above 
we  recognize  Leo,  the  Sickle  being  now  a  conspicuous  object.  Virgo 
has  risen  partially  into  view  above  the  eastern  horizon.  The  cup- 
shaped  group  formed  by  the  five  stars  shown  in  the  map  was  called  by 
the  Arabian  observers,  for  reasons  not  yet  explained,  "  The  Retreat  of 
the  Howling  Dog."  Bootes  has  now  risen  above  the  horizon,  though 
as  yet  in  a  recumbent  position.  Arcturus  is  a  conspicuous  object  on 
the  right  of  this  constellation.  Below  the  head  and  shoulders  of  Bootes 
notice  the  Crown,  one  star  only  of  which  (Alphecca)  is  shown  in  the 
map.  Doubtless  this  group  of  stars  originally  formed  the  right  arm  of 
Bootes.  The  constellation  recently  attracted  much  notice  as  the  region 
in  which  a  new  star  (or  rather,  an  inegular  variable)  made  its  appear- 
ance a  year  or  two  ago.  Hercules  is  gradually  rising  into  view  toward 
the  northeast. 


Map  lY- half- hour  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  APRIL. 


mOZIMOK    HVaHlun^ 


SOOTHERN    HOR'iO'*' 


March  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening ;  March  24.  9:45 ;  March  28,  9:30  ;  April  1.  9:15 :  April  5,  9:00 ;  April  8,  8:45  ; 

April  12,  8:30:  April  16,  8:15;  April  20,  8:00. 


"7^  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  easily  found,  being  nearly  overhead.     The 
Vy  pole  lies  below  the  Pointers. 

The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  now  somewhat  higher  than  the 
pole  toward  the  right.  Below  the  pole-star  is  Cephus,  and  due  west 
of  him  is  Cassiopeia,  the  W  gradually  approaching  its  natural  posi- 
tion. Andromeda's  feet  are  to  be  seen  above  the  southwestern  horizon, 
and  toward  the  left  Aries  is  setting. 

Above  Aries  is  Perseus,  now  well  situated  for  observation.     The 
brilliancy  of  the  Milky  Way  in  this  neighborhood  is  worth  noticing. 

Due  west  is  the  Bull,  above  which  lies  Auriga. 

Orion  is  now  approaching  the  horizon,  and   is   prone   toward  his 
"  western  grave ;  "  above  him  hang  "  the  starry  Gemini." 

Toward  the  left  are  the  two  Dogs.     The  Greater  Dog  is  now  set- 
ting. 

Cor  Hydrae  is  somewhat  to  the  west  of  south.     Above  is  the  Sickle 
in  Leo,  due  south,  and  with  its  handle  vertical. 


The  length  of  Hydra  is  now  nearlyraised  above  the  horizon. 

Virgo  has  risen,  and  the  brilliant  Spica  is  a  conspicuous  object 
toward  the  southeast.  Just  above  the  horizon  is  the  second  star  of  the 
Scales. 

Due  east  is  the  Serpent  just  above  the  horizon.  It  must  be  noticed, 
however,  that  a  part  of  this  constellation  lies  on  the  further  side  of  the 
as  yet  unrisen  Ophiuchus.  Serpens  is  the  only  constellation  thus 
divided. 

Above  Serpens  is  Bootes,  still  nearly  recumbent.  Coma  Berenices 
and  Cor  Caroli  occupy  the  positions  severally  accorded  to  them  in  the 
map. 

To  the  left  of  Serpens  is  Hercules,  or  Engonasin,  the  Kneeler,  sup- 
posed by  many  to  represent  Adam  kneeling  on  the  head  of  the  serpent, 
Draco. 

The  Lyra  has  now  nearly  risen,  in  the  northeast,  immediately  beneath 
the  Dragon's  head. 


Map  v.- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  MAY. 


■noziaoH   waaHXjion, 


SOUTHERN    HORIZOH 


April  20,  af  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:    April  23,  9:45 ;    April  27,  9:30;    May  1,  9:15; 

May  13,  8:30  ;   May  17,  8:15  ;  May  21,  8:00. 


May  5,  9:00  ;   May  9. 8:45  ; 


^'~'  HE  Great  Bear,  still  overhead,  is  found  immediately,  and  the 
\^\  Pointers,  which  have  now  crossed  over  to  the  west  of  the  zenith, 
point  downward  to  the  pole-star.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole 
are  now  higher  than  the  pole,  toward  the  right.  Below  the  pole 
Cephus  and  Cassiopeia  are  seen,  the  former  on  the  right.  Andromeda 
has  nearly  disappeared;  and  Perseus  has  passed  the  northwest,  and  is 
approaching  the  horizon.  The  Pleiades  are  just  setting,  almost  due 
northwest;  and  above  is  Auriga.  In  the  west  we  see  Betelgeux,  the 
sole  star  belonging  to  Orion,  now  visible.  Above,  and  due  west,  are 
the  twin  stars  Castor  and  Pollu.t.  We  have,  in  fact,  the  configuration 
described  by  Tennyson,  speaking  of  the  season  we  are  considering: 

"  It  fell  on  a  time  of  year 
When  the  shining  daffodil  dies,  and  the  Charioteer 
And  starry  Gemini  hang  hke  glorious  crowns 
Over  Orion's  grave,  low  down  in  the  west." 

Canis  Major  has  set,  but  the  Lesser  Dog  is  still  above  the  horizon,  to 
the  left  of  and  below  the  Twins.  Cor  Hydra;  is  almost  exactly 
toward  the  southwest,  and  above  is  Leo.  Due  south,  the  small 
quadrangle  of  Corvus  is  seen,  above  which  is  "  The  Retreat  of  the 
Howling  Dog,"  Spica  shining  conspicuously  on  the  left,  toward  the 


south-southeast.  Libra  has  risen  into  view,  and  somewhat  to  the  east 
of  southeast  we  see  the  first  indications  of  the  interesting  southern  con- 
stellation Scorpio.  The  vertical  row  of  conspicuous  stars  formed  by  a 
part  of  Ophiuchus  and  the  body  of  Serpens  is  well  worth  noticing. 
Above  it  is  Bootes;  to  the  left  of  which,  and  lower  down,  we  see  Her- 
cules, inverted.  His  head  is  marked  by  the  upper  alpha,  the  lower 
representing  the  head  of  Ophiuchus,  the  Serpent-holder — typical,  some 
suppose,  of  the  Messiah.  The  feet  of  the  kneeling  Hercules  are  on 
the  head  of  Draco,  whose  body  and  tail  extend  upward,  between  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole  and  the  Greater  Bear.  It  is  impossible  not  to 
recognize,  from  the  configuration  of  this  constellation  as  now  seen,  that 
the  ancients  looked  on  the  stars  which  form  the  Lesser  Bear  as  forming 
a  wing  of  Draco.  Beneath  the  Dragon's  head  we  see  the  Lyre.  The 
Swan  has  now  risen  above  the  horizon,  and  the  cross  belonging  to  this 
constellation  is  seen  in  an  almost  horizontal  position.  The  brilliancy 
of  the  Milky  Way  at  this  part  of  its  extent  is  well  worth  noticing.  In 
the  space  between  the  stars  a,  /J  and  y  Cygni,  there  is  a  distinctly- 
marked  black  gap  in  the  Milky  Way,  which  has  been  termed  the 
Northern  Coalsack.  The  extension  of  the  Milky  Way  toward  Cephus 
should  also  be  noticed. 


Map  VI.- half-hour  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  JUNE. 


•  MOZmOH    HH3Hj.vn^ 


Southern  hori^o*** 


May  21.  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:  May  25.  9:45;  May  28.  9:30:  June  1.  9:15:  June  5.  9:00:  June  9.  8:45; 

June  13.  8:30;  June  17.  8:15 ;  June  21.  8:00. 


y  HE  last  star  of  the  Great  Bear's  tail  is  now  just  passing  the  point 
\G\  overhead.  The  Pointers  are  lowermost,  and  the  pole-star  is 
^~^  below,  toward  the  right.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  above 
the  pole-star,  a  little  toward  the  right.  Below  them  is  Cassiopeia,  the 
W  being  now  almost  in  the  proper  position  of  the  letter.  To  the  left 
is  Perseus,  Algol  being  quite  close  to  the  horizon.  Further  round  to 
the  left  we  see  Capella  and  the  other  stars  of  Auriga  low  down  toward 
the  horizon.  Not  much  higher  are  the  twin-stars  Castor  and  Pollux, 
Castor  to  the  left,  the  feet  of  the  twins  resting  on  the  horizon.  It  is 
interesting  to  compare  the  splendor  of  the  sky  near  the  horizon,  from 
Gemini  in  the  west-northwest,  to  Cassiopeia  in  the  north,  with  the  com- 
parative blankness  of  the  part  of  the  sky  immediately  above  these 
constellations.  PnEsepe  is  almost  due  west,  about  as  high  as  Castor. 
Leo  has  come  round  so  far  toward  the  west  that  the  tip  of  the  .Sickle 
just  reaches  that  point  of  the  compass.  Below  Regulus  is  Al  Fard, 
now  near  setting.  Virgo  is  now  at  her  highest,  Spica  shining  resplen- 
dently  a  little  toward  the  west  of  south.  Below  Virgo  notice  Corvus 
and  Crater,  two  of  the  neatest  small  constellations  in  the  heavens. 
Due  south,  just  above  the  horizon,  is  the  head  of  the  southern  constella- 
tion the  Centaur.  Above  Virgo,  and  almost  due  south,  we  see  Bootes, 
now  nearly  upright,  and  presenting  a  fine  figure  as  with  uplifted  arm 
(the  stars  belonging  to  the  Crown)  he  chases  Ursa  Major  past  the 
zenith.  Returning  to  the  neighborhood  of  "the  horizon,  observe  the 
brilliant  retl  star   Antares,  or  Cor  Scorpionis,   lately  risen   above  the 


southeastern  horizon.  Due  southeast  we  see  a  fine  line  of  brilliant 
stars  formed  by  C,  e  and  ri  (Iphiuchi,  and  f,  a  and  (S  Serpentis.  These 
stars,  with  ;/  Ophiuchi,  and  the  stars  y  and  /J  Serpentis,  form  a  figure 
much  resembling  a  saber,  the  cross-handle  being  formed  by  two  stars 
not  shown  in  the  map.  ■  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  large  constellation 
Ophiuchus  (the  reader  will  remember  how  Milton  says  of  a  comet,  th.at 
it  "fired  the  length  of  Ophiuchus  large")  has  now  risen  above  the 
horizon.  It  requires  some  imagination  to  recognize  in  it  the  figure  of  a 
man  holding  a  serpent;  but  this  is  not  the  only  instance  in  which  the 
stars  of  a  constellation  bear  little  resemblance  to  the  figure  from  which 
the  constellation  is  named.  Hercules  is  now  nearly  due  east  and  high 
above  the  horizon.  Toward  the  same  quarter,  but  quite  close  to  the 
horizon,  Aquila  is  coming  into  view,  the  brilliant  Altair  scintillating 
finely.  Lyra  is  above,  Vega  being  almost  exactly  midway  between  the 
horizon  and  the  point  overhead.  The  leading  star  of  Cygnus  is  toward 
the  northeast,  the  length  of  the  cross  being  still  neariy  horizontal. 
Between  Cygnus  and  the  point  overhead  is  the  head  of  the  Dragon, 
the  body  and  tail  winding  off  toward  the  left  and  upward,  above  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole. 

On  some  of  the  dates  named  under  this  map  the  stars  cannot  be 
seen,  as  it  is  not  yet  dark.  Therefore  use  Map  VII.  two  hours  later. 
For  instance,  on  June  21, use  M.ap  VII.  at  ten  o'clock,  and  similarly  for 
the  other  days  at  the  end  of  June. 


Map  VII.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  JULY. 


.mOZIMOH    NM3HXMnM 


Southern  horizo** 


June  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;   June  25.  9:45 ;   June  29,  9:30 :   July  3,  9:15 : 

July  14,  8:30 ;  July  18,  8:15 ;  July  22.  8:00. 


July  7,  9:00  ;  July  10,  8:45 , 


^'-*  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  descending  toward  the  northwest.  The 
{fiy  Pointers  lie  nearly  half-way  between  the  point  overhead  and  the 
horizon,  toward  the  northwest.  Thus  the  pole-star  lies  to  the 
right  of  the  Pointers.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  have  passed  above 
the  pole  toward  the  left.  Below  the  pole,  and  close  to  the  horizon, 
we  see  Perseus  on  the  right,  and  Auriga  on  the  left.  Capella  is  .scin- 
tillating brilliantly,  as  are  Castor  and  Pollu.x,  which  are  now  setting 
near  the  northwest,  Pollux  lowest  and  on  the  left.  Pra;sepe  is  nearly 
set,  and  will  probably  not  be  visible  in  the  thick  air  so  low  down.  Leo 
is  approaching  the  horizon,  the  Sickle  being  inclined  forward.  Above 
/?  Leonis  notice  the  Hair  of  Berenice,  half-way  between  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead,  and  forming  an  interesting  object  at  this  eleva- 
tion. Bootes  stands  now  in  the  northwest,  high  up  above  the  horizon. 
Below  Arcturus  is  Spica,  and  lower  still,  toward  the  right,  the  Crow 
and  Cup  are  setting.  The  constellation  Scorpio  forms  a  magnificent 
object  in  the  south.  The  stars  which  are  assigned  to  this  constellation 
in  maps  form  but  a  portion  of  the  original  constellation,  and  it  is  not 
difficult  to  recognize  in  the  arrangement  of  the  stars  now  lying  toward 
the  south  a  resemblance  to  the  figure  of  a  scorpion  with  extended 
claws.     Above  Scorpio  we  see  th^  g"oup  of  stars  compared  to  a  saber, 


now  no  longer  vertical,  but  inclined  forward.  "Ophiuchus  large"  is 
fully  raised,  and  reaches  from  the  horizon  more  than  half  way  to  the 
point  overhead,  and  from  the  south  to  the  southeast.  Below  his  head 
(a)  we  see  Sagittarius  just  rising  above  the  horizon;  and  above  Ophi- 
uchus, Hercules  extends  right  up  to  the  point  overhead.  The  three 
bright  stars  in  the  body  of  Aquila  are  now  midway  between  southeast 
and  east;  the  uppermost  is  )•,  the  lowest  ft,  and  the  middle  star  is 
Altair.  Above,  toward  the  left,  is  Lyra,  Vega  being  now  raised  far 
toward  the  point  overhead.  Below  Vega  is  the  head  of  Cygnus,  and 
the  cross  of  Cygnus  is  now  in  a  position  exactly  horizontal,  and  also 
exactly  midway  between  the  pomt  overhead  and  the  horizon ;  in  other 
words,  each  of  the  stars  a,  y  and  /j  Cygni  now  has  an  elevation  of 
forty-five  degrees  above  the  horizon.  Below  Cygnus,  Pegasus  is  rising 
into  view,  three  stars  of  the  square  being  visible,  and  the  nose  of  the 
horse  (c)  due  east.  Andromeda  has  just  risen  above  the  northeastern 
horizon.  Above  her  feet  we  see  Cassiopeia,  the  W  still  in  its  natural 
position.  Draco  forms  a  cun'e  round  and  above  the  Guardians  of  the 
Pole,  his  head  being  to  the  east,  and  close  to  the  point  overhead. 

On  the  last  three  dates  mentioned  under  this  map  it  will  be  better 
to  use  Map  VIII.,  two  hours  later. 


Map  VllL- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  AUGUST. 


..^nliaOH     NM3H.IMOM 


''""THERN    HORI^"**" 


July  22,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:    July  26.  9:45;    July  30.  9:30:   Aug.  3.  9:15:   Aug.  7.  9:00:  Aug.  11.8:45; 

Aug.  15.  8:30  :   Aug.  19.  8:15  :  Aug.  23,  8;00. 


V-*  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  in  the  nortliwest,  and  midway  between 
(G)  the  point  overhead  and  the  horizon,  the  pole  to  the  right  of  the 
^-^  Pointers.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  have  swung  round  above 
the  pole-star  toward  the  north-northwest.  Below  the  pole  is  the  head 
of  the  Charioteer,  Capella  still  low  down  to«  ard  the  right  of  the  north 
point.  Above  the  Lesser  Bear  is  the  body  of  Draco,  his  head  almost 
exactly  overhead.  Below  the  Great  Bear,  Leo  is  setting,  only  a  part 
of  the  Sickle  being  visible.  Coma  Berenices  lies  immediately  above 
the  tip  of  the  Lion's  tail  (/J),  and  above  Coma  again  is  Cor  Caroli  and 
the  poor  constellation,  the  Hunting  Dogs,  of  which  Cor  Caroli  is  the 
leading  brilliant.  Virgo  is  setting.  To  the  left  Spica  is  scintillaling 
brilliantly,  close  to  the  horizon  in  the  west-southwest.  Bodies  is  now 
midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  and  inclining 
forward,  his  head  and  shoulders  due  west,  his  feet  above  Spica.  In 
the  southwest  is  Libra,  close  to  the  horizon.  Above  is  Serpens,  reach- 
ing to  a  point  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead. 
Between  the  head  of  the  serpent  (),  /3)  and  the  zenith  we  see  Hercules, 
reaching  round  from  the  south  to  the  west,  and  still  inverted.  In  fact 
Hercules  is  never  seen  upright  in  our  latitudes.  This  kneehng  figure 
must  have  been  conceived  by  astronomers  living  in  other  latitudes,  and 
at  a  time  when  the  pole  was  very  diflferently  situated.  Ophiuchus  has 
now  passed  the  south  toward  south-southwest,  and  Antares  and  the 
other  stars  of  Scorpio  lie  toward  the  same  quarter  low  down  toward  the 


horizon.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  tlie  portion  of  the  Milky  Way  now 
brought  into  view  toward  the  south.  We  see  here  the  commencement 
of  that  part  of  the  Milky  Way  which,  by  its  superior  brilliancy,  as  seen 
in  southern  latitudes,  indicates  the  greater  proximity  of  the  galaxy  in 
that  direction.  It  is  also  interesting  to  notice  how  singularly  the  two 
branches  of  the  Milky  Way  vary  in  splendor  along  the  southern  half  of 
the  semi-circle  now  above  the  horizon.  Lyra  is  high  up  toward  the 
point  overhead,  the  stars  [i  and  y  forming  a  pendant  to  the  brilliant 
Vega.  Below  them,  toward  the  southeast,  and  about  half  way  between 
the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  is  Altair,  j-  and  ji  Acjuilie  lying 
almost  in  a  vertical  line,  one  above,  the  other  below  Altair.  Low 
down  toward  the  horizon  are  the  zodiacal  constellations  Sagittarius 
(e.\tending  from  south  to  south-southeast),  Capricornus  (extending  past 
the  southeastern  quarter)  and  Aquarius,  reaching  neariy  tothe  east.  It 
is,  indeed,  noteworthy  that  from  the  northwest  right  round  through 
south  to  the  northeast,  the  horizon  is  occupied  by  zodiacal  constella- 
tions, no  less  than  eight  of  which  are  thus  situated— though  Pisces,  hav- 
ing no  conspicuous  stars,  is  not  m.arked  in,  in  Map  VIII.  Cygnus  is 
high  up  toward  the  east,  and  below  Arided  is  the  square  of  Pegasus. 
The  left-hand  start  of  the  square  is  Alpherat,  and  Andromeda  lies  in  a 
nearly  horizontal  position,  her  feet  being  toward  the  northeast.  Above 
these  is  Cassiopeia,  the  right  hand  side  of  the  W  beginning  to  be  the 
highest.     Below,  and  close  to  the  horizon,  is  Perseus. 


Map  IX-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  SEPTEMBER. 


.>.nI>aOH    NMHHXaOM 


SOUTHERN    HORIlO"' 


Aug.  23,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;  Aug.  27,  9:45 ;  Aug.  31,  9:30:   Sept.  4.  9:15  i 

Sept.  15,  8:30;  Sept.  19,  8:15;  Sept.  23.  8:00. 


Sept.  8,  9:00 ;   Sept.  12,  8:45  ; 


^"^  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  passing  toward  tiie  nortli,  and  getting  low 
\G\  down.  Tile  pointers  are  to  tlie  riglit  of  the  seven  stars,  and  tlie 
pole-star  lies  al>uve  them,  and  toward  tlie  riglit.  The  Guardians 
of  the  Pole  are  to  the  left  of,  and  scarcely  higher  than  the  pole-star. 
The  Dragon  passes  between  tiie  two  Bears  toward  the  west,  his  head 
!jeing  still  higli  above  tlie  hori/on.  Coma  Berenices  is  setting  between 
nortliwest  and  west-northwest,  lioutes  has  p.assetl  the  west,  and  forms 
a  fine  figure  above  tli at  part  of  the  horizon.  The  Norllicrn  Crown,  with 
tlie  brilliant  Alphecca,  is  due  west,  aliout  midway  i)etween  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead. 

Above  the  Crown  arc  the  feet  of  1  lercules.  I  lis  head  and  shoulders 
are  to  the  left  of  the  Crown,  and  at  about  the  same  height  above  the 
horizon.  The  Serpent  lies  between  the  shoulders  of  Hercules  and  the 
horizon.  On  the  left  is  "Ophiuchus  l.irgf,"  toward  tlie  southwest,  and 
extending  from  the  horizon  halfw.iy  to  the  point  overhead.  The  brill- 
iant Vega  lies  toward  the  same  quarter,  but  much  higher  up. 

Aquila  is  due  south,  Allair  being  about  midway  between  the  horizon 
and   'he  point  overhead.      Close  to  the  hori/on,  and  extending  from 


south-southwest  to  south,  is  Sagittarius.  Next  to  him,  on  the  left,  is 
Capricornus,  and  next  to  that  again  is  Aquarius,  now  covering  a  wide 
range  of  sl<y  between  Capricornus  and  Pegasus.  In  the  zenilh  is 
Cygnus,  the  upright  and  cro^-s-rod  of  the  cross  being  now  about  equally 
inclined  to  the  horizon.  Tlie  S(]uare  of  Pegasus  has  passed  the  east, 
the  left-hand  star  being  sliU  Alpherat,  and  Andromeda  still  in  a  horizon- 
tal position.  Cassiopeia  is  in  the  northe.Lst,  and  raised  somewh.it  more 
than  halfway  from  tlie  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead. 

Rclow  Andromeda,  Aries  has  fully  risen ;  and  toward  the  northeast, 
low  down,  we  see  the  Pleiades  again.  Between  them  and  Cassiopeia 
lies  I'erseus.  It  is  well  to  notice  this  constellation  while  in  its  present 
position,  and  also  the  richness  of  the  background  of  milky  light  in  this 
neighborhood.  The  whole  of  this  part  of  the  heavens  is  full  of  beauty, 
and  contrasts  strangely  with  the  barren  region  close  by,  between  the 
north  point  of  the  horizon  and  Cassiopeia. 

.\uriga  is  nsing  above  the  north-northeast  horizon,  and  Capella  is 
beginning  to  scintillate  less  brilliantly  as  it  rises  above  the  denser  strata 
of  the  atmosphere. 


Map  X- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  OCTOBER. 


uoZiaoH  NaaHAMom 


SOUTHERN    HORllO**" 


Sept.  23,  af  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;    Sept.  26,  9:45 ;     Sept.  30.  9:30;  Oct.  4,  9:15;    Oct.  8,  9:00;   Oct.  11.8:45 ; 

Oct.  15,  8:30 :   Oct.  19.  8:15  ;  Oct.  23,  8;00. 


^?~*  HE  Great  Bear  is  low  down  toward  the  north-northwest ;  the  pole- 
\G\  star  lying  above,  and  very  little  to  the  riijht  of  the  Pointers.  The 
(luardians  of  the  Pole  are  now  below  tlie  pole-star,  on  the  left, 
and  almost  exactly  midway  between  the  hori/on  and  the  point  overhead. 
The  Dragon  passes  between  the  two  Hears,  and  round  to  the  left  of  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole.  His  head  is  toward  the  west-northwest,  high  up 
above  the  horizon.  Cor  Caroli  is  approaching  the  horizon,  and  )5ootes 
is  already  half  set.  So,  also,  is  Serpens  in  the  west.  But  Corona  is 
still  well  raised  above  the  north-northwest  horizon.  Hercules  is  in  the 
west,  but  extends  over  a  wide  range,  from  side  to  side.  Vega  is  due 
west,  and  high  above  the  horizon,  the  stars  (i  and  y  lying  to  tlie  left,  at 
about  the  s.ime  height.  Also  at  about  the  same  height  is  the  star  ji  of 
the  Swan,  and  the  Cross  of  Cygnus  is  now  upright  again,  Arided  lying 
near  the  point  overhead.  Altair  is  in  the  southwest,  raised  somewhat 
less  than  halfway  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead.  Below 
Aquila  is  Sagittarius.  Next,  to  the  left  and  somewhat  higher,  is  Capri- 
cornus,  and,  next,  Aquarius,  in  the  south.  A  noted  star,  Fomalhaut, 
the  most  southerly  first-magnitude  star  ever  seen  in  this  country,  is  now 
visible  toward  the  east  of  south,  and  very  low  down.     It  is  the  chief 


star  of  the  Southern  Fish,  a  constellation  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
southermo.st  of  the  Fishes.  The  Square  of  Pegasus  is  toward  the  south- 
east, raised  high  above  the  horizon.  Alphcrat  is  still  the  most  easterly 
star  of  the  square,  and  Andromeda  is  still  horizontal,  though  now  well 
raised  above  the  eastern  horizon.  The  Sea  Monster,  Cetus,  covers  a  wide 
range  of  the  sky,  low  down,  toward  the  east-southeastern  horizon.  The 
limits  of  the  constellaiion,  indeed,  as  defmed  by  astronomers,  extend 
from  the  ea.st  to  the  south-.southeast.  Aries  is  in  the  e.ast,  about  half- 
way between  Andromeda  and  the  horizon.  Taurus  has  now  risen  in  the 
east-northeast,  Aldeboran,  the  brightest  red  star  in  the  heavens,  scintil- 
lating brilliantly  low  down  toward  the  horizon.  Above  the  head  and 
horns  of  Taurus  is  Perseus,  and  innnediately  above  Perseus,  raised  three- 
quarters  of  the  way  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead,  is  Cas- 
siopeia, the  W  now  almost  on  end,  and  having  the  points  toward  the 
right.  Auriga  has  now  risen  in  the  northeast,  Capclla  being  almost  ex- 
actly in  that  quarter,  and  raised  somewhat  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
way  toward  the  point  overhead.  Castor  is  just  rising  between  the  north- 
east and  the  north-northeast. 


Map  Xl.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  NOVEMBER. 


MQliaO"    NM3H.IMOM 


Southern    horizon 


Oct.  23,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:  Oct.  26,  9:45;   Oct.  30,  9:30;  Nov.  3,  9:15; 

Nov.  14,  8:30;  Nov.  18,  8:15 ;  Nov.  22,  8:00. 


Nov.  7,  9:00;  Nov.   10,8:45: 


^^  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  due  north,  and  at  its  lowest,  the  pole-star 
(C)  lying  above,  and  sjmewhat  to  tlie  bft  of  the  Pointers.  The 
^"'^  Ouardians  of  the  Pole  are  below  and  to  the  left  of  the  pole  star, 
and  immediately  above  the  last  star  of  the  Great  Beir's  tail.  The  head 
of  Draco  has  now  come  to  the  northwest,  and  is  not  nearly  so  high 
above  the  horizon  as  it  was  a  month  ago.  Due  northwest,  and  almost 
on  the  horizon,  is  Alphecca,  the  other  stars  of  the  Crown  being  also 
very  close  to  the  horizon.  Between  Alphecca  and  the  Great  Bear  the 
head  and  shoulders  of  Bootes  are  still  to  be  seen  above  the  horizon. 
In  the  west-northwest,  close  to  the  horizon,  are  the  heads  of  the  two 
giant  constellation  figures  Hercules  and  Ophiuchus.  The  left-hand 
and  brighter  a  marks  the  place  of  the  head  of  the  Serpent-bearer, 
who  is  now  passing  below  the  horizon.  The  whole  of  Hercules,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  still  above  the  horizon,  and,  as  usual,  inverted. 
Above  is  Lyra,  and  Cygnus  now  occupies  a  conspicuous  position  in 
the  west,  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  the 
cross  being  still  nearly  vertical.  Aquila,  the  Eagle,  is  approaching  the 
western  horizon,  Altair  being  in  the  west-southwest,  and  raised  almost 
exactly  one-fourth  of  the  way  toward  the  point  overhead.  Above 
Altair,  and  toward  the  left,  is  an  interesting  little  constellation  not 
marked  in    the    map — Delphinus.      It    will   be    recognized    at    once. 


though  consisting  only  of  small  stars,  by  the  resemblance  it  presents  to 
the  figure  of  a  dolphin  leaping  fro.n  the  sea.  Capricornus  is  in  the 
southwest,  low  down,  and  ne.xt  to  it  is  Aquarius,  covering  a  wide 
range  of  the  sky,  and  reaching  almost  to  the  south.  Below  is  Fomal- 
haut,  nearing  the  south-southwest  horizon.  The  square  of  Pegasus  is 
now  at  its  highest.  Andromeda  is  still  horizontal ;  in  fact,  it  is  a 
peculiarity  of  this  constellation  that  throughout  its  rise,  from  near  the 
horizon  to  near  the  point  overhead,  the  star  Alpherat  is  always  very 
nearly  on  the  same  level  with  a  portion  of  the  line  joining  the  two  stars 
y  and  51,  which  mark  the  feet  of  Andromeda.  This  is  true  from 
the  epoch  indicated  in  Map  VII.  to  that  indicated  in  Map  XL,  or 
through  one-third  part  of  the  constellation's  course  round  the  pole. 
Cetus  is  now  well  raised  above  the  south-southeast  horizon.  The  star 
a  (Menkar)  lies  to  the  east  of  southeast.  Immediately  above  this  star 
is  the  head  of  Aries ;  below  it  is  Eridanus,  now  rising  in  the  southeast. 
Orion  also  is  rising,  the  three  stars  forming  his  belt  almost  upright 
toward  the  east.  Above  them  is  Aldeboran,  and  above  that  star  are 
the  Pleiades.  Near  the  point  overhead  is  Cassiopeia ;  below  Cassio- 
peia, and  somewhat  to  the  right,  is  Perseus  ;  below  Perseus,  and  to  the 
left,  is  Auriga,  with  the  brilliant  Capella  ;  and  below  Auriga  the  twin 
stars  Castor  and  Pollux  have  risen.  Castor  vertically  above  Pollux. 


Map  XII.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  DECEMBER. 


.^OliaO"     NM3HAao^ 


SOUTHERN    HORlIOt* 


Nov.  22.  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening:   Nov.  25.  9:45:  Nov.  29.  9:30;    Dec.  3.  9:15:  Dec.  7,  9:00:   Dec.  10.  8:45. 

Dec.  14,  8:30  :    Dec.  17.  8:15  :  Dec.  21.  8:00. 


y  HE  lip  of  the  Great  Bear's  tail  lies  almost  due  north,  and  low 
fC)  down.  The  Pointers  are  toward  the  north-northea.st,  and  the 
^^  pole-star  is  above,  and  tow.  rd  the  left.  The  Guardians  of  the 
Pole  hang  below  the  pole-star,  slightly  toward  the  left.  Draco  hangs 
below  the  Lesser  Bear,  extending  around  from  right  to  left,  where  his 
body  bends  downward  again.  The  head  of  Draco  lies  between  north- 
west and  north-northwest,  raised  almost  exactly  one-fourth  of  the  way 
irom  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead.  Toward  the  left,  slightly 
lower,  is  Vega,  the  companion  stars  /3  and  y  lying  on  the  left.  Cygnus 
is  in  the  west-northwest,  the  cross  again  upright,  and  Anded  raised 
somewhat  less  than  half-way  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  over- 
head. Above,  very  near  the  point  overhead,  is  Cassiopeia.  Low  down, 
and  somewhat  to  tlie  right  of  the  western  point  of  the  horizon,  is  Altair, 
with  his  companion  stars  /?  and  >,  the  former  on  his  left,  the  latter  on 
his  right.  The  square  of  Pegasus  is  still  high  above  the  horizoii, 
toward  the  west-southwest.  The  highest  star  of  the  square  is 
Alpherat,  and  Andromeda  now  extends  from  this  point  to  the  pomt 
overhead,  close  to  which  are  both  her  feet.     Aquarius  is  setting  in  the 


west-southwest.  Cetus  is  due  .south,  well  raised  above  the  horizon. 
The  space  b:;low  Cetus,  quite  b.rre  of  conspicuous  stars,  belongs  to  the 
southern  constellations  Sculptor  and  Fornax.  Above  Cetus  is  Aries, 
the  star  a  due  south,  and  raised  neariy  three-fourths  of  the  way  from  the 
horizon  toward  the  point  overhead.  Above  the  south-southeast  honzoii 
is  Eridanus,  covering  a  large  space  of  the  sky.  Onon  has  now  well 
risen  above  the  southeastern  horizon  somewhat  easieriy.  Above  him 
is  Taurus,  the  Pleiades  now  shining  very  conspicuously.  Near  the 
point  overhead  is  Perseus,  the  star  a  being  toward  the  east,  and 
\lgol  toward  the  southeast.  Below  Perseus,  somewhat  to  ti.e  left,  is 
Auriga;  and  below  the  brilliant  Capella  are  to  be  seen  the  twin-stars 
Castor  and  Pollux,  the  constellation  G--mini  being  now  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  feet  of  the  twins  {a  and  ))  resting  on  the  Milky  Way. 
Procyon  has  just  risen  above  the  eastern  horizon.  Toward  the  north 
east  the  sky  is  almost  blank.  But  low  down  may  be  seen  two  stars 
belonging  to  the  Sickle  in  Leo,  now  rising  above  the  northea.stem 
horizon. 


O  «- 


K" 


39° 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


y'l 


RYSK^AL  i 


^^^WW^ 


GGOGRAPRY 

— ^>- 


m 
-ii! 

P 
ii! 

ii! 


OUR  GLOBE,  AS  IT  WAS  AND  AS  IT  IS;    WEATHER  AND  CLIMATE; 
ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  LIFE. 


^..o^..^ 


OUR  EARTH  is,  indeed,  a  world  of  wonders,  and  whetlier 
we  penetrate  its  crust  or  explore  its  surface,  we  will  ever 
find  opportunity  for  study,  and  food  for  reflection.  When 
we  were  at  school,  and  learnt  the  various  countries  of  the  world, 
we  had  maps  showing  us  the  several  divisions  of  one  realm 
from  another.  The  mountains,  lakes  and  other  prominent 
features  of  each  continent  were  conned  and  repeated,  but  we 
seldom,  perhaps  never,  bestowed  a  thought  upon  the  formation 
of  the  mountains,  and  the  manner  in  which  rivers  ran  down 
into,  and  through,  lakes  to  the  ocean.  There  were  the  moun- 
tains, there  were  the  lakes,  and  rivers,  and  cape-;,  and  head- 
lands, and  there  they  are  still,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the 
same  to  see,  to  climb  up,  to  sail  down,  as  the  case  may  be.  But 
the  maps  of  some  countnes  have  undergone  visible  changes. 
Territory  has  changed  hands.  Some  powers  have  extended  their 
dominions,  while  other  countries  have  been  dismembered.  This 
study  is  called  Geography — Political  Geography — for  it  marks 
the  political  boundaries.  The  knowledge  of  the  formation  of 
hills,  headlands,  lakes,  rivers,  seas  —  their  causes,  constitution 
and  effects ;  how  they  rose,  how  they  exist  and  wax  or  wane 
during  the  course  of  centuries  —  is  Physical  Geography.  We 
must  learn  how  this  earth  of  ours  has  been  gradually  made  fit 
for  man's  habitation,  and  what  the  various  stages  of  its  growth 
have  been.  We  must  consider  plant  and  animal  life  upon  our 
planet,  and  how  the  atmosphere  affects  them.  All  this  is  em- 
braced in  Physical  Geography  and  its  satellite  sciences  of  Ge- 
ology, Meteorology,  Climatology,  Mineralogy,  Botany,  Zoology 
and  Ethnology. 

Our  globe  is  nearly  round  in  shape.  In  the  language  of 
science,  it  is  an  oblate  spheroid — that  is,  a  body  having  the 
polar  diameter  shorter  than  the  equatorial.  That  our  earth  is 
round  is  evident  from  the  following  facts  : 

I.  Men  have  circumnavigated  it — that  is,  they  have  sailed  in 
one  continuous  direction  as  nearly  as  the  configuration  of  the 
land  would  permit,  and  have  arrived  at  the  point  of  starting. 


2.  When  we  stand  on  the  sliore,  anti  observe  a  ship  coming 
in  from  the  sea,  we  notice  that  the  tops  of  the  masts  are  seen 
first,  and  lastly  the  hull,  or  body.  The  hull  is  hidden  by  the 
curved  surface  of  the  water.  In  travehng  across  extensive  plains, 
in  like  manner,  the  tops  of  mountains  are  seen  before  their 
bases. 

3.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of  the 
earth  falling  on  the  moon.  This  shadow  is  always  circular.  A 
spherical  body  is  the  only  one  which  .will  cast  a  circular  shadow 
in  any  position  in  which  it  may  be  placed. 

4.  The  north  star  rises  as  we  travel  north,  and  declines  as  we 
go  south,  till  we  reach  the  equator,  when  it  disappears. 

For  the  purpose  of  locating  the  different  portions  of  the  eartli's 
surface,  imaginary  circles  are  employed.  Every  circle,  whether 
great  or  small,  is  divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees. 

A  great  circle  divides  the  earth's  surface  into  two  equal  parts, 
or  hemispheres ;  a  small  circle,  into  two  unequal  parts. 

The  equator  is  a  great  circle  equally  distant  from  the  poles. 

A  meridian  circle  is  any  great  circle  passing  through  the  poles. 

A  meridian  is  half  of  a  meridian  circle,  extending  from  pole  to 
pole. 

The  points  on  tlie  earth's  surface  at  the  ends  of  the  axis  are 
called /tf/cj.  The  one  which  is  nearest  a  certain  fixed  star  called 
the  north  star,  is  the  north  pole ;  the  other  is  the  south  pole. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  the  distance  around  it,  and 
measures  about  25,000  miles. 

The  diameter  of  the  earth  is  a  straight  line  pa.ssing  through 
its  center,  and  terminating  in  opposite  points  of  its  surface.  The 
equatorial  diameter  extends  from  any  point  on  the  equator  to  the 
opposite  point,  and  is  about  7,925}^  miles  long.  The  polar 
diameter  extends  from  pole  to  pole,  and  thus  coincides  with  its 
axis.  Its  length  in  miles  is  7,899.  The  difference  of  length, 
about  26^  miles,  is  owing  to  the  flattening  of  the  earth,  which 
brings  each  pole  13)^  miles  nearer  the  center  than  are  the  points 
that  lie  on  the  equator. 


-^l 


V 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


391 


The  latitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance  from  the  equator, 
measured  on  its  own  meridian.  Latitude  is  eitlier  north  or 
south,  and  is  reckoned  in  degrees  (from  o  to  90),  minutes  and 
seconds.     The  latitude  of  places  on  the  equator  is  o. 

The  longitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance  from  some  given  merid- 
ian, measured  on  its  own  parallel.  Longitude  is  either  east  or 
west,  and  is  reckoned  in  degrees  (from  o  to  iSo),  minutes  and 
seconds.  The  given  meridian  from  which  longitude  is  reckoned 
is  called  the  first  meridian. 

Every  degree  of  latitude  is  equal  to  about  69  J^  statute  miles. 
A  degree  of  longi- 
tude, at  the  equa- 
tor, is  also  about 
69^:^  statute  miles; 
but,  north  or  south 
of  the  equator,  it 
becomes  less  and 
less  as  the  merid- 
ians approach  each 
ether,  and  at  the 
poles,  where  they 
meet,  it  is  nothing. 

The  polar  cir- 
cles are  the  two 
parallels  23^  de- 
grees from  each 
pole.  The  north- 
em  polar  circle  is 
called  the  Arctic 
Circle;  the  south- 
em,  the  Antarctic 
Circle. 

The  tropics  are 
the  two  parallels 
23|^degreesnorth 
and  23  J^  degrees 
south  of  the  equa- 
tor. The  north- 
em  tropic  is  called 
the  Tropic  of  Can- 
cer; the  southern, 
the  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn. 

Zones  are  belts  of 
the  earth, bounded 
by  the  polar  circles 

and  the  tropics.  The  North  Frigid  Zone,  which  lies  north  of 
the  Arctic  Circle,  is  23'^  degrees  wide.  The  North  Temperate, 
which  lies  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer, 
is  43  degrees  wide.  The  Torrid,  which  lies  between  the  tropics, 
is  47  degrees  wide.  The  South  Temperate,  which  lies  between 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the  .\ntarctic  Circle,  is  43  degrees 
wide.  The  South  Frigid,  which  lies  south  of  the  Antarctic  Cir- 
cle, is  23^  degrees  wide. 

The  circle  of  illumination  is  the  great  circle  which  separates 
the  light  side  of  the  earth  from  the  dark. 


DAY  AND  NIGHT -EASTERN  HEMIiPHERE. 


Day  and  Night. 

Tae  earth  has  two  constant  motions  :  (i)  its  daily  motion,  or 
rotation  on  its  axis  (its  shorter  diameter),  from  west  to  east ;  (2) 
its  yearly  motion,  or  movement  in  a  nearly  circular  path  (called 
its  orbit)  around  the  sun.  The  length  of  time  t'.i.:  earth  is  turn- 
ing on  its  axis  is  called  a  day.  Every  part  of  the  earth's  surface 
being  successively  carried  into  light  and  shade,  the  daily  rota- 
lion  causes  the  phenomena  of  day  and  nii^ht.  The  length  of 
time  the  earth  is  in  passing  around  tlie  sun  is  called  a  year. 

It  turns  on  its 
own  axis  in  the 
same  time  about 
365^times,hence 
there  are  365)^ 
days  in  a  year. 

As  the  earth  re- 
volves from  west 
to  east,  the  sun 
will  appear  to 
travel  from  east  to 
west. 

At  the  equator 
thedaysandnighls 
are  always  twelve 
hours  long ;  the 
farther  a  point  lies 
from  the  equator, 
tlie  longer  are  its 
longest  day  and  its 
longest  night. 

At  the  poles  the 
year  is  made  up 
of  but  one  day 
and  one  night, 
each  lasting  six 
months. 

All  places  in 
about  66^  de- 
grees of  latitude, 
north  or  south, 
have  one  day  in 
the  year  twenty- 
four  hours  long, 
and  one  night  of 
an  equal  length. 


The   Change   of  Seasons 

Is  produced  by  the  earth's  revolution  around  the  sun,  in  con- 
nection with  the  fact  that  its  axis  is  constantly  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  always  points  in  the  same  direction. 

The  earth's  axis  is  constantly  inclined  23'^  degrees  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit.  If  this  were  not  the  case  there  would  be  no 
change  of  seasons ;  the  circle  of  illumination  would  always  be 
identical  with  some  meridian  circle.  The  sun's  rays,  reaching 
from   pole  to  pole,   would    fall   on    each  point  of   the   earth's" 


-N 


%^ 


Ii.__-^ 


392 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


surface  at  the  same  angle  throughout  the  year,  and  days  and 
nights  would  everywhere  be  of  twelve  hours'  duration.  {Sen 
Astronomy, ) 

GEOLOGY 

Tells  us  about  t'.ie  external  surface  of  the  earth,  its  stones  and 
rocks,  anil  how  they  were  formed,  and  generally  something  about 
the  conformation  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  and  its  history.  As 
has  been  well  said,  "  Geology  is  the  Physical  Geography  of  the 
past." 

*"  Kverylhing 
must  have  a  be- 
ginning," and  the 
earth  must  have 
had  a  beginning, 
although  the  act- 
ual manner  of  the 
physical  creation 
of  our  planet  is  a 
disputed  fact . 

We  are  not 
about  to  discuss 
the  religious  side 
of  the  question, al- 
though we  should 
undoubtedly  find 
that  Biblical  teach- 
ing and  Geology 
run  side  by  side 
toward  the  same 
end,  and  the  tes- 
timony of  the 
earth  and  skybears 
witness  to  the  di- 
vine hand  that 
created  the  uni- 
verse, which  we 
can  trace  back  to 
the  dim  and  dis- 
tant ages  when 
"the  earth  Avas 
without  form,  and 
void ;  and  dark- 
ness was  upon  the 
face  of  the  deep." 


DAY  AND  NIGHT.— WESTERN  HEMISPHERE. 


The    Six   Eras    of   Creation. 

It  seems  to  be  established  that  each  of  the  six  days  of  Creation 
was  an  era,  a  period,  not  of  twenty-four  hours,  but  of  centuries, 
during  which  great  changes  and  new  appearances  took  place. 
The  first  of  these  eras  was  marked  by  the  creation  of  light ;  the 
second,  by  the  separation  of  vapors  from  the  waters  ;  the  third, 
by  the  separation  of  land  from  water,  and  the  appearance  of 
grass,  herb,  fruit  and  tree.  On  the  fourth  day,  or  rather  in  the 
fourth  era,  "  God  made  two  great  lights  in  the  firmament  of  the 
heaven  ;  the  greater  light  to  rule  the  day,  and  the  lesser  light  to 


rule  the  night:  and  he  made  the  stars  also."  In  the  fifth  era 
were  created  fishes  and  birds  —  "  great  whales,  and  every  living 
creature  that  moveth,  which  the  waters  brought  forth  abund- 
antly, after  their  kind,  and  every  winged  fowl  after  his  kind." 
In  the  sixth  era  appeared  the  beasts  of  the  earth,  and  finally  man, 
for  whom  the  earth  had  now  become  a  fit  abode. 

The  earth  appears  at  one  time  to  have  been  an  intensely 
heated  molten  ball,  surrounded  by  a  hot  atmosphere  filled  with 
vapors  and  gases.  By  degrees  the  outer  part  of  this  molten  mass 
gave  its  heat  into  space,  and  portions  of  its  matter  became  solid 

as  they  cooled. 
As  the  cooling 
proceeded,  these 
solid  masses  grew 
larger,  and  at  last 
blended  in  a  thin 
crust.  The  vapor 
in  the  atmosphere 
was  next  con- 
densed, and  thus 
was  formed  the 
great  primeval 
^^^^^^^^  ocean,  covering 
the  whole  globe. 
From  time  to  time 
this  mighty  ocean 
would  break 
through  weak 
places  iii  the  crust, 
and  pour  on  the 
seething  mass  be- 
low. Great  vol- 
umes of  steam 
would  then  be 
formed,  which 
would  rend  the 
solid  barriers 
above  it,  and  force 
through  the  open- 
ings thus  made 
floods  of  melted 
rock,  to  flow  over 
the  earth,  and,  in 
course  of  time  cool 
down  into  a  new 
mineral  deposit. 
In  the  lapse  of  ages,  innumerable  changes  of  this  kind  occurred 
on  the  surface.  Continents  were  upheaved,  and  the  waters 
finally  subsided  into  the  hollow  places,  carrying  with  them  and 
depositing  a  sediment  of  rocky  matter.  The  crust  gradually  be- 
came thicker,  the  surface  assumed  a  form  comparatively  ])emia- 
nent,  and  only  occasional  eruptions  showed  that  fiery  heat  and 
waves  of  molten  rock  still  raged  within. 

A  succession  of  plants,  marking  distinct  eras  of  vegetable  life, 
were  then  called  into  being,  and  different  orders  of  animals  were 
created — living  and  preying  upon  each  other,  and  dying,  as  they 


l"^ 


~7\ 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


393 


do  now.  The  most  simple  forms  of  animal  life  appeared  first ; 
then  those  of  a  higher  organism;  and  finally  man,  created  in  the 
image  of  God. 

If  any  one  will  take  the  pains  to  evaporate  any  saline  solution 
in  a  capsule  till  it  is  about  to  crystalli/,e,  and  observe  attentively 
the  pellicle  of  salt  as  it  forms  on  the  surface,  an  idea  may  be 
formed  of  our  globe's  physical  history.  First,  a  partiid  film  will 
show  itself  in  a  few  places,  floating  about  and  joining  witli 
others;  then,  when  nearly  the  whole  surface  is  coated,  it  wdl 
break  up  in  some  places  and  sink  into  the  liquid  beneath  ;  an- 
other pellicle  will  form  and  join  with  the  remains  of  the  first, 
and  as  this  thickens  it  will  push  up  ridges  and  inequalities  of  the 
surface  from  openings  and  fissures  in  which  little  jets  of  steam 
and  fluid  will  escape.  These  little  ridges  are  chains  of  moun- 
tains; the  little  jets  of  steam,  those  volcanic  eruptions  which 
were  at  one  period  so  frequent;  the  surface  of  the  capsule  is  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  five  minutes  which  the  observer  has 
contemplated  it,  a  million  years. 

The  principal  agents  in  producing  the  constant  changes 
going  on  within  and  upon  our  globe  are  the  winds,  the  ocean, 
the  rivers,  and  the  forces  at  work  within  the  earth.  Land  and 
water  are  to  this  day  fighting  for  the  mastery,  as  they  did  when 
the  condensation  of  the  vapors  surrounding  the  earth  formed  the 
seas  and  oceans,  leaving  only  the  higher  portions  of  the  earth's 
mass  exposed,  and  when  the  clearing  up  of  the  dense,  dark 
clouds  fur  the  first  lime  let  in  upon  the  earth's  surface  the  glori- 
ous and  vivifying  rays  of  the  sun,  corresponding  to  the  earliest 
record  in  the  Bible  of  the  acts  of  Creation :  "  And  God  said,  let 
there  be  light:  and  there  was  light.'' 

But,  jjerhaps,  some  reader  may  not  think  tliat  the  land  and 
water  of  our  earth  arc  thus  engaged.  A  very  few  minutes'  re- 
flection, however,  will  suffice  to  confirm  the  assertion.  Look  at 
the  lofty  crags  in  the  Alps,  for  instance.  What  has  shattered 
those  peaks,  and  sent  the  masses  toppling  down  in  stone  ava- 
lanches to  the  lower  slopes,  and  then  into  the  valleys? — Water. 
Water  has  been  in  the  crevices,  and  was  frozen  there  ;  in  freez- 
ing it  expanded  and  loosened  the  crags,  which,  forced  asunder, 
gave  an  opening  to  more  snow  and  ice,  and  so  this  powerful 
leverage,  aided  by  the  wind  and  storm,  is  disintegrating  our 
mountains. 

It  is  the  same  by  the  seashore ;  the  cliffs  are  wearing  away, 
and  the  sea  approaches ;  at  other  places  the  sea  recedes  from 
the  land,  as  coral  formation  and  embryo  chalk  cliff's  are  rising 
under  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  Lakes  dry  up,  and  the  meadow 
or  farm  arises  on  the  site,  while  other  oUl  spots  are  sub- 
merged. 

The  rocky  wall  over  which  the  Niagara  River  precipitates 
itself,  is  constantly  wearing  away  under  the  impact  of  ycxj.ooo 
tons  of  water  every  minute ;  so  that  the  falls  are  gradually  re- 
ceding toward  Lake  Erie,  at  a  rate  variously  estimated  at  from 
I  foot  to  1%  yards  every  year.  They  were  once,  and  that,  too, 
within  the  present  geological  period,  at  least  four  miles  nearer 
to  Lake  Ontario  than  they  now  are. 

It  is  computed  that  the  Mississippi  carries  annually  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  400,000,000  tons  of  earthy  matter — enough  to  cover 
an  area  often  square  miles  to  the  depth  of  twenty-five  feet. 


Tlic  winds  transport  loose  sand,  particularly  on  coasts  ex- 
posed to  their  fury,  and,  driving  it  inland,  heap  it  up  in  parallel 
ridges.  Such  sand-hills,  or  downs,  as  they  are  called,  are  very 
common  near  the  ocean ;  on  the  coast  of  England  they  have 
buried  houses  and  farms. 

Rivers  are  constantly  changing  the  earth's  surface  by  wearing 
jiassages  through  the  strata  over  which  they  flow,  and  by  bearing 
incalculable  ciuantities  of  earthy  matter  to  the  sea,  to  form  new 
deposits  at  their  mouths. 

No  rest,  no  change  of  idea,  but  ever  changing  in  physical  ap- 
pearance. Nature  goes  on  her  wondrous  way,  working  now  as 
steadily,  as  harmoniously  and  as  surely  as  she  did  before  time 
was,  and  as  she  will  continue  to  do  when  time  shall  be  no 
more.  And  all  the  works  of  Nature,  ever  changing,  yet  ever  the 
same,  are  recorded  by  the  same  Power  that  governs  them. 
"  All  things,"  says  Emerson,  "  are  engageil  in  writing  their  his- 
tory. The  |)lanet,  the  pebble,  goes  attended  by  its  shadow. 
The  rolling  rock  leaves  its  scratclies  on  the  mountain;  the  river, 
its  channel  in  the  soil;  the  animal,  its  bones  in  the  stratum;  the 
fern  and  leaf,  their  modest  epitaph  in  the  coal.  The  falling 
drop  makes  its  sculpture  in  the  sand  or  the  stone.  Not  a  foot 
steps  into  the  snow  or  along  the  ground,  but  prints,  in  characters 
more  or  less  lasting,  a  map  of  its  march.  Every  act  of  the  man 
inscribes  itself  in  the  memories  of  his  fellows,  and  in  his  own 
manners  and  face.  The  air  is  full  of  sounds,  the  sky  of  tokens, 
the  ground  is  all  memoranda  and  signatures,  and  every  object 
covered  over  with  hints  which  speak  to  the  intelligent." 

Rocks. 

We  must  entirely  put  away  from  our  minils  the  idea  that  the 
earth  we  live  on  was  created  at  once,  or  as  it  appeared  to  the  first 
human  beings.  Our  planet  was  prepared  for  man  by  degrees 
during  millions  of  years.  Therefore,  supposing  (as  is  supposed) 
that  the  earth  came  from  the  sun,  we  have  all  the  materi.al  of  the 
globe  in  a  fused  state.  .\s  the  earth  cooled,  rocks  were  formed 
by  pressure,  and  then  water  came,  and  now  we  can  read 
"  books  in  the  running  brooks,  and  sermons  in  stones,"  at  our 
leisure. 

A  rock,  in  geology,  is  any  natural  formation  of  earthy  or  stony 
material,  whether  in  the  form  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  mold,  or  a 
compacted  mass.  In  regard  to  their  form  and  position,  the  rock 
masses  of  the  earth's  crust  may  be  divided  into  three  classes — 
stratified  rocks,  unstratified  rocks,  a.nJ  veins. 

Stratified  rocks  are  those  that  lie  in  layers,  or  strata.  They 
compose  the  greater  part  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth,  form- 
ing not  only  vast  plains,  but  whole  mountain  systems.  To  this 
class  belong  slate,  sandstone,  limestone,  marl,  chalk,  etc. 

Unstratified  rocks  arc  irregular  masses,  formed,  not  by  the 
deposit  of  sediment  in  beds  or  layers,  but  by  the  gradual  cooling 
of  melted  matter.  They  embrace  igneous  and  metamorphic 
rocks. 

Igneous  rocks  owe  their  orign  to  the  action  of  heat,  as  the 
stratified  rocks  do  to  that  of  water.  Basalt  may  be  mentioned 
as  an  example  of  the  igneous  rocks.  In  some  regions  it  consti- 
tutes immense  beds,  and  in  others  forms  gigantic  columns,  as 
regular  as  if  wrought  by  art. 


\ 


^ 


394 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Melamorfhic  rocks  are  such  as  were  originally  stratified,  but 
afterward  underwent  a  change  of  structure  through  the  agency 
of  heat  or  chemical  action. 

Veins  are  rock-matter  filling  the  cracks  of  fissures  of  other 
rocks.  They  vary  greatly  in  size  and  e.xtent.  They  may  be 
regular  or  irregular  in  form,  isolated  or  united  in  a  complex  net- 
work. 

The  term  drift  is  employed  to  designate  the  immense  deposits 
of  sand,  gravel,  clay  and  boulders,  or  loose  rocks,  which  exist 
over  a  great  part  of  the  American  continent.  The  origin  of 
tills  material  is  referred  to  "  Glacial  Period"  when,  from  some 
cause,  a  change  of  climate  caused  immense  masses  of  ice,  either 
in  the  form  of  icebergs  or  glaciers,  to  plow  their  way  over  the 
continent,  bringing  the  material  from  the  Archaean  beds  and 
depositing  it  over  the  existing  formations,  and  at  the  same  time 
scoring  and  grooving  the  underlying  rocks. 

The  Geologic  Ages. 

There  are  se-^ien  great  geologic  ages,  or  divisions  of  time, 
known  as  the  Azoic,  the  Silurian,  the  Devonian,  the  Carbonifer-' 
ous,  the  Reptilian,  the  Mamm.ilian,  and  the  Age  of  Man.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  ages  preceding  the 
creation  of  man  is  derived  from  their  remains  dug  out  of  the 
earth,  and  ctCAzA.  fossils. 

The  Azoic  Age  is  the  era,  as  its  name  impli^'s,  when  there  was 
no  life,  either  vegetable  or  animal,  on  the  globe.  The  crystal- 
line minerals  and  all  the  igneous  rocks  date  back  to  this  age, 
and  hence  they  are  destitute  of  fossils. 

During  the  Silurian  Age,  the  second  in  atiquity,  there  was 
no  terrestrial  life ;  but  niollusks — animals  with  soft,  fleshy  bodies, 
without  any  internal  skeleton,  like  the  oyster  and  the  snail  — 
abounded  in  the  waters.  The  oldest  sandstone  and  limestone 
belong  to  this  period.     Its  plant-fossils  are  sea-weeds. 

The  Devonian  Age  was  the  age  of  fishes,  remarkable  for  their 
thick,  bony  scales.  The  sea  also  teemed  with  shells  corals  and 
sea-weed;  while  the  land,  though  yet  limited  in  extent,  began 
to  be  covered  with  vegetation.  Insects,  the  earliest  of  terrestrial 
animals,  now  first  appeared. 

The  Carboniferous  Age,  or  age  of  coal,  is  fourth.  Froin 
colossal  tree  ferns,  leaves  and  branches,  deposited  in  successive 
centuries,  were  formed,  by  gradual  decomposition  under  water, 
those  vast  coal-beds  on  which  the  industrial  pursuits  of  the  pres- 
ent day  so  largely  depend.  The  animals  of  this  age  consisted 
mainly  of  insects  of  various  kinds;  and  inferior  tribes  of 
reptiles. 

The  Reptilian  Age  was  marked  by  tlie  great  number,  variety 
and  size  of  its  reptiles,  the  appearance  and  habits  of  which  are 
known  from  the  remains,  found  buried  in  the  rocks  of  this 
period.  The  rocks  of  this  age  are  the  freestones,  extensively 
used  for  building,  sandstone  formations,  intersected  with  ridges 
of  trap  of  igneous  origin,  limestone  and  gypsum,  laminated  and 
plastic  clays,  and  chalk-beds,  containing  layers  of  flint. 

The  Mammalian  Age  was  the  sixth.  The  reptiles  now  dwin- 
dled in  size  and  diminished  in  number,  being  succeeded  by 
quadnipeds,  some  of  which  were  much  larger  than  any  modern 
species.     The  deinotherium,  mastodon,  megatherium  and  fossil 


elephant  were  among  the  gigantic  animals  of  this  era,  while  the 
plants  resembled  those  of  the  present  time,  palms,  oaks,  maples, 
magnolias,  etc.,  being  found  in  the  forests. 

The  Age  of  Man  is  the  last  of  the  seven  geologic  ages. 
The  huge  monsters  that  gave  the  preceding  period  its  peculiar 
character  became  extinct,  and  were  replaced  by  smaller  animals 
—  those  we  see  around.  Man  was  created,  and  invested  with 
dominion  over  the  earth.  This  is  the  "era  of  the  finished 
world  —  the  era,  also,  of  man's  progress  and  preparation  for  an- 
other and  a  higher  life." 

THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE. 

The  earth's  surface  of  an  area  of  about  197,000,000  square 
miles,  of  which  only  about  one-fourth  is  land. 

Lo^iiilaiids  are  tracts,  either  level  or  diversified  by  hill  and 
vale,  not  elevated  more  than  1,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Deserts 
are  extensive  tracts  destitute  of  water,  and,  consequently,  of 
vegetation  and  animal  life. 

Silvas  are  forest  plains.  Plains  that  produce  grass,  but  not 
trees,  are  known  in  North  America  as /nji'/vW  ,•  in  South  Amer- 
ica as  llanos  ^ui  pampas ;  in  Asia  and  Southeastern  Europe  as 
sfeppes. 

The  desert  of  Sahara,  as  far  as  known,  consists  partly  of 
table-lands  and  partly  of  low  plains.  It  is  interspersed  with 
oases,  or  fertile  spots,  which  are  generally  lower  than  the  sur- 
rounding country;  some  of  these  are  of  considerable  extent  and 
well  populated. 

A  mountain  is  an  elvation  of  land  exceeding  2,000  feet  in 
height.     A  hiH\s,  less  than  2,000  feet  in  height. 

A  mountain-chain  is  a  long,  elevated  ridge,  or  several  moun- 
tains extending  in  a  line. 

Mountains  are  of  great  use  to  man.  They  attract  the  clouds, 
condense  their  moisture,  and  store  up  in  reservoirs  the  water 
received  from  them,  sending  it  forth  again  in  streams,  from 
thousands  of  springs,  to  fertilize  the  soil.  They  increase  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  giving  variety  to  its  vegetable  pro- 
ductions. They  protect  the  adjacent  countries  from  cold  and 
piercing  winds,  and  thus  exert  a  favorable  influence  on  their 
climate. 

An  avalanche  is  a  large  mass  of  snow,  ice  and  earth,  sliding 
or  rolling  down  a  mountain.  A  water-shed  is  the  mountain- 
chain  or  ridge  of  land  which  separates  one  basin  from  another, 
and  from  which  the  rivers  flow. 

A  mountain  pass  is  an  elevated  road  crossing  a  mountain- 
chain  through  a  natural  opening  or  depression. 

Glaciers  are  ininiense  masses  of  ice  formed  by  the  accumu- 
lated snows  upon  the  mountain  4ops.  They  fill  in  vast  valleys, 
and  have  an  onward  motion  throughout  like  a  liquid  or  semi- 
liquid  body.  Their  course  down  the  slopes  is  very  slow,  but, 
like  rivers,  they  flow  faster  in  the  middle  than  at  the  bottom 
and  sides.  The  lower  extremities  are  constantly  melting,  form- 
ing torrents  and  mountain  streams,  while  the  upper  parts  are 
fed  by  the  snows.  Rocks  of  immense  size  are  torn  off  and  car- 
ried down  by  glaciers.  They  occur  in  the  greatest  numbers  in 
the  Alps.  When  a  glacier  reaches  the  ocean  large  fragments 
are  broken  off  and  float  away  as  icebergs. 


K- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


395 


VOLCANIC   PHENOMENA. 

That  the  interior  of  the  earth  has  a  high  temperature,  inde- 
pendent of  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  seems  to  be  proven  by 
many  phenomena.  The  majority  of  scientists  maintain  that  the 
center  of  the  earth  is  a  mass  of  molten  material,  and  that  conse- 
quently the  temperature  increases  the  nearer  this  center  is  ap- 
proached. This  theory  seems  to  accord  with  the  facts  in  rela- 
tion to  hot  springs,  artesian  wells,  volcanoes,  etc.,  although  it  is 
maintained  by  some  that  these  phenomena  may  be  caused  en- 
tirely by  local  chemical  changes  going  on  within  the  earth's 
crust. 

Hot   Springs. 

Thermal  or  hot  springs  are  most  common  in  mountainous 
regions,  and  especially  where  the  earth's  crust  is  most  broken 
and  disturbed.  Springs  of  every  kind  are  formed  by  the  rain  or 
melted  snow  sinking  into  the  earth  and  issuing  from  it  again  at 
a  lower  level.  The  fact  that  the  water  is  sometimes  hot,  shows 
that  it  must  have  come  in  contact  with  heated  rock  material 
within  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

They  are  found  of  every  grade  of  temperature  from  that  of 
slightly  above  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  to  the  boiling  point. 
They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  tlie  world,  the  most  numerous, 
jierhaps,  in  Europe. 

Geysers 

Are  intermittent,  spouting,  hot  springs,  and  have  a  temperature 
at  the  boiling  point.  They  are  found  in  Iceland,  New  Zealand, 
and  in  the  "  National  Park  "  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Yellow- 
stone River  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Geyser  of  Iceland.  It  con- 
si.sts  of»an  immense  well,  or  funnel,  lo  feet  wide  at  its  mouth, 
and  about  70  feet  deep,  surmounted  at  the  surface  with  a  ba.sin 
65  feet  in  diameter  and  7  feet  deep,  formed  by  the  deposit  of 
mineral  matter  from  the  water.  At  intervals  it  sends  up  a  col- 
umn of  water  and  steam  to  the  height  of  100  feet.  More  re- 
markable even  than  the  geysers  of  Iceland  are  some  that  are 
found  in  the  "  National  Park."  One,  the  Giantess,  throws 
water  to  the  height  of  200  feet.  Grasshoppers  and  other  insects, 
and  pieces  of  wood  which  fall  into  the  waters,  soon  become  in- 
crusted  with  quart/,  which  is  held  in  solution  by  the  water,  thus 
permanently  petrifying  them. 

Volcanoes. 

A  volcano  is  a  mountain,  or  opening  in  the  earth's  crust, 
through  which  issue  fire,  smoke,  ashes,  lava,  steam,  etc.  Vol- 
canoes may  be  distinguished  as  extinct  and  active.  Extinct 
volcanoes  are  such  as  are  now  at  rest,  but  were  subject  to  eru|i- 
tions  in  former  ages,  as  is  shown  by  their  form  and  structure, 
and  the  presence  of  craters.  Active  volcanoes  are  such  as  are 
either  in  a  constant  state  of  eruption,  or  have  eruptions  from  time 
to  time,  with  intervals  of  rest. 

Volcanoes  throw  out  an  enormous  amount  of  material.  Whole 
islands  and  portions  of  continents  have  been  formed  by  volcanic 
action.     Iceland  is  an  example  of  a  volcanic  island. 

The  lava,  when  it  first  issues  from  a  volcano,  is  somewhat  like 
melted  iron  running  from  a  furnace,  but  soon  cools  on  the  surface 


and  forms  a  black,  porous  crust.  Sometimes  the  streams  are  so 
thick  that  the  interior  remains  hot  for  twenty  years. 

A  terrific  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  A.D.  79,  destroyed  the 
flourishing  cities  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneum  and  Slabiae,  and 
covered  them  with  ashes  and  cinders  to  the  depth  of  fifteen 
feet. 

About  sixty  eruptions  of  Mt.  Etna  are  recorded.  In  1669,  a 
stream  of  lava  from  this  mountain  overflowed  the  raniparts  of 
Catania,  sixty  feet  in  height,  and  destroyed  a  portion  of  the  city. 
In  1832,  several  craters  opened  in  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  and 
a  stream  of  lava  eighteen  miles  long,  one  mile  broad,  and  thirty 
feet  deep,  poured  over  the  adjacent  fields. 

In  1835,  the  terrible  eruption  of  Conseguina  occurred.  It 
lasted  three  days,  during  which  the  light  of  the  sun  was  obscured 
over  half  of  Central  America,  and  more  than  40,000  scpiare 
miles  are  said  lo  have  been  covered  with  dust,  ashes  and  lava. 

Fields   of  Fire. 

In  some  localities  an  inflammaljle  gas  issues  from  openings  in 
the  ground.  This  gas  frequently  becomes  ignited  and  burns  for 
some  time.  There  is  a  region  of  this  kind  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  gas  is  supposed  to  be  from  the  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter  by  internal  heal. 

Earthquakes. 

The  second  class  of  volcanic  phenomena  are  earthquakes. 
These  consist  of  vibrations  or  tremblings  of  the  earth's  crust, 
and  are  caused  by  movements  in  the  fluid  interior;  but  how 
these  movements  are  produced,  is  as  yet  unknown.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  since  the  Creation  earthquakes  have  destroyed 
thirteen  million  human  beings.  Scientists  assert  that  not  less 
than  twelve  shocks  of  earthquake  are  experienced  in  the  United 
States  daily,  although,  of  course,  they  are  but  slight,  and  individ- 
ually unworthy  of  mention. 

An  earthquake  is  generally  preceded  by  unmistakable  signs. 
The  electrical  condition  of  the  air  seems  to  be  changed  percep- 
tibly to  both  men  and  beasts  —  the  former  experiencing  oppression 
and  dizziness;  the  latter  uttering  cries  of  distress,  running  wildly 
about,  or  otherwise  manifesting  uneasiness.  The  atmosphere  is 
unnaturally  still  and  hazy,  and  the  sun  seen  through  it  looks 
like  a  ball  of  fire. 

The  year  186S  was  remarkable  for  the  number  and  severity  of 
its  earthquakes.  One  of  these  occurred  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
destroying  whole  villages  and  many  lives.  One  of  the  most 
terrible  earthquakes  on  record  occurred  in  South  America,  in 
August  of  that  year.  Its  center  of  activity  seems  to  have  been 
at  Arica,  a  seaport  of  Peru,  which  was  completely  destroyed, 
with  two  hundred  of  its  inliabltants.  The  shocks  extended 
throughout  the  Andes,  from  the  United  Stales  of  Colombia  to 
Chili,  and  towns  and  cities  were  laid  in  ruins.  It  is  estimated 
that  more  than  fifty  thousand  persons  lost  their  lives  by  this 
catastrophe. 

The  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon  occurred  November  I,  1755. 
A  rumbling  sound  beneath  the  surface  was  immediately  followed 
by  three  shocks,  so  close  together  that  they  seemed  but  one, 
which    threw   down   the    principal    part   of  the  city;   the   sea 


K 


^. 


\ 


396 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


s-'^ 


retired,  leaving  the  bar  dry,  and  instantly  returned  in  a  wave 
forty  feet  high,  engulfing  a  great  marble  quay,  to  which  multi- 
tudes had  fled  to  escape  the  falling  buildings.  In  the  space  of 
six  minutes,  thirty-tive  thousand  persons  perished. 

The  most  remarkable  earthquake  that  has  occurred  in  the 
United  States  is  that  of  New  Madrid,  on  the  Mississippi,  in 
1S11-12.  For  several  months  there  was  an  incessant  quaking 
of  the  ground,  which,  for  a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles, 
rose  and  sank  in  undulations.  The  most  of  the  town  was  sub- 
merged. 

Readers  will  remember  the  earthquake  which  visited  Java  in 
1882,  and  also  that  in  Spain  the  lattei  part  of  December,  18S4, 
the  .shocks  continuing  into  the  middle  of  January,  1885.  Accord- 
ing to  the  official  record,  the  number  of  persons  killed  in 
Granada  was  695,  while  1,480  were  injured. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  in  some  places  gradually  and  slowly 
rising;  in  other  places  it  is  sinking.  The  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, from  Labrador  to  New  Jersey,  is  slowly  rising.  The 
southern  part  of  Greenland  is  sinking.  The  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula is  sinking  in  the  southern  part  and  rising  in  the  northern 
]iart.  These  changes  are  at  the  rate  of  a  few  feet  only  in  a  hun- 
dred \ears.  The  cause  is  probably  the  slow  contraction  from 
cooling  of  the  earth's  crust. 

ISLANDS. 

About  one-seventeenth  of  the  land  surface  of  our  planet  is  in 
the  form  of  fragmentary  bodies,  called  islands.  They  may  be 
considered  as  of  two  classes :  Continental,  those  lying  in  the 
near  vicinity  of  the  continents,  and  really  forming  a  part  of  the 
continental  structure,  and  oceanic,  those  lying  at  a  distance  from 
the  continents,  in  t!ie  midst  of  the  oceans,  and  differing  in  struc- 
ture from  the  continents. 

Oceanic  islands  are  all  small  and  usually  occur  in  groups. 
Their  rock  structure  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  conti- 
nents, and  the  vegetation  and  animal  life  generally  peculiar. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  —  volcanic,  or  high,  and 
the  coral,  or  tow. 

The  volcanic  islands  are  the  summits  of  active  or  e.ttinct  vol- 
canoes projecting  above  the  water.  They  are  usually  consider- 
al)ly  elevated,  with  steep  shores,  and  more  or  less  circular  in 
outline.  Some  have  peaks  of  great  height,  as  one  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  with  the  peak  of  Hawaii,  fourteen  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea  level.  Many  of  them  have  appeared  within  the 
history  of  man. 

Coral  islands  are  among  the  most  interesting  phenomena  of 
Physical  Geography.  They  owe  their  existence  to  the  work  of 
colonies  of  small  radiate  animals  called  polyps.  The  structure 
of  the  polyp  consists  of  a  cylindrical  or  sack-like  membrane, 
attached  at  the  bottom  to  some  solid  body,  and  enclosing  a 
second  sack,  which  forms  the  stomach.  At  the  top  is  an  open- 
ing, or  mouth,  which  is  surrounded  by  thread-like  organs  called 
tentacles.  When  expanded,  the  polyp  resembles  a  flower  in 
form  and  often  in  the  beauty  of  its  color.  The  solid  coral, 
which  composes  the  reef,  is  secreted  in  the  cavity  between  the 
outer  and  inner  membranes,  as  the  bones  are  secreted  in   the 


bodies  of  higher  animals.  Coral  polyps  multiply  by  eggs,  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  chiefly  by  a  process  of  budding  similar  to  the 
branching  of  plants.  Thus  they  grow  into  vast  communities,  in 
which  generation  succeeds  gereration,  each  individual  leaving 
behind,  as  it  dies,  its  contribution  10  the  reef  in  the  form  of  a 
small  cell  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  polyps  cannot  live  out  of 
water,  and  hence  their  work  must  cease  at  low  water  mark. 
Fragments  of  the  coral  structure  are  broken  off  and  thrown  upon 
the  top  of  the  mass  by  the  waves,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  time 
a  reef,  as  it  is  called,  is  formed,  projecting  from  the  water. 
Upon  this  reef  a  vegetation  finally  springs  up  from  the  seeds 
which  the  winds  and  waves  bring,  and  a  soil  is  formed  from  the 
pulverized  coral,  drifted  material  and  decayed  vegetation.  The 
reef-building  polyps  exist  only  in  tropical  regions,  or  where  the 
water  never  gets  below  the  temperature  of  68°  F. 

WATER. 

This  all-important  and  ever-present  liquid  is  a  chemical  com- 
bination of  two  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen — eight  parts  of  the 
former  by  weight  being  combined  with  one  of  the  latter.  When 
pure,  it  is  destitute  of  color,  taste  and  smell ;  but,  as  it  readily 
absorbs  gases  and  dissolves  many  solids,  it  is  seldom  found  in 
this  state. 

The  large  body  of  water  covering  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  called  the  ocean.  There  is  really  but  one 
ocean ;  but  the  continents  partially  divide  it  into  five  basins, 
which  we  distinguish  by  different  names,  as  the  Atlantic,  Pacific, 
Indian,  Arctic,  and  Antarctic  Oceans. 

The  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  supposed  to  be  diversified  with 
depressions  and  elevations  —  witli  low  plains,  plateaus  and 
mountains  —  like  the  land,  hence  the  depth  differs  in  different 
parts.  Some  of  the  researches  lately  made  by  English  explorers 
in  regard  to  deep-sea  beds  have,  however,  led  to  the  belief  that 
there  are  no  rough  ridges,  abrupt  chasms  nor  bare  rocks,  and 
that  the  sea  bottom,  at  great  depths,  is  not  affected  by  currents 
or  streams  —  even  by  tliose  of  the  magnitude  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
—  its  general  appearance  rather  resembling  tliat  of  the  American 
prairies,  and  it  is  everywhere  covered  by  a  kind  of  mud.  The 
greatest  depth  shown  by  sounding-^  is  eight  and  three-quarter 
miles.  The  mean  depth  of  the  whole  body  of  the  ocean  is  esti- 
mated at  four  miles. 

The  color  of  the  ocean  is  a  beautiful  sky-blue  where  the 
depth  is  great,  but  in  shallow  water,  yellowish  tints,  reflected 
from  the  bottom,  mingle  with  the  blue,  and  produce  a  grayish 
green. 

Phosphorescence,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  marine  phe- 
nomena, is  a  brilliant  light  occasionally  observed  in  the  sea 
during  dark  nights,  particularly  in  tropical  regions.  Sometimes 
the  crests  of  the  waves,  the  spray  thrown  up  by  the  ship's  bow, 
and  the  wake  she  leaves  behind,  look  as  if  they  were  on  fire. 
This  phenomenon  is  produced  by  myriads  of  animalcules, 
which  have  the  property  of  emitting  light  from  their  bodies, 
like  firc-llics.  A  hundred  of  them  have  been  found  in  a  single 
drop  of  sea-water. 


VL 


PHYSICAL    CKOC.kAI'in. 


397 


The    Oceanic   Movements. 

The  great  body  of  the  ocean  is  never  at  rest ;  not  only  is  the 
surface  agitated  by  the  winds,  but  even  at  great  depths  the 
water  moves  from  one  region  to  another. 

There  are  four  oceanic  movements,  viz. :  waves,  tides,  cur- 
rents and  whirlpools. 

IVaves  are  ridges  of  water,  produced  by  the  friction  of  winds 
on  the  surface.  Tides  are  alternate  risings  and  fallings  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean. 

TiJes  are  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  moon  and  sun  — 
principally  that  of  the  former  —  acting  with  difierent  degrees  of 
force  on  different  parts  of  the  earth.  Were  the  moon  the  sole 
cause  of  the  tides,  they  would  always  be  of  the  same  height ;  Init 
the  sun  also  exerts  an  attraction,  which,  according  as  it  acts  witli 
or  ag.iinst  that  of  the  moon,  increases  or  diminishes  the  height 
of  the  tide. 

The  currenls  are  vast  streams  which  traverse  the  ocean,  and 
keep  its  waters  in  perpetual  circulation.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  Equatorial,  Japan,  Antarctic  and  Arctic 
currents. 

The   Gulf  Stream. 

The  most  important  of  the  oceanic  currents  is  the  Gulf 
Stream,  so  called  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out  of  which  it  flows 
into  the  Atlantic,  through  the  Strait  of  Florida.  It  is  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  width,  and  moves 
with  a  velocity  of  from  one  and  one-half  to  five  miles  an  hour, 
the  water  being  much  warmer  than  other  parts  of  the  ocean  near 
it.  Its  color  is  of  a  deep  indigo  blue,  strikingly  different  from 
the  green  of  the  surrounding  ocean.  A  branch  of  this  vast  body 
of  warm  water,  constantly  fl  jwing  past  the  western  coast  of 
Europe,  exerts  a  most  genial  influence  on  the  climate.  Even 
many  miles  in  the  interior  the  air  is  tempered  by  west  winds, 
warmed  by  contact  with  this  great  stream.  The  Gulf  Stream 
carries  the  heat  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  across  the  Northern 
Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  Scotland  and  Norway.  This  tropical 
river,  flowing  steadily  through  the  cold  water  of  the  ocean, 
rescues  England  from  the  snows  of  Labrador.  Should  it,  by 
any  chance,  break  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Great 
Britain  would  be  condemned  to  eternal  glaciers. 

The    Equatorial   Currents. 

An  equatorial  current  crosses  the  AtLmtic  from  the  coast  of 
Africa  to  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  .St.  Roque.  It  there  divides 
into  two  branches,  a  northwesterly  and  a  southwesterly,  each  of 
which  follows  the  South  American  coast  —  the  former  making 
its  way  into  tlie  Caribbean  .Sea  and  the  (iulf  of  Mexico. 

In  the  Pacific  two  equatorial  currents  are  found  —  one  north 
and  the  other  soutli  of  the  equator.  The  former,  turning  to  the 
northeast  near  the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  continues  under  the  name 
of  the  Japan  current.  The  south  equatorial  cuirent  of  the 
Pacific  consists  of  two  branches,  one  of  which,  striking  the 
Australian  coast,  tliviiles  into  a  northwesterly  and  a  south- 
westerly branch,  as  does  the  .'\tlantic  equatorial  current  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil;  the  other,  farther  north,  turns  near  the  Caroline 
Islands,  and  reverses  its  course,  crossing  the  Pacific  again  in  a 


direction  nearly  due  east  to  South  America,  under  the  name  of 
the  Equatorial  counter-current. 

The  Japan   Current, 

In  the  Pacific,  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  Gulf 
.Stream  in  the  Atlantic.  Impelled  by  the  Pacific  equatorial  cur- 
rent, it  sweeps  from  the  China  Sea  along  the  Asiatic  island 
chains,  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  toward  the  Aleutian  I.^lands 
and  Alaska,  the  climate  of  which  it  improves,  as  the  Gulf  Stream 
does  th.at  of  Northwestern  Europe.  Between  the  Japan  current 
and  the  main  land,  a  cold  current  sets  in  the  opposite  direction, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The    Antarctic   Current, 

Which  enters  the  -Vtlantic,  runs  in  a  northwesterly  direction  to 
the  soutliern  extremity  of  Africa,  and  thence  along  its  western 
coast  until  it  joins  the  Equatori.il  near  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  That 
which  sets  into  the  Pacific  flows  along  the  Soufli  American 
coast,  under  the  name  of  the  Peruvian  or  Humboldt  current,  and 
is  merged  in  the  Equatorial  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.  The 
Antarctic  current,  belonging  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  runs  along  the 
western  coast  of  .-Vustralia,  and  unites  with  the  Equatorial  just 
north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

From  the  Arctic  Ocean  two  cold  currents  set  to  the  south, 
one  on  eacli  side  of  Greenland.  Uniting  at  the  mouth  of  Davis 
Strait,  they  continue  tlieir  southerly  course  as  far  as  Newfound- 
land, where  part  of  this  broad  Arctic  river,  as  an  under-current, 
flows  beneath  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  rest,  as  a  surface-current, 
keeps  inside  of  this  stream,  close  to  the  American  shore  as  far 
south  as  Florida. 

Whirlpools  are  circular  currents,  which  occur  in  certain 
localities. 

Inland   Waters. 

The  inland  waters  of  the  earth  are  springs,  rivers  and  lakes. 

The  rain  or  melted  snow  and  hail  which  sinks  into  the  earth, 
penetrates  the  crust  until  it  reaches  an  impervious  strata,  when  it 
runs  along  until  it  finds  an  outlet  at  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a 
spring,  or  gathers  into  underground  reservoirs,  some  of  which, 
by  their  peculiar  formation,  having  an  outlet  in  the  forai  of  a 
siphon,  form  intermitlent  springs. 

The  drainage  from  the  surface  and  the  water  from  springs 
form  small  streams  which  unite  to  form  rivers.  When  the  water 
from  streams  and  from  the  surface  collects  in  depressions  on  the 
earth's  surface,  it  forms  lakes. 

Lakes  may  be  divided  into  classes,  as  follows:  (I)  Those 
having  inlets,  but  no  visible  outlets.  (2)  Those  having  outlets, 
but  no  apparent  inlets.  (3)  Those  having  no  apparent  outlets 
or  inlets.     (4)  Those  having  both  inlets  and  outlets. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  Aral  Sea  and  Great  Salt  Lake  are  examples 
of  the  first  class.  Such  lakes  are  usually  salt.  The  water  is 
either  all  lost  by  evaporation  or  is  absorbed  by  tlie  earth.  Lakes 
of  the  second  class  are  usually  found  in  mountainous  regions, 
and  are  the  source  of  some  large  rivers.  The  water  evidently 
comes  from  springs  and  rises  until  it  runs  over  tlie  basin.  Lake 
Albano,  near  Rome,  is  an  example  of  the  third  class.  Such 
lakes  are  usually  situated  in  elevated  regions,  are  supposed  to  be 


K- 


r^ 


398 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  are  fed  by  springs.     Lakes 
of  the  fourth  class  are  by  far  the  most  common. 

When  water  evaporates,  all  impurities  are  left  behind ;  hence 
rain  water  is  not  salt  like  the  ocean.  The  water  of  springs, 
rivers  and  lakes  is,  therefore,  pure  and  fresh,  unless  it  comes  in 
contact  with  foreign  matter  that  it  is  capable  of  dissolving. 

THE    AIR. 

The  earth  is  surrounded  by  an  elastic  fluid  called  air,  which 
enters  the  minutest  pores,  and  therefore  exists  in  every  substance. 

Air,  like  everything  else,  is  attracted  by  the  earth,  hence  it 
has  weight,  although  experiments  show  that  it  is  815  times 
lighter  than  water. 

Air  is  essential  to  the  transmission  of  sound,  to  combustion, 
and  to  life. 

CLIMATE. 

Climate  is  the  state  of  tlie  :itini>i,phere  in  regard  to  tempera- 
ture, winds,  moisture  and  salubrity. 

The  climate  of  a  place  as  regards  temperature  depends  upon  : 

Latitude. — The  general  law  is  that  the  amount  of  heat  is  greatest  at  #ie 
equator,  aiid  diminishes  toward  the  poles.  There  are  three  reasons  for 
this:  I.  The  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  upon  the  earth  at  the  equator, 
and  more  and  more  obliquely  as  we  go  toward  the  poles.  2.  The  area 
covered  by  a  given  amount  of  heating  power  from  the  sun  is  smaller  at  the 
equator,  3.  Where  the  sun's  rays  fail  perpendicularly  they  pass  through  a 
less  amount  of  atmosphere,  and  the  absorption  of  heat  is  less. 

Altitude.  —  The  decrease  in  temperature  is  about  three  deg.  F.  for 
every  1,000  feet  of  elevation.  As  the  air  receives  most  of  its  heat  by 
radiation  and  reflection  from  the  earth,  and  as  the  higher  we  go  the  less 
dense  the  air,  the  less  heat  is  absorbed  either  from  the  earth  or  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Prez>aili7zg  Winds. — Winds  blowing  from  the  tropical  regions  carry  the 
heat  with  them,  and  conversely,  winds  from  the  polar  regions  lower  the  tem- 
perature. Whichever  wind  prevails  throughout  the  year  in  a  given  place 
will  consequently  modify  the  temperature  of  that  place. 

Length  0/  Day. —  During  the  day  the  earth  receives  from  the  sun  more 
heat  than  it  radiates  into  space ;  while  during  the  night  it  radiates  more  than 
it  receives.  Hence  a  succession  of  long  days  and  short  nights  results  in  nn 
accumulation  of  heat,  raising  the  average  temperature  and  producing 
summer;  while  long  nights  and  short  days  result  in  a  temperature  below  the 
average,  producing  winter.  The  heating  power  of  the  sun  is  greater  in 
summer,  because  at  that  season  it  is  shining  more  directly  upon  that  part  of 
the  earth,  and  conversely  in  winter.  In  the  tropical  regions  the  inequality  of 
day  and  night  is  very  Httle,  but  increases  toward  the  poles.  The  tempera- 
ture in  the  tropics  is  therefore  more  uniform.  The  length  of  day  makes 
up  for  the  lessened  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  ;  hence  a  place  in  high  latitude 
may  have^at  times  higher  temperature  than  a  place  within  the  tropics. 

Ocean  Currents.  —  The  warm  waters  of  the  tropical  regions  being  brought 
toward  the  polar  regions  bring  the  heat  with  them,  radiating  it  into  space, 
and  it  is  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere. 

Mountain  Ranges. — A  mountam  range  will  make  a  country  near  it 
warmer  or  colder,  according  as  it  shields  it  from  a  cold  or  warm  wind. 

The  Distribution  of  Land  and  Water. —  Land  heats  or  cools  rapidly, 
absorbing  or  emitting  but  little  heal.  Water  heats  or  cools  slowly,  absorb- 
ing or  emitting  large  quantities  of  heat.  Hence  the  land  is  subject  to  great 
'.\yn\  sudden  changes  of  temperature;  the  water  to  small  and  gradual 
changes.  Places  situated  near  the  sea  have,  therefore,  a  more  equable 
climate. 

Character  0/ Soil . —  Dry,  sandy  soil  heats  and  cools  more  rapidly  than 
wet  and  marshy  lands;  hence  the  latter  will  have  a  more  uniform  tem- 
perature. 

Slope  0/  Land. —  Land  which  slopes  so  that  the  sun's  rays  will  strike  it 
nearer  vertically  will  receive  more  heat.  The  south  side  of  a  hill  is  warmer 
in  winter  than  the  north  sido. 


In  regard  to  winds  the  climate  of  a  place  depends  upon : 

Temperature. — As  winds  are  but  masses  of  air  set  in  motion  by  the 
unequal  heating,  the  winds  of  any  given  place  depend  primarily  upon  the 
temperature,  though  not  necessarily  upon  the  temperature  of  that  place.  As 
the  air  is  heated  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  earth  by  the  sun,  it  rises,  and 
colder  air  flows  in  from  the  polar  regions  to  take  its  place  ;  hence  the  primary 
currents,  which  are  modified  in  various  ways  by  other  causes. 

Rotation  of  the  Earth. —  The  winds  are  turned  out  of  their  course  by 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ocean  currents. 

Land  and  Water. —  The  land  becomes  warmer  during  the  day  than  the 
sea,  and,  the  air  rising,  a  cooler  air  flows  in  from  the  sea.  At  night  the  land 
parts  with  its  heat  more  rapidly  than  the  water  and  becomes  cooler  ;  then 
the  wind  sets  the  other  way.     Hence  we  have  the  land  and  sea  breezes. 

Elevation  of  the  Land. —  Mountains,  as,  has  already  been  stated,  shelter 
places  from  winds.  Some  of  the  great  plains  are  subject  to  almost  constant 
winds. 

In  regard  to  moisture.,  the  climate  of  a  place  depends  upon : 

Prevailing  Wind. —  If  a  wind  blows  from  large  bodies  of  water  in  a  warm 
region  it  will  be  laden  with  moisture  which  will  be  likely  to  be  precipitated 
on  reaching  a  colder  country. 

Mountains. —  The  contact  of  a  moisture-laden  wmd  with  the  cold  sides  of 
mountains  will  cause  a  precipitation  of  its  moisture,  and  the  regions  beyond 
the  mountains  will  not  receive  it. 

Forests,  by  shading  the  earth,  keep  its  surface  cool,  and  this  tends  to  con- 
dense the  moisture. 

Cultivation  of  the  Soil,  causing  it  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmos- 
phere, and  by  capillary  attraction  in  dry  weather  bring  up  moisture  from 
below  to  the  surface. 

Temperature. —  Increased  heat  causes  greater  evaporation,  and  hence 
more  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  More  rain  falls  within  the  tropics  than  in 
the  temperate  or  polar  regions. 

Land  and  Water. —  More  rain  falls  on  the  coasts  of  a  country  than  in  the 
interior,  because  the  winds  are  more  moist.  More  rain  falls  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  than  in  the  southern  because  there  is  a  greater  diversity  of  l.iml 
and  water,  the  evaporation  coming  mainly  from  the  ocean,  and  the  condensa- 
tion from  the  diversified  land  surface. 

Isothermal  lines  are  lines  connecting  places  that  have  the  same 
mean  temperature. 

There  is  a  line  or  limit  of  elevation,  above  which  the  surface 
is  covered  with  perpetual  snow;  this  is  called  the  s?iowli7ie. 

WINDS    AND    WEATHER. 

Wind  is  air  in  motion.  Winds  have  a  purifying  effect  upon 
the  atmosphere ;  they  dissipate  unhealthy  exhalations ;  they 
transport  vapors  from  the  sea  to  moisten  and  fertilize  the  land ; 
they  carry  the  seeds  of  plants  far  and  wide,  and  thus  extend  the 
empire  of  vegetation ;  finally,  they  waft  our  ships,  and  are,  in 
some  countries,  made  available  as  a  motive  power  for  machinery. 

The  cause  of  winds  is  the  difference  of  heat  received  from  the 
sun  in  different  places.  The  heated  air  expands,  becomes  rare- 
fied, and  rises.  The  cooler  air  immediately  rushes  in  from  the 
surrounding  parts,  to  restore  the  disturbed  equilibrium. 

The  trade-'iuinds  are  so  named  because,  by  their  regularity, 
they  favor  commerce.  They  are  produced  as  follows :  The 
equatorial  regions  being  most  intensely  heated,  a  current  of  rare- 
fied air  is  tliere  constantly  ascending,  while  colder  currents  from 
the  north  and  south  set  in  toward  the  equator  to  fill  its  jilace. 
When  these  reach  the  ascending  current,  having  in  turn  become 
rarefied,  they  follow  it  in  its  upward  course,  and  thus  air  is  with- 
drawn from  the  higher  latitudes,  and  accumulated  in  tlie  equa- 
torial regions. 

Whirlwinds  are  bodies  of  air  that  have  a  rotatory  or  spiral 
motion,  and  are  usually  caused  by  the  meeting  of  contrary  winds. 


.K, 


Al 


"71 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


399 


When  a  whirlwind  occurs  on  a  sandy  plain  or  desert,  great 
quantities  of  fine  sand  are  carried  up  to  a  great  height  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  move  with  the  revolving  body  of  air,  forming 
what  are  called  sand-pillars. 

The  Sirocco,  which  in  some  places  is  a  warm,  damp  wind,  in 
Madeira  is  a  hot  wind,  and  likewise  in  Sicily,  where  it  is 
equally  warm  ami  damp  like  steam. 

The  Simoon  is  a  very  hot  wind,  raising  sand-storms  in  the 
deserts,  and  experience  has  shown  it  to  be  very  prejudicial  to 
life  in  consequence  of  the  fine  sand  and  the  tremendous  heat  it 
carries  with  it.  Then  we  have  the  Hurricane,  from  "  Ouracan," 
of  the  Caribs ;  the  Typhoon,  or  Tae-fun,  of  China,  so  called 
from  the  dreaded  god  Typhon  of  Egypt ;  and  the  Tornado  and 
Cyclone — all  violent  winds,  and  circling  round,  causing,  so 
to  speak,  whirlwinds,  by  which  trees  are  uprooted  and  houses 
tiestroyed. 

In  hurricanes,  tornadoes,  etc.,  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  air  is 
from  right  to  left  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  from  left  to 
right  in  the  southern. 

Water-spouts  are  whirled  up  by  the  winds  in  spiral  columns  of 
water,  and  when  permitted  to  come  near  a  ship  at  sea,  or  when 
they  break  upon  land,  which  is  seldom,  are  very  destructive. 

Dew  and  Hoar-Frost. 

When  air  charged  with  moisture  comes  in  contact  with  a 
solid  surface  colder  than  itself,  aqueous  vapor  is  precipitated  on 
this  surface  as  dew.  The  grass  at  night  becomes  cooled  by  rad- 
iation, and  thus  condenses  upon  iis  surface  the  vapor  of  the  air. 
Dew  will  gather  most  freely  upon  those  objects  that  are  the  liest 
radiators,  as  they  will  the  soonest  become  cool.  Thus  grass, 
leaves,  etc.,  which  need  the  most,  get  the  most. 

Dew  will  not  form  on  windy  nights,  because  the  air  is  con- 
stantly changing,  and  does  not  become  cool  enough  to  deposit 
its  moisture.  A  heavy  dew  is  a  sign  of  rain,  because  it  shows 
that  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  easily  condensed. 

If,  during  the  precipitation  of  dew,  the  temperature  falls  to  the 
freezing-point  (32°  F.),  hoar-frost  is  formed.  This  consists  of 
minute  ice-crystals,  and  is  nothing  more  than  frozen  dew.  Frost 
will  not  form  on  cloudy  nights,  because  the  clouds  act  like  a 
blanket,  to  prevent  radiation,  and  keep  the  earth  warm. 

Fogs. 

Fogs  are  formed  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  falls  below 
the  dew-point  (/.  ^.,the  temperature  at  which  dew  is  deposited). 
They  are  found  mainly  on  low  grounds,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  rivers,  ponds,  etc.,  where  the- abundance  of  moisture  keeps 
the  air  constantly  saturated. 

Clouds. 

Clouds  are  collections  of  visible  vapor  suspended  in  the  at- 
mosphere, at  altitudes  ranging  from  one  to  five  miles.  Vapor 
consists  of  particles  of  water  so  fine  and  light  that  they  lloat  in 
the  air  like  dust. 

Mountains  are  "  cloud-capped,"  because  the  warm  air  rising 
from  the  valley  is  condensed  upon  their  cold  summits.  Clouds 
are  constantly  falling  by  their  weight;  but,  as  they  melt  away  in 
the  warm  air  below,  by  condensation  they  increase  above. 


The  nimbus  cloud  is  a  dark-colored  cloud,  from  which  rain 
falls. 

The  strains  cloud  is  composed  of  broad,  widely  extended 
cloud-belts,  sometimes  spread  over  the  whole  sky.  It  is  the  lowest 
cloud,  and  often  rests  on  the  earth.     It  is  the  night  cloud. 

The  cumulus  cloud  is  made  up  of  large  cloud-masses,  looking 
like  snow-capped  mountains  piledup  along  the  horizon.  It 
forms  the  summits  of  pillars  of  vapor,  whiph,  streaming  up  from 
the  earth,  are  condensed  in  the  upper  air.  It  is  the  day  cloud ; 
and,  when  of  small  size  and  seen  only  near  midday,  is  a  sign  of 
fair  weather. 

The  cirrus  cloud  consists  of  light,  fleecy  clouds  floating  high  in 
air.  It  is  believed  to  be  formed  of  spicuUe  of  ice  or  flakes  of 
snow. 

The  cirro-cumulus  is  formed  by  small,  distinct,  rounded  por- 
tions of  the  cirrus  clouil,  which  separate  from  each  other,  leaving 
a  clear  sky  between.  It  accompanies  warm,  dry  weather.  The 
cirro-stratus  is  produced  when  the  cirrus  cloud  spreads  out  into 
long,  »lender  strata.  It  forebodes  storms.  The  cumulo-stralus 
presents  tlie  i)eculiar  forms  called  "  thunder-heads."  I;  is  caused 
by  a  blending  of  the  cumulus  with  the  stratus,  and  is  a  precursor 
of  thunder-storms. 

Rain — Snow — Hail. 

When  the  minute  vapor-particles  of  clouds  combine  and  grow 
too  heavy  to  lloat  in  the  air,  tliey  are  precipitated  as  rain — or, 
at  a  temperature  below  the  freezing-point,  as  sno-iv  o"-  kail. 

Snoiv  is  frozen  vapor,  with  its  particles  aggregated  in  flakes. 
J/ail  \%  frozen  rain. 

.Snow  is  an  important  agent  in  the  economy  of  nature.  Heing 
a  non-conductor  of  heat,  it  protects  the  roots  of  the  grasses  antl 
the  winter  grains  from  severe  frosts.  Collecting  in  great  masses 
on  lofty  mountains  and  gradually  thawing,  it  feeds  streams, 
which  carry  fertility  and  wealth  to  extensive  districts. 

Lightning  and  Thunder. 

Lightning  is  a  discliarge  of  atmospheric  electricity,  accom- 
panied by  a  flash  of  light. 

Heat-lightning  \i  either  the  reflection  of  distant  flashes  on  the 
clouds,  or  the  frequent  and  therefore  weak  and  silent  discharge 
of  electricity  from  the  clouds  through  a  moist  atmosphere. 

Lightning  cleaves  the  air  with  inconceivable  rapidity,  and 
leaves  a  vacuum  behind  it,  into  which  the  surrounding  air  rushes 
with  great  force,  and  with  a  loud,  crackling  sound,  which  we 
call  thunder. 

Lightning  and  thunder  take  place  at  the  same  instant,  but  we 
see  the  former  before  we  hear  the  latter.  This  is  because  light 
travels  with  much  greater  velocity  than  sound. 

Thunder-storms  are  most  frequent  within  the  tropics  during 
the  rainy  season. 

The  Aurora  Borealis. 

The  aurora  borealis  is  a  luminous  appearance,  which  at  limes 
imparts  wonderful  beauty  to  the  polar  skies  at  night,  and  is  also 
of  occasional  occurrence  in  the  temperate  latitudes.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  produced  by  the  passage  of  electric  currents  through 
strata  of  highly  rarefied  air. 


Vi- 


-Vj 


400 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


V 


Mirage. 

Mirage  (sometimes  called  I-'aUi  A/organa)  is  the  appearance 
in  the  air  of  the  image  ot"  some  distant  object,  seen  either  in  con- 
nection with  the  object  itself,  above  or  below  the  latter,  or  sus- 
pended in  the  air,  the  object  being  invisible.  It  is  a  ven'  curious 
but  sufficiently  common  phenomena,  and  in  the  Asiatic  and 
African  plains  it  is  frequently  observed.  When  the  weather  is 
calm  and  the  ground  hot,  the  Egyptian  landscape  appears  like  a  | 
lake,  and  the  houses  look  like  islands  in  the  midst  of  a  widely- 
spreading  expanse  of  water.  This  causes  the  mirage,  which  is 
the  result  of  evaporation,  while  the  different  temperatures  of  the 
air  strata  cause  an  unequal  reflection  and  refraction  of  liglit, 
vvhich  give  rise  to  the  mirage.  Travelers  are  frequently  deceived, 
but  the  camels  will  not  quicken  their  usual  pace  until  they  scent 
water. 

Tlie  Fata  Morgana  and  the  inverted  images  of  ships  seen  at 
sea  are  not  uncommon  on  European  coasts.  Between  Sicily  and 
Italy  this  effect  is  seen  in  the  Sea  of  Reggio  with  fine  eff-'^t. 
Palaces,  towers,  fertile  plains,  with  cattle  grazing  on  them,  are 
seen,  with  many  other  terrestrial  objects,  upon  the  sea  —  the 
palaces  of  the  Fairy  Morgana.  The  inverted  images  of  ships 
are  frequently  perceived,  and  many  mo  t  extraordinary  but  per- 
fectly authenlic  tales  have  been  related  concerning  the  reflection 
and  refraction  of  persons  and  objects  in  the  sky  and  on  land, 
when  no  human  beings  nor  any  of  the  actual  objects  were  within 
the  range  of  vi-ion. 

THE   ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

Zoology  is  that  science  which  treats  of  animals,  their  structure, 
habits  and  classification. 

There  are  four  principal  divisions  of  animals,  based  on  dis- 
tinct types  of  structure,  and  including  all  the  denizens  of  the 
earth,  the  water  and  the  air.  Following  are  the  divisions  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  beginning  with  the  lowest : 


SUE-KINGDOMS   OR    DIVISIONS. 


I.  Protozoa — First-living  things, 
r  lowest  form  of  animal  life. 


II.  Radiata— Radiates,  that  is, 
such  as  are  shaped  like  a  star  or 
flower,  and  have  their  organs  ar- 
ranged uniformly  around  a  common 
center. 


III.  MoLLtTSCA — Mollusks,thatis, 
sofl-bodicd,  without  joints,  and  with- 
out vertebrae,  but  usually  protected 
by  a  shell . 


CLASSES  OF  SUBDIVISIONS. 

I.  Amoeba,  sponges,  proteus,  etc. 
They  have  no  mouth,  and  no  dis- 
tinct members,  but  are  capable  of 
making  many  changes  in  their 
form. 


1.  Coral  animals,  sea-anemones,  etc. 

2.  Jelly-fishes,  sea-nettles. 
I.  Star-fishes,  sea-urchins. 

1.  Bryozoa,  that  is,  moss  animals; 
as  sea-mats,  white  sea-weeds,  etc. 

2.  Brachiopods,  that  is,  with  arm- 
feet,  or  spiral  appendages;  as  the 
lingulae,  spirifer?;,  etc. 

3.  Ascidians,  that  is,  pouch-like;  as 
salpje,  etc. 

4.  Accphals,  that  is,  headless;  as 
oysters,  etc. 

5.  Ccphalates,  that  is,  with  heads  ; 
as  snails,  etc. 

6.  Cephalopods,  that  is,  with  heads 
and  feet,  or,  more  strictly,  tenta- 
cles. 


IV.  Articulata  —  Articulates, 
that  is,  animals  having  the  body  and 
members  jointed,  but  without  an 
internal  skeleton. 


V.  Vertebrata  —  Vertebrates, 
that  is,  animals  that  have  a  back- 
bone, and  an  articulated  or  jointed 
skeleton,  and  a  great  nervous  cord, 
the  spinal  marrow,  enclosed  in  a 
bony  sheath. 


1.  Worms,  as  earth-worms,  leeches, 
etc. 

2.  Crustaceans,  as  crabs,  lobsters, 
etc. 

3.  Centipedes,  etc. 

4.  Spiders,  etc. 

5.  Beetles,  butterflies,  etc. 

1.  Fishes. 

2.  Reptiles,  that  is,  creeping  things, 
as  turtles,  frugs,  snakes,  lizards, 
etc. 

3.  Birds,  that  is,  "  Every  winged 
fowl." 

4.  Mammalia,  that  is,  animals  with 
teats. 

The  last  class,  Mammalia,  is  further  subdivided  into  fourteen 
orders,  of  which  the  mo^t  distinctive,  still  ascending  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher,  are  four,  namely  : 

1.  Cetacea,  that  is,  of  the  whale  tribe. 

2.  Quadrupeds,  that  is,  four-footed  animals  generally. 

3.  Quadnimana,  that  is,  four-handed  ;  as  the  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  ape  and 

monkey. 

4.  Bimana,  that  is,  two-handed  ;  of  which  the  only  representative  is  man. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

Ethnology  is  that  science  wliich  treats  of  the  division  of  man 
into  races,  with  tlieir  origin,  relations  and  characteristics.  Natur- 
alists divide  mankind,  according  to  certain  physical  characteristics, 
into  varieties,  or  races.  Authorities  differ  greatly  in  this  classifi- 
cation. Cuvier  made  three  races ;  Pritchard,  seven ;  Agassiz, 
eight,  and  Pickering,  eleven ;  but  the  classification  most  com- 
monly accepted  is  tliat  into  five  races,  as  made  by  Blumenbach, 
as  follows:  The  Caucasian,  European,  or  white  race;  the  Mon- 
golian, Asiatic,  or  yellow  race  ;  the  Ethiopian,  African,  or  black 
race;  the  American  Indian,  or  red  race;  the  Malay,  or  brown 
race.  The  first  three  are  much  more  clearly  marked,  and  are 
considered  by  Guyot  as  primary  races;  the  others,  being  modi- 
fications of  these  three,  he  designates  as  secondary  races. 
Because  of  the  blending  of  types,  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  classi- 
fication, hence  the  difference  among  authorities.  The  points  on 
which  the  classification  is  based  are  mainly  the  size  and  propor- 
tions of  the  body,  the  shape  of  head  and  the  features,  the  hair 
and  beard,  and  the  color  of  the  skin 

The  Caucasian  race  are  characterized  by  tall  stature,  oval 
head  and  face,  high  forehead,  regular  features,  abundance  and 
softness  of  hair  and  beard,  and  usually  fair  skin,  but  in  some  it  is 
tawny  or  swarthy,  as  in  the  Hindoos,  Arabs  and  others.  They 
stand  at  the  head  in  in-telligenee  and  civilization.  This  race  is 
represented  by  tlie  principal  inhabitants  of  Europe  and  their 
descendants  in  America,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  India,  Arabia 
and  of  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

The  Germanic  nations  are  descendants  of  tlie  numerous  tribes 
of  the  ancient  German  stock  that  destroyed  the  Roman  empire 
and  erected  different  states  upon  its  ruins. 

Tlie  Romanic  nations  occupy  Southern  Europe,  and  are  so 
called  because  their  languages  are  mostly  derived  from  the 
Latin  spoken  by  the  ancient  Romans.  They  are  mixed  nations, 
descended  partly  from  the  ancient  Pelasgians  and  partly  from 
other  branches  of  Aryan  stock. 


/ 


-^1 


K" 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


401 


The  ItalL-ins  derive  their  origin  from  the  Romans,  German 
Longobards  and  Normans,  with  a  slight  intermixture  of  the 
Arabic  slock. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  have  sprung  from  a  mixture  of 
Celts,  Romans,  Gemians  and  Arabs. 

The  Mongolian  race  are  distinguished  by  sliort  stature,  round 
head,  wide  face,  high  clieck  bones,  oliliquely  set  eyes,  coarse 
straight  hair,  scarcely  any  beaixl,  and  yellowish  color  of  the  .skin. 
They  are  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Eastern  Asia,  except  in 
India,  and  inclade  the  Esquimaux  of  the  northern  part  of  North 
America. 

The  Ethiopian  race  are  characterized  by  medium  stature,  gen- 
erally ungainly  form,  low  and  retreating  forehead,  head  full  back 
of  the  ears,  flat,  broad  nose,  projecting  jaws,  thick  lips,  short, 
curly  hair,  and  skin  generally  black  or  dark.  They  occupy  all 
of  Africa,  except  the  northern  part,  and  many  of  their  descend- 
ants are  found  in  America. 

The  American  race  resemble  the  Mongolian,  but.  the  head  is 
not  so  round,  the  face  less  wide  and  flat,  the  eyes  horizontal,  the 
hair  black  and  straight,  and  beard  scanty,  and  the  skin  a  reddish 
or  copper  color.  They  occupy  North  and  South  America, 
except  on  the  Arctic  shores. 

The  Alalay  race  resemble  also  the  Mongolian,  but  have 
thicker  lips,  horizontal  eyes,  hair  less  straight,  generally  full 
beards,  and  color  usually  brown.  They  occupy  the  Malay  pen- 
insula and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 

The  number  of  languages  spoken  on  the  earth  is  estimated  at 
eight  hundred  and  sixty,  embracing  about  five  thousand  dialects. 
The  language  spoken  by  the  greatest  number  is  the  Chinese ; 
the  one  most  widely  spread  is  the  English. 

In  regard  to  religion,  mankind  may  be  divided  into  two  gen- 
eral classes:  JMonolheistic,  those  who  worship  one  god,  and 
polytheistic,  those  who  worship  more  than  one  god,  also  called 
pagans,  or  heathens.  Of  the  first  class  we  have:  (l)  the  C/iris- 
iian,  which  recognizes  the  Bible  as  the  revealed  word  of  God, 
and  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God;  (2)  \\\e.  Jewish,  which  rec- 
ognizes the  Old  Testament  as  the  word  of  God,  but  does  not 
acknowledge  Christ;  (3)  the  JMohammedan,  ox  the  religion  of 
Islnni,  whose  two  articles  of  faith  are,  "There  is  no  god  but 
God,  and  iSIohammed  is  the  Prophet  of  God." 

Of  the  second  class  there  are :  ( I )  Brahminism,  or  Hindooism, 
the  religion  of  the  people  of  India,  a  very  ancient  religion  which 
has  many  good  moral  doctrines,  but  strange  ideas  of  a  future 
state;  (2)  Buddhism,  an  offshoot  of  Brahminism,  now  practiced 
by  the  people  of  China  and  Japan,  founded  by  Sakya-Muni, 
who  adopted  the  title  of  Buddlia  (the  enlightened),  a  religion 
which  has  been  more  enthusi.nstic  in  making  converts  than  any 
other,  except  Christianity,  and  has  many  good  moral  precepts, 
but  is  practically  atheistic ;  (3)  Fetichism,  a  very  low  form  of 
superstition,  which  consists  in  the  worship  of  material  objects, 
either  living  or  dead,  as  animals,  or  idols  of  wood  or  stone. 

In  regard  to  general  culture  and  intelligence,  mankind  may 
be  divided  into:  (l)  Savages,  \!aai^  who  are  scarcely  elevated 
above  the  brutes,  live  in  tribes  and  subsist  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing; (2)  Barbarians,  those  who  have  possessions,  as  flocks  and 
h  rds,  and  practice  agriculture  to  some  extent,  yet  have  made 


no  progress  in  arts  and  sciences  ;  (3)  Half-civilized,  those  who 
have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts,  have  towns  and  cities,  but 
depend  chiefly  upon  agriculture ;  (4)  Tivilized,  those  who  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  science  and  art,  engage  in  com- 
merce and  have  a  written  language;  (5)  Enlightened,  those  who 
stand  at  the  head  of  the  scale,  have  a  division  of  labor,  systems 
of  education,  and  have  made  the  greatest  progress  in  science, 
art,  and  in  morality. 

The  principal  forms  oi government  are :  ( I )  The  monarchical, 
that  form  where  one  person  exercises  chief  power,  to  which  he 
succeeds  by  inheritance,  and  holds  for  life.  (2)  Republican, 
where  the  power  is  vested  in  men  who  are  chosen  by  the  people 
for  a  limited  period.  An  absolute  mvtarchy  (despotism)  is  one 
wliere  the  ruler  has  unlimited  or  absolute  power,  his  wUl  being 
the  sole  1  iw.  A  limited  or  constitutional  monarchy  is  one  where 
the  ruler's  power  is  limited  by  a  constitution,  or  laws  made  by 
tlie  representatives  of  the  people.  In  a  monarchical  government 
the  ruler  receives  various  titles  in  diflierent  countries,  as  emperor, 
kingoT  queen,  czar,  sultan,  shah  and  mikado.  In  a  republican 
government  the  chief  ofiicer  is  called  :i  president. 

ANIMAL   AND    VEGETABLE    LIFE. 

The  animals  of  a  country  taken  together  are  called  \\.%  fauna, 
while  its  flowers  and  vegetation  are  denonunatcd_/?ffra. 

The  frigid  zones  produce  very  scanty  vegetation,  mosses  and 
lichens,  and  some  stunted  specimens  of  the  higher  forms,  as  the 
willow,  birch  and  pine.  The  animal  world  is  much  more 
varied  as  to  species.  Here  are  found  the  reindeer,  the  musk  ox 
and  the  white  bear,  and  many  smaller  fur-bearing  animals  on  the 
land;  while,  in  the  sea,  or  on  its  shores,  are  found  whales,  wol- 
ruses,  seals  and  water-fowls  of  many  species. 

In  the  torrid  zone  is  found  the  most  dense  and  varied  vegeta- 
tion, flowers  of  the  most  brilliant  hue  and  of  the  largest  size,  the 
most  delicious  fruits,  the  most  powerful  aromatics,  the  most  val- 
uable woods ;  in  fact,  the  most  of  those  productions  which  add 
to  the  luxuries  of  life.  The  animal  world  is  represented  by  the 
greatest  number  of  species,  among  which  are  those  of  the  largest 
size,  the  most  powerful  and  active,  and  the  most  intelligent.  It 
is  the  home  of  the  elephant,  the  giraffe,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  the 
monkey,  the  ostrich,  the  condor,  parrots,  and  of  reptiles  of  the 
largest  size,  as  the  crocodile  and  boa  constrictor,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  most  poisonous  character. 

In  the  temperate  zones  are  found  tlie  vegetation  most  useful  to 
man,  as  the  oak,  the  pine,  the  maple  and  other  useful  timber 
trees ;  the  indispensable  grains,  as  wheat,  maize,  barley,  rye ;  the 
useful  fruits,  as  the  apple,  peach,  pear,  etc.,  and  the  fabric 
plants,  as  flax  and  cotton.  The  animal  kingdom  is  represented 
by  the  boar,  the  bison,  the  elk  and  deer,  the  wolf;  and  the  do- 
mestic animals  so  useful  to  man,  as  the  horse,  tjie  ox,  sheep 
and  goats ;  and  many  species  of  fowl,  as  pigeons,  ducks,  geese, 
turkeys,  etc. 

MINERALS    AND    METALS. 

The  prosperity  and  wealth  of  a  country  depend  largely  upon 
its  mineral  resources.  Nature  has  bestowed  her  wealth  in  lavish 
aliundance,  asking  only  the  labor  of  man  to  make  it  useful.     As 


K- 


/ 


402 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


a  rule  the  useful  and  valuable  minerals  are  found  in  rocky  or 
mountainous  countries.  These  countries  not  being  adapted  to 
agriculture,  the  people  find  employment  in  mining  and  manufac- 
turing the  raw  material  which  is  stowed  away  in  their  hills, 
depending  for  subsistence  upon  commerce  with  their  agricultural 
neighbors  of  the  plains.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  plains  must  depend  upon  their  neighbors  of  the  hills  for 
material  which  adds  to  their  comfort  and  convenience.  Wher- 
ever that  most  useful  of  metals,  iron,  is  found,  near  by  is  always 
found  coal,  which  is  necessary  in  reducing  the  iron  to  useful 
forms.  Timber  also  grows  abundantly  on  the  mountains.  This, 
too,  is  necessary  to  the  manufacturer.  The  streams  of  hilly 
countries  have  greater  fall,  and  are  thus  adapted  for  water 
power,  which  also  adds  to  the  ad\antages. 

Many  minerals  occur  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  alluvial 
soil  or  the  sandy  beds  of  rivers  ;  but  the  greater  part  lie  deep  in 
the  ground,  and  are  obtained  with  more  or  less  labor  by  mining. 

The  most  important  metals  are  gold,  silver,  platinum,  mercury, 
iron,  lead,  copper,  tin,  nickel,  zinc  and  antimony. 

The  richest  silver  mines  in  the  world  are  those  of  Mexico. 
Iron  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe.  The  great  lead  mines  of  the  United 
States  lie  on  each  side  of  the  Mississippi  River,  in  Northwestern 
Illinois,  Southwestern  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  and  in  Missouri, 
south  of  the  Missouri  River.  The  richest  and  purest  copper 
mines  in  the  world  lie  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  in  North- 
ern Michigan,  where  blocks  of  native  copper  weighing  80  tons 
have  been  found.  Zinc  occurs  in  the  Appalachian  region,  par- 
ticularly New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania ;  also  in  Illinois,  Missouri, 
Wisconsin  and  Tennessee. 

Some   Strange    Metals. 

Some  of  the  metals,  familiar  enough  to  the  chemist,  though 
rarely  seen  outside  his  laboratory,  have  so  little  in  common  with 
the  metals  of  everyday  life  as  to  scarcely  seem  to  belong  to  the 
same  class  of  substances.  We  commonly  think  of  a  metal  as  be- 
ing heavy,  yet  sodium  and  potassium  will  float  on  water,  and 
lithium  is  the  lightest  of  all  known  solids.  The  fact  is,  that  the 
word  "metal"  is  one  of  the  hardest  in  the  language  to  define. 
The  metals  all  have  a  peculiar  luster,  to  be  sure,  which,  from  its 
association,  has  come  to  be  called  metallic;  but  many  minerals, 
as  galena  and  black-lead,  which  most  certainly  are  not  metals, 
have  the  same  appearance,  and  so  on,  through  the  list  of  proper- 
ties. The  chemical  relations  of  the  metals  give  good  reasons  for 
placing  these  substances  by  themselves,  though  even  here  the 
lines  are  not  clearly  marked. 

One  of  the  most  distinctive  properties  of  the  metals  is  their 
power  to  form,  when  combined  with  acids,  a  class  of  bodies 
called  salts — on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  common  salt — ■ 
which  contains  about  40  per  cent  of  the  metal  sodium.  This 
metal  is  a  bluish  white,  waxy  solid,  and  has  such  a  great  ten- 
dency to  rust,  or  unite  with  the  o.xygen  in  the  air,  that  it  must  be 
kept  in  some  oil,  like  petroleum,  which  contains  no  oxygen. 


If  a  bit  of  sodium  be  thrown  upon  a  piece  of  ice,  the  metal 
takes  fire,  and  any  attempts  to  put  it  out  by  pouring  water  on  it 
would  only  be  adding  fuel  to  the  flame.  The  sodium-match  is 
an  application  of  this  peculiar  property  of  the  metal.  It  is 
merely  a  bit  of  wood  tipped  with  sodium,  and  which  can,  of 
course,  be  lighted  on  the  stormiest  day  by  the  mere  contact  of  a 
raindrop.  The  matches  are,  however,  decidedly  dangerous, 
and  their  manufacture  is  generally  prohibited. 

Potassium,  which  is  obtained  from  potash,  is  another  metal 
very  similar  to  sodium,  and  will  take  fire  upon  ice  or  water  even 
more  readily  than  this  last-named  metal.  A  small  piece  of  potas- 
sium thrown  into  a  jug  of  water  apparently  takes  fire  at  once,  and 
swims  about  with  gre.at  rapidity,  burning  all  the  time  with  a 
brilliant  violet  flame 

One  may  be  forgiven  if  his  ideas  on  combustion  are  somewhat 
upset  by  the  first  sight  of  this  phenomenon,  but  there  is  really 
nothing  very  strange  about  it.  Water  is  a  compound  of  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen,  and  these  metals,  sodium  and  potassium,  have 
so  strong  an  attraction  for  oxygen  that  they  will  take  it  wher- 
ever they  can  find  it,  even  from  water.  This,  of  course,  sets  the 
oxygen  free,  which  is  set  on  fire  by  the  heat  given  off  when  the 
potassium  and  oxygen  unite,  and  Ijurns  with  a  violet  color  be- 
cause of  the  vapor  of  the  metal.  The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of 
sodium ;  the  flame  is  due  to  the  burning  hydrogen  rather  than  the 
metal. 

Sodium,  potassium,  and  lithium,  with  several  other  metals, 
form  a  group  known  as  the  alkali  metals.  There  is  another 
group,  to  which  iron  belongs,  which  contains  an  interesting 
member  called  aluminum — sometimes  aluminium — from  its 
occurrence  in  common  alum. 

Aluminum  is  a  beautiful  metal,  much  like  silver  in  appear- 
ance, and  possessing  many  valuable  properties.  It  is  very 
sonorous,  easily  worked,  does  not  tarnish  in  the  air,  and  is  only 
about  one-fourth  as  heavy  as  silver.  It  conducts  electricity 
eight  times  better  than  iron.  Added  to  this,  it  occurs  in  greater 
quantity  than  any  other  metal  in  the  world.  Every  clay-bank, 
every  granite-bed,  is  a  bed  of  aluminum,  but  as  yet  no  cheap  and 
ready  means  of  obtaining  the  metal  has  been  found  in  spite  of 
all  attempts.  Napoleon  offered  a  large  reward  to  any  one  dis- 
covering such  a  process,  as,  on  account  of  its  lightness,  he 
wished  to  use  the  metal  in  his  army  for  helmets  and  cuirasses. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  an  exact  statement  of  the  amount 
of  aluminum  in  difi'erent  clays,  since  the  composition  of  these 
earths  varies  greatly.  Clays  are  impure  silicates  of  aluminum, 
and,  generally  speaking,  a  good  brick  clay  contains  a  tenth  or 
more,  by  weight,  of  the  metal.  This  would  be  sufficient  to 
plate  the  upper  surface  of  the  bricks,  .as  they  are  commonly  laid 
in  sidewalks,  with  a  layer  of  metallic  aluminum  a  fifth  of  an  inch 
deep.  Or  this  same  amount  of  metal  would  form  a  layer  one- 
third  of  an  inch  deep  on  the  outside  of  the  bricks,  as  they  are  laid 
in  our  houses.  So  we  find  this  hidden  metal  everywhere  about 
us,  and  a  princely  fortune  awaits  the  man  who  can  bring  it  to  the 
light. 


^ . 


/ 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


403 


3]  o   »   0   SOe.*   O    O   0   O.  C.>'0  .0   e   C   3   6   0   e   O   O   O   P   •»   O   «;>'0'0   O   0    0   O.'O   0.0   O   O.  O  .0.  0   0   0   0   0   O   0   0   00000   O   O   00   0  />   0^0   O   I 
5]  O  O   O  0  '  0  '  O  >  0   0   O   0  >  0'^»'  0  '  0  '  O   O   O  '  0 '  O '  0 '  O'  O  « '  6   0   O   O '  O  'O'O   00   0   0   0   0   0   00000  «  0000   0000   00   OOOOW'OO   o   o[HJo   O   1 

[]  O  O  >  0  O   O  O  .00  O    ^   0;-'   00000   00  0000   O  00;  O'OOVO.'O'O   00 'O.i'O   000    00000  0   O  0  0 'O.  0   0    0  00  0   0   0   0   00   0^0   o 
3}oeor=coOOeOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOoOO  0 '  O  O   0  0  0  0  O '  O  00   OOP  0   0   0    0  0   0  0   0   0   000   O   0   0   O  O   O   OfHJO  Oi 

Notes,  Bills,  Orders,  Checks,  Drafts  and  Receipts  Properly  Drawn  for  Every  State. 


„  ,  IVERY  business  man  has  felt  the  neces- 
4iLi1l  sity  of  a  simple  and  thorough  explana- 
*»  Vii'l   tion  <jf  the  legal  principles  and  usages 

c-^'*  which  underlie  all  business  transactions. 
The  law  presumes  that  no  man  is  ignorant  of 
the  law,  and  consequently,  when  such  vital 
issues  are  at  stake,  no  one  can  afford  to  be 
ignorant.  Not  a  day  passes  by  in  a  large 
counting-house  that  some  question  does  not 
arise  which  involves  legal  knowledge  in  its  cor- 
rect solution.  To  those  who  have  felt  the 
need  of  a  safe  and  simple  adviser  in  those 
every-day  difficulties  of  trade,  we  will  offer  the 
chapters  which  follow.  All  the  matters  in- 
cluded in  the  routine  of  business  will  be  found 
fully  treated,  while  such  explanations  are 
appended  as  will  make  the  study  one  in  which 
a  mistake  will  be  found  impossible. 

All  men  should  know  so  much  of  the  ordi- 
nary law  as  protects  their  common  and  uni- 
versal rights,  and  it  must  be  admitted  by  every 
student  that  business  men  should  understand 
the  most  general  laws  of  business — the  law  of 
partnership ;  how  to  make  agreements ;  how 
to  conduct  sales ;  how  to  draw  notes ;  how  to 
collect  them,  and  the  like  Knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  business  law  will  prevent,  every 
day,  important  mistakes  leading  to  trouble  and 
loss.     The  laws  have  here  been  made  plain  by 


themselves,  so  that  a  thorough  and  satisfactory 

answer  is  at  hand  for  every  question. 

The  forms  given  will  be  f  uind  exceptionally 
complete  and  accurate,  having  been  prepared 
with  care  and  examined  with  close  scrutiny. 

NEGOTIABLE  PAPER. 

Confidence  is  the  broad  foundation  on  which  the  whole 
superstructure  of  business,  as  it  exists  to-day,  has  been  built. 
The  steps  in  this  progress  have  been,  first,  barter  in  kind, 
llie  exchange  of  a  bushel  of  wheat  for  a  handful  of  arrow- 
lieads,  as  business  is  still  conducted  among  the  savages ; 
next,  the  substitution  of  money  as  a  medium  of  exchange; 
and  finally,  the  substitution  of  negotiable  paper,  that  is,  docu- 
mentary evidence  of  debt,  for  money,  completing  the  pro- 
gression. Negotiable  paper  includes  promissory  notes,  due 
bills,  drafts,  checks,  certificates  of  deposit,  bills  of  exchange, 
bank  bills,  Treasury  notes  (greenbacks),  and  all  other  evi- 
dences of  debt,  the  ownership  of  which  may  be  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another. 

The  mere  acknowledgment  of  debt  is  not  sufticient  to 
make  negotiable  paper ;  \\\e  promisi  o(  payment  or  an  crrfVc 
on  some  one  to  pay  is  indispensable.  This  promise  must  be 
for  money  only.  The  amount  must  be  exactly  specified. 
The  title  must  be  transferable.  This  feature  must  be  visible 
on  the  face  of  the  paper  by  the  use  of  such  words  as 
"bearer"  or  "order."  In  some  of  the  States  peculiar 
phrases  are  ordered  by  statute,  as  "  Payable  without  defalca- 
tion or  discount,"  or  "  Payable  at ,"  naming  the  bank 

or  office. 

Promissory  Notes. 

A  written  agreement,  signed  by  one  person,  to  pay  another, 
at  a  fixed  time,  a  stated  sum  of  money,  is  a  promissory  note. 
It  becomes  negotiable  by  being  maile  payable  to  an  order  on 


/ 


~A 


404 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


some  one  or  to  bearer.  As  it  is  a  contract,  a  consideration 
Is  one. of  its  essential  elements.  Yet,  although  it  be  void  as 
between  the  two  first  parties,  being  negotiable  and  coming 
into  the  hands  of  another  person  who  gives  value  for  it,  not 
knowing  of  its  defect,  it  has  full  force  and  may  be  collected. 

The  date  is  of  great  consequence  on  all  such  paper.  In 
computing  time,  the  day  of  date  is  not  counted,  but  it  is  the 
fixed  point  beginning  the  time  at  the  end  of  which  payment 
must  be  made.  Omission  of  the  date  does  not  destroy  a  note, 
but  the  holder  must  prove  to  the  time  of  its  making.  The 
promise  to  pay  must  be  precise  as  to  time  which  the  note  is 
to  run.  It  must  be  at  a  fixed  period,  or  conditional  upon  the 
occurrence  of  something  certain  to  happen,  as  "at  sight," 
"five  days  after  sight,"  "on  demand,"  "three  months  after 
date,"  "ten  days  after  the  death  of  John  Doe."  The  time 
not  being  specified,  the  note  is  considered  "payable  on 
demand,"  and  suit  may  be  entered  immediately. 

The  maker,  the  person  who  promises  and  whose  signature 
the  note  bears,  must  be  competent.  Insane  people  and  idiots 
are  naturally,  and  aliens,  minors  and  married  women  may 
hs  legally,  incompetent.  The  maker  is  responsible  and  binds 
himself  to  pay  the  amount  stated  on  the  note  at  its  maturity. 
He  need  not  pay  it  before  it  becomes  due,  but  should  he  do 
so  and  neglect  to  cancel  the  note,  he  would  be  again  respons- 
ible if  any  other  person,  without  knowledge  of  such  pay- 
ment, acquired  it  for  value  before  maturity.  Even  a  receipt 
fjr  payment  from  the  first  payee  would  not  stand  good 
against  the  subsequent  holder. 


The  payee  is  the  person  in  whose  favor  the  note  is  drawn ; 
the  legal  holder,  the  person  to  whom  the  money  must  be 
paid.  When  a  note  is  made  payable  simply  to  bearer,  with- 
out naming  the  payee,  any  one  holding  the  note  honestly 
may  collect. 

A  subsequent  party,  one  who  comes  into  possession  of  the 
note  after  the  original  holder,  has  a  better  claim  than  the 
first  one,  for  the  reason  that  between  the  maker  and  the 
first  payee  there  may  have  been,  in  the  contract,  some  under- 
standing or  condition  militating  against  the  payment  when  it 
would  become  due,  but  the  third  person,  knowing  nothing  of 
this,  gives  his  value  and  receives  the  note.  The  law  will 
always  sustain  the  subsequent  party. 

The  endorser  is  held  responsible  if  the  maker  fails  to  pay' 
when  the  note  arrives  at  maturity.     A  note  payable  to  order 
must  be  endorsed  by  a  holder  upon  passing  it  to  another,  and, 
as  value  has  been  given  each  time,  the  last  holder  will  look 
to  his  next  preceding  one  and  to  all  the  others. 

A  note,  being  on  deposit  as  collateral  security,  becoming 
due,  the  temporary  holder  is  the  payee  and  must  collect. 

Endorsements. 

The  following  form  will  illustrate  the  shape  in  which  a  note 
should  be  drawn  and  endorsed.  An  endorsement  is  a  writing 
across  the  back  of  a  note,  which,  as  will  be  seen  further  on, 
makes  the  writer  responsible  for  the  amount  of  the  note. 


COMMON   FORM  OF  NEGOTIABLE  NOTE.  WITH   ENDORSEMENTS. 


Jr^t4.r-)i.. 


In  Full. 


ENDORSEMENTS. 
General.  Qualified. 


\  Pay  Pay 


■ay 

Cfias.  Evans. 
L.  A.  Davis. 


i — 


Conditional. 

Fay  \ 

Chas.  Svans 

or  order, 

unless  paymettt 

forbidden  be- 

;  fore  maturity. 

L.  A.  Davis. 


'is.     I 


Restrictive. 


\ 


A 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


405 


The  Endorser's  Responsibility. 

It  has  been  generally  admitted  that  the  three  first  endorse- 
ments given  aniimnt  to  the  same  thing;  that  is,  either  the 
blank  endorsement,  the  full  endorsement  or  the  general 
endorsement  entitles  Ihe  holder  of  the  note  to  tlie  money, 
and  to  look  to  Davis  for  payment  if  Benson  defaults.  It  has 
even  been  held  that  in  a  general  endorsement  the  holder  had 
the  right  to  fill  in  the  words  "or  order"  after  Chas.  Evans' 
name,  if  he  saw  fit.  The  qualified  endorsement  releases  the 
endorser  from  any  liability  in  case  Benson  defaults,  the 
words  "without  recourse"  meaning  that  the  holder  is  with- 
out recourse  against  the  endorser.  The  conditional  and 
restrictive  endorsement  explain  themselves  by  their  wording, 
and,  it  is  needless  to  say,  are  only  used  in  special  cases. 
Each  endorser  is  severally  and  collectively  liable  for  the 
whole  amount  of  the  note  endorsed  if  it  is  dishonored,  pro- 
vided it  is  duly  protested  and  notice  given  to  each.  The 
endorser  looks  to  the  man  who  endorsed  it  before  him,  and 
so  back  to  the  original  maker  of  the  note.  As  soon  as  a  note 
is  protested,  it  is  vitally  necessary  that  notice  should  be  sent 
to  each  person  interested  at  once. 

Necessary  Legal  Points. 

Bearing  the  preceding  facts  in  mind,  any  form  of  note 
which  conforms  to  these  requirements  will  hold  in  law :  It 
must  promise  to  pay  a  specified  sura  of  money.  To  be  on 
the  safe  side,  however,  it  is  well  to  see  to  it  that  any  note 
offered  for  negotiation — 

Is  dated  correctly; 

Specifies  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid; 

Names  the  person  to  whom  it  is  to  be  paid; 

Includes  the  words  "or  order"  after  the  name  of  the 
payee,  if  it  is  desired  to  make  the  note  negotiable  ; 

Appoints  a  place  where  the  payment  is  to  be  made  ; 

States  that  the  note  is  made  "for  value  received;" 

And  is  signed  by  the  maker  or  his  duly  authorized  repre- 
sentative. 

In  some  States  phrases  are  required  in  the  body  of  the 
note,  such  as  "without  defalcation  or  discount;"  but,  as 
a  general  thing,  that  fact  is  understood  without  the  statement. 


FORMS  OF  NOTES. 

A  Note  Negotiable  -without  Endorsement. 


a  -$250. 

VS5S5S3S 

SSHSHSEScL 
St. 

Louis,  JuiieS,  iSSj. 

I       '^'> 

irty  days 

after 

date    I 

promise  to   pay  J.   H. 

\    Ames, 

or  bearer 

Two 

Hundred 

and  Fifty  Dollars, 

S    at  the 

Third  National  Bank 

in 

St.  Louis,  for  value 

3    received. 

55e£ 

Charles   Cams.         K 

A  Note  Negotiable  Only  by  Eudorsement. 

$aoo.  Chicago,  Nov.  26,  1SS3. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  John  H.  WoUering,  or 
order,  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

J.  T.  Norton. 

A  Note  Not  Negotiable. 

$200.  St.  Louis,  Nov.  17,  1SS3. 

Ninety  days  after   date   I  promise  to  pay  Charles  C.  Collins  Two 
Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

Samuel  Atkinson. 

A  Note  Bearing  Interest- 

$100.  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  Nov.  26,  1SS3. 

Six  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  R.  V.  Jennings,  or  order. 
One  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest,  for  value  received. 

John  Q,  Watson. 

A  Note  Payable  on  Demand. 

$[50.  Philadelphia,  Nov.  30,  1SS3. 

On  demand   I  promise  to  pay  Lamonte  \Vhittlesey,  or  bearer.  One 
Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars,  value  received. 

John  Q.  Chaffington. 

A  Note  Payable  at  Bank. 

$100.  Cincinnati,  Dec,  24,  1SS3. 

Thirty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Thomas  I.  Rankin,  or  order, 
at  the  Second  National  Bank,  One  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 
__^__^^      Frank  T.  Morrison. 

Principal  and  Surety. 

$793.  Newark,  N.  J.,  Dec.  28,  1SS3. 

Sixty  days  after  date   I  promise  to  pay  Daniel  O'C.  Patterson,  or 
order.  Seven  Hundred  and  Ninety-three  Dollars,  with  interest,  value 

received, 

John  G.  Watterson,  Principal, 
T.  R.  Graham,  Security, 


A  Married  Woman's  Note  in  New  York. 

$400.  New  York,  Dec.  13,  1SS3. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Johnson,  Dunham  &  Co., 
or  order,  Four  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest.  And  I  hereby  charge 
my  individual  property  and  estate  with  the  payment  of  this  note. 

Clara  C.  Dickerson. 


A  Joint  Note. 

$3,000.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Dec.  12,  1SS3. 

One  year  after  date  we  jointly  promise  to  pay  E.  C.  Langworthy, 
or  order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  vaiue  received. 

John  C.  Jennings. 

Walter  D,  Curtis, 

A  Joint  and  Several  Note. 

$3,000.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Dec.  12,  1SS3. 

One  year  after  date  wc  jointly  and  severally  promise  to  pay  E.  C, 
Langworthy,  or  order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received, 

John  C.  Jennings. 
Walter  D.  Curtis. 

A  Partnership  Note. 

No, Boston,  Mass.,  November  26,  1SS3. 

One  month  after  date,  witliout  grace,  we  promise  to  pay  to  the 
order  of  ourselves  Two  Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars,  at  any  bank  in 
Boston, 

Johnson  &  Co., 

209  Temple  Place, 
$150.     Due  Dec.  26,  1SS3. 


K- 


~7 


406 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


A  Note  Payable  by  Instalments. 

$3,000.  PlTTSBL-RG,  Nov.   iS,  1SS3. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  R.  P.  Donaldson  &  Co.,  or 
order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  in  the  manner  following,  to  wit: 
One  Thousand  DoUars  in  one  year,  One  Thousand  Dollars  in  two 
years,  and  one  Thousand  Dollars  in  three  years,  with  interest  on  all 
said  sums,  payable  semi-annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount. 

Hugo  R.  Mleller. 


A  Judgment  Note,  with  Collateral  Note  Combined. 

[The  portions  enclosed  in  brackets   are  used  in  collateral  notes 
only.] 

Chicago,  Dec.  20,  1SS3. 
One  year  after  date,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the 
order  of  Jeremiah  B.  Shelton  Three  Hundred  and  Sixty-Five  Dollars, 
with  interest  at  the  rate  of  eight  per  cent  per  annum  [after  due,  hav- 
ing deposited  with  the  legal  holder  hereof,  as  collateral  security, 
*  •  *.  And  I  hereby  give  said  legal  holder,  his,  her  or  their  as- 
signs, authority  to  sell  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  at  the  maturity 
of  this  note,  or  at  any  time  thereafter,  or  before,  in  the  event  of  said 
security  depreciating  in  value,  at  public  or  private  sale,  without 
advertising  the  same,  or  demanding  payment,  or  giving  notice,  and 
to  apply  so  much  of  the  proceeds  thereof  to  the  payment  of  this  note 
as  may  be  necessary  to  pay  the  same,  with  all  interest  due  thereon, 
and  also  to  the  payment  of  all  expenses  attending  the  sale  of  the  said 
collaterals,  and  in  case  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  same  shall  not 
cover  the  principal,  interest  and  expenses,  I  promise  to  pay  the  defi- 
ciency forthwith  after  such  sale,  with  interest  at  ten  per  cent  per 
annum.  And  it  is  hereby  agreed  and  understood  that  if  recourse  is 
had  to  such  collateral,  any  money  realized  on  sale  thereof  in  excess 
of  the  amount  due  on  this  note  shall  be  applicable  to  the  payment  of 
any  other  note  or  claim  which  the  said  legal  holder  may  have  against 
me,  and  in  case  of  any  exchange  of,  or  addition  to,  the  collateral 
above  named,  the  provisions  of  this  note  shall  extend  to  such  new  or 
additional  collateral,] 

And  to  further  secure  the  payment  of  said  amount,  I  hereby  author- 
ize, irrevocably,  anj  attorney  of  any  court  of  record  to  appear  for 
me  in  such  court,  in  term  time  or  vacation,  at  any  time  hereafter, 
and  confess  a  judgment  without  process  in  favor  of  the  holder  of  this 
note,  for  such  amount  as  may  appear  to  be  unpaid  thereon,  together 
with  costs  and  twenty-five  dollars  attorney's  fee,  and  a'so  to  file  a 
cognovit  for  the  amount  thereof  with  the  agreement  therein,  that  no 
writ  ot  error  or  appeal  shall  be  presented  upon  the  judgment  en- 
tered by  virtue  hereof,  nor  any  bill  in  equity  filed  to  interfere  in  any 
manner  with  the  operation  of  said  judgment,  and  to  waive  and  re- 
lease all  errors  which  may  intervene  in  any  manner  with  the  opera- 
tion of  said  judgment;  and  to  waive  and  release  all  error  which  may 
intervene  in  any  such  proceedings,  and  consent  to  immediate  execu- 
tion upon  such  judgment.  Hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all  that 
said  attorney  may  do  by  virtue  hereof, 

John  T.Stratford,        [Seal.] 

A  judgment  note  in  Illinois  requires  the  power  of  attorney 
to  confess  it.  Many,  and,  in  fact,  most  people  deem  a  judg- 
ment note  a  sort  of  mortgage.  It  has  no  such  effect,  how- 
ever, and  creates  no  lien  or  claim  different  from  any  other 
note,  and  differs  from  any  other  note  in  this  only,  that  the 
holder  can  take  it  and  go  into  court,  enter  up  a  judgment 
and  have  execution  against  the  maker  at  once.  Thus,  by 
the  judgment  so  entered  up,  the  holder  gets  a  lien,  and  not 
by  any  lien  created  by  the  note  before  judgment. 


A  Short  Form  of  Judgment  No(e. 

$460.  Brooklvn,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  16,  1883. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay,  to  the  order  of 
Alexander  A.  McHatron,  Four  Hundred  and  Sixty  Dollars.    And   I 


hereby  confess  Tudgment  for  said  sum  with  interest  and  costs,  a  re- 
lease of  all  errors,  and  a  waiver  of  all  rights  of  appeal  and  to  the 
benefit  of  all  laws  exempting  property  from  levy  and  sale. 

EzEKiAH  Partington. 


Sealed  Note. 

$5,000.  Cincinnati,  O.,  Nov.  16,  1SS3. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Edgar  &  Co.,  or  order,  Five 
Thousand  Dollars,  in  three  years  from  the  date  hereof,  with  interest 
payable  semi-annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount.  And  in 
case  of  default  of  my  payment  of  the  interest  or  principal  aforesaid 
with  punctualitv,  I  hereby  empower  any  attomey-at-law,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  said  Edgar  &  Co.,  or  their  assigns,  to  appear  in  any  court 
which  said  Edgar  &  Co.,  or  their  assigns,  may  select,  and  commence 
and  prosecute  a  suit  against  me  on  said  note,  to  confess  judgment  for 
all  and  every  part  of  the  interest  or  principal  on  said  note,  in  the  pay- 
ment of  which  I  may  be  delinquent. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  this  i6th  day  of  November,  A.  D.  1SS3. 

John  White.     [Seal.] 

Attest:  George  Oldham, 


Forms  of  Notes  in  Several  States. 

MISSOURI. 


INDIANA. 

$31$-  Indianapolis,  InJ.,  July  2S,  1883. 

On   demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay 
William  IVestermann  ^  Co.,or  order.  Three  Hundred 
and  Fijteen  Dollars,  without  intertst,  payable  with- 
out any  relief  whatever  from  iialue  or  appraisement. 
Richard  M.  Sylvester. 

PENNSYLVANIA  AND  NEW  JERSEY. 

^300.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  26,  18S3. 

Y  Ninety  days  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the    li 

order  of  Lafayette  Armstrong   Three  Hundred  Dol-    Cj 

lars,  at   Third  National  Bank,  value  received,  with- 

Ei    out  defalcation. 

George  Miller. 


-^1 


^ 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


407 


A  Swindling  Note. 


Carlyle,  III.,  October 3,  i88j. 


One  year  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  R.   Tucker  or     bearer  Ten  Dollars,  when  I  sell  by    f 


order    Four  Hundred  and  Seventy-five  Dollars  [$4.^3) 

for     value    received,     at     ten    per     cent    per     annum. 

payable    at    Carlyle,   Illinois. 

JOHN  WILSON, 


i 


worth    of  Patent    Fanning  Mills,    '■ 
Said    Ten    Dollars    when   due   is 


Allhoiigh  the  above  venerable  scheme  of  the  confidence 
man  has  been  exposed  time  after  time,  it  still  continues  to 
add  yearly  to  its  list  of  victims.  A  paper  is  drawn  up 
wherein  a  farmer  agrees  to  pay  ten  or  twenty  dollars  when  he 
has  sold  goods  to  a  given  amount.  By  tearing  off  the  right- 
hand  end  of  this  paper,  what  is  apparently  an  agreement  fur 
a  small  amount  becomes  a  promissory  note  for  a  considera- 
ble sum.  This  note  is  sold  at  a  bank,  thereby  becoming  the 
property  of  a  third  and  innocent  party,  and  the  signer  of  the 
agreement  is  called  upon  to  pay  the  note. 

This  shows  how  important  it  is  that  a  man  should  read  and 
carefully  examine  every  paper  presented  to  him  for  his  signa- 
ture. 


DUE  BILLS. 

A  Due  Bill  differs  from  a  note  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  simple 
acknowledgment  of  a  debt.  It  may  be  payable  in  money  or 
merchandise.     It  is  the  simplest  form  of  negotiable  paper. 

$;o.oo.  Philadelphia,  May  S,  1SS3. 

Due  John  J;icksc)n,  or  ordur,  for  v;iliie  received,  Twenty  Dollars. 

Henky  Folsom. 


In  acknowledgment  of  debt,  a  form  of  due  bill  called  an 
I  O  U  is  sometimes  given. 


I  O  U  Three  Hundred  uud  Fifty  Dollars. 


\Vm.  Johnson. 


Due  Bill  Payable  in  Merchandise. 

?5o.oo.  St.  Louis,  M.iy  14,  1SS3. 

Due  Knos  Baldwin,  Fifty  DoILirs,  payable  in  goods  from  our  .store 
on  demand. 

SoNTAG  &  Weber. 


Due  Bill  Payable  in  Money  and  Merchandise. 

$So-<».  St.  Louis,  May  14,  1SS3. 

Due   Howard   Read,  Fifty  Dollars,  payable.  Twenty-five  Dollars 
cash.  Twenty-five  Dollars  in  goods  from  our  store,  on  demand. 

SONTAG  &  WeBEK. 


ORDERS. 

An  Order  for  Money. 

Waco,  Texas,  April  i,  1SS3, 
Mr.  B.J.  Ring: 

Please  pay  W,  II.  Cavanagh  Ten  Dollars  on  my  account. 

M.  F,  Crenshaw. 


An  Order  for  Merchandise, 

Dallas,  Texas,  May  15,  1SS3. 
Mr.  N.  \V.  Bechtel: 

Please   pay   L.  "W.  Mjtsuff   Tliirty   Dollars    in  Mt:rchandisc  and 
charge  the  same  to  my  accounL. 

L..  E.  KiTTRBLL. 


RECEIPTS. 

For  Money  on  Account, 


$15.00.  KiRKWooD,  Mo.,  Jan.  i*  1SS3. 

Received  of  J.  M.  Hardy  Fifteen  Dollars  on  account. 

P.  D.  Rich. 


$150- 


In  Full  of  All  Demands.  • 

Des  Moines,  Iowa,  Sei>t.  2,  1SS3, 
Received   of  J.  C.   O'Neal  One    Hundred   and  Fifty  Dollars,  in 
full  of  all  demands  to  date. 

ALFKED  W.  GREGORy. 


For  Rent. 


$80.  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Nov.  i,  1SS3. 

Received   of  \V.  F.  George  Eighty  Dollars,  in  full  for  one  moAth's 

rent  of  residence  at  2S07  Olive  St. 

John  G.  Stewart, 


For  Money  Advanced  on  a  Contract. 

$500.  Denver,  Col.,  May  15,  1SS3. 

Received    of   L,  W.  Logan  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  in  advance,  on 

a  contract  to  build  for  him  a  dwelling-house  at  No.  315  Cheyenne 

Ave.,  Denver, 

John  T.  Sherffy. 


K" 


408 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


-7 


^3< 


A     --L-     A     '■i^     A     -vU     A     "sU-  pi 


^ i!i lii;: A      -^t"      A      -vU      A 


POINTS  OF  BUSINESS  LAW. 


^  7  ^  ?  ^'  ?  =1^^ 


HECKS  made  payable  to  "Cash"  or  order,  or  to  some 
character,  or  number,  or  order,  are  held  to  be  payable 

"J/  to  bearer. 

A  past-due  note  entrusted  for  collection  to  an  agent 
was  converted  by  him  to  his  own  use,  and  was  afterwards  sold 
under  an  execution  against  him.  The  court  decided  that  the 
purchaser  had  not  acquired  any  interest  in  the  note  and  could 
not  maintain  an  action  against  the  maker. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  the  principal  maker  of  a  note  the 
holder  is  not  required  to  notify  a  surety  that  the  note  is  not 
paid,  before  the  settlement  of  the  maker's  estate. 

Notes  obtained  by  fraud,  or  made  by  an  intoxicated  per- 
son, are  not  collectible.     A  note  made  by  a  minor  is  void. 

If  no  time  of  payment  is  specified  in  a  note  it  is  payable  on 
demand. 

An  endorser  can  avoid  liability  by  writing  "  without  re- 
course "  beneath  his  signature. 

A  check  endorsed  by  the  payee  is  evidence  of  payment  in 
the  drawer's  hands. 

A  signature  written  with  a  lead  pencil  is  valid. 

No  contract  is  good  unless  there  be  legal  consideration. 

An  outlawed  debt  is  revived  should  the  debtor  make  a 
partial  payment. 

In  case  of  a  note  made  payable  one  day  after  date,  with 
interest  from  date  at  the  rate  of  12  per  cent  per  annum,  in- 
terest to  be  paid  annually,  it  was  held  that  the  note  would 
draw  the  same  rate  of  interest  after  maturity  until  paid. 

The  revised  statutes  of  Indiana  provide  that  notes  payable 
"to  order"  or  "to  bearer,"  in  that  State,  are  negotiable  as 
inland  bills  of  exchange,  and  the  payees  and  endorsers 
thereof  may  recover  as  in  case  of  such  bills. 

Payment  is  the  performance  of  an  agreement  or  the  fulfil- 
ment of  a  promise,  the  discharge  in  money  of  a  sum  due. 
Pleaded  as  a  defence,  payment  of  money  or  of  an  equivalent 
accepted  in  its  place,  to  the  plaintiff  or  his  authorized  repre- 
sentative, must  be  proved  by  defendant.  To  extinguish  the 
debt,  payment  must  be  made  by  a  person  having  the  right 
to  do  so,  to  a  person  entitled  to  receive  it,  at  the  appointed 
place  and  time,  and  in  something  proper  to  receive,  both  as  to 
kind  and  quality.  Proof  that  anything  has  been  done  or 
accepted  as  payment  is  proof  of  payment.  A  receipt  is 
prima  facie  evidence  of  payment;  so  also  is  the  possession 
by  the  debtor  of  a  security  after  the  day  of  payment 

ACCOMMODATION  PAPER. 

Drafts  as  well  as  notes  are  employed  as  accommodation 
paper.  For  example.  Smith,  being  willing  to  lend  Jones 
money  which  the  later  needs,  and  having  none  immediately 
available,  draws  a  draft  on  Robinson,  who  is  his  debtor,  and 
makes  it  payable  to  Jones,  who  gives  no  value  for  it.     Such 


j^T^-if-^j^-Y-^T^-T^-^I^^ 


a  draft  in  Jones'  hand  is  accommodation  paper  and  cannot 
be  used  as  an  implied  contract  against  Smith ;  if  discounted 
at  a  bank,  or  transferred  for  money  to  an  individual,  it  be- 
comes business  paper  as  far  as  the  holder  is  concerned,  and 
its  payment  may  be  enforced. 

Forged  Paper. 

The  endorsee  generally  obtains  a  perfect  title  when  paper 
is  transferred  before  maturity;  but  if  the  first  endorsement 
is  forged,  no  title  rests  in  the  holder.  If  the  signature  of  the 
maker  of  a  note  is  forged,  the  holder  has  no  recourse  against 
him.  Negotiable  paper  is  void  when  the  consideration  is 
either  contrary  to  the  general  principles  of  common  law  or  is 
prohibited  by  statute. 

Want  of  Consideration. 

Want  of  consideration — a  common  defence  interposed  to 
the  payment  of  negotiable  paper — is  a  good  defence  between 
the  original  parties  to  the  paper ;  but  after  it  has  been  trans- 
ferred before  maturity  to  an  innocent  holder  for  value,  it  is 
not  a  defence. 

Stolen  or  Lost  Paper. 

Negotiable  paper,  payable  to  bearer  or  endorsed  in  blank, 
which  has  been  stolen  or  lost,  cannot  be  collected  by  the 
thief  or  finder,  but  a  holder  who  receives  it  in  good  faith  be- 
fore maturity,  for  value,  can  hold  it  against  the  owner's  claims 
at  the  time  it  was  lost. 

Payment  Before  Maturity. 

Sometimes  the  holder  of  paper  has  the  right  to  demand 
payment  before  maturity ;  for  instance,  when  a  draft  has  been 
protested  for  non-acceptance  and  the  proper  notices  served, 
the  holder  may  at  once  proceed  against  the  drawer  and 
endorsers. 

State  Laws  as  to  Payment. 

If  a  note  or  draft  is  to  be  paid  in  the  State  where  it  is 
made,  the  contract  will  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  that  State. 
When  negotiable  paper  is  payable  in  a  State  other  than  that 
in  which  it  is  made,  the  laws  of  that  State  will  govern  it. 
Marriage  contracts,  if  valid  where  they  are  made,  are  valid 
everywhere.  Contracts  relating  to  personal  property  are 
governed  by  the  laws  of  the  place  where  made,  except  those 
relating  to  real  estate,  which  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  the 
place  where  the  land  is  situated. 

Collateral  Security. 

If  negotiable  paper,  pledged  to  a  bank  as  security  for  tlie 
])ayment  of  a  loan  or  debt,  falls  due,  and  the  bank  fails  to 
demand  payment  and  have  it  protested  when  dishonored,  the 
bank  is  liable  to  the  owner  for  the  full  amount  of  the  paper. 


r^ 


LAWS    RELATING    TO    INTEREST. 


^ ?' 


409 


Tp  Law^  of  the  United  ^tete?  and  daiiada  I^eMng  to  Intefegt. 

COMPILED    FROM    THE    LATEST    STATE   AND   TERRITORIAL    STATUTES. 

Laws  of  lilacli  State  and  Territory  Regarding  Rates  of  Interest  and  Penalties   for  Usury,  with  the  Law  or  Custom  as  to 

I>ay  of  Grace  on  Notes  and  Drafts. 


STATES  AND    TERRITORIES. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia.. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Mame 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey ~  . . 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  Territory 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Canada 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 


LEGAL 

RATE 

RATE  OF 

ALLOWED  BY 

INTEREST. 

CONTRACT. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

8 

8 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

10 

7 

Any  rate. 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

7 

12 

6 

6 

6 

10 

8 

Any  rate. 

7 

8 

10 

18 

6 

8 

6 

8 

6 

10 

7 

12 

6 

6 

5 

8 

6 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

6 

Any  rate. 

7 

10 

7 

lo 

6 

10 

6 

10 

10 

Any  rate. 

7 

10 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

12 

6 

6 

6 

8 

6 

8 

8 

10 

6 

6 

6 

Any  rate. 

7 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

8 

12 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

6 

6 

6* 

10 

Any  rate. 

6 

6* 

7 

10 

12 

Any  rate. 

6 

Any  rate. 

6 

Any  rate. 

6 

Any  rate. 

PENALTIES  FOR  USURY. 


Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  principal  and  interest. 

No  penalty. 

No  penalty,  except  of  excess. 

Forfeiture  of  excess. 

Forfeiture  of  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  principal. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Fine  of  $100  or  imprisonment. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  10  per  cent  on  amount. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  above  7  per  cent. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  over  10  per  cent. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  in\f  rest  and  cost 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  thrice  the  excess. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest 

Fnrf'-iture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  principal  and  interest 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  above  6  per  cent. 

Forfeiture  of  principal  and  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest 

No  penalty. 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest  and  $100  fine. 

Forfeiture  of  all  interest. 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  over  6  per  cent. 

No  penalty. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest 

No  penalty. 


GRACE  OR  NO 
GRACE, 


Grace. 

Grace. 
No  statute. 
No  grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 
No  statute. 
No  grace. 
No  grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 
No  grace. 

Grace 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 
No  statute. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Grace. 


Grace. 
Grace. 
Grace. 
Grace. 
Grace. 
Grace. 


*  Except  in  cases  defined  by  stitutcs  o£  the  State. 

No  agreement  to  pay  a  higher  than  the  legal  rate  can  be  enforced  unless  such  agreement  is  expressly  authorized  by  statute,  the 
established  presumption  of  the  law,  in  the  absence  of  such  legislation,  being  that  such  a  rate  is  usurious. 

/•  ;      \ 


4IO 


LAWS    RELATING    TO    LIMITATION    OF    ACTIONS. 


>>■ 


-A 


The  Law^  of  the  United  ^tate^  aqd  daqada  I^elating  to  Limitatioq  of  i^ction^. 

Note.  —  A  statute  of  limitation  be^insto  rin  from  the  time  at  which  a  creditor  is  authorized  first  to  commence  suit.  Upon  mutual,  concurrent 
and  open  accounts,  the  statute,  in  general,  begins  to  run  with  the  date  of  the  last  item.  A  debt,  otherwise  barred,  may  be  revived  by  a  new 
proir.ise  made  within  the  period  oflimitation.  The  new  promise  may  be  either  express  or  implied  (roni  a  part  payment,  or  any  unqualified 
acknowledgment  from  which  a  promise  may  be  inferred. 


*  Al.ibama  . 
Arkansas  .. 

*  Arizona  . . 
California.. 


Colorado.. 


Connecticut. 


Dakota 

Delaware 

District  ot  Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 


*  Illinois  ..'. , 

*  Indiana  . . . 

*  Towa  .... 

*  Kansas..., 

*  Kentucky  . 


*  Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

*  M  ;issachusetts. 
Michigan 

*  Minnesota 

Mississippi 


Missouri 

*  Montana 

*  Nebr;iska 

*  Mevada  

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey 

New  hiexico.    .. . 

W-w  York 

North  Carolina.. 
*Ohio 


*  Oregon 

*  IViinsylvania.. 

Rhode  Island.... 
South  Carolina.. 

*  Tennessee 

*  Texas 

*Ulah 


*  \'ermont. 
Virginia  ... 


*  Washington  Territory 
\V'est  \'irginia 

*  Wisconsin 


*  Wyoming., 


C,\NADA. 

Province  of  Ontario., 
Province  of  Quebec.. 


H 

ES  AND 
ACTS   IN 
TING. 

w  0 

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bl  si 

S  "J  a 

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Tears. 

r,;,rs. 

rears. 

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2'ears. 

3 

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10 

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4 

4 

5 

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4 

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6 

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Judgments  of  Justice's  court,  5  years.     Judgment  liens  expire  in  3  years. 

An  action  upon  a  judgment  rendered  or  contract  made  out  of  the  Stale  is 
barred  in  2  years. 

^^'llen  the  cause  of  .iclion  accrues  without  the  State,  the  periods  of  limita- 
tion .ire  2  years  for  notes  and  accoimts ;  3  years  for  sealed  instruments 
and  judgments, 

Proinissorv  notes  not  negotiable  are  barred  in  17  years.  Demand  notes. 
when  indorsed,  must  be  protested  4  inontlis  from  date,  without  grace,  to 
hold  the  indorser. 


Judgments  become  dormant  in  7  years  from  date  of  last  return  on  execution 
issued,  but  may  be  revived,     boreign  judgments  barred  in  5  years. 

Sealed  instruments,  judgments,  notes,  in  3  years  if  defendant  resided  out 
of  Territory  when  the  cause  of  action  accrued. 


Judgments  become  dormant  in  5  years. 

"Store  account"  for  goods  sold  and  delivered,  2  years  from  ist  of  January 
next  succeeding  date  of  last  item.  Merchandise  accounts  between  mer- 
chants, 7  years. 

^^'itnessed  notes,  20  years. 

Witnessed  notes,  20  years. 

Years  from  date  of  last  execution.  Foreign  judgments  barred  in  3  years. 
Accounts  stated,  3  yeare. 


Liabilities  incurred  out  of  State,  3  years. 


For  foreign  judgments.     Domestic  judgments  become  dormant  in  5  yuars, 
but  may  be  revived  in  21  years  after  becoming  dormant. 

Mercantile  accounts  are  not  affected  by  the  statute  as  long  as  they  remain 
open. 


Action  *'  for  specific  recovery  of  personal  property,'*  or  "  for  relief  on  the 

ground  of  fraud,"  3  years. 
Witnessed  notes,  14  years. 
Judgments  of  ether  States,  period  of  limitation  under  the  law  of  that 

State,  not  exceeding  10  years.     "  Store  account,"  2  years. 

Judgmcntsof  another  State,  same  as  in  Virginia.  "Store  account."  3  years. 

Judgments  of  other  States  and  sealed  instruments,  where  the  liability  ac- 
crued out  of  the  State,  10  years. 

Judgments  become  dormant  in  5  years.  Foreign  debts  and  judgments,  i 
Year. 


'In  the  States  thus  marked,  it  is  provided  by  statute  that  a  cause  of  action  shall  be  barred  which  first  accrued  in  another  State  and  is  barred  bv 
thestatuteolliMuiatKMis  of  that  State.     This  is  conLrarv  lu  the  general  rule,  by  which  a  debtor  must  have  resided  in  the  State  during  the 
statute  period  before  he  can  take  advantage  of  it. 
t  Slaiuler,  6  months. 


X  Seals  abolished. 


§  Assault,  4  years. 
§  j  In  certain  courts,  20  years. 
*[  Slander,  i  year. 


I  Store  accounts,  2  years. 

II  Store  accounts,  3  years. 


A 


V 


BOARDS  OF  TRADE  AND  STOCK  F.XCHANGHS. 


411 


|i  i»<t>ii>[iiiiiii)iii(ii#iii<ii<i>(iiitaiitiniii(i»<i»fiiiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiniioD  > 

'11  I  >! 


^^^  ^Msmssjs  00,^ 


>  > 


Boards  of1rade#"3tock  £xchanges. 


><WMWMMWWMMMMWWNWWK 


A  REALISTIC  VIEW  OF 


iIiiIiiIiiIiCDiIiaDilK»'l'Ct'il>(Ii(ll(llitIi'IiiIi#0D'1DiIi<N>«I>1'Ct»OOiBCD» 


-HEN  the  fisherman,  in  olden  times, 
had  secured  his  net  of  fish,  to  dis- 
?iL£|:ULf  pose  of  the  product  of  his  labor  he 
had  to  travel  inland  until  he  found 
a  farmer  willing  to  exchange  his  wheat  for 
the  other's  wares.  It  is  a  long  step  from  that 
primitive  trade  to  the  commerce  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  which  is  housed  in  magnifi- 
cent palaces,  and  whose  domain  stretches 
to  the  uttermost  ends  of  the  earth.  The 
farmer  of  to-day  grows  his  crop  of  grain  in 
Dakota  and  sends  it  to  his  commission  mer- 
chant in  Chicago.  This  broker  goes  on 
'Change  and  sells  the  wheat  to  the  highest 
bidder.  Perhaps  it  goes  to  Austria,  perhaps 
to  Florida  —  the  pulse  of  the  whole  world 
beats  in  every  exchange.  Wherever  there  is 
scarcity,  there  food  flows  out  of  the  Boards  of 
Trade  —  they  form  a  delicate  balance,  preserv- 
ing the  supply  of  food  all   over  the  world    in 


exact  accord  with  the  demand.  Of  all  the 
products  of  our  civilization,  the  Exchanges 
are  among  the  most  complicated,  delicate  and 
serviceable.  They  arc  the  places  where  those 
who  want  to  buy  meet  those  who  want  to  sell. 
Backed  up  by  all  the  accessories  of  civiliza- 
tion, they  form  the  governors  on  the  steam 
engine  of  progress,  automatically  regulating 
the  world.  Is  there  a  probable  failure  of  the 
crops  in  Denmark,  the  news  is  flashed  at  once 
to  America,  and  vessels  loaded  for  the  Baltic 
are  clearing  for  sea  in  twenty-four  hours.  In 
a  word,  they  are  the  last  best  device  for  simpli- 
fying trade  and  reducing  buying  and  selling  to 
an  exact  science.  Unfortunately  the  magni- 
tude of  the  business  done  and  the  methods 
of  doing  it  are  making  of  the  Exchanges 
gigantic  engines  for  robbery  and  oppression, 
instead  of,  as  they  should  be,  blessings  to  the 
land. 


\ 


K" 


412 


BOARDS  OF  TRADE  AND  STOCK   EXCHANGES. 


DEALING  IN  FUTURES. 

The  door  by  whicli  the  abuses  crept  into  this  great  system 
was  one  opened  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  trade.  Sup- 
pose a  miller  tal<es  a  contract  to  supply  so  many  thousand  bar- 
rels of  flour  during  July  and  August.  He  first  goes  on 'Change 
and  contracts  «ith  a  wheat  merchant  to  deliver  to  him  so  many 
thousand  bushels  of  wheat  during  July  and  August,  at  a  certain 
fixed  price.    This  is  legitimate  and  business-like;  but  note  what 


why  be  bothered  with  a  commodity  that  is  of  no  value  to  him? 
The  next  step  was  easy.  A.,  in  May,  sells  B.  5,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  to  be  delivered  in  June,  at  $i.io  a  bushel.  June  ends, 
and  on  settling  day  the  marl^et  price  of  wheat  is  $i.iS.  A. 
does  not  deliver  to  B.  the  wheat  ;  he  simply  hands  him  $400, 
the  difference  on  5,000  bushels  between  the  price  at  which  he 
bought  and  the  market.  The  grain  has  become  a  commercial 
fiction,  W'hich  neither  party  cares  anything  about.  Simj^ly,  the 
two  men  are  betting  on  the  price  of  the  staple  on  the  30th  uf 


THE  CHICAGO  BOARD  OF  TRADE  BUILDING. 

Tlie  Greatest  Speculative  Market  in  the  iVortd.      Its  dusiness  traitsactions  for  one  year  amount  to 
more  than  Three  Thousand  Million  Dollars. 


^ 


follows.  Another  man,  not  a  miller,  or  not  really  desiring  to 
grind  the  wheat  into  flour,  Ijelieves  that  when  July  or  August 
come,  the  market  value  of  wheat  will  be  higher  than  the  wheat 
can  be  now  bought  for  delivery  then,  and  he  buys  on  speculation 
for  future  delivery.  For  a  long  time  the  wheat  was  delivered 
actually  and  resold  again  by  the  purchaser,  but  this  process  at 
last  became  too  slow  for  progressive  America.  The  purchaser 
does  not  want  the  wheat ;  he  has  no  actual  use  for  it.     Then 


June.  A.  bets  that  it  will  be  $i.io,' or  less.  B.  bets  that  it 
will  be  more,  and  the  rule  of  the  game  is  that  the  loser  shall 
pay  the  difference  between  his  guess  and  the  actual  price.  In- 
stead of  legitimate  trading,  the  two  men  are  gambling  as  truly 
as  if  they  were  betting  on  the  turn  of  a  card  or  the  speed  of  a 
horse.  The  game,  like  all  popular  gambling  games,  is  exceed- 
ingly simple.  If  the  market  goes  up  or  down,  you  lose  or  win 
as  you  have  staked  your  money. 


\ 


V 


/ 


BOARDS  OF  TRADE  AND  STOCK    EXCHANGES. 


413 


OPTION  TRADING. 

It  soon  came  to  be  a  recognized  and  legitimate  trade,  this  deal- 
ing in  Futures  —  a  part,  and  indeed  the  greater  part,  of  the 
business  of  tlie  Exchanges.  At  first,  as  we  have  said  above, 
the  actual  grain  or  pork  was  transferred  and  the  whole  amount 
uf  money  paid  over.  New  features  were  introduced,  giving 
the  buyer  or  the  seller,  as  the  case  might  be,  the  "  option  "  of 
settling  at  any  time  between  the  transaction  and  a  given  date. 
A  trade  made  "  seller  June,"  for  instance,  means  that  the  seller 
can  tender  the  merchandise  at  any  time  during  June,  and  the 
buyer  must  pay  for  it  when  tendered.  A  trade  "  buyer  June  " 
just  reverses  this,  and  permits  the  purchaser  to  demand  the 
goods  at  any  time  in  June  that  he  sees  fit.  Grain  and  pro- 
visions are  sold  under  both  these  options  for  each  month  and 
for  the  year. 

A  Put  is  a  peculiar  privilege  of  this  sort.  A.  thinks  that 
wheat  is  going  down.  It  is  to-day  $1.12;  by  paying  $5  or  $10 
to  B. ,  B.  gives  him  the  right  to  "  put  "  or  deliver  him  500 
bushels  at  $1. 10)2  within  three  days.  If  the  grain  does  not  go 
down  below  ifi.io/4,  A.  simply  loses  what  he  paid  for  the 
put;  if  it  goes  below  $i.ioX>  15.  gives  him  the  difference 
between  $i.ioj'^and  the  market  price  at  which  he  makes  up 
his  mind  to  close. 

A  Call  is  a  privilege  the  reverse  of  a  put.  The  buyer  of  a 
call  buys  the  right  to  call  or  demand  a  specified  amount  of 
grain  at  a  price  named,  and  the  seller  must  deliver  it  or  pay 
the  difference. 

A  Straddle  is  a  combination  of  the  put  and  the  call. 
It  gives  the  purchaser  the  right  to  get  the  difference  if  the 
grain  goes  either  up  or  down.  In  other  words,  the  man  selling 
the  straddle  bets  that,  within  the  specified  time,  wheat  will  not 
fluctuate  ;  the  buyer  bets  that  it  will. 

A  "  call  "  is  generally  sold  a  couple  of  cents  under  the  mar- 
ket ;  a  "  put "  a  couple  of  cents  over,  and  a  "  straddle  "  a  couple 
of  cents  on  both  sides,  the  difTerence  being  usually  enough  to 
much  more  than  protect  the  seller. 


MARGINS. 

The  gentlemen  who  built  up  this  elaborate  system  of  wind 
trading  soon  saw  that,  while  it  was  entirely  unnecessary  that 
any  gi'ain  or  provisions  should  change  hands,  some  sort  of  a 
valuable  stake  should  be  upon  the  board.  The  vultures  who 
live  upon  this  business  have  little  confidence  in  human  honesty, 
and,  to  clinch  trades,  they  invented  another  improvement — the 
margin.  A.  sells  B.  5,000  bushels  of  December  wheat  at  $1. 10  ; 
each  man  puts  up  a  "  margin  "  of  one  cent  a  bushel,  $50  in  the 
hands  of  the  legal  stakeholder,  the  secretary  of  the  Exchange. 
The  market  drops  to  $1.09.  A.  at  once  demands  more  "  mar- 
gin" of  B.,  who  must  put  up  another  cent  a  bushel,  and  keep 
on  putting  up  as  long  as  the  market  keeps  going  down,  for, 
when  he  ceases  to  protect  the  property  by  keeping  a  clear 
margin  put  up,  he  is  in  danger  of  being  closed  out,  and  A.  will 


freeze  him  out  the  moment  his  margin  is  exhausted.  As  soon 
as  the  trade  is  closed,  the  stakehokling  secretary  hands  over  the 
"  margin  "  to  the  winner.  If,  instead  of  going  down,  the 
grain  had  gone  up,  A.  would  have  had  to  put  U])  the  margins 
just  in  the  same  way  as  B.  was  compelled  to  do  it.  From  this 
we  see  that  a  margin  may  be  defined  as  a  sum  of  money  put  up 
as  a  forfeit  to  .secure'the  w  inner  in  an  option  trade.  When  the 
margin  is  exhausted,  so  that  further  loss  is  not  guaranteed  to 
the  winner  by  a  ca.sh  deposit,  it  is  the  custom  to  close  the 
trade  and  "  rake  in  the  pot,"  as  other  gamblers  would  say. 


CORNERS. 

Supposing  that  there  are  six  million  bales  of  cotton  in  the 
country,  and  A.,  B.  and  C,  great  capitalists,  combine  their 
money  and  buy  up  five  million  bales.  They  are  said  to  have 
"  cornered  "  the  cotton  market.  The  purchase  makes  them 
masters  of  the  situation,  and  they  can  put  what  price  they  wish 
on  the  cotton,  which  the  spinners  are  waiting  to  buy.  This 
was  the  old-fashioned  way  of  "  cornering. "  It  is  obsolete  now. 
Say  there  are  six  million  bales  in  the  land,  and  the  .syndicate 
buys  from  those  who  sell,  without  having  the  stuff,  ten  million 
bales,  to  be  delivered  in  January.  Settling  day  comes,  and  the 
syndicate  will  not  take  the  differences  ;  they  demand  the  actual 
cotton,  all  of  which  they  own  themselves,  and  after  selling  it  at 
a  low  price,  the  unfortunate  brokei's  who  are  caught  have  to 
buy  it,  from  the  very  men  they  must  deliver  to,  at  as  high  a  rate 
as  the  holders'  consciences  will  permit  them  to  charge. 

Beginning  with  future  trading,  the  phantom  of  a  bushel  of 
wheat  or  corn,  or  a  barrel  of  provisions,  becomes  entirely  disas- 
sociated with  the  actual  merchandise.  And  in  every  exchange 
thousands  of  bushels  are  bought  and  sold  for  every  one  bushel 
brought  into  the  elevators,  and  hundreds  of  tierces  of  ficti- 
tious and  ghostly  lard  for  every  one  tierce  run  in  the  pork- 
houses.  The  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  sells  every  day  as  much 
wheat  as  the  State  of  Illinois  harvests  in  a  year.  Its  yearly 
sale  is  five  times  the  whole  amount  of  wheat  raised  in  the 
Union.  Its  spectral  hogs  outnumber  the  real  hogs  in  the  land 
three  to  one.  But,  although  one  may  sell  phantoms  all  day 
long,  when  settling  day  comes  and  the  purchaser  demands  the 
real  article  of  which  you  have  sold  him  the  image  or  ghost,  you 
must  produce.  And  if  the  seller  owns  all  the  grain,  or  all  the 
lard  in  the  market,  it  is  from  him  you  must  buy  in  order  to 
deliver.  The  fiction  is  turned  into  a  reality,  and  the  screws 
put  on  with  terrible  effect.  Last  year,  in  1S82,  to  show  how 
these  things  are  done,  one  firm  in  St.  Louis  obtained  control  of 
all  the  oats  in  siglit,  besides  owning  many  thousands  of  bushels 
of  futures.  They  fixed  the  settling  price  at  41  cents.  If  any 
of  those  who  had  sold  them  the  oats  could  bviy  the  grain  any 
cheajier  anywhere  else,  of  course  they  were  free  to  buy  it  and 
deliver,  but  this  one  firm  owned  all  the  oats,  and  the  unfortu- 
nate shorts  had  to  come  up  and  settle  at  the  price  named.  A 
little  later  a  wheat  corner  was  attempted,  but  the  shorts  were 
alarmed  in  time  before  the  syndicate  got  control  of  the  market, 
and  by  remarkable  push  were  able  to  secure  the  grain  and 
deliver  it,  to  the  utter  discomfiture  of  the  longs.     In  a  corner, 


K- 


-M 


V 


414 


BOARDS  OF  TRADE  AND  STOCK    EXCHANGES. 


~V\ 


each  side  proceeds  upon  the  supposition  that  the  seller  is  selling 
what  he  has  not  got,  and  the  buyer  is  buying  what  he  does  not 
want.  Any  combination  of  men  with  an  unlimited  supply  of 
money,  unless  they  are  met  by  another  combination  with  an 
equally  long  purse,  can  corner  any  article  in  the  market.  The 
process  is  beautifully  simple.  It  consists  in  buying  more  than 
can  be  delivered,  and  then  making  the  sellers  deliver  or  forfeit 
their  margins. 


THE  RESULTS  OF  CORNERS. 

With  a  wisdom  which,  under  other  circumstances,  would  be 
highly  commendable,  the  gentlemen  who  make  the  corners  al- 
ways select  some  article  which  must  find  a  market,  and  as  there 
is  but  one  vital  necessity,  y'i'oa' is  the  favorite  article  which  is 
manipulated.  The  corner  always  makes  food  dear.  It  buys 
grain  and  provisions  at  low  prices,  and  forces  them  up  to  high 
ones,  and  the  misfortune  is,  that  the  cost  of  the  real  grain  must 
go  up  with  the  cost  of  the  fictitious  article.  The  livelihood, 
the  sustenance  of  the  whole  people,  is  made  the  battledore  and 
shuttlecock  of  the  gamblers  on  the  Exchange.  We  quote  from 
an  exhaustive  article  on  this  subject  by  Henry  D.  Lloyd,  in  the 
North  American  Review  (August,  1SS3): 

"  Dr.  Drysdale,  of  London,  at  the  last  session  of  the  Social 
Science  Congress,  pointed  out  how  the  death  rate  rose  with 
scarcity  of  food.  The  mean  age  of  the  rich  in  England  at  the 
time  of  death  is  fifty-five  ;  among  the  poor  it  is  not  thirty. 
The  death  rate  among  the  children  of  the  comfortable  classes  is 
eighty  in  a  thousand ;  among  the  working  people  of  Manches- 
ter and  Liverpool  it  is  three  hundred  in  a  thousand.  Dr.  Farr 
shows  that  the  death  rate  of  England  decreases  three  per  cent 
when  wheat  declines  two  shillings  a  quarter.  As  food  grows 
dear,  typhus  glows  plenty.  Scarcer  bread  means  more  crime. 
.•\n  increase  of  one  larceny  to  every  hundred  thousand  in- 
habitants comes  with  every  rise  of  two  farthings  in  the  price  of 
wheat  in  Bavaria.  The  enemies  of  the  men  who  corner  wheat 
and  pork  could  wish  for  no  heavier  burden  on  their  souls  than 
that  they  should  be  successful.  As  wheat  rises,  flour  rises;  and 
when  flour  becomes  dear,  through  manipulation,  it  is  the  blood 
of  the  poor  that  flows  into  the  treasury  of  the  syndicate.  Such 
money  costs  too  much.  The  following  from  the  records  of  the 
Chicago  market  shows  how  the  wheat  corners  of  the  last  four 
years  have  enhanced  the  price  of  bread.  The  coincidence  is 
doubly  significant,  because  flour  is  not  one  of  the  speculative 
commodities  of  the  Board.  It  is  bought  and  sold  only  for  use. 
But  its  prices  are  glued  to  the  speculative  quotations  of  wheat: 


The  Corner  of  1879. 
Wheat  lowest,  January,  81X  ;  highest,  December,  $1.33. 
Flour  lowest,  January,  $4.00  ;  highest,  December,  $6.50. 

The  Corner  of  i88i. 
Wheat  lowest,  February,  96^  ;  highest,  October,  $1.43. 
Flour  lowest,  February,  $4.75  ;  highest,  September,  $7.50. 


The  .\pril  Corner  of  1S82. 

Wheat  highest,  April,  $1.42  ;  falling  to  9134;  in  November. 
Flour  highest.  May,  $6.25  ;  falling  to  $4.75  in  December. 


"  The  return  of  the  price  after  the  corner  does  not  fill  the 
stomachs  that  have  been  pinched  for  months.  Every  moment 
the  corner  lasts  there  is  a  mouthful  of  food  the  less  for  the 
laboring  man.  Every  hour  of  its  continuance  some  child  in 
Pittsburg  or  Manchester  grows  more  faint,  and  every  day  hun- 
dreds of  little  hands  let  go  another  finger  from  the  slippery 
edge  of  existence.  One  of  the  iron  manufacturers  of  the 
West,  President  O.  W.  Potter,  of  the  North  Chicago  Rolling 
Mills,  the  employer  of  many  thousands  of  men,  when  ques- 
tioned in  May  about  the  strike  of  iron-workers,  then  believed 
to  be  impending,  and  promising  to  be  the  worst  that  had  yet 
taken  place  in  this  country,  said: 

"  '  The  laborers  oppose  the  reduction  of  wages  for  the  very 
good  reason  that  they  cannot  live  upon  any  lower  wages.  And 
that  is  true.  They  cannot  stand  the  reduction  with  the  high 
price  of  living.  There  are  some  things  that  are  not  to  be 
talked  about  in  public  that  bring  this  about,  and  one  of  them  is 
the  cornering  of  food  on  the  Board  of  Trade.  A  few  men 
manipulate  the  foods  of  the  workingmen,  and  create  a  corner 
in  wheat  and  meats,  and  the  laborer  has  to  pay  the  increased 
cost.  They  turn  the  screws,  and  up  go  the  prices  a  notch  or 
two.  And  they  may  let  up  so  that  the  market  goes  down  a  lit- 
tle ;  but  all  the  time  a  few  men  are  making  money,  and  the 
laborer  gets  no  better  fare  and  pays  no  lower  price  for  the 
necessaries  of  life.  I  am  apprehensive  of  the  results  that  all 
this  will  bring  about,  and  there  is  more  anxiety  in  certain 
quarters  about  the  future  than  people  dare  to  imagine.'  " 


THE  BUCKET-SHOPS. 

The  fiction  of  value  which  is  always  preserved  on  the  Ex- 
changes is  entirely  cast  aside  in  the  "  bucket-shops, "  which  are  a 
sort  of  warts  or  excrescences  which  have  grown  out  upon  the 
commercial  body  in  our  large  cities.  These  places  secure  the 
Chicago  and  New  York  quotations  and  furnish  to  boys  and  the 
poorer  clerks  the  same  opportunities  for  gambling  offered  to 
their  betters  in  the  Exchanges.  Here  the  poorest  can  try  his 
luck  on  grain,  just  as  at  the  fair  he  can  try  it  at  thimblerig  or 
three-card  monte.  You  can  make  a  trade  in  pork  or  wheat 
which  will  involve  as  small  an  amount  as  five  dollars  ;  in  a 
word,  the  wholesale  methods  of  the  great  Boards  of  Trade  are 
diminished  to  retail  robbery  in  the  bucket-shop.  Here  there 
is  no  pretence  of  delivery  of  the  merchandise.  The  victim  goes 
through  the  form  of  buying  or  selling,  but  it  is  a  form  and 
nothing  more.  The  profits  and  losses  depend  upon  the  quota- 
tions, which  are  often  doctored  and  are  never  wholly  reliable. 
False  figures  are  posted  again  and  again,  and  the  Iamb  is  shorn 
of  his  little  fleece  in  the  most  barefaced  manner.  The  bucket- 
shop  keeper  is  generally  a  broken-down  broker  from  the  Board 
of  Trade  who  has  lost  what  remnant  of  self-respect  remained 


A^ 


-N 


"7^ 


BOARDS  OK  TRADE   AND  STOCK    KXCHANGES. 


415 


to  him.  The  shops  are  exactly  on  a  par  with  the  pool-rooms 
and  other  gambling  hells  to  be  found  in  every  city,  and  they 
are  more  demoralizing  because  they  are  more  easy  of  access. 

KlcTiTl0i;3  Quotations  are,  as  we  said,  one  of  the  com- 
monest devices  of  the  bucket-shop.  These  are  effected  in  dif- 
ferent ways  ;  sometimes  false  telegrams  are  sent  from  the  main 
source  of  information  ;  more  frequently  the  telegraph  operator 
is  furnished  with  the  figures  he  is  to  post  up  instead  of  those 
really  telegraphed. 


Freezing-out  is  another  cunning  device,  by  which  the  little 
margin  put  up  by  the  lamb  is  jobbed.  The  moment  the  com- 
modity falls  to  a  certain  point,  even  though  the  margin  is  not 
exhausted,  the  trade  is  declared  closed  and  the  loss  charged  up 
against  the  amateur  operator.  This  high-handed  proceeding 
is  the  most  fruitful  of  all  in  the  reach  of  the  bucket-shops. 
Like  Dante's  Inferno,  one  motto  should  be  painted  over  all  of 
them  : 

"All  hope  abandon  yc  who  enter  here." 


'fm^.¥^- 


^^^^ 


^^ 


■2si^_ 


TERMS  USED  ON  'CHANGE. 


Accommodation  Paper. — Notes  or  bills  not  representing  an  actual  sale 
or  tr-\de  transaction,  but  merely  drawn  to  be  discounted  for  the  benefit  of 
drawt  r,  acceptor  or  endorsers,  or  all  combined. 

Accord  and  Satisfaction. — Offer  and  acceptance  of  one  thing  in  place 
of  another  due. 

Account  Sales. — The  account  of  a  broker  or  commission  agent,  showing 
amount  and  rate  of  sales,  expenses  of  freight,  commission,  etc.,  and  net 
amount  due  the  principal. 

Advances. — Money  paid  before  goods  are  delivered  to  buyer  or  sold  by 
broker. 

Arbitration, — Settlement  of  disputes  by  disinterested  parties. 

Balance  of  Trade. — Difference  in  value  between  total  imports  and  ex- 
ports of  a  country. 

Ballooning. — To  work  up  a  stock  far  beyond  its  intrinsic  worth  by 
favorable  stories  or  fictitious  sales. 

Bear. — One  who  strives  to  depress  the  price  of  stocks,  etc.,  and  for  this 
reason  "goes  short." 

Buying  Long. — Buying  in  expectation  of  a  rise. 

Board  of  Trade. — An  association  of  business  men  to  regulate  matters 
of  trade  and  further  their  interests,  and  for  the  settlement  of  differences  be- 
tween its  members.  About  equivalent  to  Merchants'  Exchangee  or  Cham- 
ber of  Coifunerce. 

Ereadstuffs.— Any  kind  of  grain,  com  or  meal. 

Brokf.r. — An  agent  or  factor;  a  middleman  paid  by  commission. 

Brokerage. — A  percentage  for  the  purchase  or  sale  of  money  and  stocks. 

Bull. — A  broker  or  dciler  who  believes  that  the  value  of  slocks  or  bread- 
StufTs  will  rise,  and  speculates  for  a  rise  —  "goes  long."  * 

Call. — Demand  for  payment  of  instalments  due  »  n  srock. 

Call. — A  privilege  given  to  another  to  "call"  for  delivery  at  a  time  and 
price  fixed. 

Chamber  of  Commerce. — An  association  of  merchants  for  the  encour- 
agement of  trade. 

Clique, — A  combination  of  operators  controlling  large  capital  in  order  to 
unduly  expand  or  break  down  the  market. 

Collaterals." — Any  kind  of  values  given  in  pawn  when  money  is  bor- 
rowed. 

Commission. — A  percentage  allowed  an  agent  or  broker  for  a  sale. 

Corners. — The  buying  up  of  a  large  quantity  of  stocks  or  grain  to  raise 
the  price.  When  the  market  is  oversold,  the  shorts,  if  compelled  to  deliver, 
find  themselves  in  a  "  corner." 

Curbstone  Brokers. — Brokers  or  agents  who  arc  not  members  of  any 
regular  organization,  and  do  business  mainly  on  the  sidewalk. 


Delivery. — When  stock  or  grain  is  brought  to  the  buyer  in  exac 
accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Exchange,  it  is  called  a  good  delivery. 
When  there  are  irregularities  the  delivery  is  pronounced  bad,  and  the  buyer 
can  appeal  to  the  Exchange. 

Differences. — The  price  at  which  a  stock  is  bargained  for  and  the  rate 
or  day  of  delivery  are  not  usually  the  same,  the  variation  being  termed  the 
difference. 

Engrosser. — One  who  takes  the  whole  of  a  line  of  goods  ;  a  forestaller; 
one  who  "  corners  the  market  "  on  commodities. 

Exchange. — Place  where  merchants  meet  to  transact  business;  diff:r- 
ence  in  value  of  currencies  ;  percentage  on  sale  of  bills. 

Exchange  Broker. — One  who  negotiates  foreign  bills  of  exchange. 

Factor. — An  agent  appointed  to  sell  goods  on  commission. 

Factorage.— Commissions  allowed  factors. 

Flat. — Inactive;  depressed;  dull.  The _/?a/ value  of  bonds  and  stccks 
is  the  value  without  interest. 

Flyer. — A  small  side  operation,  not  employing  one's  whole  capital. 

Forcing  Quotations  is  where  brokers  wish  to  keep  up  the  price  of  a 
siock  and  to  prevent  its  falling  out  of  sight.  This  is  generally  accompli  ihed 
by  a  small  sale. 

Grain. — Collective  name  for  all  cereals. 

Gunning  a  stock  is  to  use  every  art  to  produce  a  break  when  it  is  known 
that  a  certain  house  is  heavily  supplied  and  would  be  unable  to  resist  an 
attack. 

Kite-Flving. — Expanding  one's  credit  beyond  wholesome  limits. 

Lame  Duck. — Stock-brokers'  slang  for  one  tmable  to  meet  his  liabilities. 

Long. — One  is  long  when  he  carries  stock  or  grain  for  a  rise. 

Pointer. — A  theory  or^act  regarding  the  market  on  which  one  bases  a 
speculation. 

Pool.— The  stock  or  money  contributed  by  a  clique  to  carry  through  a 
corner. 

Price  Current.— The  prevailing  price  of  merchandise,  stock  or  .secur- 
ities. 

Selling  Short.— To  "sell  short"  is  to  sell  for  future  delivery  what 
one  has  not  got,  in  hopes  that  prices  will  fall. 

Stock. — Shares  in  the  capital  of  a  corporation  ;  goods  on  hand. 

Stock  Broker. — One  who  buys  and  sells  stocks  on  commission. 

Stock  Exchange. — A  place  where  shares  of  stock  are  bought  and  sold. 

Stock  Jobber. — One  who  speculates  in  stocks. 

Time  Bargain. — A  contract  for  future  sale  of  stock. 

Watering  a  stuck  is  the  art  of  doubling  the  quantity  of  stock  without 
improving  its  quality. 


-:^ 


KT 


416 


PEALE  S    TELEGRAPHIC    CODE. 


p^g^^^^^^^^^^^^g^^M^MMMSMMM^^MS^^MM^MMMM^MMMMMMl] 


[g]^^^^^^g^^^[5p[5ifa[5ua[5i[a[5ng[5pi5!fa[5^ 


Making  a  Complete  Business  Cipher  for  the  Use  of  the  Merchant,  the  Banicer 

and   Broker. 


OR  convenience  as  well  as  secrecy 
in  telegraphing,  bankers,  brokers 
and  merchants  have  adopted  Tele- 
■•32  graphic  Ciphers.  This  is  merely  a 
system  of  words  mutually  agreed 
upon,  of  which  each  has  a  list  ar- 
-XlSv>  ranged  in  alphabetical  form  and  of 
"^'m  easy  reference.  By  this  arrange- 
^■*-3s  ment  the  operator  does  not  know 
the  meaning  of  the  message  he 
may  be  sending  or  receiving  over  the  wires, 
thus  ensuring  secrecy.  Then  again  a  large 
saving  in  telegraph  tolls  is  made,  one  word 
usually  standing  for  an  entire  order  for  the 
shipment  of  goods,  etc.  There  is  also  a  Cable 
Code  arranged  in  a  similar  manner  and  exten- 
sively used.  The  system  given  below  is  one 
carefully  prepared  to  meet  every  exigency  of 
business,  the  words  printed  having  been  se- 
lected with  great  care,  not  alone  from  their  own  legibility  when 
written  but  from  their  security  in  telegraphing,  few  of  them 
being  open  to  common  telegraphic  mistakes. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  a  merchant  in  StrLouis  desires  to  tele- 
graph the  following  message  to  his  correspondent  in  Kansas 
City:  "  Ship  immediately  five  packages,  eight  pounds  average, 
plain  hams,  canvased."  Using  the  cipher,  he  would  simply 
send  the  following  three  words:  " Freeing  badgereth  exactly." 
Again,  "Ship  if  possible  before  freights  advance  5,000  bushels 
No.  2  Chicago  spring  wheat."  This  message  would  be  worded 
thus:  "Frigate  boilers  utility."  The  word  "Hogpen"  sent 
from  a  broker  to  a  customer  would  mean  :  "  Unless  you  provide 
additional  margin at  once,  we  must  sell  your  property." 

Morse's  Telegraph  Alphabet  is  used  in  the  transmission  of 
messages.     This  is  appended : 


The  Morse  Alphabet. 

A  B        C        D       E        F  G  II      I       J           K 

L         M         N          O         P  n  R        S        T        U 

V  \V        X         Y         Z 

I              23               4  5  678 


9  o 


The  Telegraphic  Detector. 

The  following  plan  is  a  very  simple  one  for  detecting  errors 
in  telegraphic  dispatches.  It  shows  the  letters  most  likely  to  be 
misspelled  in  transmitting  or  receiving,  with  the  corresponding 
letters  of  the  Morse  Alphabet.  The  Detector  is  easily  understood 
and  is  valuable  to  all  persons  who  use  the  telegraph  : 

A  . —    may  be  transmitted     e  t 


D— .. 
K. 
F.— . 

G . 


a  li 


rv 


peale's  telegraphic  code. 


417 


T 


II.... 


V  00 

•'     or  or 


J— •— • 

tt 

K— .— 

u 

L-^ 

<c 

M 

it 

N— . 

(( 

0.. 

C( 

P 

«( 

Q  ..— . 

it 

R.  .. 

tt 

S  ... 

It 

T  — 

tt 

U..— 

It 

V...— 

tt 

w . 

tt 

X.— .. 

tt 

Y .. .. 

tt 

z... . 

tt 

or 

_^_or^_^_or 

t   e 

n 

1 

.-  °'  -.  - 

t 

e 

s 

s 

=  %r  '  '  or 

i 

"   or   °    " 

nr 

c    f    ^^    u    e 

.. 

.                .    .   . 



s 

r 

1 

i 

'   or    "     t 

or 

e    a 

—        .  .   — 

.  .— 

s 

t 

a 

t           a      1 
or 

orr_"L  . 

a 

i           a     0 
or 

or^^ 

i 

i           0     0 

h 

h  e 


Thus,  if  a  word  appears  in  a  message  of  which  you  have 
doubts,  by  turning  to  the  Detector  you  can  at  once  see  what 
Morse  letters  are  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  each  other,  and  cor- 
rect the  mistal<e  yourself.  In  cipher  dispatches  this  becomes 
of  great  importance. 

The  Manner  of  Using  the  Code. 

To  make  the  Code  so  plain  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its 
usefulness,  suppose  that  you  wish  to  telegraph  an  inquiry  to 
your  br^erin  St.  Louis  as  to  a  shipment  of  five  car-loads  of  city 
sugar-cured  hams  which  you  desire.  Turning  to  the  chapter  on 
shipping,  run'  :iown  till  you  come  to  "when  can  you  ship,"  and 
you  tind  the  word  "  foramenous";  then  turn  to  quantities  and 
over  against  "5  carloads"  you  find  the  word  "budgeth";  again 
turn  to  provisions,  and  for  "city  sugar-cured  hams"  you  see  the 
word  "exactuate."     Your  dispatch  will  then  read ; 

Hannibal,  Mo,,  May  10,  *S$. 
K  C.  Smith  6^  Co.,  St.  Louis : 

Foramenous  budgeth  exactuate. 

Chas.  H.  Wyman  &  Co. 


In  a  few  hours  you  receive  a  reply : 

St.  I.ouis,  Mo.,  May  10,  'S$. 
Chas.  H.  Wyman  ^  Co.: 

Fostering  frondation  Tuesday. 

F.  C.  Smith  &  Co. 

Taking  your  code,  remembering  that  it  is  arranged  alphabet- 
ically, and  turning  along  the  pages  until  you  come  to  the  words 
beginning  with  "  F,"  you  run  down  the  page  to  "  Fostering" 
and  find  it  means  "Can  ship  immediately,"  and  "  Frondation" 

means,  "Understand  freights  will  be  reduced  on /'while 

the  word  "Tuesday"  speaks  for  itself.     If  you  decide  to  wait 
for  the  drop  in  rates,  you  turn  again  to  shipments,  and  find 

against  the  sentence,    **  If  freights  are  to    be   reduced   , 

postpone  shipment  for  these  rates,"  the  wcrd  "  frigatoon." 

Your  reply  will  be : 

Hannibal,  Mo.,  May  10,  'S3. 
F.  C,  Smith  6=  Co.,  St.  Louis: 

Frigatoon. 

Chas.  H.  Wyman  &  Co. 

Thus  you  have  saved  the  telegraph  tolls  on  twenty-seven  use- 
less words — over  half  a  dollar  on  one  transaction  alone. 

QUANTITIES. 

To  be  understood,  for  loose  or  unpacked  meat,  pounds  ;  for  packed 
meat,  packages;  for  flour,  barrels;  for  grain,  bushels. 

bamboozling 200 


backsword i 

backward - 

backwardly 3 

badgered 4 

badgereth 5 

badgering 6 

badinage 7 

badness S 

bafflers 9 

baffieth 10 

baffling 15 

bagatelle 20 

baggages 25 

bagpipes 3^ 

bagpipers 35 

bailable 40 

bailiff 50 

bailiwick 60 

balance 7° 

balancing So 

balconies {;o 

balcony »oo 

balderdash 105 

l^aldness no 

baldric 115 

balearic 120 

bak-fid 125 

balcf  ully 130 

balister 135 

balkin 140 

ballast 145 

ballasted 150 

ballasting 155 

balloon 160 

ballolled 165 

ballotting 1 70 

balluster 175 

ballustcrcd iSo 

ballustradc 1S5 

balsamic 190 

bamboozle 195 


bandages 210 

bandageth 220 

bandaging 230 

bandana 240 

bandbox 250 

ba'ndelct 260 

banditties 270 

banditty 2S0 

bandoleer 290 

bandrols 300 

baneful 310 

banefuliy 320 

bancfulncss 330 

banewort 340 

banished 350 

banisheth 360 

banishing 370 

banishment 3S0 

banister 31/) 

banking 400 

bankrupt 410 

bankruptcies 420 

bankruptcy 430 

bannered 440 

bannerets 450 

bannock 460 

banquet 470 

banqueted 4S0 

banqueteth 490 

banqueting 500 

banshee 510 

bantereth 520 

bantering 53"^ 

bantling 540 

baptism 550 

baptismal 560 

baptistical 570 

baptists sSo 

baptize 590 

haptizers 600 

baptizeth 610 


iii 
■^ 


k 


baptizing* 620 

barbacue 630 

barbarian 640 

barbarism 650 

barbarities 660 

barbarity 670 

barbarize 6S0 

barbanzcth 690 

barbarizing -00 

barbarous 710 

barbarously 730 

barbarousness 730 

barberries 740 

barberry -50 

bareboncd 760 

barefaced 770 

bareness 7S0 

bargained 790 

bargainers Soo 

bargaineth Sio 

bargaining S20 

barilla S30 

barleycorn S40 

barmaid S50 

barmmg S60 

barnacle S70 

barometer SSo 

barometrical S90 

baronage 900 

baroness gio 

baronet 920 

baronetage 930 

baronical 940 

baronies 950 

barony 960 

barouche 970 

barrator gSo 

barratrj- cjgo 

barrenness i  ,000 

barricade i  ^050 

barricadeth 1,100 

barricading 1,150 

barrier i  ,200 

barrister 1,250 

barterers i  ,300 

batteries i  ,350 

bartery .1 ,400 

barites i  ,450 

barystone 1,500 

basaltes j  ^ccq 

basaltic 1,600 

basanite 1,650 

baseness 1,700 

basement i,7So 

basenet i,Soo 

bashaw 1,850 

bashful 1  ,goo 

bashfully 1,950 

bashfulncss 2,000 

basilic 2,050 

basilical 2,100 

basilicon .   2,150 

basilisk 2,200 

basoon 2,250 

basooncst 2,300 

bastard 2,350 

bastardism 2,400 

bastardize 2,450 

bastardy 2,500 

bastinade 2,550 


bastinadeth 2,600 

bastinading 2,650 

basting 2,700 

bastilc 2 ,750 

bastion 2,Soo 

bathing 2,850 

blueness 2 ,900 

bluff  ness 2,950 

bluishness 3,000 

blunder 3,050 

blunderbuss 3,100 

blunderer 3,150 

blundereth 3,200 

blunderhead 3,250 

blundering 3,300 

blunderingly 313^0 

bluntly 3,400 

bluntness 3,45o 

blurted 3,500 

blurteth 3,550 

blurting 3.600 

blushed 3,650 

blusheth 3,700 

blushful 3,  750 

blushing 3,500 

blushless 3,850 

bluster 3,900 

blustered 3,950 

blusterers 4,000 

blustereth 4,050 

blustering 4,100 

boarded 4,150 

boarders 4,200 

boardeth 4,250 

boarding 4,300 

boasted 4,350 

boasters 4,400 

boasteth .4,450 

t^oastful 4,500 

boasting 4,550 

boastingly 4^600 

boastlcss 4,650 

boatman 4700 

boatswain 4  -50 

bodemcnt 4,800 

bodiless 4,550 

boggleth 4^900 

boggling 4,950 

boilers 5,000 

boiling 5^100 

boisterous 5  200 

boisterously 5.300 

boldened 5,^00 

boldeneth 5,500 

boldening 5,600 

boldness 5,-00 

bolster 5^500 

bolstered 5,900 

bolstercth 6,000 

bolstering 6,100 

bombard (,  200 

bombarded 6,300 

bombardeth 6,400 

bombardier 6,500 

bombardmg 6,600 

bombasin 6,700 

bombast 6,Soo 

bombastic 6,900 

bonassus 7  000 

bondage 7,100 


bondeth 7|200 

bonding 7,300 

boneless ",400 

bonfire 7,500 

bonnily 7,600 

booking 7,700 

boometh 7,800 

booming 7,900 

boorish S,ooo 

boorishly S,ioo 

boorishness 8,200 

bordered 8,300 

borderers 8,400 

bordereth 8,500 

bordering S,6oo 

borough 5,700 

borrowers. S,8oo 

borroweth 8,900 

borrowing 9,000 

botanic 9,100 

botanical 9,200 

botanically 9,300 

botanist 9,400 

botanize 9,5oo 

botanizeth 9,600 

botanizing 9,700 

bothers 9,800 

botcheth 9,900 

botching 10,000 

bothered 1 1 ,000 

botherers 12,000 

bothereth 13,000 

bothering 14,000 

bottled 15,000 

bottlers 16,000 

bottleth 1 7,000 

bottling iS,ooo 

bottomed 19,000 

bottometh 20,000 

bottoming 21,000 

bottomless 22,000 

bottomries 23,000 

bottomry 24,000 

boudoirs 25,000 

bouillon 26,000 

bouncers 27,000 

bounceth 28,000 

bouncing 29,000 

boundaries 30,000 

boundary 31,000 

bounded 32,000 

boundeth 33,000 

boundmg 34,000 

boundless 35, 000 

bounteous  36,000 

bounteously 37,ooo 

bountifulness 38,000 

bouquets 39,ooo 

bourgeon 40,000 

boutade 41,000 

bowlders 42,000 

bowlines 43,000 

bowsprit 44,000 

boyhood 45,000 

boyishness 46,000 

bracelet 47,ooo 

bracing 48,000 

brachial 49,000 

brachman 50,000 

brackishness 51,000 


braggadocio ,52,000 

braggart S3,ooo 

bragged 54,000 

braggclh 55,000 

bragging 59,000 

braggingly 57,ooo 

brahmins 58,000 

braided 59,000 

braideth 60,000 

braiding 61 ,000 

brainless 62,000 

brambled 63,000 

branchless 64,000 

hrandeth 65,000 

branding 66,000 

brandish ..67,000 

branglcs 6S,ooo 

brasiers 69,000 

bravado   70,000 

bravely 71 ,000 

braveries  72 ,000 

braveth 73,000 

braving 74,000 

bravura 75,ooo 

brawlers 76,000 

brawleth 77,ooo 

brawniness 78,000 

brayeth 79,000 

braying 80,000 

brazened 81,000 

brazeneth 82,000 

brazening 83,000 

brazenly 84,000 

brazenness 85,000 

brazilian S6,ooo 

breadth 87,000 

breadthless S8,ooo 

breakers 89,000 

breakfast 90,000 

breakfasted    91 ,000 

breaking 92,000 

breathable 93,ooo 

brcatheth 94,000 

br«athing 95,000 

breathless 96,000 

breecheth 97,000 

breeching    98,000 

breeders 99,000 

breczeless 100,000 

brethren 105,000 

breviaries 1 10,000 

breviarj- 115,000 

brevities 1 20,000 

brevity 125,000 

breweries 130,000 

brewing ..135,000 

briberies 140,000 

bribetb 145,000 

bribing 150,000 

bridegroom 155,000 

bridesmaid 160,000 

bridewell 165,000 

bridgcth 170,000 

bridging 175,000 

briefly iSo,ooo 

briefness 185,000 

brigands 190,000 

brigantine 195,000 

brighten 200,000 

brightened 2 10,000 


\ 


=^ 


PEALE  S  TELEGRAPHIC  CODE. 


/ 


419 


hrightencth 220,000 

brijrlucniiijj 225,000 

bri*;Iuly 250,000 

brij^Iilncss 275,000 

hrilliancics 300,000 

brilliancy 325,000 

brilliunt 350,000 

brilliantly 375.000 

brimful (0O,ooo 

brimkss 425,000 

brimnicr 450,000 

brininiiiii^ 475,000 

brimstone 500,000 

brindled 525,000 

bringcrs 550,000 

bring^L-th '••575,000 

brini^injj 600,000 

brinish 625,000 

brisker 650,000 

briskest 675,000 

briskly 700,000 

briskness  725,000 

bristled 750,000 

bristlcth 775,000 

bristling Soo.ooo 

britching 825,000 

brittlencss 850,000 

britzka 875,000 

broached 900,000 


broachcrs 925,000   ' 

broacheth    950,000 

broaching y75.ooo    , 

broader 1,000,000 

broadest 1,100,000 

broadlyer 1,200,000 

broadness 1,250,000 

broadsword 1,300,000 

broadwise 1,400,000 

brocades 1,500,000 

broccoli 1 ,600,000 

broider 1,700,000 

broidered . .» i  ,750,000 

broiderers 1 ,800,000 

broidcreth t  ,900,000 

broideries 2,000,000 

broidering 2,250,000 

broidery 2,500,000 

broiled 2,750,000 

brokenness 3,000,000 

brokerage 3,250,000 

bronchial 3,500,000 

bronchus 3,750,000 

bronzeth 4,000,000 

bronzing 4,250,000 

broodeth ^  ,500,000 

brooding 4,750,000 

brotherhood 5,000,000 

brothcrless ,  5,500,000 


brothcrlikc .....,».. 6,000.000 

brotherly 6,900,000 

brothers 7,000,000 

browbeat 7,500,000 

browbcateth 8,000,000 

browbeating 8,500,000 

brownish 9,000,000 

brownness 9,500,000 

browseth 1 0,000,000 

browsing 10,500,000 

bruisers 11,000,000 

bruiseth 11 ,500,000 

bruising 12,000,000 

brunette 1 2,500,000 

brusque 13,000,000 

brutalities 13,500,000 

brutality 14,000,000 

brutalize 14,500,000 

brutalizing 15,000,000 

brutally 16,000,000 

brutified 17,000,000 

brutify iS,ooo,ooo 

brutifyeth 19,000,000 

brutifying 20,000,000 

brutish 21,000,000 

brutishness 22,000,000 

buccaneer 23,000,000 

bucklers 24,000,000 

buckram 25,000,000 


buckskin i  car-load 

bucolics 2  " 

buddhism 3  " 

buddhists 4  " 

budgcth 5  " 

budging 6  " 

buffalo 7  " 

buffeted 8 

buffeteth 9  ** 

buffeting ^o  *' 

buffoonery' 11  " 

buffoonish 12  " 

buffoons 13  " 

bugbear 14  *' 

builders 15  " 

buildeth 16  ** 

building 17  " 

bulbaceous iS  " 

bulbiferous 19  " 

bulbous 20  " 

bulgeth 21  •' 

bulging 22  " 

bulkhead 23  " 

bulkier 24  " 

bulkiest 25  *' 

bulkiness 30  '* 

bulletin 40  " 

bullfinch 50  " 

bullion 100  " 


PROAXSIONS. 

Unless  otherwise  mentioned,  all  prices  or 
offerings  of  bacon  or  smoked  meats  are  for 
packed;  plain  sides  and  shoulders,  if  dry, 
salt  orsmoked,  in  boxes  or  casks  ;  sugar-cured 
hams  and  shoulders,  in  tierces;  breakfast 
bacon  in  cases  ;  dry  salt  bulk  meats  are  to  be 
loose.    All  to  be  standard. 


enlisting 

enlistment 

enlumine 

enmarhle 

enmity 

enneatic 

ennoblement 

enravishing 
enravishment 

en  register 

enrich 

enriching 
en  ripen 
enrobe 
cnroller 


ensconced 
ensealing 


ensearch 

ensearching 

enshroud 

ensitorm 
evestigate 


City  brands. 

Country  brands. 

Fully  cured. 

....  days  in  salt. 

....  days  in  pickle. 

Summer-cured. 

To  come  out  of  smoke  next 

week. 
Cut  from  dressed  hogs. 
Cut    from  city-slaughtered 

hogs. 
Hams  average pounds 

or  under. 
Hams  from  run  of  the  house. 

Average  about pounds. 

Loose  or  unpacked. 

Packed  in  casks. 

Packed  jn  equal  proportions 

of  weight  in  casks  and 

half  casks. 
Freshly  packed. 
Average pieces   to  the 

barrel. 
Average pieces   to  the 

cask. 
Free  on  board  (*'f.  o.  b.") 
Free  of  drayage. 
To    be    shipped   first  good 

weather. 
Packed  last  season. 
Packed  present  season. 


evocation 

evoking 

evulgating 

evulgation 

exaction 

exactly 

exactness 

ex  .actor 

exactness 

exactuate 

exactuation 

exaggerate 

exaggerating 

exaggeration 

exhaust  less 

exhibit 

exhibiting 

exhibition 

cxhilarant 

exhilaration 

cxhilition 
exhist 

exordium 

expatriate 
expectance 

expectative 

expecting 

expectoral 


RACON     OR     SMOKED 
MEATS. 

(sides  or  middles.) 
SHOULDERS. 
Plain  shoulders. 
HAMS. 
Plain  hams,  canvased. 
Plain  hams,  uncanvased. 
Country,  canvased. 
Countrv,  uncanvased. 
City  sugar-cured,  canvased. 
City     sugar-cured,   uncan- 
vased. 
Western  sugar-cured,  can- 
vased. 
Western    sugar-cured,   im 
canvased, 
BREAKFAST  BACON. 
B.\RRELED    PORK. 
Standard  mess. 
Mess,  ordinary, or  thin  mess. 
Extra  prime  pork. 
Prime  mess. 
Family  mess, 

LARD. 

Choice  kettle  (leaf  and  trim- 
mings) in  tierces. 
Choice  steam  (leaf  and  trim- 
mings) in  barrels. 

Refined  in  half  barrels. 

Prime  steam  (hog  round,  or 
contract)  in  tierces. 

Kettle     (hog      round)      in 
tierces. 

Steam,    head     and   gut,   in 
tierces. 

Kettle,     head  and    gut,    in 
tierces. 


expectorate 

expectorating 

expectoration 

expedience 

expending 

experiment 

expetible 

explainable 

explaining 

explicable 

explicate 

explicating 

explication 

explicitly 

explicitness 

exploded 

exploding 
exjilorate 

explorement 
explosion 

expolish 

exponent 

exportation 
exporting 
exposing 
exposition 


Steam,  gut,  in  tierces. 
Kettle,  gut,  in  tierces. 
Steam,  head,  in  tierces. 
Kettle,  head,  in  tierces. 
Dry  salt  jolcs. 

Sweet  pickle  joles,  in  tierces. 
Pigs'    feet,  spiced   pickle,  in 

barrels. 
Pigs' tongues,  sweet  pickle, 

in  tierces. 
Pigs'      tongues,    sweet,     in 

barrels. 
Pigs'  tongues,  plain    pickle, 

in  tierces. 
Pigs*  tongues,  plain  pickle, 

in  barrels. 
Pigs'  tongues,  plain   pickle 

sugar -cured    (smoked). 
Hair  and  bristles,  with  usual 

customs  of  delivery. 
Ham  sausage. 
Meth-wurst. 
Lyoner  sausage. 

BEEF  PRODUCT. 

Scotch  rumps  and  rounds, 
in  tierces. 

Hams,  or  rounds,  sugar-cur- 
ed (smoked),  in  canvas. 

Hams,  orrounds,  sugar-cur- 
ed (smoked),  uncanvas- 
ed. 

Beef  tongues,  sweet  pickle, 
in  barrels. 

Beef  tongues,  suy;ar-cured 
(smoked),  canvased. 

Extra  mess,  in  barrels. 

Mess  in  barrels. 

Prime  in  barrels, 

U.  S,  Navy,  in  barrels. 


J^ 


\ 


\ 

^                             •. 

-                Sj 

P 

(A 

\ 

/ 

' 

420 

peale's 

TELEGRAPHIC    CODE. 

» 

SHTP3IEXTS. 

friskful 

Boats  will  commence  to  re- 

gasmeter 

Can  you     buy    with    

INQUIRIES. 

friskiness 

ceive  

Riverlow  and  small  packets 

gasometry 

margin? 
Have  sellers  putup  margin? 

foramenous 

When  can  you  ship  ? 

are  troubled. 

gasping 

Arc  margins  keptgood? 

forbade 

Have  you  shipped? 

frisky 

Large  boats  cannot  get  out. 

gas  tn  ess 

Have  you  bought? 

forbear 

When  can  you  ship  the  bal- 
ance? 

frittillary 

Good  depth  of  water ;  plenty 
of  tonnage. 

gelatine 

Name  price  with  refusal  for 
immediate     answer    by 

forbearance 

How  much  did  you  ship? 

frittering 

Shipped  at  carrier's  risk. 

wires. 

forbid 

Can  you   get  O'me  frtrights? 

frivolity 

Shipper's  risk. 

gelatin  ate 

Name  price  with  refusal  for 

Name  rate  and  line. 

frockless 

We  understand  that  freights 

answer  during  business 

fnrhiUden 

Can  you  contract  for  future 
freights?     If    so,    name 

will   advance   in  (or  by) 

gelatinous 

hours  to-day. 
Name  price  with  refusal  for 

route,  rate  and  length  of 

frolick 

Freight    advance   of 

answer   by    night  mes- 

time? 

takes  effect  on  the 

sage  to-day. 

forborne 

Can  you  get  special  rates  of 
freight? 

frolicsome 

Freights  have  been  reduced 
to 

gelding 

Name  price  with  refusal  for 
answer     until    'Change 

f  irgctting 

Have   you  shipped  stuff  or- 

frnndation 

Understand     that     freights 

to-morrow. 

dered     in   our    letter   of 

will  be  reduced    on    (or 

geldness 

Name  price  with  refusal  for 

? 

by) 

answer  during  'Change 

forgivable 

Have  you  shipped  stuff  or- 

frondiferous 

Freight   reduction  of    

to-morrow. 

dered   in  our    telegram 

takes  effect  on  the 

geld 

Name  price  with  refusal  for 

of ? 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

answer  during   business 

formality 

Does  the   ice   interfere  with 

hours  to-morrow. 

the  boats  running? 

freeing 

Ship  immediately 

geminate 

Name  price  with  refusal   for 

formative 

■Has  navigation   suspended. 

freemason 

Ship    immediately  by 

prompt  answer  by  cable. 

formerly 

When  will  navigation  prob- 

freshness 

Get  special  rates  if  you  can. 

gemini 

Name  price  with  refusal  for 

ably  resume? 

fretful 

Get  time  guaranteed  if  pos- 

answer by  prompt  mail. 

formiate 

Is  the  river  too  low  for  first- 

sible. 

geminary 

Can    you   get    refusal   until 

class  boats? 

friability 

Have   freights   delivered   at 

? 

formless 

Is  the  river  too   low  for   the 

gemmeous 

Name    prices     asked      and 

packets? 

friableness 

Get  through  bill  lading   via 

prices  bid. 

formula 

By  what  route  did  you  ship? 

to 

gemmiferous 

What  IS  asked? 

formulate 

At  what  rates  did  you  ship? 

frialion 

Get  through  bill  lading  to 

gemminess 

What  is  bid? 

forsooth 

Have      freights     advanced, 

gemming 

Name  lowest  prices. 

and  how  much. 

fricndlike 

Make  contract  on un- 

genealogist 

Name   interest,  storage,  in- 

fostering 

Can  ship  immediately. 

til  if  you  can  get 

surance    and     commis- 

foulder 

Can  ship  to-morrow. 

reduction  in  rates. 

sion. 

fouhng 

Are  shipping  to-day. 

friendship 

Contract  on  the  terms  men- 

generation 

Shall  we  buy? 

foundery 

Can  get days  guaran- 

tioned. 

generator 

Shall  we  buy  more? 

teed  for  time  rate,  .... 

frigate 

Ship      if      possible      before 

generosity 

Shall  we  take  one   option. 

line ? 

freights  advance. 

and  get  the  other  when 

fountfiil 

Can  get    no   time    freights? 

frigatoon 

If  freights  are  to  be  reduced 

we  can  ? 

fourier 

Cannot     get      future     con- 
tracts. 

in postpone  ship- 
ment for  these  rates. 

generously 

Is  your  order  in  force  until 
countermanded? 

fracture 

Can  get  no  special  rate,  but 

can  get  rebate  of    

Can  get  through    bills    lad- 

genesis 

Is  your  order  intended  only 
for  to-day? 

fragile 

BUYING. 

genette 

Is   your  order  still  in  force? 

ing   to   via 

gauging 

Can  you  buy? 

gcomanccr 

We  are  offered  with  refusal 

fragment 

Can  get  bills  lading  to  .... 
yards. 

gavleet 

Can  you  buy  for  immediate 
delivery? 

for    immediate    answer 
by  wires. 

fra^ance 

Can      get    bills    lading    to 
alongside 

gayness 

Can  you  buy  for de 

liverj'? 

geomantic 

We  are  offered  with  refusal 
for  answer  during  busi- 

frailness 

Rates  are   

gaysome 

Can  you  buy  at ? 

ness  Iiours  to-day. 

frangibility 

Roads  are  blockaded. 

garnishment 

Can  you  buy free   on 

gcometral 

We  are  offered  with  refusal 

frangible 

Roads    are    blockaded     at 

garniture 

board? 
Can  you  buy at 

for    answer   by    night 
message  to-day. 

franking 

Roads  are    now    receiving 

free  on  board? 

geometrical 

We  are  offered  with  refusal 

and  forwarding. 

garret 

Can   you  buy  at free 

for  answer  until  'Change 

franklin 

Ro.ads  are  expecting  to  re- 

of all  expenses? 

to-morrow. 

ceive  in  (or  by) 

garrison 

Can  you  buy  at   free 

geomctrize 

We    are    offered    with    re- 
fusal   for  answer  during 

frantically 

Ice  is  running    heavily  and 

of  all  expenses? 

'Change  to-morrow. 
We  are  offered  with  refusal 
for  answer  during  busi- 

frapping 

threatens  to  close  river. 
Upper  rivers  are  closed. 

garrisoned 

Can  you  buy at 

delivered  here? 

geoponic 

fraternal 

Navigation  is  suspended  in 

garrote 

Can  vou  buy  at de- 

ness hours  to-morrow. 

fraternize 

consequence  of  ice. 
Underwriters  withdraw  risks 

gassifying 

livered  here? 
Will  sclL-r   pay   broker.ige. 

georgia 

Wc  arc  offered  with  refusal 
for  answer    by   prompt 

— no  boats  receiving. 

gasket 

Will  seller  pay  half  broker- 

mail. 
We  are  offered  with  refusal 

fraudlcss 

Ice  is  breaking  up. 

age? 

geranium 

1 

frippery 

Ice   running  out   and  boats 
getting  ready. 

gaskins 

Can  you  buy  without  mar- 
gin? 

for  prompt  answer    by 
cable. 

k 

^^ 

/ 

\ 

■D 

V 

'5                ^ 

■*      (L 

'r 

germander 


granitiform 
granitoid 
grail  ivcro  us 

granny 

granted 
graphonictcr 

grappled 

grassincss 

grasslcss 

grasspoly 

gratuitous 

gratuitously 

gratulation 

gratulatory 
gravitate 

gravitation 

gravity 

gravy 

graytly 

grayling 

gray  stone 
graywackc 


Cannot  buy  at  your  limits; 
answer  by  prompt  mail. 


SEIXING. 

Shall  we  accept  offer  made? 
How  much  shall  we  sell? 
Name    lowest  price;  if  we 
can  get  more  will  do  so. 
Is  your  order  to  sell  in  force 

until  countermanded? 
Is  order  good  only  for  to- 
day? 
We  are  offered sub- 
ject   to   immediate  an- 
swer by  wires. 
We  are  offered if  an- 
swered promptly  by  mail. 
Can  sell  at  a  profit. 
Can  sell  without  loss. 
Cannot  sell  without  loss. 
Sell  immediately. 
Sell  as  soon  as  possible. 
Sell  at  prices  given   in  our 

letter  of 

Sell  at  prices  you  name. 
Sell  at when  the  mar- 
ket reaches  that  figure. 
Sell  for  the  best  offer. 
Sell  for  best  offer   to-day. 
Sell   for  the  best  offer  to- 
morrow. 
Sell  part  if  you  cannot  sell 

all. 
If  you  cannot  close  out  all 
to-day,  sell  balance  to- 
morrow. 
Order  in  force  until  counter 

nianded. 
If  you  cannot  get  limit,  wire 
best  offer  you  can  get. 


PAY^IENTS  ANU  £XCUANG£:. 


hipniost 

hircin 

hiss 


hissing 


history 

hobsons 

hockle 
hockey 

hodiernal 

hodman 

hofui 


Draw  at  sight. 

Draw  on  demand. 

Draw  on  for  , 

we  have  notified  them 
to  honor  same. 

We  have  approximated 
amount  and  remitted  to- 
day by  mail. 

We  remit  you  by  telegraph 
to-day. 

We   have   instructed   

to  honor  your  order  for 


hogcote  Can  get advance  by 

paying  customary  inter- 
est and  commissions. 

hoghcrd  If  additional  margin  of 

is  not  in  hand  at  once 
wc  must  cover  your  sales 
hogpen                   Unless   you    provide    addi- 
tional margin  of  ....  at 
once,  we  must  scU  your 
property. 
hogplum                 Market    advancing;   buyer 
requires dollars  ad- 
ditional margin  at  once. 
Shall  we  draw,  or  shall 
we  cover  sales? 
hogshead                Market  declining;  seller  re- 
quires   dollars  addi- 
tional margin.   Shall  we 
draw,  or  sell? 
hogskin                  Your    margin     exhausted ; 
have  closed  your    con- 
tracts, 
hogstecr                 Have  closed  up  your  con- 
tracts;   you    may  draw 
for  ....  dollars  to  your 
credit. 

CONDITION    OF  MARKET. 


Have  drawn  at days 

after  date  without  in- 
terest. 

Can  draw  .is  directed. 

Cannot  draw  time  drafts 
agamst  shipments. 

Cannot  conclude  trade 
witliout  margin  in  h-ind. 

Cannot waitfor  remittance; 
ciLsh  is  demanded. 

Can  get advance  by  hy- 
pothecating warehouse 
certificate. 


holly 

holocaust 
holograph 

holloa 


hondicrgs 

homelier 

homelily 
homely 

homeopathic 

homeopathy 
homer 

homcric 

homesickness 


Market  steady  and  firm  at 
yesterday's  quotations. 
Market  firm.  • 

Sellers    disposed    to    raise 
their     views;      outside 
prices  asked. 
Nominally  firmer,  but  buy- 
ers offer   at  unchanged 
prices. 
Prices    have    advanced      a 
shade,    and   indications 
favor  an  advance. 
Buyers  accept  the  advance, 
and  there  is  aliberal  de- 
mand. 
A  substantial  advance  has 
been  est-iblished;  mar- 
ket tends  upwards. 
Shippers    and    speculators 
take  all  offenngs  at  in- 
side figures. 
Speculators  arecager  buyers 
at  close  market   figures. 
Light   receipts    and   liber.il 
shipments    confirm    the 
advance. 
Foreign  orders  are  liberal 
and  another  advance  is 
expected. 
Sellers  are  disposed  to  re- 
tire ;  market  is  firmer. 
Market  again  advanced  and 
active ;     buyers    taking 
freely. 
Continues  firm  with    large 
transactions  for  ....  ac- 
count. 
Market      advancing,      and 
holders    refuse  conces- 
sions. 


homespun 

honorable 

honorableness 

honoring 

honorless 

hooded 

hooding 

hoodless 
hoodwink 

hopefulness 
hopelessly 

hopingly 

hoplite 

horal 

horary 

horizon 

horizontal 

horizontally 


Market  strong  and  excited. 
Market  quiet  and  unchang- 
ed. 
Market  quiet  and  prices  are 

nominal. 
Sellers  refuse   concessions, 

and  buyers  hold  off. 
Shippers  out  of  the  market; 

nothing  doing. 
Buyers  refuse  to  accede  to 

prices  and  are  off. 
Demand    .altogether    of    a 

jobbing  character. 
Nothing  doing. 
Holders  do  not  care  to  sell ; 

buyers  are  indifferent. 
Dull  and  very  quiet. 
Dull  and  declining;  holders 

disposed  to  sell. 
Tending  fo   lower    values; 

holders  pressing  sales. 
Declining  rapidly  and  quo- 
tations can  be  shaded. 
Easierand  unsettled;  buy- 
ers asking  further  con- 
cessions. 
Declined  and  rather  demor- 
alized J    holders  unload 
ing. 
Cannotgive  intelligent  quo- 
tations;  rather /(/«/V^;>'. 
Stocks  in  excess  of  probable 

demand. 
Eastern  and  foreign  orders 
held  up  for  further  de- 
cline. 


C01>IMERCL\L.  CREDIT. 

incultivate  Give    general    commercial 

character  of 

inculture  Have   applied  for  or 

procured  extensions? 
incumbency  Are. . . . ;  .'s  troubles  serious 

or  temporary? 

incumbent  Have been  protested 

for  nonpayment? 
incumber  Wh.at  amount  of  capital  is 

supposed  to  be  in  ....'s 
business? 
incumbrous  ^^'hat  are  estimated  liabili- 

ties and  iusscts? 

incur  Mention  habits  of 

incurability  A\Tiat  line  of  credit  do  you 

consider good  for? 

incurable  WTio  is  the  moneyed  man  of 

the  house? 
incurableness         Are  they  in  fair  credit  4oT 
reasonable  lines? 

incuriosity  Do speculate? 

incurious  Do  do  a  legitimate 

business? 
incuriousness        What  do  you  consider  firm 

worth,  free  of  debt? 
incurvate  General  character  good  for 

ordinary  lines  of  credit, 
incurvation  They  do  not  speculate;  ap- 

pear to  be    frugal  and 
industrious, 
incurve  Are  looked  upon  as  honest 

and  enterprising. 


1 

■s, 

'5       »_ 

^            ^> 

j- 

a 

\ 

/ 

p 

I 

422 

peale's 

TELEGRAPHIC    CODE. 

> 

incurvity                Capital  supposed  to  be  ficti- 

vacation 

Yellow  corn. 

venality 

Western    creamery,    fancy,  in 

tious. 

vaccinate 

No.  I   corn. 

tubs. 

indagate                 Are  not  entitled  to  credit. 

vaccination 

High  mixed  com. 

vend 

Western   creamery,   choice,   in 

indagation             Speculate  and  do  business 

vaccilant 

No.   2   corn. 

tubs. 

generally  loosely. 

vaccilate 

Rejected  corn. 

vender 

N.  Y.    dairy,  prime,  in  tubs. 

indamage               Do  legitimate  business,  and 

vagabond 

0.\TS. 

vendible 

N,  Y.    dairv',  fair,  in  tubs. 

are  making  money. 

vagary 

No.  I    oats. 

vendition 

Western  dain,',  prime,  in  tubs. 

indarl                        Habits     good ;  high    soci.il 

vagient 

No.  2    white  oats. 

venerable 

Western  dairy,  fair,  in  tubs. 

standmg. 

vagrant 

No,  2  oats. 

venerableness  Western  dairv,   lower  grades. 

mdccorously          is  the  moneyed  man, 

vague 

Rejected  oats. 

venery 

Grease  butter,  in  tubs. 

and  is  worth 

vainly 

RYE. 

venger 

CHEESE. 

valance 

No.  1    rj-e. 

venial 

Eastern  factory,  prime. 

TELEGRAMS   AND    LETTERS. 

vale 

No.  2    rye. 

venom 

Eastern  dair}',  prime. 

indelicacy               Wc  received  your  telegram 

valediction 

Rejected  rye. 

venomous 

Western  factory,  prime. 

of at 

valedictory 

BARLEY 

venous 

Western  factory,  fair 

indelicate               We  received  your  letter  of 

Valencia 

No.  1  barley. 

ventilation 

EGGS. 

on 

Valeria 

No.  2  barley. 

ventilator 

Eastern,  fresh,  in  boxes. 

mdemni6ed           We  did  not  get  your  tele 

valeric 

No.  3  barley. 

ventriloquist 

Western,  fresh,  in  boxes. 

gram  of 

valeriate 

Rejected  barley. 

venture 

Western,  fresh,  in  barrels. 

indemnify               Your  letter  of has  not 

valentine 

SEEDS. 

veracity 

Western,  limed,  in  barrels. 

been  received. 

valerian 

Prime  timothy  seed. 

1 

indemnifying        Please    repeat    your    tele- 

valantly 

Prime  clover  seed. 

FRUrrS  ANO  VEGETABLES. 

gram. 

valise 

Flax  seed. 

verb osen ess 

APPLES. 

indemnity               We  do  not  understand  your 

vampire 

FLOUR. 

verdancy 

Baldwins. 

telegram. 

van 

Best  spring  extra  flcur. 

verdant 

Greenings. 

indenise                  We  do  not  understand  your 

vandal 

Good  spring  extra  flour. 

verderer 

Russets. 

letter  of 

vandalic 

Common  spring  extra  flour. 

vermily 

DRIED  FRUIT. 

indenization          This  is  in  reply  to  your  tele  - 

vandalism 

Low  grade  spring    extra  flour. 

Vermillion 

Apples  evaporated. 

gram  of 

Vandyke 

Choice   to    fancy   spring   extra 

vermin 

N.   Y.  sliced,  fancy  white. 

indenizen                This  is  in  answer  to  your 

flour. 

vernacular 

N.  Y.  sliced,  fair  to  choice. 

letter  of 

vane 

Medium   to  good   spring  extra 

verse 

Peaches      evaporated,     peeled 

indent                       Telegraph       your      market 

flour. 

fancy. 

daily  from  'Change  until 

vanguard 

Fair   to   choice    spring    extra 

versed 

Peaches     evaporated,    fair    to 

further  notice. 

flour. 

prime. 

indentedly              Telegraph  your  market  at 

vanilla 

Best  winter  flour. 

versification 

Peaches  evaporated,  unpeeled. 

close  by  night  message. 

vanish 

Good  winter  flour. 

version 

Plums. 

indesert                    Notify  us  promptly  of  any 

vanity 

Common  winter  flour. 

verst 

Blackberries. 

material      change       in 

vanquish 

Fair  to     good    white    winter 

vertebral 

Riispbcrrics. 

market,  by  wire,  without 

flour. 

vesicle 

BEANS. 

further  instructions. 

vanquisher 

Choice  white  winter  flour. 

vesper 

Medium,  choice  new. 

indesurently          Send    us    report   by    night 

vantage 

Red  winter  flour. 

vest 

Pea,  choice  new. 

message  daily    of   your 

vapid 

Choice  Minnesota  flour. 

vested 

M.-irrowfat,  choice  new. 

market  until  further  no- 

vaporous 

Common  Minnesota  flour. 

vesture 

Limas. 

tice. 

vapor 

Good  to  choice  Minnesota  flour. 

veteran 

PEAS. 

variable 

Minnesota  patent  flour. 

veto 

Green. 

BBEADSTUFFS. 

variance 

Flour  equal  to  New  York,  extra 
State. 

vex 

Southern, 

utile                       WHE.\T. 

vexation 

Split 

utilitarian        No.  i    Chicago  springwheat. 
utility               No.  2          ■'             ■•            ii 
utilization       No.  3   Milwaukee  spring  wheat 
utilize               No.  2               *'             <<         n 

variation 
varicose 

Rye  flour. 
Buckwheat  flour. 

viaduct 
vial 

POTATOES. 

Snowflakes. 

variegate 

Choice     baker's      flour      from 
spring  \\he.at. 

viand 
viaticum 

Peachhlows. 
Early  rose. 

u'is                    No.  I    Northwestern        spring 

wheat. 
uUary                 No.  2    Northwestern         spring 

wheat, 
utmost              No.  I    Minnesota  spring  wheat 
Utopia               No.  2             •<             "           <■ 

variegation 

vaunt 
vaultage 

Good      baker's       flour        from 
spring   wheat 
HAY. 
Prime  timothy. 

vicarial 
vice 

viceconsul 
vicinage 

Bermuda. 
Southern. 
Western. 
Cabbage. 

vaulted 
veer 

Good  timothy 
Shipping  grade. 

vicious 
victim 

Cucumbers,  small. 
Cucumbers,  large. 

Utopian            No.  3    springwheat. 
utopianism      Rejected  spring  wheat, 
utopical            No.  I    white  winter  wheat. 

veal 
vuda 
vudutte 
vegetable 

Inferior  hay. 
Clover,  good. 
White  clover. 
Buckwheat. 

victorious 

victoriously 
victory 

Onions,  yellow. 
Onions,  white. 
Onions,  red. 

utopist              No.  2         "           **            " 
utricle              No.  i    red  winter  wheat. 

vocabulary 

FISH, 

Mackerel. 

utriculate         No.  2      ••        •'           " 

BUTTER,  CHEESE  AND  EGGS. 

voice 

Codfish. 

utter                  Rejected  winter  wheat. 

volatile 

Herring. 

utterablc          No.  1    amber  wheat. 

velveting 

BUTTER. 

volitlve 

Sardines. 

utterance         No.  2        "            " 

velveteen 

N.     Y.    creamery,     f.incy,      in 

voluntary 

Salmon. 

utterly              No.  3        "           " 

tubs. 

varacious 

Smoked  halibut. 

i 

vacancy                        CORN. 

velvety 

N.     V.    creamery,     prime,     in 

votary 

Salt. 

1 

vacant              White  corn. 

tubs. 

vulgarize. 

Saltpeter. 

<?' 

/ 

.\ 

9 

"T 

.5                       ^ 

V 

~7\ 


PEALE  S    TELEGRAPHIC    CODE. 


423 


walloped 

CANNED    GOODS 

wallow 

Apples,  J  lbs. 

wanting 

Peaches,  3  ibs. 

wantonly 

Pears,  Bartlctts. 

ward 

Plums. 

warden 

Quinces. 

warlock 

Corn. 

warrant 

Lobster,  i  lb. 

warranty 

Oysters,  cove,  i  lb. 

warry 

Salmon,  i  lb. 

waspish 

Corned  beef,  1  lb. 

watermill 

Deviled  chicken. 

waterwork 

Headcheese,  £  lbs. 

wave 

Mince  meat,  10  lbs,  wood. 

weapon 

COTTON. 

wear 

Inferior. 

wearable 

Low  ordinar)'. 

wearer 

Ordinary. 

weariness 

Strict  ordinary. 

wearing 

Good  ordinary. 

wearisome 

Strict  good  ordinary. 

weary 

Low  middling. 

weasel 

Strict  low  middling. 

weather 

Middling. 

weave 

Strict  middling. 

weaver 

Good  middling. 

Webster 

Middling  fair. 

wedded 

Fair. 

weciuing 

Middling  upland. 

wedge 

Middling  Texas. 

wedlock 

Middling  New  Orleans 

^"(^-Pi/c^  Sc^-Gle  Co^."^ 


The  Cable  Code  is  arranged  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  Telegraphic  Cipher,  except  that  in  most  instances  the  words  cover 
more  lengthy  sentences.     Examples  are  appended: 

Have  bought  subject  to  your 
immediate  acceptance  or 
rejection  by  telegraph. 

AVc  have  shipped  this  week 
for  you  and  will  ship  same 
quantity  next. 
Advance  in  freight  expected 
Would  advise  purchase 
and  shipment  at  once  if 
likely  to  want  supply  soon. 

Cannot  do  anything  without 
a  bank  credit.  On  whom 
shall  we  draw? 
AVe  can  execute  your  order  if 
vou  will  be  satisfied  with 
2  percent  commission. 
If  necessary  to  enable  you  to 
execute  this  order  wc  will 
work  for  \  per  cent  com- 
mission. 


reflexable         Quality   of  your  last  shipment 
satisfactory ;       keep      fol- 
lowing ones  equal  thereto. 
reflourishing    You    must    be     very     careful 
about     the     condition    of 
these  goods. 
■\Ve    have   been    ver>'    careful 
this  time,  and  feel   sure  it 
will  give  satisfaction. 
No  use  cabling  at  present,  as 
our  prices  are  above  shi])- 
ping  value. 
Hog    cholera     is      prevalent, 
large  numbers  dying,  and 
prices  advancing  in  con- 
sequence. 
\\"\\\  fill    balance    of  order  at 

first  opportunity. 
Political      complications  seem 
likely  to  be  settled. 


refr.ictive 
I  efrenate 
refrigerativc 

regency 
reimbursable 


rcinhabited 

releasing 
relight 

rely 

remedilessly 

renneting 


Will  answer  your  cable  to- 
morrow ;  cannot  do  so  to- 
day. 

Buy  at  price  named  in  your 
cable  or  shade  higher. 

Buy  and  hold  for  further  in- 
structions. We  may  wish 
to  resell  in  your  market. 

If  you  cannot  secure  the  brand 
wanted  substitute  any 
other  equal. 

Have  not  been  able  to  place 
your  offer;  but  if  you  re- 
new it  lowest  i>rices  pos- 
sible for  next  market  mny 
be  successful. 

Cannot  ship  your  order;  had 
to  reject  purchase,  quality 
being  inferior. 


reparation 


revisionary 


ringlead 


rossignal 


-\ 


K" 


424 


INSURANCE  — FIRE,  MARINE  AND  TRANSIT. 


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FNSURANCE,  or  ASSURANCE,  is  a  contract  wherein  one 
party  (the  uiiiier-Mritfr  or  insurer)  agrees,  for  a  stated  con- 

I    sideration  (the  premium),  to  make  up  a  loss  which  another 

L  niay   sustain.      Insurance   may   be   efTected   on   property, 

V  against  loss  or  damage  by  fire  and  water,  on  the  lives  of 
persons,  as  well  as  against  accidents;  also  against  the  loss  of  live 
stock,  the  dishonesty  of  employes,  the  breakage  of  plate  glass, 
etc.  Premium  rates  are  generally  expressed  by  giving  the  cost 
in  cents  for  g  100  insurance,  and  depend  greatly  on  the  nature  of 
the  risk  and  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  policy  (the  written 
contract  of  insurance)  is  issued.  The  policy  should  contain  a 
description  of  the  property  insured,  the  amount  and  conditions 
of  insurance,  etc. 


Insurance   Companies. 

Insurance  companies  are  associations  or  corporations  which 
insure  against  loss  or  damage. 

A  stock  insurance  company  is  one  in  which  the  capital  is 
owned  by  individuals,  called  stockholders.  They  alone  share 
the  profits  and  are  liable  for  the  losses.  The  business  of  a  stock 
company  (and  also  of  a  mixed  company)  is  managed  by  directors 
chosen  by  stockholders.  No  policyholder,  unless  a  stockholder, 
has  any  voice  in  any  way  in  the  election  of  the  officers,  or  in  the 
management  of  its  business. 

A  mutual  insurance  company  is  one  in  which  there  are  no 
stockholders,  and  the  profits  and  losses  are  shared  among  those 
who  are  insured  (the  policyholders). 

A  mixed  insurance  company  is  one  which  is  conducted  upon 
a  combination  of  the  stock  and  mutual  plan. 

Non-participating  policies,  the  holders  of  which  do  not  share 
in  the  profits  or  losses,  are  issued  by  certain  mutual  and  mixed 
companies. 

Usually,  in  a  mixed  company,  all  profits  above  a  limited 
dividend  to  the  stockholders  are  divided  among  the  participating 
policyholders. 

FIRE    INSURANCE. 

Insurance  against  loss  or  damage  liy  fire  is  termed  Fire  Insur- 
ance. I'olicies  for  this  class  of  insurance  are  generally  issued 
for  a  period  of  one  to  five  years.  Ordinarily,  in  case  of  loss  by 
fire,  the  insured  will  be  paid  the  extent  of  his  loss  up  to  the 
amount  of  insurance,  unless  the  insurance  company  prefer  to 
replace   or   repair   the    damaged   jiroperty,   which   privilege   is 


usually  reserved.  If  the  policy  contains  the  "  average  clause," 
the  payment  will  cover  only  such  portion  of  the  loss  as  the 
amount  of  insurance  bears  to  the  value  of  the  property  insured. 
Thus,  under  a  $5,000  policy  containing  the  "average  clause," 
on  $10,000  worth  of  property,  the  insured  could  recover  only 
$2,500  in  case  of  an  actual  loss  of  $5,000. 

Floating   Policies. 

A  floating  policy  is  one  which  covers  property  stored  in 
several  buildings  or  places.  The  name  is  applied  more  pai'- 
ticularly  to  policies  which  cover  goods  whose  location  may  be 
changed  in  process  of  manufacture  or  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
liusiness.  The  "  average  clause  "  is  a  usual  condition  of  policies 
of  this  class. 

The   Average   Clause. 

The  average  clause,  above  referred  to,  is  usually  worded  as 
follows  : 

"It  is  a  condition  of  this  insurance,  that  if  the  whole  value  of 
the  above  described  property,  contained  in  any  or  all  of  the 
above  mentioned  buildings  and  premises,  shall  exceed  the  whole 
amount  of  insurance  thereon,  then,  in  case  of  loss  or  damage  l>y 
fire,  this  policy  shall  contribute  to  the  payment  of  said  loss  or 
damage  in  the  proportion  only  that  the  whole  amount  of  insur- 
ance on  said  property  shall  bear  to  the  whole  value  of  said 
properly,  in  all  of  said  buildings,  at  the  time  said  loss  or  damage 
may  occur." 

Short    Rates. 

Short  rates  are  rates  for  a  term  less  than  a  year.  If  an 
insurance  policy  is  terminated  at  the  request  of  the  policyholder, 
the  company  retains  the  customary  "short  rates"  for  the  time 
the  policy  has  been  in  force ;  if  terminated  at  the  option  of  the 
company,  a  ratable  proportion  of  the  premium  is  refunded  for 
the  unexpired  term  of  the  policy. 

MARINE  AND  TRANSIT  INSURANCE. 

Insurance  of  vessels  and  their  cargoes  against  the  i)crils  of 
navigation  is  termed  Marine  Insurance. 

Inland  and  transit  insurance  refer  to  insurance  of  mer- 
chandise while  being  transported  from  place  to  place  either  by 
rail  or  water  routes,  or  both. 


A^ 


LIFE  INSURANCE. 


425 


~7\ 


Policies  on  cargoes  are  issued  for  a  certain  voyage,  or  from 
port  to  port,  and  on  vessels  for  a  specified  time  or  for  a  certain 
voyage. 

The  particular  ai'trage  claust  exemjits  the  insurance  com- 
pany from  tlic  payment  of  any  partial  loss  or  particular  average, 
unless  it  exceeds  a  certain  ]ier  cent  of  the  value  of  the  property. 

Insurance  certificates,  showing  that  certain  property  has 
been  insured,  and  stating  the  amount  of  the  insurance  and 
the  name  of  the  party  abroad  who  is  authorized  to  make  the 
settlement,  are  issued  by  marine  companies.  They  are  negotia- 
ble, and  are  usually  sent  to  the  consignee  of  the  merchandise  to 
make  the  loss  payable  at  the  port  of  destination. 

The  adjustment  of  marine  policies  in  case  of  loss  is  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  adjustment  of  fire  policies  containing  the 
"  average  clause." 

Open  policies  are  such  upon  which  additional  insurances  may 
be  entered  at  different  times. 

LIFE  INSURANCE. 

In  Life  Insurance,  the  insurance  company  agrees,  in  considera- 
tion of  stipulated  payments,  to  pay  to  the  heirs  of  a  person,  at  his 
death,  or  to  himself,  if  living  at  a  stated  age,  a  certain  sum  of 
money.  In  ordinary  life  policies  a  certain  premium  is  to  be  paid 
every  year  until  the  death  of  the  insured,  when  the  policy  becomes 
payable  to  the  beneficiary.  There  are  other  kinds  of  policies, 
however,  and  these  are  described  below,  with  the  conditions  of 
payment  and  the  peculiar  advantages  of  each: 

Limited  Payment  Life  Policy.  —  Conditions:  Premiums 
to  be  paid  annually  for  a  certain  fixed  number  of  years,  or  until 
the  death  of  the  insured,  should  that  occur  prior  to  the  expira- 
tion of  this  period.  Policy  payable  at  death  of  the  insured. 
Advantages  :  Payments  on  this  kind  of  policy  may  all  be  made 
while  the  insured  is  best  able  to  make  them,  and,  if  he  live  to  an 
old  age,  the  policy  will  not  be  a  continual  burden,  but  will  ratlier 
be  a  source  of  income,  as  the  yearly  dividends  may  be  taken  out 
in  cash  or  added  to  the  amount  of  insurance. 

Term  Life  Policy. — In  this  method  of  insurance  the 
insurance  company  agrees  to  pay  to  the  beneficiaries  a  certain 
sum  on  the  death  of  the  insured,  should  that  event  occur  within 
a  fixed  term. 

Endowment  Policy. — A  combination  of  a  Term  Life 
Policy  and  a  Pure  Endownent.  These  policies  are  issued  for 
endowment  periods  of  10,  13,  20,  25,  30  or  35  years,  and  may 
be  paid  up  by  a  single  payment,  by  an  annual  ])remium  during 
the  endowment  period,  or  by  five  or  ten  annual  payments.  Condi- 
tions:  I.  //Mwranc^  during  a  stipulated  period,  payable  at  the 
death  of  the  insured,  should  that  event  happen  within  said  period. 
2.  An  endo7oment  of  the  same  amount  as  the  policy,  payable  to 
the  insured  if  still  Kving  at  the  end  of  the  period  fixed.  Ad- 
vantages :  Limited  term  of  payments ;  insurance  during  the  time 
when  the  death  of  the  insured  would  cause  most  embarrassment 
to  his  family ;  provision  for  old  age,  as  the  amount  of  the  policy 
will  be  paid  to  the  insured,  if  still  living,  at  a  time  when  ad- 
vanced age  may  make  it  of  great  benefit. 

Annuity  Policy. — This  kind  of  policy  is  secured  by  a 
single  casli  payment,  and  insures  the  holder  the  yearly  payment 
of  a  certain  sum  of  money  during  life. 


Joint  Life  Policy. — .\n  agreement  to  pay  a  certain  sum  on 
the  ticath  of  any  one  of  two  or  more  persons  thus  insured. 

Non-Forfeiting  Policies. — A  policy  of  this  kind  does  not 
become  void  for  non-payment  of  premiums.  In  some  companies 
all  limited  payment  life  policies  ai\d  all  endowment  policies, 
after  premiums  for  three  (or  two)  years  have  been  paid,  and  the 
original  policy  is  surrendered  within  a  certain  time,  provide  for 
paid-up  assurance  for  as  many  parts  of  the  original  amount  as- 
sured as  there  shall  have  been  complete  annual  premiums  re- 
ceived in  cash  by  the  company.  Some  companies  voluntarily 
apply  all  credited  dividends  to  the  continuance  of  the  insurance. 
Others  apply  the  legal  reserve  to  the  purchase  of  term  insurance 
at  regular  rales. 

Tlie  legislatures  of  several  States  have  provided  for  the  non- 
forfeiture of  premiums  paid  in,  and  the  companies  doing  busi- 
ness in  or  from  those  States  are  of  course  compelled  to  conform 
to  these  laws.  According  to  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
after  three  full  annual  premiums  have  been  paid,  the  legal  reserve 
of  the  policy,  calculated  at  the  date  of  the  failure  to  make  the  pay- 
ments, shall,  on  surrender  of  the  policy  within  six  months  after 
such  lapse,  be  applied  as  a  single  payment  at  the  publisheil  rates 
of  the  company  in  either  of  two  ways,  at  the  option  of  the  as- 
sured—  (i)  to  the  continuance  of  the  full  amount  of  the  in- 
surance so  long  as  such  single  premium  will  purchase  term 
insurance  for  that  amount,  or  (2)  to  the  purchase  of  a  non-partic- 
ipating paid-up  policy. 

According  to  the  Massachusetts  limited  forfeiture  law  of  1880, 
after  two  full  annual  premiums  have  been  paid,  and  without  any 
action  on  the  part  of  the  assured,  the  net  value  (Massachusetts 
standard)  of  the  policy,  less  a  surrender  charge  of  8  ))er  cent  of 
the  present  value  of  the  future  premiums  which  the  policy  is  ex- 
posed to  pay  in  case  of  its  continuance,  shall  be  applied  as  a 
single  payment  to  the  purchase  of  paid-up  insurance. 

Special  Forms  of  Policies. — The  Reserve  Endowment, 
Tontine  Investment,  and  other  special  policies,  guarantee  to  the 
holder  a  definite  surrender  value  at  the  termination  of  certain 
periods.  The  surrender  value  of  a  policy  is  the  amount  in  cash 
which  the  company  will  \ay  the  holder  of  a  policy  on  Its  sur- 
render— the  legal  reserve,  less  a  certain  per  cent  for  expenses. 

Reserve  —  Reserve  Fund  —  Expectation. 

The  reserve  of  life  insurance  policies  is  the  present  Talue  of 
the  amount  to  be  paid  .at  deatli,  less  the  present  value  of  all  the 
net  premiums  to  be  paid  in  the  future. 

The  reserve  fund  of  a  life  insurance  company  is  that  sum 
in  hand  which,  invested  at  a  given  rate  of  interest,  together  with 
future  premiums  on  existing  policies,  should  be  suflScient  to  meet 
all  obligations  as  they  become  due.  It  is  the  sum  of  the  separate 
reserves  of  the  several  policies  outstanding. 

The  legal  rate  for  the  resen-e  fund,  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  Stale  of  New  York,  is  4 j<  per  cent ;  of  Massachusetts,  4 
per  cent. 

The  expectation  of  life  is  the  number  of  years  which  one 
may  probably  live.  This  average  number  of  yeai-s  has  been 
detemiiued  from  the  experience  of  insurance  companies. 


/ 


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426 


BANKS     AND     BANKING. 


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BANK  is,  in  the  simplest  sense  of  the 
term,  a  place  in  which  money  can  be 
stowed  away  for  safe-keeping.  But  since 
■^^4=^^  the  days  when  goldsmiths  and  others 
took  care  of  the  funds  of  such  as  trusted  in 
their  honor  and  the  strength  of  the  strong- 
boxes which  were  part  of  their  stock  in  trade, 
the  idea  has  been  by  degrees  developed,  until 
now  a  banking  institution,  with  its  means  of 
supplying  exchange  and  discount,  its  powers 
of  circulation,  its  care  of  deposits  and  its  atten- 
tion to  correct  accounts,  is  the  embodiment 
of  one  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  the 
most  useful  of  modern  sciences.  One  of  the 
prime  needs  of  every  commercial  community 
is  an  ample  supply  of  banking  capital  and 
facilities   for  discount. 

The  profit  of  the  manufacturer,  of  the  mer- 
chant and  of  the  retail  trader  represents  in  the 
long  run  only  the  balance  left  after  paying  the 
current  rate  of  interest,  and  if,  in  consequence 
of  lack  of  banking  capital,  interest  is  higher  in 
one  city  than  in  competing  cities,  all  business 
will  suffer,  goods  will  not  be  bought,  grain  will 
not  be  handled,  cotton  will  be  out  of  reach, 
improvements  will  be  postponed,  and  the  city 
will  be  condemned  to  enforced  idleness  in  many 
departments  of  endeavor  where  the  busy  wheels 

Z-... 


of  industry  would  be  started  in  motion  if  money 
could  be  borrowed  on  easy  terms. 

How  the  Business  is  Carried  On. 

The  business  of  banking  is  divided  into  sev- 
eral departments  or  branches.  Deposits,  Circu- 
lation, Exchange,  Collection,  Discounts  and 
Loans  being  the  most  important.  On  account 
of  these  different  branches  banks  are  frequently 
called  Banks  of  Discount,  Banks  of  Deposit, 
Savings  Banks,  etc. 

Banks  of  Deposit. 

A  Bank  of  Deposit  is  one  which  receives 
money  from  depositors  for  safe-keeping,  paying 
it  back  on  their  checks  to  others  or  to  them- 
selves. The  most  important  function  of  a  bank 
is  the  receiving  of  deposits,  the  person  thus 
entrusting  his  money  to  the  care  of  the  bank 
being  called  a  depositor.  He  not  only  has  the 
advantage  of  the  safe-keeping  of  his  cash,  but 
the  further  convenience  of  making  his  payments 
from  it  whenever  he  chooses,  by  means  of  checks. 
As  he  will  receive  payments  from  others  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  deposit  them  as  money,  it 
will  at  once  be  seen  that  an  immense  volume  of 
business  can  be  transacted,   and  vast  sums  of 


BANKS     AND     BANKING. 


427 


money  paid  out,  without  the  handUng  of  any 
cash. 

In  Europe  it  is  quite  different.  The  holder 
of  a  check  presents  it  to  the  bank  and  re- 
ceives the  money.  The  system  of  payment 
by  checks,  which  are  deposited  as  money,  is 
more  universally  practiced  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

The  safe-keeping  of  his  money,  and  the  con- 
venience of  his  check  account,  together  with 
other  favors  he  receives  in  the  way  of  discounts, 
loans,  exchange,  etc.,  are  generally  regarded  as 
sufficient  compensation  for  the  use  of  a  deposi- 
tor's funds. 

A  person  desiring  to  make  a  single  deposit, 
to  be  withdrawn  in  the  same  amount,  receives 
from  the  bank  a  Certificate  of  Deposit. 
This  is  issued  by  the  bank  itself,  is  payable  at 
any  stated  time,  or  on  demand,  and  may  bear 
interest. 

Banks  of  Circulation. 

The  issue  by  a  bank  of  its  promises  to  pay,  in 
the  form  of  bank  notes  or  bills,  is  called  its  cir- 
culation. These  notes  or  bills,  being  guaranteed 
by  the  Government,  answer  as  a  substitute  for 
money.  The  Government  holds,  as  security, 
bonds  belonging  to  the  bank,  to  a  still  larger 
amount,  and  also  retains  a  five  per  cent  fund  for 
immediate  redemption.  Only  the  National 
Banks  issue  a  circulation,  as  a  tax  of  ten  per 
cent  would  be  levied  upon  any  other  kind  of 
circulating  notes. 

Circulating  notes  called  "  Greenbacks  "  are 
issued  by  the  National  Treasury,  which  thus 
performs  the  office  of  a  Bank  of  Circulation. 
Various  opinions  exist  as  to  the  propriety  of 
the  Government  exercising  this  function.  Some 
hold  that  it  is  not  riglit  or  proper  for  the  Gov- 
ernment to  be  engaged  in  the  banking  business, 
while  others  contend  that  the  Government  alone 
should  have  the  power  to  issue  paper  currency. 
Others,  again,  believe  the  Government  should 
hold  a  dollar  of  coin  in  the  Treasury  for  every 
paper  dollar  in  circulation. 


Banks  of  Exchange. 

A  Bank  of  Exchange  is  one  which  receives 
money  on  deposit,  and,  instead  of  paying  it  back 
to  the  depositor,  makes  payments  by  drafts  on 
other  banks.  It  keeps  money  on  deposit  at  the 
principal  trade  centres,  thus  affording  the  advan- 
tage of  sending  money  to  different  points  at  a  tri- 
fling expense  and  without  risk  in  transportation. 

It  charges  the  person  who  desires  to  remit  a 
small  amount  for  its  services,  and  sells  him  its 
draft  on  the  place  to  which  the  remittance  is 
to  be  sent.  The  system  is  known  as  Inland 
and  Foreign  Exchange,  Inland  Exchange  con- 
sisting of  a  draft  drawn  and  payable  in  the 
State  or  country,  and  Foreign  Exchange  being 
a  draft  drawn  in  one  country  and  payable  in 
another.  Foreign  Exchange  involves  also  the 
reduction  of  the  money  of  one  country  into  that 
of  another. 

What  Is  Bank  Discount? 

Bank  Discount  is  the  payment  of  a  note  or 
other  paper  before  it  is  due,  deducting  the 
interest  that  would  have  accrued  at  maturity. 
A  note  or  draft  is  discounted  when  the  interest 
for  the  given  time  and  at  the  given  rate  is  taken 
from  the  face,  and  the  balance  paid  to  the 
holder.  The  sum  deducted  is  the  discount ;  the 
remainder  is  the  proceeds. 

Bank  Officers  and  Employes. 

The  stockholders  of  an  incorporated  bank 
elect  a  Board  of  Directors,  who  manage  its 
affairs.  These  elect  a  President,  one  or  more 
Vice-Presidents,  and  a  Cashier.  The  Cashier  is 
the  executive  officer  of  the  bank  and  controls 
its  interior  management.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
number  of  employes.  The  principal  ones  are  the 
Paying  Teller  and  the  Receiving  Teller,  who  are 
at  the  head  of  the  debit  and  credit  departments  ; 
the  Note  Teller ;  the  Discount  Clerks ;  the 
Collection  Clerks ;  the  Book-keepers,  each  in 
charge  of  certain  ledgers  ;  Assistant  Tellers  ; 
Assistant  Book-keepers ;  Check-Clerks  and 
Messengers,  or  "  Runners." 


A 


V 


428 


HOW   TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


imm 


W  HOW  TO  DO  BUSINESS  WITH  A  BANK. '  W 


I  J«liil5  ■'»""»" 


onjiur-jujmigiii 


-liijpinuginl 


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" "■  *i.:'-  "!l.5  "W  "m 


?N  doing  business  with  a  bank,  the  first  step  is  to  secure  a 
proper  introduction  to  the  cashier.  If  one's  references 
are  all  right,  the  depositor's  signature  is  put  on  record 
in  the  "signature-book,"  giving  the  name  as  he  intends 
■^^  to  sign  it  on  his  checks.  This  is  done  to  furnish  the 
paying  teller  with  an  accurate  means  of  judging  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  signatures  of  checks — a  very  necessary  precaution, 
as  the  bank  is  responsible  for  the  genuineness  of  the  signa- 
tures of  all  checks.  When  a  partnership  account  is  opened, 
each  member  of  the  firm  who  is  allowed  to  sign  checks 
writes  the  firm's  name  and  his  own  in  the  signature-book. 

Deposits. 

When  money  is  deposited  in  a  bank,  some  voucher  should 
be  taken.  This  is  done  usually  by  the  teller  writing  the 
amount  of  the  deposit  in  the  small  bank-book  of  the  depositor, 
and  sometimes  a  receipt,  called  a  teller's  check,  is  given.  When 
a  deposit  is  made,  the  bank  usually  issues  a  small  "hand- 
book," to  be  carried  in  the  pocket,  in  which  an  account  is 
kept  by  the  teller  of  the  bank  of  all  the  transactions  which 
follow.  After  the  opening  deposit,  when  it  is  intended  to 
pay  in  more  money,  the  depositor  fills  out  a  blank,  showing 
the  amount  paid  in  and  indicating  whether  it  is  in  checks  or 
current  funds.  This  ticket,  with  the  book  and  the  money, 
is  handed  to  the  teller,  who  enters  the  date  and  amount. 
When  a  note  is  left  for  collection,  it  is  usually  entered  by  the 
collection  clerk  in  the  back  part  of  the  book,  giving  date, 
maker's  name,  maturity,  and  amount.  When  collected,  the 
amount,  less  collection  charges,  is  placed  in  the  book  as  a 
regular  deposit.  Few  merchants  keep  a  separate  account 
with  a  bank  in  their  general  books,  the  "bank-book"  and 
the  stubs  of  the  check-book  being  sufficient,  and  in  themselves 
vouchers  of  the  transaction. 

How  to  Keep  the  Stub  of  Check-Book. 

In  drawing  a  check,  insert  all  the  particulars  in  the  stub 
before  doing  so  in  the  body  of  the  check ;  also  the  purpose  for 
which  the  check  is  drawn. 

The  left-hand  page  of  the  stub  is  intended  for  the  purpose 
of  entering  your  deposits;  the  right-hand  page  for  the  de- 
scription of  the  checks.  When  both  sides  are  footed  up,  the 
excess  of  the  left-hand  total  over  the  right  shows  the  balance 
remaining  to  your  credit  in  bank. 


By  following  the  form  here  given,  it  will  be  found  much 
preferable  to  subtracting  each  check,  as  many  do,  which, 
makes  the  tracing  of  an  error  very  difficult: 


1SS3. 

Nov.  6,  Dep 

Coin 

Bills 

OS 

it. 

4 

100 
200 

60 

00 
00 

00 

Check. 
Williams. 

Johnson.. 
White.... 

.1 

37-50 
,666.66 

Nov.  S,  Dep 
Bills. 

OS 

t. 

Nov.  9,  Dep 
Check,  B. 

OS 

D 

t. 

ixon. 

?3 

,2l6 

9S3 

2,232.84 


$2,064 


?3.2"J 


16 


98 


No.  I. 
Nov.  7,  1S.S3. 

Amount 

Order  of 

T.  A.  Lamont. 


No.  2, 
Nov.  S,  1SS3. 

Amount 

Order  of 
L.  H.  Peterson. 


No.  3. 
Nov.  11,  1SS3. 

Amount 

Order  of 
J.  M.  Whitney. 


$200 


I2S 


6sS 


$9S3 


The   totals  are  carried  forward  to  the  ne.xt  pages  in  this 
manner  : 


For\vard, 


iP3,2i6    14 


Forward, 


£lc. 


$983 


Balancing  a  Bank-Book. 

Checks  paid  are  not  entered  up  in  the  bank-book  as  they 
are  presented  for  payment,  but  are  filed  away,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  month,  or,  indeed,  whenever  the  depositor  desires  to  have 
his  account  balanced,  the  book  is  presented  and  the  balance 
figured  up  by  the  teller,  who  enters  it  usually  in  red  ink  under 
the  paid  checks  on  the  right-hand  side.  The  book  should 
then  be  ruled  up,  and  the  balance  in  bank  carried  over  to  the 
left-hand  side,  similar  to  the  first  entry.  When  the  depositor 
calls  for  his  book,  all  the  cancelled  checks  are  passed  out  to 
him  along  with  the  account. 

How  to  Draw  and  Endorse  a  Check. 

A  check  is  a  written  order  on  a  bank  directing  that  a  certain 
amount  of  money  be  paid  to  a  person  whose  name  is  given, 
or  to  the  order  of  that  person,  or  to  the  bearer.  A  check 
is  the  simplest  form  of  negotiable  paper,  although  there 
are  checks  which  are  not  negotiable.  There  is  no  set 
form  for  the  wording  of  a  check.     Any  dated  demand  upon 


-^ 


hT 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


429 


lA 


a  bank  in  which  the  person  signing  has  money,  properly 
signed,  is  a  check,  and  will  draw  the  money.  Some- 
times the  words  "or  order"  are  used;  sometimes,  "or 
bearer."  Occasionally  checks  are  made  payable  to  "the 
bearer"  without  giving  any  name.  If  the  words  "or  order" 
and  "or  bearer"  are  both  omitted,  then  the  check  is  not  nego- 
tiable, and  can  be  jiaid  only  to  the  person  named.  In  tlieory 
a  check  is  a  sight  draft,  which  does  not  need  acceptance,  as  it 
is  paid  on  presentation.  All  b.inks  keep  printed  forms  of 
checks,  which  they  issue  to  depositors.  When  a  check  is 
made  payable  to  the  payee  "or  order,"  it  must  be  endorsed 
by  the  payee  before  payment.  Generally,  all  checks,  whether 
"to  order"  or  "to  bearer,"  should  be  endorsed,  which  is 
by  writing  the  name  of  the  payee  across  the  back. 

Certified  Checks. 

If  all  men  were  perfectly  honest,  certified  checks  would 
never  have  been  thought  of.  But  men  will  occasionally 
draw  against  deposits  which  exist  only  in  their  imaginations, 
and  to  meet  this  growing  evil,  certification  of  checks  has 
been  introduced.  No  uncertified  check  from  a  stranger 
should  be  received  by  any  business  man.  The  certifying 
means  that  the  person  drawing  the  paper  has  funds  to  his 
credit  to  the  amount  of  the  check,  and  the  bank  guarantees 
its  payment.  To  get  a  check  certified,  it  is  presented  either 
to  the  paying  teller  or  the  cashier  of  the  bank  on  which  it  is 
drawn.  The  bank  officer  writes  across  the  face,  "Certified," 
with  the  date,  and  signs.  Another  form  used  very  frequently 
are  the  words,  "Good  when  properly  endorsed,"  with  the 
signature.  This  makes  the  bank  liable  for  the  check,  even 
if  it  is  a  forgery  or  a  fraudulent  one.  The  certification  of  a 
check  is  the  same  as  the  .acceptance  of  a  draft. 

Banking  Frauds. 

Forged  Checks. — Despite  the  precautions  taken  by  banks 
in  keeping  a  signature-book,  it  frequently  happens  that  astute 
rogues  deceive  them  with  forgeries.  This  is  the  most  danger- 
ous crime  in  the  business  world,  as  it  strikes  at  the  root  of 
confidence.  Some  forgers  are  so  expert  that  they  are  able  to 
imitate  a  signature  so  closely  that  even  the  one  whose  name 
is  forged  can  only  swear  that  he  did  not  make  out  the  check, 
and  will  not  be  able  to  pick  out  the  forged  signature  by  itself 
from  the  genuine.  All  of  the  responsibility  of  detecting 
forgeries  is  thrown  upon  the  receiving  teller  of  the  bank. 
Every  check  is  paid  by  the  bank  at  its  own  risk,  and  it  has.no 
recourse  against  the  person  whose  name  is  forged.  A  forgery 
cannot  be  rectified  by  the  person  whose  name  was  used,  as 
this  rectification  would  be  contrary  to  public  policy,  and  would 
tend  to  shield  a  crime  which,  unpunished,  would  break  the 
whole  commercial  fabric. 

RAISED  CHECKS. 

A  device  of  sharpers  which  is  frequently  attended  with 
great  success  is  so  to  alter  the  wording  and  the  figures  of  a 
check  that  it  will  call  for  more  money  than  tlie  drawer  in- 
tended to  pay.     This  is  called  "raising  a  check,"  and  is  a 


felony.  Check-raising  is  only  possible  when  the  check  is 
loosely  written,  with  a  number  of  blank  places  where  words 
may  be  inserted.  Care  should  be  taken  always  to  fill  in  the 
empty  spaces  with  lines  of  ink.  If  a  raised  check  is  paid  by 
a  bank  it  can  only  charge  the  depositor  with  the  amount  for 
which  he  drew.  A  very  common  device,  and  a  good  one, 
used  by  many  merchants,  is  to  stamp  the  amount  of  money 
written  on  the  check  with  an  instrument  having  a  numl)er  of 
sharp  points,  which  so  roughens  the  paper  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  write  anything  more  on  it,  although  it  leaves  the 
original  writing  legible. 

ALTERFD  CHECKS. 

Altered  checks  ditfer  from  raised  checks  from  the  fact  that 
in  an  altered  check  all  of  the  original  writing  except  the  signa- 
ture, date  and  number  is  taken  out  wilh  chemicals,  which 
leaves  the  check  blank.  It  is  then  rewritten  for  any  amount 
the  swindler  desires  to  put  in. 

^"^  DRAFTS  AND  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE. f^^ 


A  draft  may  be  described  as  an  order  or  request,  written  by 
one  person  to  another,  asking  the  latter  to  pay  a  specified 
sum  of  money  to  a  third  party,  or  to  his  order,  or  to  the 
bearer.  Bills  of  exchange  are  drafts  under  another  name. 
An  inland  bill  is  a  draft  drawn  and  payable  in  the  same 
State  or  country,  and  a  foreign  bill  of  exchange  is  drawn 
in  one  country  and  payable  in  another.  Remittances  can  be 
made  much  more  safely  and  expeditiously  by  sending  bills  of 
exchange  than  by  sending  money.  If  lost,  the  draft  may  be 
duplicated.  To  provide  against  this  contingency,  in  sending 
drafts  over  sea,  it  is  customary  to  draw  two  or  three  for  the 
same  remittance,  and  when  one  of  these  is  paid,  the  others  are 
void;  but  the  great  and  increasing  accuracy  of  the  world's 
postal  systems  has  largely  removed  the  necessity  for  sending 
more  than  one  bill  of  exchange.  So  much  for  definitions. 
We  will  now  examine  drafts  and  their  forms. 

How  Drafts  are  Drawn. 

In  a  draft,  as  in  a  note,  any  form  which  includes  the  neces- 
sary requirements  will  be  held  good  in  law,  no  matter  how 
these  may  be  arranged.  Still,  custom  has,  in  a  measure, 
crystallized  on  certain  lines. 


■^600.  Cliuago,  April  ist,  iSSj. 

At  Ten  Days  s!ght  fay  to  the  order  of  Edwin 

Russell  Six   Hundred  Dollars,  value  received, 

wilh  current  rate  of  exchange. 

To  Simon  Hocktidiiy,      }  r^         r  t    /" 

St.  Louis.  Afo.        1  DonoAue  S-  Co. 


^■F=^ 


43° 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


The  theory  upon  which  a  draft  is  drawn  is  that  the  drawer 
has  or  will  have  funds  in  the  hands  of  drawee  at  the  maturity 
of  the  draft,  or  that  the  drawee  is  indebted  to  him.  Sometimes 
drafts  are  drawn  by  agreement  when  there  is  no  indebtedness. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  tliat  there  is  much  difference  in  the 
liability  between  a  note  and  a  draft.  The  maker  of  a  note 
must  pay  it;  the  drawer  of  a  draft  is  only  liable  after  the 
drawee  has  refused  to  pay.  The  drawee  only  becomes  liable 
when  he  has  accepted  the  draft.  When  the  draft  is  presented, 
if  it  is  a  sight  draft,  no  acceptance  is  necessary,  except  where 
the  State  law  allows  days  of  grace.  The  draft  is  simply  to  be 
paid  at  once.  But  when  it  is  to  be  paid  at  a  certain  time 
after  sight,  the  drawee  must  formally  accept  it,  which  is  done 
by  writing  across  the  face  of  the  paper  the  word  "Accepted," 
with  the  date  and  the  signature  of  the  person  accepting.  This 
acceptance  is  a  legal  promise  to  pay. 

When  the  draft  is  presented,  the  drawee  can  demand  a 
reasonable  time  to  make  up  his  mind  whether  to  accept  or 
not,  whereupon  it  may  be  left  with  him  one  day.  If  he  re- 
fuses to  return  it  at  the  end  of  that  time,  he  can  be  held  as 
accepting.  The  place  for  presentment  is  the  business  office 
or  residence  of  the  payee. 


Non-Acceptance. 


When  the  drawee  refuses  to  accept  the  draft,  it  is  said  to 
be  "  dishonored."  It  must  be  at  once  protested,  and  notice 
sent  to  all  parties  who  are  consequently  liable.  The  protest 
must  be  made  on  the  same  day  that  the  draft  is  dishonored, 
and  the  notice  sent  at  least  by  the  day  following.  The  pro- 
test should  be  made  by  a  notary  public  ;  but,  if  one  is  not 
accessible,  it  can  be  made  by  any  respectable  citizen. 

A  Protest. 

A  protest  is  a  declaration  made  by  a  notary  public  against 
the  loss  which  may  follow  the  non-acceptance  of  a  draft,  its 
non-payment,  or  the  non-payment  of  a  note.  To  illustrate 
the  machinery  of  the  protest  we  will  return  for  a  moment  to 
the  draft,  the  form  for  which  has  been  given  above.  Mr. 
Ilockaday  refuses  to  accept  the  draft  drawn  on  him  by 
Donohue  &  Co.  It  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  notary 
public,  who  again  presents  the  draft  to  Hockaday  and  de- 
mands its  acceptance.  He  refuses,  whereupon  a  form  is 
filled  out  testifying  to  the  facts  in  the  case,  especially  Hocka- 
day's  refusal  to  accept,  all  of  which  is  attested  by  the  notary. 
No  person  can  be  held  responsible  for  payment  unless  notice 
of  protest  is  sent  to  him  as  early  as  the  day  following  the 
protest.  These  notices  should  be  sent  to  the  maker  and  to 
each  endorser  of  the  draft. 

NOTICE  OF  PROTEST. 

.S7.  Louis,  April  ith,  iSSj. 
Please  to  take  Notice ; 

T/ial  a  Draft  draivn  hy  yourself  on  Simon  Hockaday, 

of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  for  the  sum  of  One  Thousand  Dollars, 

dated  April   ist,  /SSj,  was    this    day    Protested  for   non- 


Commissioned  June  ist,  iSSo. 
Commission  expires  June  iSt,  1SS4. 


acceptance,  and  that  the  holder  looks  to  you  for  the  payment 
thereof,  acceptance  having  been  duly  demanded  by  me  and 
refused. 

A.  A.  Oldjield, 

Notary  Public. 
To  Donohue  <^  O.,  Chicago^  III. 

An  acceptance  "supra-protest "  is  the  name  given  to  the 
acceptance  of  the  draft  by  some  person  other  than  the  drawee, 
"for  the  honor  of  the  drawee."  The  draft  is  then  held  till 
maturity,  and  presented  to  the  drawee  as  though  he  had 
accepted  it.  If  he  refuses  to  pay,  it  is  protested,  and  the 
person  making  the  "acceptance  supra-protest"  is  liable  for 
the  amount. 

Foreign  Bills  of  Exchange. 

The  principles  which  we  have  been  examining  above  apply 
with  equal  force  to  foreign  bills  of  exchange.  These  are 
now  commonly  drawn  in  sets  of  two,  so  tliat  each  may  be  sent 
by  a  different  ship,  and  they  are  always  to  be  payable  in  the 
money  current  in  the  country  where  the  payment  is  to  be  made. 


A  foreign  bill  is  protested  in  the  same  manner  as  an  inland 
bill.  The  law  does  not  explicitly  require  this  protest  in  every 
case,  but  it  has  been  found,  even  where  the  State  statute  has 
simply  required  "notice  of  non-acceptance"  to  be  furnished 
the  parties  liable,  to  be  the  safest  way  to  fix  liability 

Letters  of  Credit. 

The  letter  of  credit  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  banking 
instruments,  proving  of  great  convenience  to  travellers  in 
foreign  lands,  whom  it  enables  to  draw  money  from  banks 
and  bankers,  thus  relieving  them  from  the  risks  attendant 
upon  carrying  large  amounts  of  money  about  the  person,  and 
the  annoyance  of  making  frequent  exchanges.  The  following 
is  the  form  generally  employed: 


_^ 


\ 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


431 


FOREIGN  LETTER  OF  CREDIT. 


THIRD  National  Bank. 


Foreign  Letter  of  Credit, 
No    3308. 

Kansas  City,  March  2j,  jSSj. 
Gentlemen  : 

We  request  that  you  will  have  the  goodness  to  fur- 
nish Mr.  Hannibal  Atkins,  of  this  eity,  whose  signature 
is  at  foot,  with  any  funds  he  may  require,  to  the  extent 
of  Twenty  Thousand  Francs  in  Gold,  against  his 
Duplicate  Receipts  (j>ne  of  which  you  will  forward  to 
us),  for  any  payment  made  under  this  credit. 

Whatever  sum  Mr,  Atkins  may  take  up,  you  will 
please  endorse  on  the  back  of  this  letter,  which  is  to 
continue  in  force  until  January  I,  1SS4,  and  charge 
to  the  account  of 

Your  obedient  servant, 

THE  THIRD  NATIONAL  BANK, 
Richard  Rankin, 

LThe  Signature  of  President. 

Hannibal  Atkins. 
To  Messieurs-  y_ 

The  Bankt-rs  iufnttaned  on  the  third  /•age  0/  this  letter  of  credit,    5 
vvvv'*rvvvv'vvv-vvv-v'vv'vvvvvv%rsrv-w'vvvvvvvvvv-vnrv'v-v'vvvvv-vvv 

Inland  lelters  of  credit  are  also  used,  their  general  character- 
istics lieing  the  same  as  the  foreign,  though  they  differ  some- 
what in  their  wording.  Generally  a  letter  of  introduction  is 
delivered  to  the  party  to  whom  the  credit  is  issued,  introduc- 
ing him  to  the  correspondent  of  the  bank  of  issue,  and  stating 
the  nature  of  the  transaction,  the  amount  of  credit  granted  and 
the  time  it  has  to  run.  Letters  of  advice,  conveying  the  same 
intelligence,  together  with  the  signature  of  the  party  bearing 
the  letter  of  credit,  are  sent  to  the  bank's  correspondents. 

Bill  of  Lading  as  Security. 

Shippers  of  merchandise,  purchasing  cargoes  on  specula- 
tion to  be  forwarded  to  an  agent  for  sale,  to  obtain  the  money 
to  (my  for  it,  draw  a  draft  upon  the  consignee,  made  payable 
to  the  bank  from  which  the  money  is  obtained,  by  giving  as 
security  for  its  payment  a  bill  of  lading  made  out  by  the 
captain  of  the  craft  or  the  railroad  company  owning  the  road 
upon  which  the  goods  are  shipped,  either  in  the  name  of  the 
shipper,  and  assigned  by  him  to  the  bank,  or  drawn  originally 
in  the  name  of  the  bank,  both  forms  bemg  common.  As  a 
general  rulo,  the  bill  of  lading  is  attached  to  the  draft  and  is 
held  by  the  bank,  to  which  the  title  at  once  passes. 

A  BILL  OF  LADING. 

No.jiS.  Chicago,  yuty^^l  JSS3, 

Shipped  by  Asa  Lasaltc,  as  Agent,  in  app.ircnt  -good  order,  on 
board  the  Propeller  May  Prescott,  ot  Ojjdcnsburj;,  New  York, 
wlicrcof  James  Perkins,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  is  Master,  the  following 
described  p-operty,  to  be  transported  to  the  place  of  destination  with- 
out unnecessary  delay,  and  to  be  delivered  as  addressed  on  the  margin 


in  like  good  order,  in  the  customary  manner,  free  of  lighterage,  upon 
prompt  payment  of  freight  and  charges  as  prescril>cd  in  this  hill. 

The  Freight,  Charges  and  Demurrage  payable  to  Enos  lianscomb, 
Cashier  First  Natiomtl Bank  of  Erie,  Pa.,  or  order,  at  place  of  destin- 
ation, who  is  the  only  party  authorized  to  collect  the  same,  and 
whose  receipt  shall  be  in  full  of  all  demands  on  this  cargo  or  Bill  of 
Lading. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  the  said  Master  of  said  boat  hath  affirmed  to 
three  Bills  of  Lading,  one  marked  "original"  and  two  "duplicate," 
of  this  tenor  and  date,  one  of  which  being  accomplished  the  others  to 
stand  void. 

Order  of  Kranklin  Bank.  10,000  Bushels  No.  i  Winter  Wheat. 

Freight,  3  cents  per  bushel. 

Notify  Peter  Albright  &  Co.,  Ogdensburg. 

Amos  Bowen. 
J.  G.  Leitch. 
The  grain  thus  hypothecated  to  the  bank  is  subject  to  its 
control  and  direction,  and  its  proceeds,  when  sold,  must  be 
applied  to  the  draft's  payment. 

Asa  Lasalle's  transaclion  in  purchasing  the  wheat  and 
shipping  it  on  the  propeller  May  Prescott,  of  which  James 
Perkins  is  captain,  is  partially  described  in  the  foregoing  bill 
of  lading.  The  grain  is  consigned  to  Peter  Albright  &  Co., 
Ogdensburg,  agents,  on  account  of  the  Franklin  Bank,  which 
also  requires  Asa  Lasalle  to  insure  the  consignment  for  its 
protection.  The  following  is  the  form  of  draft  employed  in 
a  transaction  of  this  kind  : 


THE  DRAR. 

^12, 000. 

Chicago,  III.,  July  12,  iSSj. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  Franklin    Bank    Twelve 

Thousand  Dollars,  value   received,   and  charge 

the  same  to  account  of  (^10,000  bus.  winter  wheat. 

Prop.  May  Prescott) 

Asa  Lasalle. 
To  Peter  Altright  b'  Co., 


No.  Sjj. 


Ogdensburg^ 


The  Clearing-House  System. 

A  Clearing-house  is  an  association  of  the  banks  and 
bankers  of  a  city  for  the  exchange  of  their  checks  and  the 
adjustment  of  accounts  between  themselves.  A  business 
man,  receiving  a  check  in  the  course  of  trade,  seldom  thinks 
of  sending  it  to  the  bank  on  which  it  is  drawn,  but  simply 
deposits  it  in  the  bank  with  which  he  keeps  his  account, 
only  taking  the  precaution  to  have  it  "certified  "  if  he  doubts 
its  goodness.  Thus,  at  the  close  of  a  day,  each  bank  will 
hold  a  number  of  checks  drawn  on  other  banks.  These  are 
assorted,  and  placed  in  envelopes,  marked  with  the  names  of 
banks  on  which  tliey  are  drawn  and  with  the  total  amount, 
and  taken  by  a  clerk  and  messenger  to  the  Clearing-house. 
There  the  balances  against  or  in  favor  of  each  bank  are 
ascertained,  and  are  paid  in  by  a  certain  hour  each  d.ay,  and 
the  accounts  settled.  By  the  Clearing-house  system  the 
exchange  of  millions  of  dollars  is  daily  effected  in  large 
cities  by  the  transfer  of  a  few  thousands. 


A^ 


432 


NATIONAL  BANKS— STOCKS  AND  BONDS. 


J\ 


-lA 


OUR   NATIONAL  BANKING  SYSTEM.^ 


rHE  NATIONAL  BANKING  SYSTEM  was  created 
by  Congress  in  the  belief  that  it  was  the  best  perma- 
j  ly  nent  method  of  securing  paper  money  absolutely  safe 
iX  from  loss  to  the  holder  and  readily  convertible  into 
t'  coin.  Under  the  laws  of  the  United  States  any  num- 
ber of  persons  not  less  than  five  may  form  an  association  and 
obtain  a  charter  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  business  of  a 
national  banlt.  The  capital  stock  of  a  national  banlcing  associa- 
tion is  divided  into  shares  of  $loo  each,  and  in  cities  of  50,000 
population,  or  over,  no  association  can  be  organized  with  a  less 
capital  than  ^200,000;  in  cities  of  less  than  50,000,  jS  100,000 
capital  is  required,  but,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  national  banks  may  be  organized  in  places  of  less 
than  5,000  inhabitants  with  a  capital  of  §50,000. 

National  banks  are  authorized  to  discount  and  negotiate  notes, 
drafts,  etc. ;  to  receive  deposits  ;  to  buy  and  sell  exchange,  coin 
and  bullion ;  to  loan  money  on  personal  security,  and  to  issue 
circulating  notes.  They  are  prohibited  from  making  loans  on 
real  estate,  or  on  security  of  their  own  shares  of  capital,  e.xcept 
to  secure  debts  previously  contracted,  and  real  estate  purchased 
or  mortgaged  to  secure  a  pre-existing  debt  cannot  be  held  for  a 
longer  period  than  five  years. 

They  are  also  prohibited  from  making  loans  to  one  person  or 
association,  excepting  on  business  paper  representing  actually 
existing  value  as  security,  in  excess  of  one-tenth  of  the  capital 
of  the  bank. 

The  stockholders  of  a  national  bank  are  individually  liable 
(equally  and  ratably,  and  not  one  for  another)  for  an  amount 
equal  to  the  par  value  of  the  capital  stock  held  by  them. 

The  national  banks  in  the  reserve  cities  are  required  by  law  to 
hold  a  lawful  money  reserve  of  25  per  cent  of  their  deposits ;  all 
other  national  banks,  1 5  per  cent.  The  excess  above  legal  require- 
ments is  called  "surplus  reserve."  This  reserve  includes  the  5 
per  cent  redemption  fund  with  tlie  U.  S.  Treasurer. 

The  law  provides  that  a  surplus  fund  shall  be  accumulated,  by 
setting  aside,  before  the  usual  semi-annual  dividend  is  declared, 
one-tenth  part  of  the  net  profits  of  the  bank  for  the  preceding 
half-year,  until  the  suqjlus  fund  shall  amount  to  20  per  cent  of 
its  capital  stock. 


The  national  banks  pay  to  the  United  States  a  tax  of  i  per 
cent  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of  their  notes  in  circula- 
tion, J^  per  cent  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of  their 
deposits,  and  J^  per  cent  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of 
capital  not  invested  in  U.  S.  bonds.  Banks  other  than  national 
pay  taxes  to  the  United  States  on  account  of  their  circulation, 
deposits  and  capital  at  the  same  rates  as  are  paid  by  the  national 
banks. 

National    Bank   Circulation. 

Every  national  bank,  Ijefore  it  is  authorized  to  commence  busi- 
ness, must  transfer  to  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States' 
registered  bonds,  bearing  interest,  to  an  amount  not  less  than 
one-fourth  of  the  capital  stock  paid  in,  as  security  for  its  circulat- 
ing notes.  Banks  having  a  capital  of  more  than  §150,000  shall 
be  required  to  deposit  bonds  to  the  amount  of  one-third  of 
their  capital  stock. 

Upon  a  deposit  of  registered  bonds,  tlie  association  making 
the  same  will  receive  from  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  cir- 
culating notes  of  different  denominations,  in  blank,  equal  in 
amount  to  go  per  cent  of  the  current  market  value,  not  exceed- 
ing par,  of  the  bonds  so  deposited. 

The  circulating  notes  of  national  banks  are  redeemed  in  law- 
ful money  by  the  banks  which  issue  them,  and  by  the  Treasurer 
of  the  United  States  at  Wasliington.  Every  national  bank  must, 
at  all  times,  keep  and  have  on  deposit  in  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States,  in  lawful  money,  a  sum  equal  to  5  per  cent  of  its 
circulation,  to  be  held  and  used  for  the  redemption  of  such 
circulation. 

A  bank  going  into  voluntar)'  liquidation  must,  within  six 
months  thereafter,  deposit  in  the  Treasury  a  sum  equal  to  the 
amount  of  circulating  notes  outstanding.  The  law  also  requires 
that  full  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  redemption  of  the  circu- 
lating notes  of  any  insolvent  bank  before  a  dividend  is  made  to 
its  creditors.  No  association,  therefore,  can  close  up  its  business 
without  first  providing  for  the  payment  of  all  its  circulating  notes, 
and  the  amounts  deposited  for  their  redemption  must  remain  in 
the  Treasury  until  the  last  outstanding  note  shall  have  been  pre- 
sented. Thus  the  Government,  and  not  the  bank,  receives  all 
the  benefit  arising  from  lost  or  unredeemed  circulating  notes. 


••o^o*. 


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e^rZ"X3^s 


STOCKS-^  AND  ■>  BONDS 


7i^ 


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rllE  CAPITAL  of  a  corporation  is  always  divided  into 
shares  ranging  from  $10  to  $1,000,  but  usually  of 
100  each.  These  shares  are  known  as  stock,  and 
^^  represent  an  interest  in  the  property  and  profits  of  the 
^v'  company  over  and  above  liabilities  and  expenses.  A 
dividend  is  the  distribution  of  the  profits,  proportionate  to 
number  of  shares  held,  among  the  stockholders. 


VL 


Stock  certificates  are  written  instruments,  signed  by  tlie  proper 
officers  of  the  company,  and  certifying  that  the  holder  is  the 
owner  of  a  certain  number  of  shares  of  the  capital  stock.  _  These 
certificates  are  transferable,  and  may  be  bought  and  sold  the 
same  as  other  species  of  property.  The  sum  for  which  each  share 
or  certificate  was  issued  is  the  far  value,  and  the  amount  for 
which  it  can  be  sold  the  market  value. 


"Tt 


STOCKS  AND  BONDS —GOVERNMENT  BONDS. 


433 


Preferred    Stock. 

This  kind  of  stock  takes  preference  of  the  ordinary  stock  of  a 
corporation,  and  the  holders  are  entitled  to  a  stated  per  cent  an- 
nually out  of  the  net  earnings  before  a  dividend  can  be  declared 
on  the  common  stock.  Preferred  stocks  arc  generally  the  result 
of  reorganiiation,  although  sometimes  issued  in  payment  of  float- 
ing or  unsecured  debts. 

How   Stock   is    "\A^atered." 

.Sometimes  the  charier  of  a  corporation  forbids  the  declaring 
of  a  dividend  exceeding  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  par  value  of  its 
stock.  In  this  case  the  directors  may  find  it  desirable  to  "  water" 
the  stock — that  is,  issue  additional  shares.  This  increase  in  the 
number  of  shares  of  course  reduces  the  percentage  of  dividend, 
although  the  same  profit  in  the  aggregate  is  secured  to  the  stock- 
holders. 

BONDS. 

A  bond  is  in  the  nature  of  a  promissory  note — the  obligation 
of  a  corporation,  state,  county  or  city  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of 
money  at  a  certain  time,  with  interest  payable  at  fixed  periods  or 
upon  certain  condition^. 

The  bond  of  a  company  may  I)e  a  perfectly  safe  investment, 
when  the  stock  is  not ;  and  tlie  stock  of  a  prosperous  and  suc- 
cessful company,  jiaying  large  dividends  or  having  a  large  sur- 
plus, may  sell  at  a  higher  price  than  the  bonds  of  the  same  com- 


pany, the  income  from  which  is  limited  to  the  agreed  rate  of 
interest  which  they  bear.  A  much  closer  scrutiny  should  be 
made  of  a  company's  standing  when  one  thinks  of  investing 
in  its  share  capital,  than  when  it  is  the  intention  to  loan  the  com- 
pany money  on  its  mortgage  bonds. 

Generally  the  bonds  of  business  corporations  are  secured  by 
mortgage,  but  some  classes  of  bonds  are  dependent  on  the  solv- 
ency or  good  faith  of  the  company  issuing  them. 

The  coupons  attached  to  bonds  represent  the  different  install- 
ments of  interest,  and  are  to  be  cut  off  and  collected  from  time 
to  time  as  the  interest  becomes  payable.  Bonds  are  sometimes 
issued  without  coupons,  and  are  then  called  registered  bonds. 
Such  bonds  are  payable  only  to  the  registered  owner,  and  the 
interest  on  these  is  paid  by  check.  Convertible  bonds  are  such 
as  contain  provisions  whereby  they  may  be  exchanged  for  stock, 
lands  or  other  property. 

Bonds  are  known  as  First  Mortgage,  Second  Mortgage,  etc., 
Debentures,  Consols,  Convertible  Land  Grant,  Sinking  Fund, 
Adjustment,  Income  or  otherwise,  according  to  their  priority  of 
lien,  the  class  of  property  upon  which  they  are  secured,  etc. 
Income  bonds  are  generally  bonds  on  which  the  interest  is  only 
payable  if  earned,  and  ordinarily  are  not  secured  by  mortgage. 
Bonds  are  also  named  from  the  rate  of  interest  they  bear,  or 
from  the  dates  at  which  they  are  payable  or  redeemable,  or  from 
botli;  as,  U.  S.  4's  1907,  Virginia  6's,  Western  Union  7's,  cou- 
pon, 1900,  Lake  Shore  reg.  2d,  1903. 


4^ 


GOVERNMENT   BONDS. 


^ 


.^*5>^UR  GOVERNMENT  found  it  necessary  to  borrow  large 

«!-rivNl  ^"""^  °^  money  to  prosecute  the  war  of  the  Rebellion, 

jIvi'v^;/    ""'  '"  '''^'"''"  issued  interest-bearing  bonds.      All  of 

^i^l  these  bonds  now  outstanding  are  payable  in  coin,  except 

■^  J        only  the  currency  6's,  and  all  are  exempt  from  tax.ation. 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  bonds  now  outstanding  : 

Continued6's — 6'soF  1881.  Authorizedbyacts  July  lyand 
August  5,  1861,  and  March  3,  1863.  Redeemable  at  option  of 
Government  after  June  30,  1881.  In  18S1,  at  the  request  of 
holders,  these  bonds  were  continued  at  3J  ri:K  cent. 

Continued  5's — 5's  of  1881.  Authorized  by  the  "  Funding 
Acts"  of  July  14,  iS/O,  and  Januarj'  20,  1 87 1,  and  issued  for  the 
puri)Ose  of  funding  the  5-20  and  10-40  bonds.  Redeemable  at 
the  option  of  the  Government  after  10  years  from  their  date,  or 
after  May  I,  1881.  In  1881,  at  the  request  of  holders,  these 
bonds  were  continued  at  3J  per  cent. 

4l's  OF  1891.  Authorized  by  acts  of  July  14,  1S70,  ami 
January  20,  1871,  and  issued  for  the  purpose  of  funding  the 
5-20  and  10-40  bonds.  Redeemable  at  option  of  Government 
after  15  years  from  their  dale,  or  after  September  I,  1891. 

4's  OF  1907.  Authorized  by  acts  of  July  14,  1870,  and  Jan- 
uary 20,  1 87 1,  and  issued  for  the  purpose  of  funding  the  5-20 
and  10-40  bonds.  Redeemable  at  option  of  Government  after 
30  years  from  their  date,  or  after  July  i,  1907. 

Currency  6's.  Issued  to  aid  in  con.struction  of  the  Pacific 
railroads,  and  authorized  by  acts  of  July  I,  1S62,  and  July  2, 


1864.^  Principal  and  interest  payable  in  lawful  money  of  the 
United  States.  Payable  30  years  after  date,  and  maturing  at 
different  dates  from  1S95  to  1S99. 

Refundinc;  Certificates.  Authorized  by  act  of  Februar)- 
26,  1S79.  These  certificates  are  of  the  denomination  of  $10, 
licar  interest  at  4  per  cent,  and  are  convertible  at  any  time,  with 
accrued  interest,  into  4  per  cent  bonds. 

All  Government  bonds  are  dealt  in  and  quoted  "  flat " — Ih.at  is 
to  say,  the  quoted  market  price  is  for  the  bond  as  it  stands  at  the 
time,  including  the  accrued  interest — except  that  after  the  closing 
of  the  transfer  books  the  registered  bonds  are  quoted  ex-interest — 
that  is  to  s.iy,  the  interest  then  coming  due  belongs  to  the  holder 
of  the  bond  at  the  time  of  the  closing  of  the  books,  and  does 
not  go  with  the  bond  to  the  purchaser. 

Coupon  bonds,  being  p.ayable  to  bearer,  pass  by  delivery  with- 
out assignment,  and  are  therefore  more  convenient  for  sale  and 
delivery  than  registered  bonds,  which  must  be  assigned  by  the 
jiarty  in  whose  name  they  are  registered.  The  interest  coupons, 
being  also  payable  to  the  bearer,  will  be  cashed  by  any  bank  or 
banker. 

The  interest  on  registered  bonds  is  ]>aid  by  checks,  made  to 
the  order  of  the  registered  owner  and  sent  to  him  by  mail. 
These  checks,  when  jiropcrly  endorsed,  can  be  collected  and 
cashed  through  any  bank  or  banker. 

Coupon  bonds  may  be  converted  into  registered  bonds  of  the 
same  issue,  but  there  is  no  jirovision  of  law  for  converting  regis- 
tered bonds  into  coupon  bonds. 


ki 


K" 


434 


TAXES   AND    DUTIES. 


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,,^.,,  TAXES  pf  DUTIES. 

*    *    TARIFF  AND  INTERNAL  REVENUE.    *    ^l^ 


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TAX  is  the  assessment  of  a  sum  of  money  on  persons 
^  or   property  to   defray   the    expenses   of  government. 


lb  Taxation  on  property  is  either  "  direct "  or  '•  indirect." 
A  direct  tax  is  one  which  is  levied  from  the  very  persons 
who  it  is  intended  should  pay  it.  An  indirect  tax  is 
one  which  is  demanded  from  one  person  in  the  expectation  that 
he  will  indemnify  himself  at  tlie  expense  of  another — as  customs 
duties,  for  instance.  In  some  States  all  citizens  above  21  years 
of  age  are  required  to  pay  a  personal  tax,  known  as  capitation 
ax  poll  tax.  The  expenses  of  towns,  cities,  counties  and  States 
are  paid  by  a  direct  tax  upon  the  property  or  polls  of  the  same, 
the  methods  of  assessment  differing  in  the  several  States.  In 
some  .States  the  whole  tax  is  paid  by  the  owners  of  property;  in 
others  a  certain  percentage  of  the  whole  lax  is  assessed  upon 
the  polls,  while  in  some  the  poll  tax  is  a  fixed  amount  for  each 
citizen. 

The  expenses  of  the  United  States  Federal  Government  are 
paid  by  the  internal  revenue  and  the  duties  on  imports.  The 
internal  revenue  is  the  tax  on  tobacco,  cigars,  etc.,  and  distilled 
spirits  and  fermented  liquors. 

Fixed  property,  such  as  land,  houses,  etc.,  is  called  real  estate. 
Movable  property,  such  as  merchandise,  furniture,  money,  stocks, 
bonds,  mortgages,  etc.,  is  called  personal  property. 

For  the  support  of  the  Government,  and  in  order  to  protect 
honie  industries,  certain  taxes  are  imposed  on  imported  mer- 
chandise, and  these  taxes  are  called  duties  or  customs. 

Tiie  waters  and  shores  of  the  United  States  are  divided  into 
collection  districts,  in  each  of  which  there  is  one  port  of  entry 
and  one  or  more  ports  of  delivery.  All  ports  of  entry  are  also 
ports  of  delivery. 

All  cargoes  chargeable  with  duties  must  be  entered  and  the 
duties  paid,  or  secured  to  be  ]>aid,  at  the  ]>ort  of  entry,  before 
l)ermi.ssion  is  given  to  discharge  the  same  at  the  port  of  delivery. 

The  principal  officer  of  every  district  is  the  collector,  who  is 
assisted  l)y  deputy  collectors,  surveyors,  appraisers,  weighers, 
gaugers,  insjxictors,  etc.  The  duties  of  tlie  above  vary  in  the 
several  collection  districts  ami  ports.  There  is  also  in  the  lead- 
ing ports  of  entry  a  "naval  officer,"  whose  de|)artment  is  a  check 
upon  that  of  the  collector. 

An  importer  desiring  a  jicrmit  to  land  merchandise  presents 
his  invoice,  with  the  consular  certificate,  bill  of  lading,  and  a  for- 
mal entry  attached,  to  the  entry  clerk  at  the  custom-house,  and 
makes  the  necessary  oath  before  the  collector  or  his  deputy. 
The  duties,  if  any,  are  estimated  in  the  departments  of  the  col- 


lector and  the  naval  officer.  The  amount  oi  the  estimated  duties 
having  been  paid,  or  secured  by  a  bond,  the  collector,  together 
with  the  naval  officer,  where  there  is  one,  grants  a  permit  to  land 
the  merchandise.  It  is  the  custom  of  custom-house  brokers  and 
many  merchants  to  calculate  the  duties  and  enter  the  same  on 
the  entry.  The  permit  is  presented  to  the  inspector  in  charge 
of  the  vessel,  who  allows  the  merchandise  to  be  landed.  The 
collector  indicates  on  the  permit  by  numbers  what  packages 
shall  be  sent  to  the  public  store  for  examination.  When  the 
merchandise  is  examined  by  the  appraiser,  he  enters  on  the 
invoice  or  manifest  the  rate  of  duty  to  be  collected.  The  invoice 
and  the  accompanying  papers  are  then  sent  to  liquidators  in 
l30th  the  collector's  and  naval  officer's  departments  for  adjust- 
ment. The  liquidators  check  the  calculations  on  the  entry,  or 
again  calculate  the  duty  if  the  appraiser  has  changed  the  rate  or 
the  dutiable  value,  or  if  the  returns  of  the  weigher  or  ganger  differ 
from  the  weiglit  or  measurement  in  the  invoice.  The  amount 
of  duty  to  be  refunded  or  collected  is  marked  on  the  entry.  If 
the  difference  between  the  duty  as  estimated  and  as  liquidated  is 
less  than  ^ I,  it  is  disregarded,  and  the  liquidator  approves  the 
original  estimate. 

A  custom-house  broker  is  a  person  who  makes  entries,  secures 
permits,  and  transacts  other  business  at  custom-houses  for  mer- 
chants. The  greater  part  of  the  business  at  the  New  York 
Custom-house  is  done  through  brokers. 

DUTIES. 

Duties  are  of  three  kinds,  ad  valorem,  specific  and  combined. 

An  ad  valorem  duty  is  a  tax  assessed  at  a  certain  per  cent  on 
the  dutiable  value  of  the  merchandise.  The  dutiable  value  of 
merchandise  is  its  market  value  at  the  port  of  export,  but  not  less 
than  its  invoiced  cost,  commission  added,  whether  paid  or  not. 
It  is  usually  the  original  cost  plus  all  charges,  excepting  the 
consul's  fee,  to  the  vessel  on  which  tlie  shijjment  is  made. 
There  is  no  duty  on  the  freight  or  transportation  from  the  port 
of  export. 

A  specific  duty  is  a  tax  assessed  at  a  certain  sum  per  ton, 
pound,  foot,  yard,  gallon,  or  other  weight  or  measure,  without 
reference  to  the  value.  Before  specific  duties  are  calculated, 
allowances  are  made  for  tare,  leakage  and  breakage. 

In  reducing  foreign  money  to  U.  S.  money  for  the  purpose  of 
calculating  duties,  if  the  cents  of  the  result  are  less  than  50,  they 
are  rejected  ;   if  more  than  50,  %\  is  added  to  the  dollars. 


■f  tr- 


The  U.  S.  customhouse  ton  contains  2,240  pounds,  and  the 
liundredweight  1 1 2  pounds. 

Combined  duly. —  On  certain  goods  thefe  is  both  a  specific 
and  an  ad  valorem  duty,  and  this  is  termed  a  "  combined  duty." 

Bonded  Warehouses— Drawback— Free  List. 

A  bonded  warehouse  is  a  place  for  the  storage  of  merchandise 
on  which  the  duties  or  taxes  have  not  been  paid.  If  an  importer 
does  not  desire  to  place  his  goods  at  once  in  the  market,  or 
anticipates  exporting  the  same,  by  giving  a  bond  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  duties  and  making  the  entry  in  the  proper  form,  he 
may  have  the  merchandise  stored  at  his  own  risk  in  a  bonded 
warehouse,  and  thus  defer  the  payment  of  the  duties. 


Merchandise  may  be  withdrawn  from  a  bonded  warehouse 
for  exportation  to  Canada,  or  other  foreign  country,  without  the 
payment  of  the  duty  on  the  same. 

Drawback.— Vlhen  distilled  spirits,  fermented  liquors,  medi- 
cines and  perfumery  upon  which  an  internal  revenue  tax  has 
been  paid,  and  foreign  mercliandise  upon  which  an  import  duty 
has  been  paid,  are  exported,  the  tax  or  duty  upon  the  same  is 
refunded.     Such  return  of  the  tax  or  duty  is  called  a  drawback. 

The  free  list  is  a  list  of  articles  which  are  exempt  from  duty. 
In  making  entries  of  free  goods,  the  value  as  given  in  foreign 
money  must  be  reduced  to  U.  S.  money,  permits  must  be 
obtained  to  land  the  goods,  and  certain  packages  are  sent  to  the 
public  store  for  examination. 


~^*-S= 


THE   TARIFF.   ^'. 


\^^/ 


Rates  of  Duty  fixed  by  the  Tariff  Act  of  1883. 


Schedule  A— Chemical  Products. 

Gliic 20  p.  c. 

Hccswax 20  p,  c. 

GeLuhic  and  all  simil.ir  prepa'iions.  30  p.  c. 
Glycerine,  cnidc,  brown  or  yellow, 

of  I  and  25-iooths 2  c.  lb. 

Glycerine,  refined  5  c.  lb. 

Fish-2tuc  or  isinglass 25  p.  c. 

Phosphorous 10  c.  lb. 

Soap,  hard  anti  .<oft,  and  casiile  soap.  cop.  c. 
Fancy  perfumed  and  toilet  soap. ...  15  c.  lb. 

Sponges    20  p.  c. 

Suni.ic,  ground )  3-10  C.  lb. 

Sumac,  extract I  20  p.  c. 

Acid,  acetic,    acetous  or  pyroligne-l  2  c.  lb. 
ousacid,  according  to  gravity... .  J  10  c.  lb. 

Acid,  citric 10  c.  lb. 

Acid,  tartaric 10  c.  lb. 

Camphor,  refined 5  c.  iD. 

Castor  beans,  or  seeds 50  c.  bu. 

C.isioroil 80  c.  gal. 

Cream  of  tartar 6  c.  lb. 

Dextrine,  burnt  starch,  or  Brit.  gum.  1  c.  lb. 

Extract  of  hemlock 20  p.  c. 

(ilui-ose,  or  grape  sugar 20  p.  c. 

Indigo,  extr.icts  of,  and  carmined  ..  10  p.  c. 

Iodine,  resublimcd 40  c.  lb. 

Licorice,  paste  or  roll 7H  c .  lb. 

Licorice,  juice 3  c.  lb. 

Oil  of  bay-leaves,  essential J2.50  lb. 

Oil,  croton 50  c.  lb. 

Oil,  flaxseed  or  linseed,  &  cot'nsctd  25  c.  gal. 

Hcnipseed  oil,  and  rapesced  oil  ... .  10  c.  gal. 

Soda,potassa,  tart'ratcorroch.  salt.  3  c.  lb. 

Strychnia  and  salts  ol  it 50  c.  oz. 

Tartars,  partly  refined 4  c.  lb. 

Alvnnina,  ahim,  patent  alum,  etc...  60  c.  100  lb. 

Ammonia,  anhydrous 20  p.  c. 

Ammonia,  aqua 20  p.  c. 

Ammonia,  muriate  of 10  p.  c. 

Ammonia,  carbonate  of 20  p.  c. 

Ammonia,  sulphate  of 20  p.  c. 

All    imitations   of  natural    mineral 
waters,  and  artificial  min'l  waters.  30  p.  c. 

Asbestos,  manufactured 25  p.  c. 

B.iryia.snlphateof.unmanufactured  10  p.  c. 

liaryta,  sulphate  of,  manufactured. .    3^  c.  lb. 

Refined  borax 5  c.  lb. 

Pure  boracic  acid 5  c.  lb. 

Commercial 4  c.  lb. 

Borate  of  lime,  and  crude  borax. ...  3  c.  lb. 

Cement 20  p   c. 

Whiting  and  Paris  white,  dry ^  c.  lb. 

Ground  in  oil,  or  putty i  c.  lb. 

Prep'd  chalk,  precipt'd  chalk,  etc. .  20  p.  c. 

Chromic  acid i5p.  c. 

Chromate  of  potash 3  c.  lb. 


3  c.  lb. 
20  p.  c. 

3  c.  lb. 
0.3  c.  lb. 

4  c.  lb. 
6  c.  lb. 
^  c.  lb. 
3  c.  lb. 
3  c.  lb. 
3  c.  lb. 
3  c.  lb. 
sc  lb. 
10  c. lb. 
He.  lb. 


Ri-chromate  of  potash 

Cobalt,  oxide  of 

Copper,  sulph'ie  of.  or  blue  vitriol  . 

Iron,  sulphate  of,  or  copperas 

Acetate  of  lead,  brown 

Acetate  of  lead,  white 

White  lead,  dry  or  in  pvilp 

When  ground  or  mixed  in  oil    

Litharge 

Orange  mineral  and  red  lead 

Nitrate  of  lead 

Magnesia,  medicinal,  carbonate  of. 

Magnesia,  calcined 

Magnesia,  sulphate  of . , , , 

POTASH. 

Crude,  carbonate,  etc 

Chlorate  of 

Hydriodate,  iodide  and  iodate  of. .. 

Prussiate  of.  red 

Prussiate  of,  yellow 

Nitrate  of,  or  saltpeter,  crude 

Nitrate  of,  or  refined  saltpeter 

Sulphate  of 

SODA. 

Soda-ash 

Soda ,  sal  or  soda  crystals 

Bi-carbonate  of  or  sup.-carb  of,  etc. 

Hydrate  or  caustic 

Sulphate,  known  as  salt  cake,  etc. . 
Soda,  silicate  of,  etc 

SULPHUR. 

Refined,  in  rolls 

Sublimed  or  flowers  of 

Wood-tar 

Coal-tar,  cnulc 

Coal-tar,  products  of 

Coal-tar  colors  or  dyes 

Prep's  of  coal-tar,  not  colors  ordye. 

Logwood  and  other  dye  woods 

Ultramarine 

Turpentine,  spirits  ot 

Colors  and  paints ; 

Bone  black,  etc 

Ochcr,  umber,  sienna,  dry 

When  ground  in  oil 

Zinc,  oxide  of,  when  dry 

Zinc,  oxide  of,  when  ground  in  oil. . 
Essential  oils,  expressed  oils,  etc. . . 

PREPARATIONS. 

Known  as  cerates,  conserves,  etc  . .  25  p.  c. 

Barks,  berries,  balsams,  etc 10  p.  c. 

Non-dut*ec'dcmins.,a*v'd  in  valeic  10  p.  c. 

Ground  or  pow<lered  spices - . .   5  c.  lb. 

E'rth  or  clays.un'r'ghtor  unmaTd.  $1.50  p.  ton. 
Earthsor  clays,  wrought  or  manTd.  $3  p.  ton. 
Proprietary  preparations 50  p.  c. 


20  p.  c. 
3  c.  lb. 
50  c.  lb. 
10  c. lb. 
5c.  lb. 
I  c.  lb. 
I  14  c. lb. 
20  p.  c. 

V.  c.  lb. 
8  c.  lb. 
I'/  c.  lb. 
1  c.  lb. 
20  p.  c. 
%  c.  lb. 

J5io  p.  ton. 
J20  p.  ton. 
10  p.  c. 
10  p.  c. 
20  p.  c. 
35  P-  c. 
20  p.  c. 
10  p^  c. 
5  c.  lb. 
zo  c.  gal. 
25  p.  c. 
23  p.  c. 

K2  c.  lb. 
I^  C.  lb. 
j\i  c.lb. 
iKc.lb. 
25  p.  c. 


ALCOHOLIC    PREPARATIONS. 

.■\lcoholic  perfumery,  cologne  water. 


=;:{ 


$-2  p.  gal. 
50  p.  c. 


anhydrous  alcohol Ji  P-  gal. 

.■\lcoh.  con'g  94  p.  c.  anhyd.  alcohol,  j?  p   gal. 

.Alcoholic  compounds,  other 1  2-  p  c 

Chloroform    50  c.  lb. 

Collod'nandallcomp'sof  pyroxy'ne  50  c.  lb. 

Rolled  or  in  sheet 60  c.  lb. 

In  finished  or  partly   finished  arti- (6olb. 

cles lasp.  c. 

Ether,  sulphuric 50  c.  lb. 

Huffman's  anodyne 30  c.  lb. 

Iodoform   $2  p.  lb. 

Acid,  tannic  and  tannin ?i  p.  lb. 

Ether,  nitrous,  spirits  of 30  c.  lb. 

Santonine S3  p.  lb. 

Amyiic  alcohol,  or  fusel  oil 10  p.  c. 

Oil  ofcogn.ac,  or  ocn.antic  ether... ,  $4  p.  oz. 

Fruit  ethers,  oils  or  essences $2.5  »  p.  lb. 

Oil  or  essence  of  rum 50  c.  07. 

Ethers  of  allkinds $1  p.  lb. 

Coloring  for  brandy 50  p.  c. 

Prep's  of  which  alcoh.   is  comp't 

p't 50  c.  lb. 

Varnishes  of  all  kinds 1  1 

Spirit  varnishes 

Opium,  crude,  containing  9    p.     c. 

and  over  of  morphia Ji  p.  lb. 

Opium  cout'nglessg  p.  c.  morphia,  prohb'id. 
Prep,  for  smoii'g  and  all  other  prep.  ^10  p.  lb. 
Aqueous  ext,  of,  for  medicinal  uses.  40  p.  C- 
Morp'a  or  morp'ne  &  all  salts  the'of.  $1  p.  oz. 

Schedule  B  — Earthenware  and 
Glassware. 


' "  j  addiiio'i. 


Brown  earth'ware,  not  ornamented. 
Chi'a,p'rcern,par'an,bisq'e,e'ih'u, 

stone  and  crocker>'warc,  painted, 

print'd,  gild'd,  otherwise  decor'd. 
China,  porcelain,  patian  and  bisque 

ware,  white,  not  decorated 

Other  earth.,  stone,  cro'k'ware,  etc. 
Stoneware,  above  capac'y  of  10  gal. 

Encaustic  tiles 

Brick,  fire-brick,  ro'ing,  pa'ing  tile. 

Slates,  slate-pencils,  etc 

Roofing-slates 

Green   and   colored    glass    bottles, 

etc.,  not  cut,  cngrav'd  or  painted. 

Iffilled 

Flint  and  lime  glass  boi's,  vials,  etc. 


25  p.  c. 


60  p.  c. 

55  P-  C. 
55  pc. 

2-1  p.  C. 

35  p.  c. 
20  p,  c. 

3-^  p.  c. 

2Sp.   C. 

1  c.  lb. 
1  30  p.  c.  in 
Vad.  to  duty 
J  en  c'nt'nts 

40  p.  c. 


\ 


436 


THE    TARIFF. 


/ 


"I  40  p.  c.  in 

If  filled "-ad.  10  duty 

j  onc'nt'nts 
Articles  of  glass,  cut,  engrav'd,  etc.  45  p.  c. 
Cylinder  and  crown  glass,  polished, 

not  exceeding  10x15  in.  sq 2j^  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  16x24  in.  sq 4  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24x30  in,  sq 6  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24x60  in.  sq 20  c.  sq.  ft. 

Above  that 40  c.  sq.  It. 

Unpol,  cyl'der.crown  and  com.  win- 

d'w  gla-^s.notexc'd'g  10x15  in.sq.  1^  c.  lb. 

Not  exceeding  16x24  '"•  sq 1%  c.  lb. 

Not  exceeding  24x30  in.  sq 2^|c.Ib. 

Above  that 2^  c.  lb. 

Fluted,  rolled  or  rough  plate-glass, )  75  c.  100 

not  exceeding  10x15  in.  sq J  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  16x24  in.  sq i  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24x30  in.  sq i}^c. sq.lt. 

Above  that 2  c.  sq.  ft. 

Cast  polis'd  plate-glass,  unsilvered, 

not  exceeding  10x15  in.  sq 3  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  16x24  in.  sq. ...'....  5  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24x30  in,  sq 8  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24x60  in.  sq 25  c.  sq.ft. 

Above  that 50  c.  sq.  ft. 

Cast  pol'd  pbte-glass.silv.  orlook'g 

glass  pl't's,  not  exc'g  10x15  in.  sq.  4  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  16x24  in,  sq 6  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24.X30  in.  sq 10  c.  sq.  ft. 

Not  exceeding  24x60  in.  sq 35  c.  sq.  fi. 

Above  that 60  c.  sq.  ft. 

Looking-glass  plates  or  plate-glass,  30  p.  c.  in 

silvered,  when  framed addition. 

Porcelain  and  Bohemian  glass,  etc.  45  p.  c. 

Schedule  C-Metals. 

Iron    ore,    including    manganiferous  f  ^^^ 

iron  ore f  '^ 

Sulphur  ore,  as  pyrites,  containing 

not  more  than  3  J^  p.  c.  of  copper.  75  c.  ton. 

Ore  confg  more  than  2  p.  c.  copper  j^_  ^for^cop^ 

Iron  in  pigs,  iron  kentledge,  spieg- 
eleisen,  wrought  and  cast  scrap- 
iron  and  scrap-steel o.  3  c.  lb. 

Iron  r'way  bars,  over  25  lb.  to  yd..  0.7  c.  lb. 

Steel  railway-bars  and   r'way-bars 

made  in  part  of  steel,  over  25  lb. .  5^7  P-  ton- 

Bar-iron,  rolled  or  hammered,  com- 
prising flats  not  less  than  i  inch 
wide,  nor  less  than  ^3  in.  thick..  0.8  c.  lb. 

Round  iron  not  less  than  Y^  inch  in 
diameter,  and  square  iron  not  less 
than  Yi,  inch  square i  c.  lb. 

Flats  less  than  i  inch  wide  or  less 
than  ^  inch  thick;  round  ironless 
than  34  inch  and  not  less  ihan  7-16 
inch  in  diam.,  and  square  iron  less 
than  5.4  of  an  inch  square 1.10  c.  lb. 

All  iron  slabs,  etc 35  P-  c. 

Provid'd  further,  iron  bars,  blooms, 
billets,  or  sizes  or  shapes  of  any 
kind,  in  the  man'f.  of  which  char- 
coal is  used  as  fuel $22  p.  ton. 

Iron  or  steel  tec  rails,  weighing  not 
over  25  lbs.  to  the  yard 0.9  c.  lb. 

Iron  or  steel  flat  rails,  punched 0.8  c.  lb. 

Round  iron,  in  coils  or  rods,  less 
than  7-16  inch  in  diam.,  and  bars 
or  shapes  of  rolled  iron  not  spec- 
ially provided 1.2  c.  lb. 

Boiler  or  plate  iron,  sheared  or  un- 
sheared,  skclp-iron,  sheared  or 
rolled  in  grooves 'K  c.  lb. 

Sheet  iron.  com.  or  black,  thinner 
than  \%  inch  and  not  thinner 
than  No.  20  wire  gauge i  i-i6c.  lb. 

Thinner   than   No.   20  wire  gauge 

and  not  thinner  than  No.  25 i.a  c.  lb. 

Thinner  than  No.  25  wire  gauge  and 

not  thinner  than  No.  29 1.5  c.  lb. 

Thinner  than  No.  29  wire  gauge, 
and  all  iron  commercially  known 
as  common  or  black  taggers'  iron, 
whether  put  up  in  h'x's.b'dles.etc.  30  p.  c. 

On  all  such  iron  and  steel  sheets  or 
plates,  exccpti'g  what  are  known 
commercially  as  tin  plates,  tcrnc- 
plates  and  taggers*  tin,  when  gal- 
v'z'd  or  co't'd  with  zinc, spelter  or 
other  metals,  or  any  alloy  of  them  J-^cIb.  in  ad 

Polishcd.pian's'cd,  or  glanc'd  sheet- 
iron  or  shcct*stccl 25^  c.  lb. 


Plate,  sheet  or  taggers'  iron  other 

than   the  polished,   planished   or 

glanc'd  herein  provid'd  for,  which 

has  been   pickled   or  cleaned    by 

acid  or  by  any  other  material  or 

process,  and  which  is  cold  rolled.  J^  c.  lb.  ad. 
Iron  orstee!  sheets,  plates,  taggers' 

iron,  coated  with  tin  or  lead,  era 

mixture  of  which  these  metals  is 

a  comp'nt  part,  by  the  dripping 

or    other   process,  commercially 

known  as  tin  plates,  terne  plates, 

and  taggers'  tin i  c.  lb. 

Cor'ga'd  or  cr'ped  sheet  ir'n  orsteel  1.4  c.  lb. 
Hoop  band,  scroll  or  other  iron,  8 

inches  or  less  in  width,  and  not 

thinner  than  No.  10  wire  gauge  . .   i  c.  lb. 
Thinner  than  No.  10  wire  gauge  and 

not  thinner  than  No.  20 1,2  c.  lb. 

Thinner  than  No.  20  wire  gauge. . .   1.4  c.  lb. 
Articles  not  specially  provided  for, 

whether  wholly  or  partly  manu- 
factured, made  from  sheet,  plate, 

hoop,  band   or  scroll-iron    herein 

provided  for,  or  of   which    such 

sheet,  plate,  hoop,  band  or  scroll- 
iron    shall    be   material  of  chief 

value    1.^  c.  lb.  ad. 

Iron  and  steel  cotton-ties  or  hoops 

for  baling  purposes   not   thinner 

than  No.  20  wire  gauge 35  P-  c. 

Cast-iron  pipe  of  every  description,   i  c.  lb. 
Cast-ir'nves'l,etc.,notsp'c'ly  prov.  i  1.^  c.  lb. 

Cut  nails  of  iron  or  steel i  J^  c.  lb. 

Cut  tacks  or  brads,  not  exceeding  16 

oz.  to  the  1,000 2}^  c.  p.  M. 

Exceeding  16  oz.  to  the  1,000 3  c.  lb. 

Iron  or  steel  railway  fish-plates.. ..  ii<i  c.  lb. 
Mal'ble  iron  cast'g,  not  spec, en'm'd  2  c.  lb. 
Wr't  ir'n  orsteel  sp'k's.&h'rse  sh's  2  c.  lb. 
Anvil,  etc.,  w'gh'g  ea.  25  lb.  or  m're  2  c.  lb. 

Iron  orsteel  rivets,  bolts,  etc 2J4  c.  lb. 

Iron  or  steel  black 's'hs' ham's,  etc.  2^2  c.  lb. 
Iron  or  steel  axles, p'r'ts  thereof,  etc  2j4  c.  lb. 

Forgingsof  iron  and  steel 2*4  c.  lb. 

Horscshoe-nails,  etc.,  wrought-iron 

or  steel 4  c.  lb. 

Boiler  tubes,  wrought-iron  or  steel..  3  c.  lb. 
Other  wrought-iron  or  steel  tubes..  25^  c.  lb. 
Chains,  iron  or  steel,  not  less  than 

Y\  of  an  inch  in  diameter i^  c.  lb. 

Less  than  Y^  3nd  not  less  than  ^  in.  2  c.  lb. 

Less  than  ^^  of  an  inch 2j^  c.  lb. 

Cross-cut  saws 8  c.  lin.  ft. 

Mill,  pit  and  drag  saws, 9  in.  or  less  10  c.  lin.  ft. 

Overginches 15  c.  lin.  ft. 

Circular  saws 30  p.  c. 

Hand,  back  and  other  saws 40  p.  c. 

Files,  rasps,  floats  4  in.  long  &  und'r  35  c.  p.  doz. 

Over  4  in.  and  under  g  in 75  c.  p.  doz. 

Nine  in.  and  under  14  in $1.50  doz. 

Fourteen  in.  and  over $2.50  doz. 

Steel  and    cogged  ingots,   blooms, 

slabs,  not  spec'ly  prov'd,vard  at 

4  c.  p.  lb.  or  less 45  p.  c. 

Above  4  c.  lb.  and  not  above  7  c.  lb.  2  c.  lb. 
Above  7  c.  and  not  above  10  c.  lb  .  25<J  c.  lb. 

Above  10  c.  per  lb 31^  c.  lb. 

Iron   or  steel   bars,  rods,  strips,  or 

steel  sheets,  etc. ,  cold-rolled,  cold- 

ham'd,  or  pol'd  in  any  way  in  ad-    fstc'l  r't's 

dit'n  to  the  ordinary   process  of  -<  it  Vjc.  lb. 

hot  rolling  or  hammering (ad  lional. 

On  steel  circular  saw  plates i  c.  lb.  ad. 

Iron  or  steel  beams,  girdf^rs.  joists. .   ij^c.  lb. 
Steel  wheels  and  steel-tired  wheels 

for  r'way  purp'cs,  wh'ly  or  p'rtly 

fin'd  and  iron  orsteel  loc'tive, car 

and  other  railway  tires,  or  parts 

thereof,  wholly  or  partly  manufd.  2j4c.  lb. 
Iron  or  steel  ingots,  etc.,  fur  same. .  2  c.  lb. 
Iron  or  steel  wire  rods,  not  lighter 

than  No.  5  wire  gauge,  valued  at 

3J4  c.  or  less  per  lb 0.6  c.  lb. 

Iron  or  steel,  flat  with  longitudinal 

ribs  for  fencing 0,6  c.  lb. 

Screws  2  inches  long  or  over 6  c.  lb. 

One  inch  and  under  2  inches f  8  c.  lb. 

Over  >4  inch  and  under  i  inch. . , .     -!  10  c.  lb. 

Half  an  inch  long  and  less (_i2  c.  lb. 

I'-on  and  steel  wire,  under  No.  5  and 

not  under  No.  10  wire  gauge iHc  lb. 

Under  No.  10  and  not  under  No.  16  2  c.  lb. 
Under  No,  16  and  not  under  No.  26  2j^c,  lb. 


Under  No.  26 3  c.  lb. 

Iron  or  stee!  wire  covered  with  cot-  ('4  c.  lb.  ad 
ton,  silk  or  other  mai'al,  and  wire  -<  to  forego- 
k'wn  as  c'n'inC.co's't  and  hat  wire    ( ing  rates. 

12  c.lb.  ad. 
steel  wire 
of     same 
gauge. 
Galvanized  iron  or  steel  wire  (except 

fence  wire) ^  c.  lb.  ad. 

Iron  rope  and  wire  strand 1  c.lb.  ad. 

Steel  wire  rope  and  wire  strand 2  c.  lb.   ad. 

Steel,  not  specially  provided  for. 45  p.  c. 

Arg'tine,arataor  Ger.  silv.  unm'f'd  -'5  p.  c. 

Copper,  imported  in  ores X  y^   ' 

ff'f  j^  fine  copr. 

Coarse  copper  and  copper  cement.  .   354  c.  lb. 

Old  copper *  3  c.  lb. 

Copper  in  plate5,  bars,  ingots,  etc. .  4  c.  lb.         • 

In  rolled  plates,  sheets,  rods,  etc., 

not  specially  provided 35  p.  c. 

Brass,  in  bars  or  pig,  old  brass,  etc..  ij^  c.  lb. 

Lead  ore  and  lead  dross ij^  c.  lb. 

Lead  in  pigs,  bars,  etc 2  c.  lb. 

Lead  in  sheets,  pipes  or  shot 3  c.  lb. 

Nickel  in  ore  or  matte 1 5  c.  lb. 

Nickel,  nickel  oxide 15  c.  lb. 

Zinc,  spelter  or  tutenegue,  in  blocks 

or  pigs ij^  c.  lb. 

Zinc,  spelter  or  tutenegue  in  sheets.  2J2  c.  lb. 

Sheathing  or  yellow  metal 35  P-  c. 

Antimony,  as  regulus  or  metal 10  p.  c. 

Bronze  powder i5p.c. 

Cutlery  not  specially  provided  for. .  35  p.  C 

Dutch  or  bronze  metal,  in  leaf 10  p.  c. 

St'el  pl't's,  eng'vd,  stereo,  pl't's.etc  25  p.  c. 

Gold  leaf pioopg-of 

(  500  leaves. 

Hollow-ware,  co'ted,  glaz'd  or  tin'd  3  c.  lb. 

Muskets,  rifles  and  other  fire-arms, 

not  specially  provided  for 25  p.  c. 

All   sporting,   breech -loading  shot- 
guns and  pistols 35  p.  c. 

Forg'd  shot-gun  bar'ls,  rough-bor'd  jo  p.  c. 

Needles  forknittmg  or  sewing  ma- 
chines   35  p.  c. 

Needles,   sewing,    darning,    knit'g, 
and  all  not  provided  for 25  p.  c. 

Pen-knives,    pocket-knives    of    all 
kinds, and  razors 50  p,  c. 

Swords,sword-blades, and  side-arms  35  p,  c. 

Pens,  metallic 12  c.  gross. 

Pen-holder  tips  and  pen-holders ....  30  p.  c. 

Pins,  solid-headed  or  other 30  p.  c, 

Britannia   ware  and  plated  and  gilt 
articles  and  wares 35  P-  c. 

Quicksilver 10  p.  c. 

Silver  leaf 75  c.  pkge. 

oi  500  Ivs. 

Type  metal 20  p.  c. 

Chromate  of  iron  or  chromic  ore  ...  15  p.  c. 
Miner'l  substances  in  a  crude  state 

and  met'ls  iinwr'g't,  notpr'v'dfor  2j  p.  c, 
Manuf'res,  notpr'v'dfor,  composed 

wholly  or  in  part  of  iron,    steel, 

copper,  lead,  nickel,  pewter,  tin, 

zinc,   gold,   silver,    platinum,    or 

any    other    metal,    and    whether 

partly  or  wholly  manufactured...  45  p,  c. 

Schedule  D— Wood  and  Wooden 
Wares. 

Timber,  hewn  and  sawed 20  p.  c. 

Timb'r.sq'ed  orsid'jd,  not  pr'v'dfor  1  c.  cb.  ft. 

Saw'd  b'rds,  etc.,  of  hc'lock,  white- 
wood,  sycamore  and  bass-wood..  $1  p.  M.  ft. 

All  other  sawed  lumber S^  P-   M.  ft. 

Lumber  of  any  sort,  planed  or  fin'd.  s-jcM.fi.ad, 

Pl'n'd  on  oneside,  tong'dandgr'v'd  $,1  p.  M.  ft. 

Planed  on  two  sides,  tongued  and 
grooved $i-5o  M.  fl. 

Hubs  for  wheels,  etc.,  rough-hewn 
or  sawed  only 20  p.  c. 

Stavi^s  of  wood  of  all  kinds 10  p.  c. 

Pickets  and  palings 20  p.  c. 

Laths 15c.  M.pcs. 

Shingles 35  c.  p.  M . 

Pine  clapboards S2  p.  M. 

Spruce  clapboards $^  S*^  P-  M. 

House  or  cabinet  furnit're,  in  piece 
or  rough  and  not  fini^^hcd 30  p.  c. 

Cab'et    ware  and   house  furniture, 

fin'd 35  P-  c. 


k- 


\ 


THK  TARIFF. 


437 


Casks  and  barrels,  etc.,  empty,  not 

provided  for 30  p.  c. 

Man'f 's  ofc'd'rw'd.grand'la,  cbn'y, 

mahogany,  ro^e  and  satin  woods.  35  p.  c. 
Manu'f's  of  wood  not  provided  for.  35  p.  c. 
Wood,  unmanuf'd,  not  provided  for  20  p.  c. 

Schedule  E— Sugar. 

Sugars  not  aliovc  Nn.   13  D.  S.  in 

color,  tank,  bot'nii,  sirups  of  cane. 

or  beet  juice,  mclada,  conc'tratea 

melada,  concrete  and  conc'trated 

mola.sscs,   testing  by   the  polari- 

scopc  not  above  75° 1.4  c.  lb. 

For  every  addi'a!  ®  or  fract'n  o(  a  "^  .04  c.  lb.  for 

shown  by  the  polariscopic  test  . . .  cv'ry  ad'l  °. 
Svigar  above  No.  13  and  not  above 

Noi6D.  S 2.75  c.  lb. 

Sugar  above  No.  16  and  not  above 

No.  20  1>.  S 3  c.  lb. 

Sugars  above  No.  20  D.  S 3.50  c.  lb. 

Molasses  testing  not  above  56°  by 

the  polariscope 4  c.  gal 

Molasses  above  56  ° 8  c.  gal. 

Sugar  candy,  not  colored 5  c.  lb. 

All  other  confcct'ry  not  provided  for, 

valued  at  30  c.  p.  lb.  or  less 10  c.  lb. 

Confccr'ery  val'd  above  30  c.  p.  lb. 

or  sold  by  bux  or  package 50  p.  c. 

Schedule  F— Tobacco. 

Cigars,   cigarettes  and   cheroots  of  J  $2. 50  lb. 
all  kinds j_25  p.  c. 

Leaf  tobacco,  of  which  85  p.  c.  is  of 
the  requi'tc  size  and  of  the  neces- 
sary fineness  of  texture  for  wrap- 
pers and  of  which  more  than  100 
Icitvcs  arc  required  to  weigh  a 
pound,  if  not  stemmed 75  c.  lb. 

If  stemmed ^i  lb. 

Other  lub.icco  in  leaf,  unmanufac- 
tured and  not  stemmed 35  c.  lb. 

Tobacco  stems i^  c.  lb. 

Tob.icco,  uianuf'd.  of  all  dcscript's, 
and  stemmed,  not  provided  for. . .  40  c.  Jb. 

Snuff  and  siuifT-fliinr 5^  c.  lu. 

Tobacco,  unman'f  d,  not  provi'd  for  30  p.  c. 

Schedule  G— Provisions. 

Animals,  live 20  p.  c. 

lieel  and  pork 1  c.  lb. 

Hams  anu  bacon 2  c.  lb. 

Meat,  extract  of 2>  p.  c. 

Cheevc 4  c.  lb. 

I'utier  and  substitutes  thereof 4  c.  lb. 

Lard    2  c.  lb. 

Wheat 20  c.  bush. 

Rye  and  barley i  >c.  bush. 

Barley,  pearled,  u.ucnt  or  hulled.. .  J^  c.  lb. 

Barley  malt,  per  Dush.,  34  lbs ao  c.  bush. 

Indian  corn  or  mai/e i.>  c.  bush. 

Oats I'j  c.  bush. 

Corn-meal 10  c.  bush. 

Oat-meal    H  t.  lb. 

R^e-llour %c  lb. 

W  hcai-llour 20  p.  c. 

Potato  or  cornstarch 2  c.  lb. 

Rice  starch i-J^  c.lb. 

Other  starch v^^  c.  lb. 

Rice,  cleaned 21,^  c.  lb. 

Uncleaned 1 J.^  C.  lb. 

Paddy iVf  c,  lb. 

Rice-flour  and  rice-meal 20  p.  c. 

Hay $2  ]\  ton. 

Honey a  >  c.  gal. 

Hops 8  c.  lb. 

Milk,  preserved  or  condensed 2j  p.  c. 

FISH. 

Nfackcrcl jr.  111. 

Herrings,  pickled  or  salted J^  i..  lb 

Salmon,  pickled i  i:.  lb. 

Other  fish,  pickled,  in  barrels 1  c.  lb. 

Foreign -caught  fish,  imp'tcd,  other- 
wise than  in  bar'Is  or  half  bar'U, 
not  provided  for 50  c.  100  lb. 

Anchovies  and  sardines,  packed  in 
oil  or  oth'wise  in  tin  bxs.,  p.  size,   10  c.  p.  box. 

In  \4  bxs.,  meas'ring  not  more  than 

5  in.  long,  4  wide  and  i;*/8  deep.  . .   5  c.  deep. 

In  |y^  boxes,  mvas'ng  not  more  than 
4>^  in.  long,  i%  wide  and  ij^  deep  2%  c.  each. 

In  any  other  form 40  j).  c. 

Fish  preserved  in  oil 30  p.  c. 


Salmon  and  all  other  fi^h,  prep'd  or 
pres'ved,  and  prep'd  meats  of  all 
kinds,  not  provided  for 33  p.  c. 

Pickles  and  sauces,  not  prov'd  for..  35  p.  c. 

Potatoes 15  c.  biLsh. 

Vegetables  in  natural  state  or  in 
salt  or  brine  not  provided  for 10  p.  c. 

Vegetables,  not  oth'wise  prov'd  for.  30  p.  c. 

Chicory  root 2  c.  lb. 

Vinegar yli  c.  gal. 

Acorns  antl  dandelion  root,  and  all 
other  articles  intended  to  be  used 
as  cnfTec  or  as  substitutes  thereof, 
not  provided  for 2  c.  lb. 

Chocolate 2  c.  lb. 

Cocoa,  prepared  or  manufactured. .  2  c.  lb. 

FKUITS. 

Currants,  Zante  or  other  .... 
Dates,  plums  and  prunes. . . 
Figs 


I  c.  lb. 

1  c,  lb. 

2  c,  lb. 


Oranges,  per  size. 


Lemons,  per  size  ■ 

Lemons  and  oranges,  in  packages, 

not  provided  for 

Limes  and  grapes 

Raisius 

Fruits  preserved  in  their  own  juices 
and  fruit  juice 

Comfits,  sweetmeats  or  fruits  pre- 
served in  sugar,  spirits,  sirup  or 
mol'ses,  not  prov'd  for,  and  jellies 

NUTS. 

Almonds 

Shelled 

Filberts  and  walnuls 

Peanuts  or  ground  beans 

Shelled 

Nuts,  not  provided  for 

Mustard,  ground  or  preserved 


I  -^s  c.  box. 

J  13c  J'l  box. 
•]$i6o  p.  M 

l35C.  bbl. 

(  30  c.  hox. 
.  <  16c.  J^  box 

I  $2  p.  M. 


2)p,   C. 

20  p.  C. 
2  c.  lb. 

20  p,  c. 


35  p.  c. 

5  c.  lb, 
7 '4  c.  lb 
3c.lh. 


Schedule  H— Liquors. 

Champagne  and  all  other  sparkling 
wines , 


i;4  c, lb. 

2  c.lb 
10  c.  lb, 

?7  doz.  qt. 

bottles. 

^3  50  doz. 

pt.  bottles. 

jr  75  doz, 

]4  pt-  bot, 
I  §2  25  g.-.!. 
t  on  ex  of  qt 
50  c.  gal. 
f  Si  60  case 
j  doz. qt. bot. 
5c.pt,  on  ex. 
50  c,  gal. 


Bottles  of  more  than  one  quart  each 

Still  wines,  in  casks 

In  bottles 

On  any  excess  of  these  quantities.    , 

Vermuth 

Wines,  brandy  and  other  spiriiuos 

liquors,  imp.   in  bots,,  shall  be  in 

pkgs.  of  not  less  than  1  doz.  hots.  3c.0nea.bt. 
Brandy   and  other  spirits   manuf  d 

or  distilled   from  grain  or  other 

materials  and  not  provided  for.. ,   §2  p,  gal. 
On  all  comp'ds  or  prep'ns  of  which 

dist.  spirits  arc  compo'nt  part  of 

chief  value,  not  spec. provi'd  for, .  J2  ji.  gal. 
Cordial  .and  liquors  not  provi'd  for.  ^2  p.  gal. 

Bay  rum  or  bay  water ji  p.  gal. 

.Ale,  porter  and  beer  in  bottles  or 

jugs  ofgl's.  stone  or  earthen-ware  35  c.  gal. 

Otherwise  than  in  bottles 20  c.  gal. 

Ginger  ale  or  ginger  beer co  p.  c. 

Schedule  I— Cotton  and  Cotton 
Goods. 

Cot'n  thread,  yarn,  warps,  or  warp- 
yarn,  whether  single  or  advanced 
beyond  tlie  cond'n  of  snigle  by 
twist'g  two  or  more  single  yarns 
tog'her,  value  not  exc'd'g  25  c.  lb.  10  c    lb. 

Over  35  and  less  th.m  40  c 1 5  c.  lb. 

Over  40  and  not  exceeding 50  c...  2-1  c.  lb. 

Over  50  and  not  exceeding  60  c...  25  c.  lb. 

Over  6i  and  not  exceeding  70  c 3"?  c.  lb. 

Over  70  and  not  exceeding  80c 38  c.  lb. 

Over 8^  c.  and  not  exceeding  gi. ...  48  c.  lb. 

Over;  $1 50  p.  c. 

On  all  cot'n  cloth  not  ble'ed,  dyed, 
colored,  stain'd,paint*d  or  print'd 
and  exceeding  100  threads  to  the 
sq're  in.,  counting  w'rp  ami  filli'g  25^c.sq.yd. 

If  bleached sJ^c.sq.yd. 


If  dyed,  colored,   stained,  painted,  4%     c.    sq. 

or  printed yard. 

On  all  cot'n  cloth  not  bic'hcd,  dyed, 

color'd,  stain'd,paint*d  or  print'd, 

and  not  exc'di'g  200  threads  to  the 

sq're  in.,  counting  warp  and  fiU'g  3  c.  sq.  yd. 

If  bleached 4.  c.  sq.  yd. 

If  dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted  or 

printed 5  C.  sq.  yd. 

On  all  cotton  cloth  not  exceeding  200 

threads  to  the  square  inch,  count- 
ing   the    warp    and     tilling,    not 

bleached,  dyed,  colored,  stained, 

painted  or  printed,  valued  at  over 

8  c.  p.  sq.  yd.;  bleached,  valued  at 

over  10  c.  p.sq.yd.,  dyed,  colored, 

stained,  painteciorpruu'd,  valued 

at  over  13  c.  p.  sq.  yd 40  p.  c. 

On  all   cotton    cloth   exceeding  200 

threads  to  the  square  in.,  count'g 

the  warp  and  filling,  notbleach'd, 

dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted  or 

printed 4  c.  sq.  yd. 

If  bleached 5  c.  sq,  yd. 

If  dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted, 

or  printed 6  c.  sq.  pd. 

On  all  such  cot'n  cloths  not  ble'ch'd, 

dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted  or 

printed;  valued  at  over  10  c.  p.  sq. 

yd.;  bleached,  ^tllued  at  over  12 

c.  p.  sq.  yd,,  and  dyed,  colored, 

stained,    painted  or  printed,  val- 
ued at  over  1 5  c.  p.  sq.  yd 40  p.  c. 

On  stockings,  hose,  half-hose,  etc., 

made  on  knit'g  mach'es  or  fram's, 

composed  wholly  of  cotton,  and 

not  otherwise  provided  for 35  p.  c. 

On  stockings,  hose,  half-hose,  etc., 

fashioned,    narrowed    or    shaped 

wholly  or  in  part  by  knitting  ma- 
chines or  frames,  or  knit  by  hand 

and  composed  wbolly  of  cotton. . .  40  p.  c. 
Cotton  cords,  braids  and  corsets..,  35  p.  c, 
Cot'n  lace,  emb'd'ics,  insert'gs,  etc.  40  p.  c. 
Spool  thread  of  cotton,  not  over  100 

yds.  on  spool 7  c.  doz. 

7  c.  doz,  ca. 

Exceeding  100  yds ad.  100  yds. 

ot  cotton. 

Schedule  J  — Hemp,  Jute  and 
Flax  Goods. 

Flax  straw $5  P-  ton- 

Klax  not  hackled  or  dressed j2op.  ton. 

Flax,  hackled,  known  as  *'  dressed 
line  " $40  p.  ton. 

Tow,  of  flax  or  hemp ^10  p.  ion. 

Hemp,  manilla  and  other  like  sub- 
stitutes for  hemp  not  provid'd  for.  ^25  p.  ton. 

Jute  butts  . ... $iV-  'o"- 

Jute 30  ji.  c. 

Sunn,  sisal,  grass  and  other  vege- 
table substances,  not  provid'd  for.  f  15  p.  ton. 

Brown  and  blcachedlinens.etc.,  not 

provided  for 35  P-  c. 

Flax,  hemp  and  jute  yarns 35  P-  c. 

Flax  or  linen  thread,  twine,  etc. ...  43  p.  c. 

Fla.x  or  linen  laces,  insertings,  etc..  30  p.  c. 

Hiirrp*.  not  excM'g  60  in.  in  width.  30  p.  c. 

Oil-cloth  foundations,  etc 40  p.  c. 

Oil-cloths      for      floors,     stamped, 

painted,  etc 40  p.  c. 

Gunny  cloth,  not  bagging,  10c.  or 

less  per  square  yard 3  c.  yd. 

Over  10  c 4  c,  yd. 

Bags  and  bagging  and  manufact's 
not  enumerated 40  p.  c. 

Bagi'g  for  cotton,  7  c.  or  lesssq.  yd.  1^  c.  lb. 

Over  7  c 2  c.  lb. 

Tarred  cables  or  cordage 3  c.  lb. 

Untarred  manilla  cordage 2!^  c.  lb. 

All  other  untarred  cordage 3]^  c.  lb. 

Seins  and  sein  and  gilling  twine. ...  25  p.  c. 

Sail  duck  or  canvas  for  sails 30  p.  c. 

Russia  and  other  sheetings 35  p.  c. 

All  other  inan'fsofhemp  or  manilla  35  p.  c. 

Grass-cloth 35  !>•  c. 

Schedule  K— Wool  and  Woolens. 

Wools  of  the  1st  class,  valued  at  the 
last  port  whence  exported  to  the 
U.  S,,  excluding  the  charges  in 
such  port,  at  ^o  c,  or  less 'per  lb. .   10  c.  lb. 

Over  30  c.  per  Id 12  c.  lb. 


-^i 


Wools  of  the  ad  class,  valued  at  the 
last  port  whence  exported  to  the 
U.  S.,  excluding  charges  in  such 
port,  at  30c,  or  less  per  lb jo  c.  lb. 

Valued  at  over  30  c.  per  lb 1 2  c.  lb. 

Wools  of  the  3d  class,  valued  at  the 
last  port  whence  exported  to  the 
U.  S.,  excluding  charges  in  such 
port,  at  12  c.  or  less  per  lb 2  J^  c.  lb. 

Valued  at  over  12  c.  per  lb 5  c.  lb. 

Wool'n  rags^shoddy  m'ngo  &  waste  10  c.  lb. 

Woolen  cloths,  woolen  shawls  and 
all  manufres  of  wool,  not  speci- 
ally provided  for,  valued  at  not  35  c.  lb. 
exceeding  80  c.  p.  lb 35p.  c. 

Valued  at  above  80  c.  per  lb 35C.  lb. 

^  40  p.  c. 

Flan'ls,  bla'kets,  hats  of  wool,  knit 

goods  and  allgoods  m'de  on  knit'g 
fr'm's,  balm'ls,  wo'l'n   and    worst'd 

yarns  and  all  manufac's  oJ  every 

desc'pti'n,  composed  wholly  or  in 

part  of  worsted,   the  hair  of  the 

alpaca  goat  or  other  animals  (ex- 

c'pt  such  as  are  co'p'sedin  part  of 

wool)  not  specially  provided  for,  10  c.  lb. 

valued  at  not  exceed'g3oc.  p.  lb.  35  p.  c. 
Valued  at    above   30  c.  per  lb.  and  12  c.  lb. 

not  exceeding  40  c.   per  lb 35  p-  c. 

Valued  at  above  40  c.  per  lb*  and  18  c.  lb. 

not  exceeding  60  c.  per  lb and  35  p.  c. 

Valued  at  above  60  c.  per  lb.  and  24  c.  lb. 

not  e.\ceeding  80  c.  per  lb and  35  p.  c. 

Valued  at  above  80  c.  per  lb 35^-  lb- 

^  and  40  p.  c. 

Bunting 10  esq. yd. 

*  and  35  p.  c. 

Wom'n's  and  chil'r'n's  dress  goods, 
coat  linings,  Italian  cloths  and 
like  goods,  composed  in  part  of 
wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  al- 
paca goat  or  other  anim'ls,  valued  5  c.  sq.  yd. 
at  not  exceeding  20  c.  per  sq.  yd.  and  35  p.  c. 

Valued  at  above  20  c.  per  sq.  yd. . .   ^   J  ^^'  ^ 

^       ^   '  and  40  p.  c. 

If  compos'd  wholly  of  wool  .worst'd, 

the  hair  of  the  alp'ca  goat  or  other  9  c.  sq.  yd. 

animals,  or  ot  a  mixture  of  them,  and  40  p.  c. 
But  all  such  goods  with  selvedges, 

made  wholly  or  in  part  of  other 

mate'als,  or  with  threads  of  other 

mat'rials  intr'd'c'd  for  thep'rp'se  9  c.  sq.  yd. 

of  changing  the  classification  ....  and  40  p.  c. 
All  such  goods  weighing  over  4  oz.  35  c.  lb. 

per  sq.  yd and  40  p.  c. 

Clothing,  ready-made,  and  wearing 

apparel  of  every  description,  not  40  c.  lb. 

provided  for and  35  p.  c. 

Cloaks,  dolmans,  jackets,    talmas,  45  c.  lb. 

ulsters,  etc and  40  p.  c. 

Webbings,     gorings,      suspenders,  30  c.  lb. 

braces,  beltings,  etc and  50  p.  c. 

Aubusson,  Axminster  and   chenille 

carpets,  and  carpels  woven  whole  45  c.  sq.  yd. 

for  rooms and  30  p,  c. 

Saxony,  Wilton  and   Toumay  vel-  45  esq.  yd. 

vet  carpets and  30  p.  c. 

BrusseU  carpets 30c.sq.yd. 

"^  and  30  p.  c. 

Patent   velvet  and  tapestry  velvet 

carpet*;,  printed  on  the  warp   or  25  c.  sq.yd. 

otherwise and  30  p.  c. 

Tapestry    Brussels  carpets,  printed  ao  c.  sq.  yd. 

on  the  warp  or  otherwise and  30  p.  c. 

Treble  ingrain,  3-pIy  and   worsted-  12  esq,  yd. 

chain  Venetian  carpets ami  30  p.  c. 

Yam,  Venetian,  and  2-ply  ingrain  8  c,  sq.  yd. 

carpets and  30  p.  c. 

I^ruKKcts    and    bookings,   printed,  15  esq.  yd. 

colored  or  otherwise and  30  p.  c. 

Hemp  or  jute  carpeting 6  c.  sq.  yd. 

Carpets  and  carpt-tings  of  wool,  flax 

or  cotton 40  p.  c. 

Mats   not  exclu.';ivcly  of  vegetable 

mate'ls,scrc'cus,has'cks  and  rugs.  40  p.  c. 


Endless  belts  or  felts   for  paper  or  20  e  lb. 
printing  machines 30  p.  c. 

Schedule  L— Silk  and  Silk  Goods. 

Silk,  partly  manufactured 50  c.  lb. 

Thrown  silk,  in  pum,  not  moi  e  ad- 
vanced than  singles 30  p.  c. 

Lastings,  mohair  cloth,  silk  twist, 
patterns  for  buttons  exclusively. .   10  p.  e 

Silk  goods,  wares  and  merch'dise, 

not  provided  for 5°  P-  c. 

Schedule  M— Books,  Papers,  Etc. 

Books,  pamphlets,  bound  or  un- 
bound, and  all  printed  matter  not 
provided  for,  engrav'gs,  etchi'gs, 
illustr'd  books,  maps  and  charts. .  25  p.  c. 

Blank-books,  bound  or  unbound, 
and  blank-books  for  press-copy'g.  20  p.  c. 

Paper,  sized  or  glued,  suitable  only 
for  printing  paper 20  p,  c. 

Printing  paper,    unsized,    used    for 

books  and  newspapers  exclusively  15  p.  c. 

Paper,  manufactures  of,  or  of  which 
paper  is  a  component  material, 
not  provided  for 15  p.  e 

Sheating  paper 10  p.  c. 

Paper  box's  and  all  oth'rfancy  b'x's  35  p.  c. 

Paper  envelopes 25  p.  c. 

Paper-hangings  and  paper  for 
screens  or  fire-boards,  etc     25  p.  c. 

Pulp,  dried  for  paper-makers'  use. .   10  p.  c. 

Schedule  N— Sundries. 

Alabaster  and  spar  statuary,  etc. .. .  10  p.  c. 

Articl's  comp's'd  of  grass,  osier,  etc.  30  p.  c. 

Be'dsandbe'dor'm'ts,  exc'pt  amb'r  50  p.  c. 

Blacking  of  all  kinds 25  p.  c. 

Bladders,  manufactures  of 25  p.  c. 

Bone,  horn,  ivory,  etc 30  p.  c. 

Bonnets,  etc.,  of  chip,  grass,  palm- 
leaf,  etc 30  p.  e 

Bouillons  or  can'tille,  metal  ihred'ds  25  p.  e 

Bristles i  s  c.  lb. 

Broom  of  all  kinds 25  p.  c. 

Brushes  of  all  kinds 30  p.  c. 

Bulbs  and  bulbous  roots 20  p.  e 

Burr-stones    20  p.  e 

Buttons  and  button-moulds 25  p.  e 

Candles  and  tapers  of  all  kinds.  ....  20  p.  e 

Canes  and  slicks  for  walk'g,  finished  35  p.  c. 

If  unfinished 20  p.  c. 

Card-cases,     pocket-books,       shell    ' 
boxes ,  etc 35  P-  c. 

Card-clothing 25  c.  sq.  ft. 

When  manufactured  from  tempered 

steel  wire 45  c.  sq.  ft. 

Carriages,  and  parts  of 35  P-  c. 

Chronometers,  box  or  ship 10  p.  e 

Clocks  and  parts  of  clocks 30  p.  e 

Coach  and  harness  furniture  of  ail 
kinds,  etc 35  p.  c. 

Coal  slack  or  culm 30  c.  ton. 

Coai,  bituminous  and  shale 75  c,  ton. 

Coke   20  p.  c. 

Combs 30  p.  c. 

Composition  of  glass  or  paste,  when 

not  set 10  p.  c. 

Coral,  cut,  manufactured  or  set  ....  25  p.  c. 

Corks  and  cork  bark,  manufactured  25  p.  c. 

Crayons  of  all  kinds 20  p.  c. 

Dice,  draughts,  chessmen,  etc 50  p.  e 

Dolls  and  toys 35  p.  c. 

Emery  grains  and  emery  manufaci'd  i  e  lb. 

Ep'ulets,  gallo'ns,  laces,  knots,  etc.   25  p.  c. 

Fans 35  p.  c. 

Feathers  of  all  kinds,  crude 25  p.  e 

When  dressed,  colored  or  manuf'd.   50  p.  c. 

Finishing  powder 20  p.  c. 

Fire-crackers  of  all  kinds 100  p.  c. 

Floor-matting  and  floor-mats 20  p.  c. 

Friction  or  lucifer  matches 35  p.  e 

Fulminates,  fulminating  powders. . .    30  p.  c. 

Fur,  articles  made  of 30  p.  c. 

Gloves,  kid  or  leather 50  p,  c. 

Grease 10  p.  c. 


Grind-stones $1.75  ton. 

Gunpo'der  and  all  explo've  sub'ces, 
valued  at  20  e  or  less  per  lb 6  c.  lb. 

Valued  above  20c.  per  lb 10  c.  lb. 

Gun-wads  of  ali  descriptions 35  p.  e 

Gutta-percha,  manufaciuied 35  p.  c. 

Hair,  human,  bracelets,  braids,  etc.  35  p.  c. 

Curled  hair,  except  of  hogs 25  p.  c. 

Human  hair,  raw,  unclean  and  not 

drawn 20  p.  C. 

If  clean  or  drawn  but  not  manuf'd.  30  p.  c. 

When  manufactured 35  p.  c. 

Hair  cloth 30  p.  c. 

Hair  sealing 30  c.  sq.  yd. 

Hair  pencils 30  p.  c. 

Hats,  and  materials  for  braids,  etc  .  20  p.  e 

Hat-bodies,  of  cotton 35  P-  c. 

Halters'  furs  and  dressed  furs 20  p.  c. 

Hatters'  plush  of  silk  or  of  silk  and 
cotton 25  p.  c. 

Hemp  seed  and  rape  seed i^c.  lb. 

India  rubber  fabrics 30  p.  e 

Art'l's  of  Iniiia  rub'r  not  prov'd  for  25  p.  e 

India  rubber  bnots  and  shoes 25  p.  e 

Inks  of  all  kinds  and  ink  powders..  30  p.  e 

Japanned  ware  of  all  kinds  ........  40  p.  e 

Jet,  manufacturers  and  imitations..  25  p.  c. 

Jewelry  of  all  kinds 25  p.  c. 

Leather,  bend  or  belting 15  p.  c. 

Calfskins,  tanned,  and  dressed  upper 

leather 20  p.  c. 

Skins  for  morocco,  tanned,  but  un- 
finished    10  p.  c. 

All  articles  of  leather,  not  prov'd  for  30  p.  c. 

Lime , lop.  e 

Garden  seeds 20  p.  c. 

Linseed  or  flaxseed 20  c.  bush. 

Marble,  in  block,  rough  or  squared.  63  c. cub.  ft. 

Veined  marble,  sawed,   dressed  or 

otherwise Ji.io  cb.  ft. 

Manufac't  of  marble  not  prov'd  for.  .so  p.  e 

Musical  insmimenis 25  p.  C. 

Paintings  ia  oil  or  water  colors,  and 
statuary   30  p.  e 

Osier  or  wil'w  for  baskt-mak'rs'  use  25  p.  c. 

Papier-mache  articles 30  p.  c. 

Pencils  of  wood  filled  with  lead  or  50  e  gros  1 
other  material  and  pencils  of  lead.  &  30  p.  c.  j 

Pencil-leads  not  in  wood 10  p.  c. 

Percussion  caps 40  p.  c. 

Philosophical  apparatus  and  instru- 
ments    35  P-  c. 

Pipes,  pipe-bowls 70  p.  c. 

Common  pipes  of  clay 35  p.  c. 

Plaster  of  Paris 23  p.  e 

Playing  cards loop    c. 

Polish'gpowd'rs  of  every  dcsc'p't'n  20  p.  c. 

Precious  stones  of  all  kinds up.  e 

Rags 10  p.  c. 

Rattans  and  reeds 1  o  p.  c. 

Salt,  in  bags,  sacks,  barrels 12c.  100  lb. 

In  bulk 8  e  100  lb. 

Scagliola  and  composition  lops 35  p.  c. 

Sealing-wax 20  p.  c. 

Shells,  whole  or  parts  of 25  p.  e 

Stones,  unmanufac'd  or  undressed, 
freestone,  etc $j  p.  ton. 

Stones  as  above,  hewen,  dressed,  or 

polished 20  p,  c. 

Strings  of  catgut 25  p.  c. 

Tallow   I  c.  lb. 

Teeth,  manufactured 20  p.  c. 

Umbrella  .uid  parasol  ribs,  streicher- 

frames,  etc 40  p.  c. 

Umbrellas,  paiasols,  covered    with 

silk  or  alpaca 50  p.  c. 

Other  umbrellas 40  p.  c. 

Umbrell.is,  parasols  and  sunshades, 
frames  and  slicks  for,  not  provided 
for  . . . '. 30  p.  c. 

W,-iste to  p.  c. 

Watches,  watch-cases,  watch-move- 
ments, parts  of  watches,  and 
watch  materials,  not  provided  for.  25  p.  c. 

Webbing 35  p.  c. 


/ 


\ 


rs 


/ 


A    LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR. 


439 


r 


A^iH,^#.  CALCULATOR 


I 


or  the  Use  of  the  Farmer,  Mechanic         L' 

and  Business  Man.  ct'^i, — jjS> 


For  Computing;  the  Price  of  Cattle,  Hogs,  Cotton,  or  .4.ny  Commodity  Sold  by  tlie  Hunflred  or  Part  of  tlie  Hundred. 

If  the  desired  amount  or  quantity  is  not  in  the  tabic,  add  two  numbers  together. 


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0   0   0    0   0 

0 

0 

0       0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1111 

1 

HI 

0   0   0   0   0 

0 

0 

0       1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

1 

1111 

i 

2         «         5         7         9       11       12       11       16       18       19 

»4 

0   0   0   0    0 

1       1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

2 

2       3       2       1 

2 

"  J        5        7         9       12       14       16       19       21       23      20 

»5 

0   0   0   0   0 

1       I 

1 

2 

3 

} 

2 

2 

2 

2       2       2       1 

a 

8 

3        t        9       12       15       18       20       23       26       29      32 

«6 

0   0   0   0    1 

I       1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

9       9       3        3 

R 

"~4         8       12       16       20       25       29       .33       37       11       4.)' 

49 

66 

$7 

0   0   0    1    I 

1       1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3       3       3       3 

4 

»> 

0   0   0    11 

1       1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3       4       4        4 

4 

"5        9       11       19       23       28       33       37       42       47       51 

»9 

0   0    111 

1       2 

2 

8 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4       4       4       4 

6 

6 

5       5 

5   "ll       16      21       26       .32       37       42      47       53       68 

»10 

0  0    111 

3       3 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4       4       6       6 

5 

6       12       18      23       29       35       41       47       53      68       64 

$100 

2    4    6   810     12     14      18     18     19     21     23     25     27     29     31     33     35     37     39     41     43     45     47     49     51     53     61     56 
19 .39  58  78  97  1.17  1..36  I.,56  1 .75  1.91  2.H  2.33  2.53  2.72  2.92  3.1 1  3.31  3.,50  3.69 .1.89  4.08  4.28  4.47  4.67  4.86  5.06  6.25  5.44  5.64 

58    1.17    1.75    2..33    2.92    3..50   4.08    4.67    6.23   5.83   6.42 

^IPOO 

578311.67  17.50  23.8.129.17  35.00  40.83  46.67  62.50  58.63  64.17 

70.00 

y' 


^ 


K- 


442 


COMPOUND    INTEREST,    ETC. 


COTTON  PICKER'S  CALCULATOR.     COMPOUND  INTEREST  TABLES. 


Rate  per  Hundred  Pounds. 

3 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

cts 

CIS 

cts 

cts 

cts 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

•1 

0 

•> 

2 

2 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

■1 

3 

3 

8 

3 

4 

4 

4 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

:-; 

•A 

■A 

4 

4 

4 

5 

B 

6 

1 

2 

•> 

■> 

•2 

3 

■A 

3 

H 

4 

4 

4 

4 

ft 

5 

6 

7 

6 

•) 

*> 

'> 

i 

3 

■A 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

9 

7 

;; 

■1 

a 

H 

H 

4 

4 

5 

ft 

5 

6 

6 

6 

1 

7 

9 

10 

8 

2 

■6 

■A 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

/ 

7 

8 

8 

10 

12 

9 

:i 

■6 

4 

4 

4 

') 

5 

tl 

K 

7 

7 

S 

8 

il 

9 

11 

18 

1U 

:■. 

■i 

4 

4 

h 

5 

H 

(i 

7 

7 

S 

S 

9 

9 

111 

12 

1ft 

15 

4 

a 

11 

7 

7 

X 

il 

111 

10 

11 

12 

13 

13 

14 

15 

19 

22 

2U 

6 

t 

s 

» 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

IS 

19 

20 

25 

80 

25 

7 

!l 

111 

11 

12 

14 

15 

10 

17 

ni 

20 

■.•1 

'."' 

?4 

25 

31 

37 

3U 

11 

III 

12 

VA 

I.'. 

11; 

IS 

V.I 

21 

')•) 

24 

25 

27 

•.'K 

30 

87 

4ft 

35 

111 

12 

14 

K 

17 

111 

21 

23 

24 

26 

28 

30 

31 

33 

.85 

44 

ft2 

4U 

12 

U 

Hi 

IK 

20 

22 

24 

26 

2S 

30 

3'.' 

34 

36 

3S 

40 

50 

60 

4b 

1:; 

111 

l.s 

20 

•>■> 

'2."> 

''7 

2;i 

31 

31 

36 

3S 

411 

43 

45 

.56 

67 

bU 

I.I 

17 

20 

22 

2.T 

27 

30 

32 

35 

37 

40 

42 

15 

47 

.50 

62 

75 

bb 

11; 

111 

22 

2.T 

27 

30 

Sft 

311 

.IS 

41 

44 

47 

4!l 

52 

,55 

69 

82 

60 

IS 

21 

24 

27 

HO 

33 

311 

39 

42 

45 

4S 

51 

.54 

57 

60 

75 

90 

6b 

I'.i 

■JXi 

211 

2;i 

H2 

3i; 

3i) 

42 

45 

411 

52 

5." 

5  s 

62 

65 

Kl 

97 

70 

■1\ 

24 

2S 

HI 

h;. 

3S 

42 

45 

411 

.52 

.56 

511 

611 

66 

70 

87 

1  05 

/b 

2'1 

2I> 

311 

S4 

87 

41 

45 

4H 

52 

56 

(ill 

(►l 

67 

71 

75 

94 

1   12 

HO 

■J4 

'»,s 

H. 

;-;ii 

40 

44 

4S 

W.\ 

5(1 

Wl 

64 

6S 

72 

76 

811 

1  00 

1  ;'0 

85 

'Jii 

Sll 

;« 

:w 

42 

47 

.■il 

55 

.59 

64 

6S 

72 

76 

SI 

8.5 

1  06 

1  27 

»0 

J7 

HI 

Sfi 

40 

4."-i 

4!1 

M 

58 

63 

67 

72 

76 

81 

85 

90 

1   12 

1  ;« 

85 

2s 

'^•' 

as 

43 

47 

52 

57 

62 

66 

71 

76 

81 

85 

90 

95 

1  19 

1  42 

SHORT  INSURANCE  RATES. 


Policy  for 

Pc.Iicyfor 

Policy  for 

Policy  for 

Policy  for 

Charge  this  pro- 
portion of  whole 
Premium. 

1  year. 

2  years. 

3  years. 

4  years. 

5  years. 

1  mn. 

2  mo. 

3  mo. 

4  mo. 

5  mo. 

20  per  cent. 

2     " 

4     " 

6     •' 

8     '• 

10     " 

30       " 

3     " 

6      " 

9     " 

12     " 

15     " 

40 

4     " 

8      " 

12      " 

16     " 

20     " 

.50 

5     " 

10     " 

1ft    " 

20     " 

25     ■• 

60 

6     " 

12      " 

18      " 

24     " 

30     " 

70        " 

7      " 

14      " 

21      " 

28      " 

35     " 

75        " 

8     " 

10      " 

24      " 

32      " 

40     " 

80 

9      ■' 

IS      ■• 

27      " 

36      " 

45     ■' 

85        " 

10      " 

:0      " 

30      " 

40      " 

oO     " 

90        " 

11      " 

L2      " 

33      " 

44      " 

55     " 

95 

HOW  INTEREST  ACCUMULATES. 

If  one  dollar  be  investeil  and  the  interest  added  to  the  princi- 
pal, annually,  at  the  rates  nanicil,  we  shall  have  the  following 
esult  as  the  accumulation  of  t)no  hundred  years: 

One  Dollar  100  years,  at  1  per  cent $2.75 

2        "              7.25 

2.1      "             11.75 

"                   "                    3        "             19.25 

3J      "              31.25 

4  "               50.50 

4J       "              81.,50 

5  "              131.50 

C        "               340.00 

7  "              808.00 

8  "              2,203.00 

9  "               5,.543.00 

"                    "                    10        "              13,800.00 

"                    12        "               34.67.5.00 

"                    "                    15         "               1,171,405.00 

18        "             15,145,007.00 

"                  21        "              2,651,799,404.00 


TEAKS . 

3  per  cent. 

4  per  cent. 

6  per  cent. 

e  per  cent. 

7  per  cent. 

1 

1.03000 

1.01000 

1.05000 

1.06000 

1.070000 

2 

1.06090 

1.08160 

1.10250 

1.12360 

1.144900 

3 

1.00273 

1.12486 

1.1.5762 

1.19102 

1.225043 

4 

1.12.531 

1.16986 

121551 

1.26248 

1.310796 

5 

1.15!h>7 

1.21665 

1.2762U 

1.33823 

1.402552 

6 

1.19105 

1.26.532 

1.34010 

1.41852 

1.5007.30 

7 

1.22987 

1  31593 

1.40710 

1.50363 

1.605781 

8 

1.26677 

1.36857 

1.47745 

1.59385 

1.718186 

9 

1.30477 

1.42331 

l.!)5133 

1.69848 

1.838459 

10 

1.34392 

1.48024 

1.62889 

1.79085 

1.967151 

11 

138423 

1.53945 

1.71034 

1.89830 

2.104852 

12 

1.4257B 

1.00103 

1.79586 

2.01220 

2.262192 

13 

1.46853 

1.66507 

1.88565 

2.13293 

2.409845 

14 

1.51259 

173168 

1  97993 

2.26090 

2.578534 

15 

1.. 55-97 

1.80094 

2.07893 

2.39656 

2.759031 

16 

1.60471 

187298 

2.18287 

2.54035 

2.952164 

17 

1.65285 

1.94790 

2.29262 

2.69277 

3.158815 

18 

1.70343 

2.02582 

2.40G02 

2.85134 

3.379931 

19 

1.75351 

2.10685 

2.52695 

2.02,560 

3.616.526 

20 

1.80611 

2.19112 

2.65330 

3.20713 

3.869684 

EXA.MPLE. —  At  5  per  cent  compound  interest  what  will  $1,000 
amount  to  in  seven  years?  The  table  shows  that  $1  in  seven  years 
at  5  per  cent  compound  interest  amounts  to  $1.40710,  which 
amount  multiplied  by  1,000  equ.als  $1,407.10. 

Time  in  which  Money  Donbles. 


«^ 


Simple  Int. 


50  years. 
40  years. 
3;J  yrs.  4  mos. 
28  yrs.  208  da. 
25  years. 
22  yrs.  81  da. 


Comp.  Int. 


:i5  years. 
28  yrs.  26  da. 
23  yrs.  164  da. 
20  yrs.  54  da. 
17  yrs.  246  da. 
15  yrs.  273  da. 


Simple  Int. 


20  years. 
16  yrs.  8  mos. 
14  yrs.  104  da. 
12J  years. 
11  yrs.  40  da. 
10  years. 


Comp.  Int. 


14  yrs.  75  da. 
11  yrs.  327  da. 
10  yrs.  89  da. 
9  yrs.  2  days. 
8  yrs.  16  days. 
7  yrs.  100  da. 


Daily  Savings  at  Componnd  Interest. 


DAILY    SAVINGS. 


2'X   cents 

b^i  " 

8«  " 
11 

13?i 

27K  " 
55 

$1.10    .  .    . 

1.37    .  .     . 

2.74   .  .    . 


$    10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

100 

200 

400 

500 

1,000 


TEN  TEARS.    FIFTT  YEARS 


$      130 

260 

390 

520 

650 

1,300 

2,600 

5,200 

6,500 

13,000 


$    2,900 

5,800 

8,700 

11,600 

14,500 

29,000 

58,000 

116,000 

115,000 

290,000 


SHORT  INTEREST  RULE. 

To  find  the  interest  on  a  given  sum  for  any  number  of  days,  at 
any  rate  of  interest,  multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days 
and  divide  as  follows: 


At  5  percent,  by  . 
At  6  i)er  cent,  by  . 


60 


At  7  per  cent,  by .52 

At  8  per  cent,  by 45 

At  9  per  cent,  by 40 


At  10  per  cent,  by 
At  12  per  cent,  by 
At  15  i>er  cent,  by 
At  20  per  cent,  by 


36 
30 
24 

18 


/• 


V 


WAGES BOARD LUMBER    MEASURE. 


^ 


443 


A  QUICK  METHOD  OF  COMPUTING  WAGES, 

On  a  Basis  of  Ten  Hours'  Labor  per  Day. 


Jl-OO  I  $1.50  I  $-2.00  I  $3.50  |  $3.00  |  $3.50  |  $4.00  |  $4.50  |  $5.00  |  $5.50  |  $6.00  |  $6.50  |  $7.00 J^7.50 
^.01  |_^011  I.OIJI  -O-i  I  .O-lj  I  .03  I  .0.!i|_.03i|.04J  |_^44|_i?3_lI_i»3tl_J'6_l_:W'i 
^UlS  |_JKi  l^;§  r  .Otj  I     .05    I     .06    |".05j|    .O'il     .0H\     .ODj  I     .10    |     .11    I     .11}  I    .l-'j 

.o;j|   .05  I  .OBji   .osii'-io  I  .Tin   .1341   .15  I  .IB3I   .m\  -20  I  ■-■iiSI   -asil   -^ 


^32i  |_^35    |_.37i^ 
^43i|_.4Gi|_.50 
.54J|_-B8i|_C21 
sa    I    .70    I    .75 
'.76    I     .Wl}|     .87i 
"  .865  I     .93^11.00 


.97i  I  1.05    I  l.l'ii 


_   _l  I I 

1.00  I  i.osn  1.16SI 


|~:3-m~50    I     .(i(iSl~783i  I  l.OlM  1.1681X33^  i T.50~|  1.66J  |  1.83^  |  2.00    |  2.16}  |  2.33^  |  2.50 
|~T50    |~r75~|T(Krj  1.25    I  1.50    |1.75    |  2.0O    |  2.25    |  2.50    |  2.75    13.00    |  3.25    |  3.50    |  3.75 

|^6es  I  iToo~  11 . 33 J  I  reef  |  2 .  oo 

I     .a3J|1.25    I  1.68f  !  2.0S5  13.50" 
I  1.00    I  L.'iO    13.00 


I  2.33J  I  2.I.6J  I  3.00_|  3.33J  |  3.665  |  4.00    I  4.33^  |  4.665  I  5-00 
~r2.9i8l"ir33i  I  37751  4.165  I  47584  15.00    15.413 
12.50    |3  00    I3..50    |  4  00    |  4.50    |  5.00    |  5.50 


I  5.83i  I  6.25 
I  6.00    I  6.. 50    I  7.00    I  7  50 


$8.00  I  $».00 


.0681 
.134  I 


^07i 
.15 


.2651    .30 


.401  .46 

.5341  .00 

^.665  I  .75" 

.80    I  .90 


.9.341  1.05 
1^0651).  20 


.20    I  1.35 


T.3.3JJ 


1.50 
3.00 


4.00    14.50 


5.334  I  8-00 


6.665  I  7.50 
8.00    19.00 


$10  I  $11  I 
^09  I 
.1841 


.084  I 
■16}  I 


.3.34 1    -m  I 

_.50    I      .55   j" 

_.664|_.734T 

.834  |_  .9151 

1^00    11^10    I 

'l.T65'|   l.2S4~r 

1.3341    1.4651 


1.50    I    1.65 


_$12 
.10 
_^ 
_.4U 
_.G0 
.80 
1.00 
j^20 
1740 
r^60 
1.80" 


I L 

1.665  I  1  834  I 
"37334  I  3.665  I 
5.00    I    5. .50    I 


2^00 
4.00 
a  00 


6.6651  7.3341 
8.334  I  9-16!l  I 
10.00    |il.90    I 


8.00 
10.00 
12.00 


To  find  wages  at  £>13,  914,915,  916,  or  more,  per  week,  flad  the  amouut  at  96.50,  97,  97.50,  98,  etc.  and  multiply  by  2. 

EXPENSE  OF  BOARD   PER   DAY. 


D.4YS.      I  .50c.  I   7.5c..  I  $1.00  I  $1.25  I  $1..50  |  $1.75  |  $2.00  |  .f2.25  |  $2.50  |  $3.00  I  $3.50  |  $4.00  |  $4.50  |  $.5.00  |  $6.00  |  $7.00  |   $.S.0O  |   $9.00  |    $10 


I     .07   I     .11    I     .14   I     .18   I     .21    I      25  I     .2!)  |     .32   |     .36  I     .43   |     .50  |     .57  |     .64   |     .71   |     .8<;   |    1.00  | 
I     .14   I     .21   I     .29  I     .36   I     .43   |     ..iO  |     .57   I     .64  I     .71   |     .86   |   1.00  |   1.14  |   1.29  |    1.43  1   1.71   I  2.00"  | 


2.29   I 


1.29  I 

2.57  r 


1.43 
2.86 


^21 

"I     .29"  I 
I     .36  I 


.32   I     .43   I ..54 

I 
I 


^43J 
..54   I 


I      .43    I      .64 


.64  I     .75   I     .86   I     .96  |   1.07   |   1.29  |   1.50  |   1.71   |   1.93   |  2.14  |  3.57   |  3.00  |     3.43  |     3.8b  |  4.29 

4.57  I     5.14   I  S.71 

5^71  |_6.43   I  7.14 

6.86  I     7.71"!  8.57 


71   I     .86   I   1.00   I   1.14   I   1.29  I   1  43   I   1.71   I  2  00  |  2.29  |  2.57   I  2.86  |   3.43  |  4.00  | 


.89   I    1.07   I   1.25   I   1.43  |   1.61   I   1.79   |  2.14   |  3.50   |  2.86  |  3.21   |  3.57   |  4.29   |  5.00 
.82  I   1.07   I   1.29  I   l.M   I   1.71   |   1.93   |  2.14   |  2.57   |   3.00  |   3.43   |   3.86  |  4.29   |  5.14""|   6.00 


7  I      ..50   I      .75   I    1.00   I    1.25    I    1..50    |    1.75    |   2.00    |    2.25    |   2.50    |    3.00   |    3..50   |   4.00    |   4.50   |   5.00    |    6.00    |    7.00    |     8.00    |     9.00   |  10.00 

For  rates  not  given  in  this  table  the  result  may  be  obtained  by  addition  or  multiplication. 

LUMBER    MEASURE. 

len<;tu  in  feet. 


4  It.  5  ft.  6  ft.  7  ft.  8  ft.  9  ft.  10  ft.  11  ft.  12  ft.  13  ft.  14  ft.  15  ft.  16  ft.  17  ft.  18  ft.  19  ft.  20  ft.  21  ft.  22  ft. 


3  inches  wide... 

4  inches  wide... 

5  inches  wide... 

6  Indies  wide... 

7  inches  wide... 

8  inches  wide... 

9  inches  wide... 

10  inches  wide... 

11  incties  wide... 

12  iiiciies  wide... 

13  inches  wi.ie... 

14  inclics  wide... 

15  inches  wide... 

16  inclies  wide... 

17  inches  wide... 

18  inches  wide... 

19  inches  wide... 

20  inclies  wide... 

21  inches  wicle... 

22  inches  wide... 

23  inches  wide... 

24  inches  wide.., 

25  inches  wide. .. 

26  inches  wide.., 

27  inciios  wide.. 
2jS  ini'ties  wide.. 

29  inches  wide.. 

30  inches  wide.. 


ft, 
1..00 
1..04 
1..0H 
2. .00 
2.. 04 
2.. OS 
3.. 00 
3. .04 
3.. OS 
4.. 110 
4.. 04 
4.. 08 
5.. 00 
5. .04 
5.. 08 
6.. 00 
6.. 04 
6.. 08 
7. .00 
7.. 01 
7.. 08 
8. .00 
8.. 01;  0 
8..08(  0, 
».  .00 
9. .01 
9.. OS 
10.. 00 


,03 
()8 
01 
,0(i 
11 
04 
09 
0: 
0' 
00 
0.^ 
10 
0,i 
OS 
01 

0:; 
II 

04 

o;!  10. 
02  11. 
,07(11. 
,00  12. 
,05  !2. 
.10  13. 
,03  13. 
.OS  U. 
.01  14. 
.06  15. 


in. 

.06 

.00 

.(« 

.IX) 

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M 

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.ouiu. 

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.00  15. 
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.00  16. 
.06  16. 
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in.  ft.  in.  ft. 


.091 

.01 
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.osl 

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6. 

7. 

8. 

8. 

9. 
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,.(Ki25, 
I 


in.  ft.  in. 


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9. 

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I 


.00  12. 
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I 


ft.  in. 


ft. 
10. 
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.00  30 
.0031 
.00132, 


ft. 
3. 
4. 

5. 
7. 
8. 
ft. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 
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.m  30. 
.o:!!3i. 

.04  32. 
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.06135. 


in.  ft. 
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I 


ft.  in. 


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.1)3  28 
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02:15 
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m  .33 


in. 'ft. 
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1 


in.  ft.  in. 


.09 

.04 

.11 

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.01 

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.03 

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.00 

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.01  26 

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IM 
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04 


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.(M  .50, 
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ft. 

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.00  14. 

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.(Xi  Is. 

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in. 
.06 
.06 
.03 
.00 
.10 
.08 
.06 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.08 
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.01 
.02 
.00 
.10 
.08 
.06 
.04 
.02 
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.10 
.08 
,06 
.04 
.02 
.00 


(eet  multiply  the  nunilicrof  feet  in  Icncrth  bv  the  number  of  inches  in  wid 
the  product  by  ItJ:  the  result  will  be  the  number  in  feet  .ind  inches.    Thus,  multiply  9  inches  wide  by  S6  feet  long,  and  the  result  will 
be  334.    Divide  this  by  13  and  we  have  the  product  19  feet  and  6  inches. 


\ 


rr 


444 


PRACTICAL  CALCULATIONS. 


S ■  0.1 


•^  PRACTIGAL  +  6ALGULAT10NS 


>^^ 


'^''^^^^'^"^ 


To  Measure  Wells  or  Cisterns. 

Square  the  diameter  in  inches,  nuiltiply  by  the  decimal  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  the  depth  of  the  well  or  cistern  in  inches.  The  result  will  be 
the  full  capacity  of  the  well  in  cubic  inches.  If  the  actual  quantity  of 
water  be  sought,  multiply  by  the  depth  of  water  in  inches,  and  in  either 
case  divide  by  231  for  the  number  of  gallons. 

Circular  Cisterns,  One  Foot  in  Depth,  Computed. 


DIAMETER 
IN  INCHES. 


CONTENTS 
IN  GALLONS. 


15 
16 


•  5-875 
.  9.18 
.10.44 


DIAMETER 

IN  INCHES. 

18    .... 


CONTENTS 
IN  GALLONS. 


.13.218 
.16.32 


For  any  greater  depth  than  one  foot,  multiply  by  the  number  of  feet  and 
fractions  of  a  foot.  As  the  areas  of  circles,  and  consequently  the  capaci- 
ties of  circular  cisterns  of  equal  depth,  varj'  as  the  squares  of  their  diame- 
ters, it  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  calculations.  For  instance,  should  it 
l)e  required  to  find  the  contents  of  a  circular  cistern  of  two  feet  in  diame- 
ter, say  as  the  square  of  i :  to  the  square  of  2 :  5-875-  tliat  is,  as  1:4:: 
5.875,  and  5.875  X  4  =  23.5^  the  contents  of  such  cistern.  This  formula 
will  apply  to  any  diameter:  for  three  feet,  multiply  by  g:  for  four  feet, 
multiply  by  16,  etc. ;  for  5,  by  25- 

The  Amount  of  Rainfall  on    a  Building. 

In  this  calculation  the  amount  of  annual  rainfall  is  assumed  to  be  thirty- 
.six  inches,  which  is  about  the  average  for  the  Northern  States.  Find  the 
area  covered  by  the  building,  in  square  inches.  Multiply  it  by  36,  the 
dtpth  of  rainfall;  divide  the  product  by  231,  the  cubic  inches  in  a  gallon, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons  of  water  shed  by  the  roof 
in  one  year. 

The  Diameter  of  a  Circular  Cistern  that  will  Contain  the 
Rainfall  on  a  Building. 

The  side  of  a  square  is  to  the  diaincter  of  a  circle  of  equal  area  as 
1  :i.i28.  The  square  root  of  the  area  of  the  building,  multiplied  by  1.128, 
will  be  the  required  diameter,  assuming  depth  of  cistern  and  rainfall  to  be 
equal.  Allowance  must  of  course  be  made  for  greater  or  less  depth  of 
cistern  than  three  feet,  as  well  as  for  daily  or  occasional  use  of  rainwater. 

The  Per  Cent  of  Profit  or  Loss. 

Add  two  ciphers  to  t!ie  difference  between  the  cost  and  selling  price, 
divide  by  the  cost,  and  tlie  quotient  will  be  the  gain  or  loss  per  cent. 

Weights  of  Hay  by  Measurement. 

Four  hundred  cubic  feet  of  dry  meadow  h;iy  are  estimated  at  one  ton 
weight.  Tlie  actual  measurement  to  make  a  ton  will  be  modified  by  the 
density  of  the  vohime  of  hay,  the  pressure  it  has  been  subjected  to  aa  in 
a  large  or  long-standing  stack,  and  the  like.  In  barns  the  volume 
is  variously  estimated  from  400  to  550,  according  to  coarseness  and 
the  length  of  time  it  has  been  piled  up.  Find  tfic  cubic  contents  by 
measuring  the  three  dimensions  of  the  pile  in  feet,  and  divide  by  400,  450, 
soo  or  550  (according  to  circumstances,  as  explained),  and  the  quotient 
.^rill  be  the  number  of  tons,  approximately. 


Weights  of  Cattle  by  Measurement. 

To  find  the  approximate  weight,  measure  as  follows:  i.  The  girth  be- 
hind the  shoulders.  2.  The  length  from  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder- 
blade  along  the  back  to  the  bone  at  t'le  tail,  in  a  vertical  line  with  the 
buttocks.  Then  multiply  the  square  of  the  girth,  in  feet,  by  five  times 
the  length,  in  feet.  Divide  the  product  by  1.5  for  average  cattle  (if 
cattle  be  very  fat,  by  1.425;  if  very  lean,  by  1.575) ;  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  dressed  weight  of  the  quarters.  Thus:  The  girth  of  a  steer  is 
6.5  feet,  and  the  length  from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  tail-bone  is  5.25. 
The  square  of  6.5  is  42.25,  and  5  times  5.25  is  26.25.  Multiplying  these 
together  gives  iiog.0625,  which,  when  divided  by  1.5,  produces  739.375 
lbs.,  the  appro-ximate  net  weight  of  the  steer  after  being  dressed. 

The  Number  of  Shingles  Required  for  a  Roof. 

Multiply  the  length  of  the  ridge-pole  by  twice  the  length  of  the  rafter, 
and  the  product  by  eight  if  the  shingle  is  to  be  exposed  4%  inches  to  the 
weather,  and  by  7  1-5  if  exposed  five  inches. 

The  Number  of  Square  Yards  in  a  Floor  or  Wall. 

Multiply  the  length  and  width  of  the  floor,  or  height  and  width  of  the 
wall,  in  feet  and  fractions  of  a  foot,  divide  by  nine,  and  the  quotient  is 
the  number  of  square  yards. 

The  Number  of  Bricks  Required  for  a  Building. 

The  average  brick  is  eight  inches  long,  four  inches  wide,  and  two  inches 
thick,  or  64  (8  X  4  X  2}  cubic  inches.  1728  cubic  inches  make  one  cubic  foot, 
and  27  bricks  make  1728  (64  X  27)  cubic  inches.  In  laying  bricks,  1-6 
is  allowed  for  mortar,  or  4U  out  of  every  27,  leaving  22j^  actual 
bricks  for  each  cubic  foot.  Therefore,  multiply  the  dimensions — length, 
height  and  thickness — in  feet  and  fraction  of  a  foot,  of  the  several  brick 
walls,  and  the  product  by  22!'^,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  bricks 
required.  Multiply  by  20,  instead  of  22'^,  if  the  bricks  arc  larger  than 
the  average  above  given.  Allowance  should  be  made  for  chimneys,  pro- 
jections for  mantels,  and  the  like,  on  the  same  basis. 

The  Number  of  Perches  of  Stone  Required  for  a  Wall  or 
Cellar. 

The  perch  of  stone  is  now  computed  at  a  perch,  or  16.5  feet  in  length, 
by  1.5  feet  in  width  and  i  foot  in  height,  or  24.75  ('6.5  X  1.5  X  i)  cubic  feet. 
Of  this  amount  one-ninth,  2.75  cubic  feet,  is  allowed  for  mortar  and  fill- 
ing. Multiply  the  three  dimensions  of  the  wall  or  walls  in  feet — width, 
height  and  thickness — and  divide  by  22  (24.75 — 2.75)  if  the  needed  qual- 
ity of  stone  is  the  subject  of  enquiry,  or  by  24.75  if  it  be  sought  to  ascer- 
tain the  amount  of  masonry  in  the  wall  or  cellar. 

The  Number  of  Feet,  Board  Measure,  in  a  Lot  of  Boards, 
Planks,  Flooring,  Scantling,  Joists,  Sills  or  Beams. 
'I'lie  foot  of  board  measure  is  a  superficial  or  square  foot,  one  inch 
thick.  Multiply  the  product  of  the  width  and  thickness  of  each  board, 
plank  or  other  .article,  in  inches,  by  the  length  in  feet  and  fractions  of  a 
foot,  divide  by  12,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  feet  of  board 
measure.  In  flooring,  allowance  must  be  made  for  rabbeting,  the  pro- 
portion varying  with  the  depth  of  the  groove  and  the  width  of  the  boards. 

The  Cubic  Feet  in  Squared  Timber  or  Beams. 

Multiply  as  in  board  measure,  but  divide  by  144  instead  of  12,  or  multi- 
ply the  three  dimensions  in  feet  and  fractions  of  a  foot 


K- 


The  Number  of  Cubic  Feet  in  a  Round  Log  of  Uniform 
Diameter. 
Square  the  diameter,  in  inches,  multiply  by  .7854,  and  multiply  this 
product  by  the   length  in   feel,   divide  by  144,   and   the  quotient  is  the 
number  of  cubic  feet. 

Estimate  of  the  Number  of  Cubic  Feet  in  the  Trunk  of  a 
Standing  Tree. 

Find  the  circumference  in  inches,  divide  by  3.1416,  square  the  quotient, 
multiply  by  the  length  in  feet,  divide  by  144,  deduct  about  one-tenth  for 
thickness  of  bark,  and  the  result  will  be,  approximately,  the  number  of 
cubic  feet. 

The  Number  of  Feet,  Board  Measure,  in  a  Log  of 
Unequal  Diameters. 

Square  the  smallest  diameter  in  inches,  multiply  by  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet,  divide  by  12,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  feet  <»f  board  measure,  approximately. 

The  Area  of  a  Circle. 

Of  all  plane  figures,  the  circle  is  the  most  capacious,  or  has  the  greatest 
area  within  the  same  limits.  It  is  geometrically  demonstrable  that  it  has 
the  same  area  as  a  right-angled  triangle  with  a  base  equal  to  its  circum- 
ference, and  a  pcrpcndiciitar  ecjual  to  Its  radius,  that  is,  half  the  product 
of  the  radius  and  circumference.  It  is  obviously  larger  than  any  figure, 
of  however  many  sides,  inscribed  within  its  perimeter,  and  smaller  than 
any  circumscribed  polygon.  As  a  result  of  laborious  calculaticms  on  this 
basis  (pushed  in  one  instance  to  600  places  of  decimals  without  reaching 
the  end ).  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  any  circle  (sufficiently  exact  for  all  practical  purposes),  is 
as  1:3.1416  (3.141S92653X)  or  in  whole  numbers,  approximately,  ac  7:22, 
or  more  nearly  as  113:355.  Hence,  to  find  the  circumference  or  diameter, 
the  other  quantity  being  known,  multiply  or  divide  by  3.1416  ;  and  to  find 
the  area,  multiply  half  the  diameter  by  half  the  circumference,  or  the 
square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854  (3.1416-74}. 

Capacity  or  Contents  of  a  Granary,  Bin,  Crib  or  Wagon. 

Multiply  the  three  dimensions — the  length,  width  and  dt-pth — in  feet 
(the  inches,  if  any,  being  reduced  to  fractions  of  a  foot),  multiply  the 
product  by  the  decimal  .803564 — or  deduct  one-fifth,  which  is  sufficiently 
exact  for  ordinary  purposes — and  the  result  is  the  number  of  bushels. 
Where  the  wagon  or  crib  flares  considerably  in  length  or  width,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  obtain  a  mean  dimension.  This  is  done  by  taking  the  longest 
and  shortest  measures,  with  one  or  more  intermediate  ones,  and  dividing 
the  sum  of  all  by  tlie  number  taken.  The  quotient  will  be  the  mean  dimen- 
sion sought.  The  greater  the  flare  the  larger  the  number  of  intermediate 
dimensions  that  should  be  taken  to  insure  accuracy.  Corn  In  the  ear, 
when  first  cribbed,  is  estimated  at  twice  the  bulk  of  shelled  corn. 

To  Measure  Corn  or  Similar  Commodity  on  a  Floor. 

Pile  up  the  commodity  in  the  form  of  a  cone;  find  the  diameter  in  feet; 
multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  the  product  by  one-third 
the  height  of  the  cone  in  feet;  from  this  last  product  deduct  one-fifth  of 
itself,  or  multiply  it  by  .803564,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of 
bushels. 

To  Measure  Casks  or  Barrels. 

Find  mean  diameter  by  adding  to  head  diameter  two-thirds  (if  staves 
are  but  slightly  curved,  three-fifths)  of  dilTerence  between  head  and  bung 
diameters,  and  dividing  by  two.  Multiply  square  of  mean  diameter  in 
inches  by  .7854,  and  the  product  by  the  height  of  the  cask  in  inches.  The 
result  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  inches.  Divide  by  231  for  standard  or 
wine  gallons,  and  by  282  for  beer  gallons. 

The  Number  of  Cords  in  a  Pile  of  Wood. 

A  cord  of  wood  is  four  feet  wide,  four  feet  high  and  eight  feet  long,  or 
128  (4X4X8)  cubic  feet     Multiply  the  three  dimensions— length,   height 


and  width — of  the  pile  in  feet,  divide  by  128,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the 
number  of  cords.  The  odd  inches  in  any  or  all  of  the  three  dimensions 
must  be  reduced  to  decimals  or  common  fractions  of  a  foot,  before  begin- 
ning to  multiply. 

Contents  of  Fields  and  Lots. 

The  following  table  will  assist  farmers  in  making  an  accurate  estimate 
of  the  amount  of  land  in  different  fields  under  cultivation : 


10  rods 

X 

16  rods 

— 

8    " 

X 

20        " 

^ 

5    " 

X 

32         " 

= 

4     " 

X 

40    " 

^ 

5  yards 

X 

968    " 

= 

10    " 

X 

484  yards 

= 

20    " 

X 

242      •' 

^ 

40    " 

X 

121      " 

= 

80    " 

X 

Oo</i  " 

= 

70    " 

X 

69H  ■• 

= 

220  feet 

X 

198   feet 

:= 

440    - 

X 

99      " 

= 

irn     " 

X 

3f9      " 

= 

60     " 

X 

726      " 

^ 

120     " 

X 

363      " 

,= 

240     " 

X 

181'^  feet 

= 

200     " 

X 

108  |'J„  " 

= 

100     " 

X 

■45  i-„  " 

=. 

100  feet 

X 

108  r'o 

feet 

= 

•/,     A. 

25    ** 

X 

100 

" 

=z 

•°574  " 

25      " 

X 

no 

= 

.0631   " 

25     " 

X 

120 

" 

=: 

.0688  " 

25      " 

X 

12s 

'* 

= 

.0717  •• 

25     " 

X 

»50 

" 

^ 

.109     " 

2178  sq 

uare 

feel 

= 

•OS       " 

4356 

" 

:= 

.10       " 

65:14 

'* 

" 

^ 

■5       " 

8712 

" 

" 

z= 

.20       " 

10890 

" 

" 

= 

•  25       " 

13068 

" 

" 

=: 

.30       " 

15246 

" 

" 

=. 

■35       " 

17424 

" 

" 

^ 

.40       " 

19603 

" 

" 

=: 

•45       " 

21780 

" 

" 

= 

.50       " 

32670 

« 

'* 

^ 

■  75       " 

34848 

" 

" 

^ 

.80       " 

Boxes  of  Different  Measure. 

A  box  24  inches  long  by  i6  inches  wide,  anj  28  inches  deep,  will  con- 
tain a  barrel  (3  bushels). 

A  ba  <  24  inches  long  by  16  inches  wide,  an.i  14  inches  deep,  will  con- 
tain half  a  barrel. 

A  box  16  inches  square  and  8  2-5  inches  deep  will  contain  one  bushel. 

A  box  16  inches  by  8  2-5  inches  wide,  and  8  inches  deep,  will  contain 
half  a  bushel. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  2-5  inches  square,  and  8  inches  deep,  will  contain 
one  peck. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  inches  square,  and  4  1-5  inches  deep,  will  contain 
one  gallon. 

A  box  7  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  4-5  Inches  deep,  will  contain 
half  a  gallon. 

A  box  4  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  1-5  inches  deep,  will  lontain 
one  quart. 

In  purcha.sing  anthracite  coal,  20  bushels  are  generally  allowed  for  a 
ton. 

A  Key  to  the  Metric  System. 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  we  have  in  the  nickel  five-cent  piece 
of  our  coinage  a  key  to  the  tables  of  linear  measures  and  weights. 
The  diameter  of  this  coin  is  two  centimeters,  and  its  weight  is  five 
grammes.  Five  of  them  placed  in  a  row  will,  of  course,  give  the  length 
of  the  decimeter:  and  two  of  them  will  weigh  a  decagramme.  As  the 
kiloliter  is  a  cubic  meter,  the  key  to  the  measure  of  length  is  also  the  key 
to  the  measures  of  capacity.  Any  person,  therefore,  who  Is  fortunate 
enough  to  own  a  five-cent  nickel,  may  carry  in  his  pocket  the  entire  metric 
system  of  weights  and  measures. 

Comparison  of  Thermometric  Scales. 

To  convert  the  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Kahrenheit,  multiply 
by  9,  divide  by  5,  and  add  32. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Reaumur,  multiply  by 
4  and  divide  by  5.- 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Centigrade,  deduct  32, 
multiply  by  5,  and  divide  by  9. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Reaumur,  deduct  33, 
divide  by  9,  and  multiply  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Centigrade,  multiply  by  5, 
and  divide  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9, 
divide  by  4,  and  add  32. 

In  De  Lisle's  thermometer,  used  in  Russia,  the  gradation  begins  at 
boiling  point,  which  is  marked  zero,  and  the  freezing  point  is  150. 


ki 


\ 


446 


STAN'DARD    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


L 


CY3 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  r  MEASURES. 

bi^::^-i ^"^^^3^ 1-^^-^ 


*^ 


AVOIRDUPOIS  TFEIGHT. 

J 6  drachms i  ounce  (oz.),  ^28.35  gr'm*s. 

16  ounces 1  pound  (lb.),  =453.6      " 

25  pounds I  quarter 

4  quarters i  hundrcdw't.  '* 

20  hundred-w't.  i  ton,  2,000  pounds. 

The  standard  avoirdupois  pound  of  tlie 
United  States,  copied  from  the  British  stand- 
ard, is  0.00734  gr^in  too  licavy.  The  gramme 
ij  lugal  at  15.432  grains,  and  the  kilogramme 
at  2.2046  pounds.  In  some  States  the  ton  rates 
at  2,240  pounds.  In  that  case,  the  quarter, 
of   course,  consists  of  2S  lbs.,  or  2  stone. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

24  grains r  penn}-\veight  (dwt). 

20  pLnn;,-\vcights I  ounce,  =  4S0  grains. 

1 2  ounces i  pound,  ==5,760  grains. 

Gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  some  gems,  are 
weighed  by  this  scale.  Pearls  and  diamonds 
are  weighed  by  the  carat  of  4  grains,  5  dia- 
mond grains  being  equal  to  4  grains  troy. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 

20  grains 1  scruple. 

3  scruple I   drachm. 

5  drachms* r  ounce. 

12  ounces* i  pound. 

*  Same  as  in  troy  weight,  as  is  also  the  grain. 

LINEAR  MEASURE. 

3  barleycorns i  inch. 

7.92  inches i  link. 

12  inches I  foot,  =  0.3047  metre. 

3  ^eet 1  yard, =0.91438  metre. 

5i  yards i  rod,  perch,  or  pole. 

4  poles,  or  100  links    i  chain. 
10  chains  1  furlong. 

Sfurlongs i  mile=:i.6o93kilom'rs. 

3  miles I  league. 

I  line    Vl-Mnch. 

1  nail  (cloth  measure) 2\  inches, 

I  palm 3        " 

I  hand(used  tor  h'ht  of  horses).4        " 

I  span c;        '* 

I  cubit 1 3      *< 

I  pace  (military-) 2  ft. 6 inches. 

I  pace  Cg^comctrical) 5  feet. 

I  Scotch  ell 37.06  inches. 

I  English  -^U 45  •• 

I  fathom   6  feet. 

I  cable's  length 120  fathoms. 

t  league 3  miles. 

I  degree  of  the  equator 69-i6i3  miles, 

or    60     nautical    knots   or    geographical 
miles. 
I  degree  of  meridian 69.046  miles. 


SQUARE  OR  SURFACE  MEASURE. 

144  square  inches  ..I     sq.    foot,  =  9.29  square 
decimetres. 

9        "       feet I  sq.    yard,  =0.836  square 

metre. 
304       "       yards  ..i  square  rod. 
16        "       rods  ...r  chain. 
40        **  **     ...I  rood. 

4  roods I  acre,  or  43,56a  sq.  ft. 

640  acres    i  sq.  mile,^  259  hectares. 

The  acre^o.405  hectare. 

CUBIC  OR  SOLID  MEASURE. 

172S  cubic  inches i  cubic  foot. 

27      "         feet I        *'       yard. 

40      "  *'     of  rough,  or  / 

50      "        ft.  of  hewn  timber  I  itonorload. 

42       "         feet  of  timber i  British  ship- 
ping ton. 

40  cubic  feet i  American 

shipping  ton. 

loS  cubic  feet i  stack  wood. 

12S        *'         "     I  cord  wood. 

APOTHECARIES'  MEASURE. 

(<o  minims i  fluid  drachm. 

S  drachms    i        '      ounce. 

20  ounces  i  pint. 

S  pints I  imperial  gallon, 

LIQUID  MEASURE. 

4&'Ils I  pint  (pt.) 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.) 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.) 

42  gallons I  tierce, 

63        "       I  hogshead    (hhd.) 

84        "       I  puncheon. 

126        "       I  pipe. 

252        "       I  ton. 

10        "       1  anker. 

iS        '*       I  runlet, 

3-*      "        I  barrel  (bbl.orbrl.) 

*In  some  of  the  States  3i>a  gallons  make  a 


barrel. 


DRY  MEASURE. 


The  bushel  is  2150.42  cubic  inches,  that  of 
England  being  221S.192  cubic  inches.  The 
imperial  bushel  is,  therefore,  1.0315  United 
States  bushels.  In  dry  measure  the  litre  is 
legal  at  0.908  quart.  The  following  table  is 
generally  used: 

2  pints I  quart. 

4  quarts  . . .  i  gallon  of  26S.S  cubic  inches. 

2  gallons  ..1  peck  (pk.) 

4  pecks....!  bushel  (bush,  or  hu.) 
36  bushels.. I  chaldron  (for  coke  and  coal). 
CIRCULAR  MEASURE. 

60  seconds i  minute, 

60  minutes i  degree. 


360  degrees i  circle. 

30  degrees i  sign  of  zodiac 

12  signs I  zodiac  circle. 

360  degrees,  the  circumference  of  the  earth. 

24,899  statute  miles,  circumference  of  the  earth 
at  the  equator. 

69,124  statute  miles,  i  degree  of  the  equator. 

1. 1527  statute  miles,  1  geographic  mile. 

60  geographic  miles,  i  degree. 

MEASURES  OF  TIME, 

60  seconds 1  minute. 

60  minutes i  hour. 

24  hours I  day. 

7  days i  week. 

25  days I  lunar  month. 

28,  29,  30  or  31  days i  calendar  month. 

12  calendar  months i  year. 

365.25  days I  common  year. 

366  days I  leap  year. 

LONGITUDE  AND  TEVIE  COMPARED. 

LONGITUDE.  TIME. 

I  second 0666  second, 

I  minute 4  seconds. 

15  minutes  i  minute. 

I  degree 4  minutes. 

360  degrees 1  day. 

Add  difference  of  time  for  places  east,  and 
subtract  for  places  west,  of  the  given  place. 

ODD  WEIGHTS. 

14  pounds 1  stone  of  iron  or  lead. 

56  pounds I  firkin  of  butter. 

100  pounds I  quintal  of  fish. 

196  pounds I  barrel  of  flour. 

200  pounds I  barrel  of  beef  or  pork. 

250  pounds I  pig  of  iron  or  lead. 

FOR  HOUSEKEEPERS. 

Wheat  flour 1  pound  =  1  quart. 

Indian  meal 1  pound  2  oz.  :=  i       *' 

Butter,  when  soft i  pound  ^  i       " 

Loaf  sugar,  broken r  pound:=  1       " 

White  sugar,  pwd  .  i  pound  i  oz.  =  i       " 

Brown  sugar r  pound  2  o?;.  =  i       " 

Eggs 10  eggs  =  I  pound. 

Flour S  quarts  =  1  peck. 

'<     4  pecks  =^  I  bushel. 

LIQUIDS. 

16  large  tablespoonfuls *,  pint. 

8      "  '*  I    gill. 

4       '*  "  'a'gill- 

2  gills 'i  P'"t. 

2  pints I    quart. 

4  quarts 1    gJiHon. 

I  common-sized  tumbler  holds  ...  *3  pint. 

1          *'              "      wine-glass  holds  fi  gill. 
25  drops  are  equal  to 1  teaspoonful. 


_vi 


[V 


THE  LEGAL  BUSHEL. 


447 


.EGAL  WEIGHT  OF  A  BUSHEL  IK  ALL  THE  STATES.* 


PRODLXT, 


Apples 

Apples,  Drn;d 

Barley 

Beans,  Cantor 

Beans,  Wliiic 

Hccts 

Blackberries 

Bran 

Broomcorii  Seed 

Buckwheat 

Carrots 

Charcoal 

Cherries 

Coal 

Coal,  Cyiint.1 

Coal,  mined  out  of  btalc 

Corn ,  on  cob 

Corn,  on  cob  (uf  previous  year)  . 

Cornmcal,  unbolted 

Cornmeal,  bolted 

Corn,  shelled 

Com,  sweet   

Cranberries 

Cotton  Seed 

Currants 

Flaxseed 

Gooseberries 

Grapes 

Grass  Seeds  : — 

Blue 

Clover 

Hungarian  

Millet 

Orchard ■ 

Red  Top 

Timothy 

Hair,  Plastering 

Hcmpseed 

Hominy. 

I.ime 

Malt,  Barley 

M.dt.  Rye 

Maiigel-wur/els 

OaLs 

Onions 

Onii>n  Sets 

Union  Tops 

Osage  Orange 

Parsnips 

Peaches  

Peaches,  Dried 

Peaches,  Pared 

Pears 

Peas 

Peas,  Ground 

Plums,  Dried 

PoL'iioes,  Irish 

Potatoes,  Sweet 

Popcorn  

Quinces 

Kupesecd 

Raspberries 

RiiUibagas 

Rye 

Salt,  Coi.rsc 

Salt,  Fine 

Sorghum  Seed 

Strawberries 

Turnips 

Wheat 


<  < 


24  24 
48  48 
46  46 
60  60 


76,70 
73 

.     50 
46 
56:56 


60  60 

43 
50 


48 


5656 


45:45 

7 

4444 

501 

•  •1 
3434 


32  32 
5757 


46 


60  60 

60' so 


U.  O 


48 


56 


5656 

5050 

50;.. 

■■  4» 


35' 
60  60 


60 


60 


80 


60 


24  25 
4848 
4646 
60  60 


60 


60 


56156 


60 


56 


56 
50 


55  60 
60  60 


48 


56 


60 


56 


60 


48 


50  .  .|50 
56I52I56 


56 


60 


C    2-  « 


48  48,48 
46  .  .  146 


46 
4850 


24  .. 
4748 
46.. 
60 


40 

70 

68 
50 146  5u 


56 


58,54 


■4 
6064 

48., 
50., 

44  • 


t/i  H 


26  26  28 


48 


4848 
46.. 
6060 


h  > 


48 


56 


56 


56 


60 


56 


60 


56^58 


56 


6^ 


56 


80. 

38,. 


30132 
57,50 


60 


48 


r> 


48 


56 


56 


56 


14 

60|-6o 

454S 


60 


60 


*- 


56 


'I44 


.    '80 

..38 


3232 
50 


44 


60 


6060 
•  54 


,5° 


..56 
5656 
.  .  50 
..66 


56 


38 


60  43 
60  60 


•  Ix)cal  usage  sometimes  varies  from  legal  enactment.  All  the  States  recognize  the  use  of  the  standard  U.  S.  bushel,  without  reference  to  weighu 
of  articles  measured,  and  some  of  the  Stales  no  longer  legalize  any  other,  f  Used  by  railroad  companies  when  it  is  not  convenient  to  ascertain 
actual  weights. 


k- 


448 


FOREIGN    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


/ 


'^^^fT\,D^.£y^\^C\^XD^^2)Q^^.,2:(3^^.,^X9\2:^^^ 


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F0]^EIfi]V  WEIGpTg  ^JVD  ME^^H^Eg.     fefe 


If?"  I     - 


•^s.ip(5^^^x^^^^.^^xr%^x^^^^i:x^^£^ 


France. 

/.    Measure  of  Length. 
I  Mvriamctrc. .  ^  10,000  metres. 
I  KiloiTiL-trc  ..,  =  1,000  metres. 
I  Decametre. . .  =  10  metres. 

I  Metre =  The  io,ooo,oooth  part  of  the 

quarter  of  the  meridian  of  tlie  earth, 
I  Decimetre  . . .  :=  i-ioth  of  a  metre. 
I  Centimetre...  :=i-iooth  of  a  metre. 
I  M  illimetre  ...  ^  1  - 1  ,oooth  of  a  metre. 
//.    Measure  of  Surface. 

I  Hectare =;iooare5. 

I  Are =:  100 square  metres. 

1  Ceiitiare =1  square  metre. 

///.    Measure  of  Solidiij'. 

I  Stare =  1  cubic  metre, 

I  Uocifitcre  ....  =  i-ioth  of  a  stcre. 

I  v.     Measure  of  Capacity, 

I  Kilolitre =  1  cubic  metre. 

I  Hectolitre  ...:=  10  decalitres, 
r  Decalitre  ,...=:  10  litres. 

I  Litre =  1  cubic  decimetre. 

I  Decilitre =  i-ioth  of  a  litre. 

V.    Measure  of  Weight. 

I  Millia :=  1,000  kilogrammes,    and    is 

tlie  weight  of  a  ton  of  sea-water. 

I  Quintal =  100  kilogrammes. 

I  Kilogramme  =  Weight  of  a  cubic  decimetre 
of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  40  above 
melting  ice,  or  about  40°  P\ihrcnheit. 

I  Hectogrammes  100  grammes. 

I  Decagramme  =  10  grammes. 

I  Gramme ^  i  ■  1,000th  of  a  kilogramme. 

I  Decigramme.  =  i-ioth  of  a  gramme. 
These  measures  may  be  compared  with  the 

English  measures  by  means  of  the  following 

table: 

I  Metre =39.38  English  inches,  nearly. 

I  Are =  3.9EngTishperchfs,  nearly. 

I  Stere =35-32  English  cubic  feet. 

I  Litre ^    1 .76  English  pints. 

I  Gramme ;=  15.44  English  grains. 

The  Frenrh  Metric  Systeni  has  been 
either  introduced  or  legalized  in  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  Austria,  Belgium,  liuli- 
via,  Rrazil,  Chili,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Egypt, 
the  German  Empire,  Greece,  Italy,  Mexico, 
Portugal  and  Spain.  The  present  system  of 
Switzerland  is  upon  a  semi-metric  basis.  In 
the  United  States  the  metric  system  was  le- 
galized by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  1S66. 

Belgrium.— The  metrical  system  is  used 
here;  hut  tlie  kilogramme  is  termed  a  livre ; 
the  litre,  a  litron ;  and  the  metre,  an  aune. 

Netherlands.— Here,  also,  the  metric  sys- 
tem luis  been  adopted;  but  Flemish  names 
are  employed  instead  of  those  used  in  France. 

r,omharrto-Venetian  KinRcIoin.— The 
metric  system,  with  Italian  naniLs  substituted 
for  the  most  of  the  original  terms,  is  used  of- 
ficially ;  but  the  old  measures  are  also  used. 
See  Venice. 

Austria.— The  ell  =  30.6  inches.  The  joch 
=  1  acre  1.75  rood.  Thernet2cn=  i -7th  bushel. 
The  eimer=i2.4  gallons.  The  pfund  =  ^ 
pound,  (iold  and  silver  are  weighed  by  the 
mark  of  Vienna,  which  ^4333  grains. 

Itasle. —  tix)  pounds^  10S.6  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. The  ohm  =  10.7  gallons.  Thesack.=  3.6 
nushils.  The  large  and  small  ells  =46.4  and 
21.4  inches  respectively. 

Bavaria. — The  long  andf;hortells  =  24  and 
23.3  inches  nspectively.  The  schaff  of  S  met- 
zi;n  =  5.6  bushels.     The  muid  of  4Smass^i5 


gallons.  100  pounds  heavy  and  lightweight 
:=ioS.3and  iO|. 2  pounds  avoirdupois  respect- 
ively.    The  mark  of  Augsbui'g^3,643grains. 

Bremen. — The  foot  or  half  eU  =  ii.4  in- 
The  ohm  =: 3 1. 5  gallons.  The  last=  10.2  quar- 
ters.    100  pounds  ^=  109.9  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. — The  centner  or 
100  pounds  Dutch  weight^  10S.9  pounds 
avoirdupois.  The  leager  of  15  ankers  =■  126.5 
gallons.  The  muid  =  3  bushels.  The  ell  of 
27  Rhynland  inches  =  27.8  inches, 

China. — The  chang  of  10  chih  =  4  yards, 
nearly.  Theshing=i  pint.  ioho=ishing; 
10  shing^  I  tow;  10  \.o\v=  I  hwuh  or  120  cat- 
ties. The  catty  =  1.33  pound  avoirdupois.  16 
taels:^!  catty;  100  catties=:  1  pecul.  Liquids 
are  sold  by  weight ;  but  the  English  gallon  is 
used  in  trading  with  foreigners. 

Denmark, — The  foot  =12.3  inches.  100 
ells  =68.6  yards.  The  viertel=:  1.7  gallon.  100 
tonnen:=  47. S quarters.  The  pound  =  i.r  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  pound  for  gold  and  silver 
weighs  7,266  grains. 

£ast  Indies.  —  Bengal.  —  The  factory 
maund  ^  74.66  pounds  avoirdupois.  10  bazar 
maunds=:ii  factory  maunds.  16  chittacks  ^ 
I  seer;  40  seers  =1  maund.  The  guz  of  two 
cubits  ^  1  yard.  Bombay. — The  maund  =:  2S 
pounds  avoirdupois.  40  seers  =;  i  maund;  20 
maunds  =  i  candv.  The  candv  =  24.5  bushels. 
Madras. — The  maund  =:  25  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 40  poUams  =  I  vi ;  8  vis  =  i  maund  ;  20 
maimds=i  candy.  The  covid  =  1S.6  inches. 
The  gars  of  So  parahs^=  16.875  quarters,  and 
weighs  8,400  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Egypt.— The  Turkish  pike  =  27  in.  The 
ardeb  of  24  Cairo  rubbie  =:  6  quarters.  The 
cantar=  100  pounds  avoirdupois.  316  drams 
or  144  meticals^i  rottole  *  100  rottoli  or  36 
okcs  ^  I  cantar. 

Frankfort  on  the  Main. — The  ell  =  21.2 
inches.  The  foot  =:i  1.2  inches.  The  matter 
:=3  bushels,  nearly.  The  viertel=:  1.6  gallon, 
nearly.  The  pound,  light  and  heavy  weight, 
=r  1.03  and  I.I  pound  avoirdupois.  The  Zoll- 
centner  =  1 10.2  pounds  avoirdupois.  The 
Cologne  mark,  used  for  gold  and  silver, 
weighs  3,609  grains. 

Geneva. — The  ell  .=  45  inches.  The  acre  = 
I  acre  1. 1  rood.  Tlie  coupe,  or  sack,  =  2.1 
bushels.  The  setier=r  10  gallons.  The  heavy 
pound  =  1.2  pound  avoirdupois ;  the  light 
pound  I -6th  less.  The  mark  weighs  3,785 
grains. 

Genoa. — The  braccio  of  2.5  palmi  ^  22,9 
inches.  The  niina^3.3  bushels.  The  barile 
^  16.^  gallons.  The  ]iound  =0.7  pound  avoir- 
dupois. 1.5  pound  =  1  rottole.  The  pound 
sotlile,  for  gold  and  silver,  weighs  4891.5 
grains. 

Greece. — The  \''cnetian  measures  of  length 
are  used,  the  braccio  being  called  a  picne. 
100  kila:=ii.4  quarters.  The  cantaro  of  40 
okes  =  112  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Hamburg:. — The  foot  =  11.3  in.  nearly; 
100  ells  :=62.6  yards.  The  scheffel:=i  acre  6 
perches.  The  viertel  =:  j.6  gallon.  The  pound 
:=i.o6  pound  avoirdupois.  For  the  Ctjngne 
mark,  See /'VrtwXyor/.  2  marks  =1  pound  troy. 

L-ubeok, — The  ell  =22.0  inches.  The  last 
=  1 1  ouarters.  The  vierter=  1.6  gallon.  The 
pounu  =■  1.07  pounds  avoirdupois,  nearly. 

Malta. — The  pal  me  =  10.25  inches  ;  3.5  pal- 
mi =  1  yard  ;  8  palmi  ^=-  I  canna.  The  salma  = 
7.S  bushels.  The  caffiso  =:  4.1;  gallons.  The 
oarile  =9.^3  gallons.  64  rottoli  =  i  hundred- 
weight, 'the  cantaro^  175  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 


Manritiiis.— Besides  the  English  weights 
and  measures,  those  of  France  before  thelate 
alteration  are  used.  The  aune  =  i  .3  yard.  The 
velte  =  i.7  gallon.  The  poid  de  inarc  =  i.oS 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Naples, — The  canna  =  S3. 2  inches.  The 
moggia  =  3  roods  12  perches.  The  tomolo  = 
1.4  bushel.  The  barile=9.i  gallons.  The 
cantaro  grosso  and  piccolo  ^  196.5  and  106 
pounds  avoirdupois,  respectively.  The  jiound 
used  in  weighing  gold  and  silver  contains 
4,950  grains. 

Portugal. — The  covado  =  25.8  inches.  The 
almiule  =  3.6  gallons.  The  pound  =:. 01 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Prussia. — The  ell  =  26.5  inches.  The  mor- 
gen  =2  roods  21  jierches.  The  scheffel  ;=  1.5 
bushel.  The  eimcr=:  15.1  gallons.  TIic  pound 
=  1.03  pound  avoirdupois.  The  mark  of 
Cologne  is  used  for  gold  and  silver. 

R-ome. — The  canna  of  8  palmi  :=2.2  yards. 
The  canna  of  10  pahna  =■  8S  inches,  nearly. 
The  rubbio  =;  S.i  hnshels.  The  boccale=ro.4 
gallon.     The  pound  =.0.7  pound  avoirdupois. 

Russia. — The  arshine  =  2S  inches.  The 
foot  ^:  I  J. 75  inches.  The  dessetnia  =  2  acres 
2.8  roods.  The  tschetwert  ^5.7  bushels.  The 
wedro  =  2.7  gallons.  The  pound  ^0.9  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  pood  :^  36  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 

St.  Gallen.— The  ells  for  silks  and  wool- 
ens =31  .5  and  24.25  inches,  rcs|jectively.  The 
mutt  of  4  viertels=2.o9  bushels.  The  eimer 
^  11.25  gallons.  The  poimd,  light  and  heavy 
weight,  =  1 .03  and  1 .3  pound  avoirdupois,  re- 
spectively. 

Saxony. — The  foot  =11.1  inches.  The  acre 
=  1  acre  1.5  rood,  nearlv.  The  eimer,  at  Dres- 
den, =  14,9  gallons ;  atLeipsic^i6.S  gallons. 
Tlie  wispcl,  at  Dresden,  =  ^_K). 9  bushels;  at 
Leipsic  =  9i  .7  bushels.  The  pound  =  1.03 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Sicilj'.  —  The  canna  =-76  5  inches.  The 
salma  =  7.6  bushels.  The  barrel  =:  8  gallons, 
nearlv.  The  pound  of  12  oiinces=:o  7  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  cantaro^  175  pounds  avoir- 
dupois. 

Smyrna, — The  pike  =  27  inches.  The  kil- 
low^  1 1 .3  gallons.  The  rottolo  =  1.2  pound 
avoirdupois. 

Sonth  America. — The  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese measures  are  most  generally  employ- 
ed. The  use  of  the  English  prevails  in  some 
parts. 

Spain. — The  vara  or  ell  =33.3  inches.  The 
fanegad.a=i  acre  21  perches.  The  arroba  = 
3  5  gallons.  The  fanega  =  i.c;  bushel.  The 
pound  =:  1 .01  pound  avoirdupois. 

Sweden  and  Norway.— The  cU  =  23.3 
inches.  The  timnuland  =  1  acre  1  mod,  nearly. 
The  tunnu  =0.6  quarter.  The  kanii  =0.6  gal- 
lon.    The  pound  .=  0.9  pound  avoirdupois. 

Turkey. — The  pike  =  26.25  inches.  The 
*kill()w  =09  bushel.  The  almud  =  i.i  gallon. 
The  oke^2,S  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  rot- 
tolo r=  ]  .3  pound  avoirdupois. 

Tuscany. — The  braccio  =  23  inches,  nearly. 
The  saccata=:  i  acre  0,9  rood,  Thesacche  = 
2  bushels.  The  fiasche  =  4  pints.  The  pound 
=  12  ounces  avoirdupois. 

Venice. — Resides  the  metrical  system,  tlie 
following  measures  are  used:  The  braccio, 
for  woolens  =  26.6  inches;  for  silks  =■  24. S 
inches.  The  stajo  =  2.2  bushels.  The  sec- 
chia  =  2.4  gallons.  The  pound  sottile  =  o.7 
pound  avoirdupois,  nearly ;  grosso  =:  i  .05 
pound  avoirdupois. 


V_ 


\ 


\ 


Till-:    METRIC    SVSTEM. 


449 


The  Metric  System  originated  in  France  about  1790.  In  1799,  on  the  iiivitalion  of  the  Government,  an  international  convention,  at  which 
were  present  representatives  from  France,  Holland.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Switzt-rlnnd,  Spain,  Savoy  and  the  Roman  Repuhlics,  assembled  at 
Paris  to  settle,  from  the  results  of  the  great  Meridian  Survey,  the  exact  length  of  the  '*  definitive  metre."  As  a  rx^sult  of  Ihe  investigations  of 
this  learned  body,  the  Metric  System  \va>  hascd  upon  tlie  length  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  terrestrial  meridian.  The  ten-milltonth  part  of  this  arc 
was  chosen  as  the  unit  of  measures  of  length,  and  called  Mrtr,\  The  cube  of  Ihv  tenth  part  of  the  metre  was  adopted  as  ihc  unit  of  capacity, 
and  denominated  Lttre.  The  weight  of  a  litre  of  distilled  water  at  its  greatest  density  was  called  h'tiogramme,  of  which  the  thousandth  part, 
or  CiVrtwm*-,  was  adopted  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  mullinles  of  these,  proceeding  in'deeimal  progression,  are  distinguished  bv  the  employ-^ 
ment  of  the  prefixes  deca,  hecto,  kilo  and  mvriu  (ten,  hundred,  thousand,  ten  tliousand),  from  the  Oreek,  and  the  subdivisions  by  dici^  centi 
and  milli  (tenth,  hundredth,  thousandth),  from  the  Latin. 


Measures  of  Lengrth  (Unit,  Metre). 


EQl'AL   TO 

Millimetre 

Centimetre 

Decimetre 

Metki-: 

Decametre 

Ifeciomctre 3,937.07900 

Kilometre 3u.3'70. 79000 

Myriametre 393,707.00000 


Inches. 

o. 03937 

o.3y.?7' 

3 -93703 

30-37079 

393.70790 


Feet. 

0.003.*^  I 

0.o3JSa; 

o.3i8ftvS 

3.jSot>S.S 

33.So(>St)j 

3jS.oS<(9i7 

3,2So  Syc/167 

32,SoS.yiv't*)7 


Yards. 

0.0010936 

0.0 1 01^363 
o. 1093633 

i-oc)36j3» 

"0.9363306 

109 . 3633056 

1,01x1-6330556 

10.936.3305556 


Cubic  Pleasures,  or  Measures  of  Capacity  (Unit,  Litro). 


EQUAT-  TO  Cubic  lurhrs.  Cubic  Feel. 

Millilitrc.or  cubic  centimetre 0.00103  . .  0.000035 

Centilitre,  10  odJic  centimetres 0.(11027  ..  0.000353 

Decilitre,  100  cubic  centimetres 6. 1027 1  ..  0.003532 

I.ITKK,  (r  cubic  Decimetre 61.02705  ..  0.035317 

Decalitre,  or  Cenlistere 610.27052  ..  o.353K''> 

Hectolitre,  or  Decistcre 6.102.705'! 5  ,.  3-53i'\5'^ 

Kilolitre,  or  Stcre,  or  cu!>ic  metre 61,027.05152  ..  35 •3"'.'^^' 

Myriiiliire,  or  Decastcre 610,270.51519  ..  353''65So7 


Pittlx. 

0.00176 

0.01761 

0,1760s 

i.7^>077 

17-60773 

i76-o77.i4 

1. 760. 7734 1 

i7/>o7- 73414 


Fathoms. 
o  o<x)54^>3 
0.00546S2 
0.0546S16 
0.^468165 
5.yjS.653 
54.6S16523 
5;6.Si6527S 
5,468.1652778 


Gailofis. 

0.0002J0t 

0.002 2oro 
0.0220097 

O.  2200t/>7 

2.20oi/y>S 

22.00»/)677 
220.0i//)707 

2,200.9667675 


Afiles. 
0.0000006 
0.0000002 
0.0000621 
0.0006214 
0.00621 
0.06213! 
0.62 1 38.14 
6.213^242 


213S 
13S1 


Bushels. 
0.0000275 

0.0002751 
0.0027512 
o  0275121 
0.2751 20S 
2.75120S5 
27.51 20f446 
275.120S459 


Aleasures  of  Weight  (Unit,  Gramme). 


EQfAL  TO  GrahlS. 

Milligramme 0.01543 

Centigramme 0.15432 

Decigramme i  .54323 

Gkammk 15 -4323s 

Decagramme 154.32349 

Hectogram  nie 1,543.234*^8 

Kilogramme 15,432,3^880 

Myriagramme 154,323.48800 


Troy  Ot. 
o.oo(y\\2 
0.000322 
0.003215 
0.032151 
0.321507 
3-»'5073 
32,150727 

321.507207 


Az'oirdupois  Lbs. 

0.0000022 

O.O0O02JO 
0.0002205 
0.0022046 
0.02204()2 
0.2204621 
2.2046213 
22.0462129 


Centi:ire,  or  square  metre . 
Are,  or  loo  square  metres 
Hectare,  or  10,000  square  i 


Square  3Ieasures,  or  Measures  of  Surface  (Unit,  Are). 

eqval  to  Sg.  Feet.  Sq.  I'ards.  Sq.  Perches. 

10.794299  . .  I .  uX>o33  . .  0.03953S3 

1 ,076.429934  . .  1 19.603326  , ,  3.95382i>o 

>t:lrcs 107,642.993419  ..  11,960.332602  ..  395.382S959 


Ctvt.  of  112  Lbs.* 
0.0000000 
0.0000002 
0.0000020 
0.0000197 
0.0001963 
0.00196S4 
0.oi9f>S4i 
0.1968412 


Sq.  Roods. 

o.ooot>SS5 
o.a>S^I57 
9.S845724 


Tons* 

0-O000t«>O 

0.0000000 
o.oooooor 
o.oooooio 

O.OOOOOi/S 
O.OOOOt;84 

0.0009S42 
0.009S42I 


Sq.  Acres. 
0.0002471 

0.02471 II 
2.4711434 


CONVERSION   OF   METRIC   WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES    INTO    ENGLISH. 


METRES   INTO 

KILOMETRES   INTO 

LITRES 

INTO  GALLONS 

HECTOLITRES   INTO 

KILOGRAMMES 

INTO 

HECTARES  INTO 

YARDS. 

MILES 

AND 

YARDS. 

AND    QUARTS. 

QUARTS  AND  BUSHELS. 

CWTS. 

,  QRS., 

LBS.,   OZ. 

ACRES 

ROODS, 

P'CH'S. 

I 

1.094 

1 

0 

1,0)4 

1 

0 

o.SSo 

1 

0 

2-751 

1 

0       0 

2 

3'4 

1 

3 

1 

35 

2 

2.187 

2 

1 

4-'7 

2 

0 

1.701 

2 

0 

5.. 503 

2 

0      0 

I 

6'i' 

2 

4 

3 

^i 

3 

3.2SI 

3 

I 

'% 

3 

0 

2.6.(1 

3 

1 

0.254 

3 

0        0 

9M 

3 

7 

I 

26 

4 

4- 374 
S-4f 

4 

3 

4 

0 

3  5^1 

4 

1 

3.005 

4 

0     0 

s 

■3 

4 

9 

3 

5 

I 

.1 

IS^ 

5 

0.402 

5 

1 

5 -756 

5 

0      0 

1 1 

0'4 

5 

13 

1 

'7 

6 

6.562 

3 

I,2S2 

6 

1 

1.2S2 

6 

2 

0.W7 

6 

0     0 

M 

3.^ 

6 

'4 

3 

12 

I 

7-655 
S.749 
9S43 
10.936 
21. §73 

I 

4 

615 

7 

I 

2.163 

7 

2 

3-^58 

7 

0     0 

■5 

7 

I 

'7 

8 

4 

'.709 

S 

1 

3-043 

s 

2 

6.010 

b 

0      0 

'7 

10  U' 

'9 

3 

i 

9 

9 

I 

>.<H3 

9 

I 

3-9-:3 
0.804 
1.608 

9 

3 

o.-ni 

9 

0     0 

tw 

■3'. 

9 

22 

0 

38 

10 

376 

10 

2 

10 

3 

3-512 

10 

0     0 

i2 

o'i 

10 

24 

2 

^1 

>0 

20 

12 

753 

20 

t 

20 

0 

7.024 

20 

0     1 

16 

■'i 

20 

49 

I 

30 

32.S09 

30 

iS 

1,129 

30 

2.412 

30 

10 

2-,5,i6 

.^o 

0         2 

10 

2'a 

30 

't 

0 

31 

40 

65.61S 

40 

24 

■,505 

40 

s 

3-!'5 

40 

■3 

6.04S 

40 

0     3 

4 

3 

40 

98 

3 

'5 

SO 

SO 

31 

123 

50 

It 

0.019 

.50 

17 

1 .  ^6o 

50 

1      3 

26 

Vi 

i;o 

133 

3 

9 

60 

60 

37 

^ 

bo 

n 

0.823 

bo 

20 

5-072 

60 

I      0 

20 

-I'S 

60 

14S 

I 

3 

'& 

76-554 
87.491 

9S.427 

g 

43 

'& 

■  5 

1.627 

L° 

H 

0. 5S5 

70 

1      1 

1 

i'' 

^ 

'72 

3 

11 

49 

1,251 

■7 

2-43' 

27 

4.017 

.So 

1         2 

'97 

2 

90 

90 

55 

1,627 

90 

19 

3-235 

90 

,30 

7-609 

<io 

1      3 

2 

6'i 

90 

232 

I 

it 

100 

■09-363 

21S.7J7 

100 

62 

243 

100 

22 

0.039 

100 

S 

3-121 

100 

1      3 

24 

100 

247 

0 

200 

:oo 

;m 

4S7 

200 

S 

0.077 

200 

6.242 

200 

3      3 

20 

■  5 

200 

404 

0 

37 

3PO 

32S.090 

300 

7.10 

300 

0.116 

300 

103 

1.362 

300 

5      3 

■7 

6 

300 

^ 

I 

■5 

400 

4.17-4.'i3 
546.816 

400 

248 

973 

400 

ss 

0.155 

400 

■37 

4-483 

400 

7     3 

■3 

■4 

400 

1 

33 

500 

500 

310 

1,217 

500 

110 

0.193 

500 

181 

7.004 

500 

9     3 

10 

' 

500 

.235 

2 

11 

•  Id  tbe  majority-  of  SUtea  the  hundredw«lsht  rat«s  at  100  lbs.  and  tlio  Ion  accordinglj  at  2,000  lbs.,  but  lo  this  table  the  oomputalloo  has  been  made  at  112  and  2,UQ  1 

refpcctlvely,  aj  ttio  computation  on  tho  ottifr  basis  la  vrrj  almple. 


45° 


A  CALENDAR  FOR  THE  CENTURY. 


A  CALENDAR  FOR  THE  CENTURY. 


To  And  the  days  of  the  week  corresponding  to  the  days  ol  the  month  for  anyyear  of  the  century,  find  the  year  in  the  left-hand  upper 
division.  Follow  the  Index  (or  hand)  to  the  right,  to  the  month  sought;  then  downward  to  the  day  of  the  week,  and  to  the  left  for  the 
corresponding  days  of  the  month.  In  leap-years,  if  seeking  the  day  of  the  month,  after  the  29th  of  February,  subtract  one  day ;  but  if 
the  day  of  the  week  is  sought,  go  forward  one  day.  The  heavy  figures  are  lu.ip  years.  The  civil  year  is  365.24224U  days  ;  but  on  the 
basis  of  an  added  day  (for  leap-year)  every  fourth  year,  it  is  reckoned  as  3C5.25  days,  an  excess  of  .0077.586  of  a  day,  or  one  day  in  129 
years,  and  three  days  in  387  (or  roundly,  400)  years.  To  correct  this  excess,  instead  of  100  leap-years  in  400  years  only  U7  are  reckoned, 
the  three  century-years  that  are  not  exact  multiples  of  400  being  treated  as  common  years. 


1800 
'51 
■06 

'12 
'96 

•17 
'62 

'23 
•68 

'45 
'73 

'79 

'40 

'90 

«s- 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 

Nov. 

'05 
'50 

•11 
'56 

'95 
'Bl 

too 

•67 

'28 

'89 

'33 
•78 

'39 
'84 

»»- 

.Sept. 
Dec. 

Aprfl. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

'49 
1900 

•10 
'55 

'16 

'94 

'21 

'06 

'27 
•72 

'44 

■38 

'S3 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

•04 

'93 

'99 

•09 
•54 

•15 
'60 

'43 

•65 

'26 
•71 

'32 

'88 

'37 

'82 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 

July. 

'03 
'48 

'42 
•53 

■14 

'59 

'20 

'87 

•26 

'70 

'31 
'76 

•98 
•81 

to- 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb, 
Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

'03 
'47 
'97 

•08 

■86 

•13 
'58 

'19 
'64 

'41 
'69 

'30 
'75 

■36 
'92 

«»- 

Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

•01 
'85 

'07 
'52 

'46 
'57 

•18 
•63 

'24 

".11 

'29 
'74 

'35 
•80 

«»- 

Feb. 
Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

m 

? 

% 

% 

% 

% 

? 

? 

29 

22 

15 

8 

1 

-&» 

.Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

30 

23 

16 

9 

2 

•%» 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

31 

U 

17 

10 

3 

-&. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon 

25 

18 

U 

4 

-&>■ 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tuea. 

26 

19 

12 

5 

-e» 

Thura. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

27 

20 

13 

6 

-e» 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thura. 

•• 

28 

21 

14 

7 

-«• 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

K 


LEGAL  BUSINESS   DEPARTMENT. 


451 


-7\ 


-i-«^>^<^4+-^ 


'NTIL  the  millennium  begins,  men  will  not  be 
able  to  exist  without  courts,  law  and  lawyers. 
When  man  was  in  a  state  of  nature,  before 
^,,^~-  what  the  philosophers  call  the  social  com- 
pact was  entered  into,  the  law  that  prevailed  was  the 
strong  hand.  Property  belonged  not  necessarily  to 
him  who  manufactured  it  or  found  it,  but  to  him  who 
had  the  physical  ability  to  prevent  other  people  from 
depriving  him  of  it.  As  the  verse  runs,  humanity  be- 
gan with 

— The  good  old  pLan, 
That  llicy  shall  take  who  have  the  power, 
And  they  shall  keep  who  can. 

And  much  as  wt;  may  talk  about  the  rea.sonableness  and 
light  of  our  civilization,  that  theory  lies  underneath  every  legal 
procc-^s  we  use  to-day.  F'irst  the  man  righted  his  own  wrongs 
according  to  his  natural  reason  —  a  sort  of  wild  justice  that 
was  made  up  of  all  injustice,  and  in  which  capital  punishment 
w.is  the  only  penalty  recognized.  Next  the  family  took  up  the 
administration  of  the  law — a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  only 
a  step  —  and  so,  as  men  grew  older  in  wisdom  and  experience, 
a  man's  wrongs  were  redressed  first  by  himself,  next  by  his 
family,  next  by  his  tribe,  and  lastly  by  his  nation.  Each  of  these 
changes  was  a  change  for  the  better,  an  approach  toward  impar- 
tiality .ind  justice.  Even  in  the  night  of  time  wise  judges  were 
at  work  making  precedents  which  grew  gradually  into  jaw,  and 


that  great  system  which  we  have  to-day  is  as  much  a  natural  out- 
growth of  humanity  as  our  civilization.  It  was  seen  early  in  our 
history  as  a  race  that  the  wisdom  of  the  umpires  to  whom  men 
addressed  their  disputes  was  not  alone  enough  to  insure  peace  and 
tranquillity  to  the  land,  and  hence  great  law-givers  appeared  from 
time  to  time  in  every  nation,  who  have  left  codes  out  of  which 
we  have  built  our  common  law  and  st.-itute  law  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Each  family  of  n.ntions  had  its  own  statutes,  differing 
widely  in  practice,  but  all  founded  upon  justice  and  common 
sense.  Tlie  English  law,  which  we  in  America  have  brought 
with  us  from  the  old  home,  is,  like  the  English  language,  an 
olla  podridii  of  many  elements.  The  Saxon  code  lies  under  all 
with  its  strong  tendency  to  personal  liberty,  and  exact  and  equal 
justice  to  high  and  low,  just  as  the  Saxon  tongue  is  the  basis  and 
foundation  of  our  language. 

The  Norman  Conquest  brought  in  changes  in  the  tenure  of  land, 
together  with  the  martial  law,  the  game  laws  and  the  criminal 
and  the  feudal  laws  of  France.  Mixing  in  this  hotch-potch,  the 
Koman  Church  added  the  ecclesiastical  and  ])art  of  the  criminal 
law,  drawn  directly,  as  the  French  laws  came  indirectly,  from  the 
great  Codex  Justiniani,  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  this  strange 
mixture  has  grown  in  the  centuries  that  have  passed  into  the 
great  guarantee  of  liberty  and  justice  which  our  l.-rw  to-day 
represents. 

Always  seeking  after  right  anil  common  sense,  our  law  is  not 
perfect,  nor  is  it  perfectly  administered,  but  the  whole  world 
admits  that  the  English-speaking  people  have  the  best  laws 
know-n  to  man.     I'erfection  erring  humanity  will  never  attain. 


^ 


\ 


452 


LEGAL  BUSINESS   DEPARTMENT. 


Our  criminal  law  has  been  built  upon  the  theory  that  the 
criminal  must  be  protected,  and  it  is  for  his  protection  that  the 
statutes  run.  At  first  the  only  punishment  that  men  knew  was 
death  or  maiming.  In  the  middle  ages  thieves  were  boiled  in 
oil,  and  robbers  were  impaled  alive.  Witnesses  were  questioned 
on  tlie  rack,  and  evidence  extorted  with  thumbscrew  and  the 
iron  boot,  crushing  the  flesli 
in  the  search  for  truth.  As 
the  years  rolled  by  all  of  this 
was  ameliorated,  and  to-day 
mercy  is  tempered  with  jus- 
tice, and  the  shameful  bar- 
barisms of  the  courts  of  the 
middle  ages  are  becoming 
rarer  and  rarer. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of 
this  work  to  make  any  man 
a  lawyer  learned  in  the  law. 
It  were  idle,  and  worthy  only 
of  a  catchpenny  mountebank, 
to  pretend  that  in  a  volume 
like  this  could  be  compressed 
the  whole  of  a  great  science  which  demands  of  its  professors 
years  of  toil  and  years  of  study  and  experience.  Once  involved 
in  litigation,  go  to  a  lawyer,  and  to  the  best  lawyer  you  can 
afford.  Any  one  who  gives  the  reader  different  advice  is  dis- 
honest and  knavish,  and  common  sense  must  recognize  this 
indictment. 

An  ounce  of  prevention, 
however,  is  worth  a  pound 
of  cure,  and  we  verily  believe 
that  in  the  pages  that  follow 
many  ounces  of  prevention 
will  be  found.  Law  is  a 
costly  luxury  that  should  only 
be  indulged  in  as  a  last  re- 
sort, when  justice  cannot  be 
gained  by  less  expensive 
means.  The  wise  man  avoids 
it  as  he  would  avoid  bank- 
ruptcy or  fire,  and  he  takes 
all  the  prudent  precautions 
that  he  can  to  escape  litiga- 
tion. We  claim  tliat  the 
student  of  these  pages  will  he  fully  equipped  for  that  purpose. 

Law  is  a  costly  luxury,  we  have  said ;  and  the  wisdom  of  an- 
tiquity, which  built  the  law,  has  built  also  on  this  truism.  One 
of  the  earliest  fables  the  child  is  told,  is  the  story  of  the  two  cats 
who  referred  a  cheese  case  to  a  monkey  learned  in  the  law,  and 
whose  chose-in-action  gradually  went  into  the  digestive  system 


of  tlie  court.     The  story  we  illustrate  below  conveys  a  moral 
that  all  should  heed. 

Observe  llie  obstinate  litigants  pulling  at  the  head  and  tail  of 
the  disputed  cow;  how  determined  each  is,  not  to  win  the  ani- 
mal, but  to  prevent  the  other  from  getting  her,  and  see  the  attor- 
ney, learned  and  gentlemanly,    industriously  milking  fees   and 

retainers  into  his  bucket  and 
advising  the  plaintiff  to  hold 
hard  and  steady.  And  when 
the  cow  is  milked,  see  how 
the  litigation  ends :  one  man 
has  the  horns  and  a  severe 
fall,  the  other  has  the  tail 
and  an  equally  unpleasant 
tumble,  while  the  lawyer 
walks  off  with  the  cow  and 
the  milk  and  an  exceedingly 
good  opinion  of  the  law. 
The  satire  may  be  rather 
broad,  but  it  teaches  what 
every  sensible  man  will  tell 
you,  that  there  is  no  dearer 
commodity  in  this  world  than  justice. 

No  matter  what  transaction  you  are  about  to  engage  in,  study 
the  forms  we  give,  read  the  hints  we  publish.  Do  nothing 
blindly.  In  no  case  is  knowledge  power  so  much  as  in  busi- 
ness law.  Who  are  the  men  that  succeed  ?  They  are  those  who 
understand  it.     Which  of  your  friends  is  tangled  up  in  costly, 

perhaps    ruinous,  litigation? 


THE  SUIT  BEGINS  :    The  Lawyer  gets  the  Milk  for  his  Fees. 


II.     END  OF  THE  SUIT  ;     The  Lawver  gets  both  Cow  and  Milk, 


Ask  him  how  it  began,  and 
he  will  point  out  to  you 
some  trifling  error,  made  in 
a  culpable  ignorance,  which, 
had  he  the  lesson  we  teach 
before  him,  he  would  have 
avoided.  Then  study  these 
pages  if  you  would  gain  the 
benefit  that  lies  before  you. 
A  half  hour's  attention  be- 
fore a  transaction  is  con- 
summated may  save  you 
thousands  afterwards.  The 
diligent  student  may  be  sure 
of  one  thing,  that,  with  this 
manual  at  command,  its  hints  obeyed,  its  instructions  followed, 
its  forms  used,  it  will  take  a  very  much  better  lawyer  than  the 
average  business  man  to  force  him  into  a  lawsuit,  and  yet  his 
rights  will  be  as  thoroughly  secure  as  though  they  had  been 
vindicated  and  asserted  by  all  the  supreme  courts  of  the  Re- 
public. 


r 


~W 


'^ 


\i 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


"Tt 


453 


-*5- 


V7KV  ke^al  v^Li^ine^^v  l^of^m^.  v)!^-:- 


'';/  <^-  -!;  ^;-^--^^^ 


-•feiKoco  tReij  are  propcrPtj  ©racor^  anc|  G^ecufc<:|,-^^ 


AGREEMENTS  AND  CONTRACTS. 

t  CONTRACT  is  legally  defined  to  be 
an  agreement  between  persons  com- 
petent to  contract  to  do  or  not  to 
-I-  do,  for  a  consideration,  some  speci- 
fied thing.  Following  upon  this  definition, 
it  is  evident  that  those  things  to  be  specially 
examined  about  a  contract  are  the  parties, 
their  legal  ability  and  their  consent.  There 
must  be  two  or  more  persons  concerned,  and 
it  is  vital  that  they  must  be  able  to  contract. 
"Persons"  is  here  taken  in  the  legal  meaning, 
which  includes  artificial  persons,  such  as  cor- 
porations and  States.  Corporations  can  only 
contract  as  they  are  empowered  by  their  char- 
ters;  States,  as  they  are  permitted  b)'  their 
constitutions.  Persons  not  of  legal  age  can 
not  usually  contract,  but  when  of  age  they 
may,  in  certain  cases,  ratify  contracts  made 
in  infancy.  The  contract  of  marriage  may  be 
entered  into  under  age.  Idiots  and  insane 
persons  cannot  contract. 

Consent  is  vital  to  a  contract.  It  may  be 
given  by  a  word  or  a  nod,  by  the  shaking  of 
hands  or  by  a  sign.  Often,  in  law,  the  old 
saying  that  "  silence  gives  consent  "  is  upheld. 
In  a  written  contract  assent  is  proven  by  the 
signature  or  mark  of  the  persons. 


The  first  step  toward  a  contract  is  the  propo- 
sition or  offer,  which  may  be  withdrawn  at 
any  time  before  it  is  agreed  to.  When  the 
proposition  is  verbal,  and  no  time  is  specified, 
it  is  not  binding  unless  accepted  at  once.  To 
give  one  the  option  or  refusal  of  property  at 
a  specified  price,  is  simply  to  give  him  a  cer- 
tain time  to  make  up  his  mind  whether  he  will 
buy  the  property  or  not.  To  make  the  option 
binding  he  must  accept  within  the  time  named. 
The  party  giving  the  option  has  the  right  to 
withdraw  it,  and  sell  the  property  to  another, 
at  any  time  previous  to  its  acceptance,  even 
within  the  time  for  which  the  refusal  was 
given,  because  the  offer  is  gratuitous,  and 
there  is  no  consideration  to  support  it. 

A  written  proposition  may  be  accepted  at 
any  time  before  notice  of  withdrawal.  But 
the  proposer  can  retract  at  any  time  before  it 
is  accepted.  If  a  letter  of  acceptance  is  mailed, 
however,  and  immediately  after  a  letter  with- 
drawing the  offer  is  received,  the  contract  is 
binding.  An  acceptance  takes  effect  from  the 
time  it  is  mailed,  not  from  the  time  it  is  re- 
ceived ;  it  must  be  in  accordance  with  the 
original  proposition,  for  any  new  matter  intro- 
duced would  constitute  a  new  offer.  When 
the    offer    is    accepted,    either   verbally  or    in 


/ 


\ 


/. 


454 


LEGAL  BUSINESS   FORMS. 


writing,  it  is  an  express  assent,  and  is  bind- 
ing. Express  assent  is  not  affected  by  custom 
or  usage  of  trade.  Implied  assent  is  accepted 
by  the  law  when  common  sense  seems  to  de- 
mand it.  For  instance,  if  John  Jones  draws  a 
draft  on  Abraham  Swift,  which  Swift  refuses 
to  accept,  and  James  Smith  accepts  the  draft 
to  save  John  Jones'  credit,  there  is  an  im- 
plied assent  on  the  part  of  Jones  to  indemnify 
Smith. 

A  contract  made  under  a  mistake  of  law  is 
not  void.  Everybody  is  presumed  to  know  the 
law,  and  ignorance  is  no  excuse.  This,  how- 
ever, applies  only  to  contracts  permitted  by 
law  and  clear  of  fraud.  A  refusal  of  an  offer 
cannot  be  retracted  without  the  consent  of  the 
second  party.  Once  a  proposition  is  refused, 
the  matter  is  ended.  And  no  one  has  the  right 
to  accept  an  offer  except  the  person  to  whom 
it  was  made. 

The  consideration  is  the  reason  or  thing  for 
which  the  parties  bind  themselves  in  the  con- 
tract, and  it  is  either  a  benefit  to  the  promisor 
or  an  injury  to  the  other  party.  Considera- 
tions are  technically  divided  into  valuable  and 
good,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  con- 
sideration need  not  be  expressed,  but  is  im- 
plied. A  valuable  consideration  is  either 
money  or  property  or  service  to  be  given,  or 
some  injury  to  be  endured.  A  promise  to 
marry,  for  instance,  is  a  valuable  considera- 
tion. A  good  consideration  means  that  the 
contract  is  entered  into  because  of  consan- 
guinity or  affection,  which  will  support  the 
contract  when  executed,  but  will  not  support 
an  action  to  enforce  an  executory  contract. 
Whether  a  consideration  is  sufficient  or  not  is 
tested  by  its  being  a  benefit  to  ihc  promisor  or 
an  injury  to  the  other  party.  If  it  has  a  legal 
value,  it  makes  no  difference  how  small  that 
value  may  be.  The  promisor  need  not  always 
be  benefited,  as,  for  instance,  the  endorser  of  a 
note,  who  is  liable  although  he  gets  no  benefit. 
Hut  if  a  person  promise  to  do  something  him- 


self for  which  no  consideration  is  to  be  received, 
there  is  no  cause  of  action  for  breach  of 
the  contract.  Among  sufficient  considerations 
we  may  include  "forbearance,"  the  waiting 
for  payment  or  for  the  execution  of  another 
contract,  and  "  mutual  promises,"  if  made  si- 
multanepusly,  not  otherwise,  and  finally  a  pre- 
existing "  moral  obligation,"  as,  for  instance, 
when  a  debt  has  become  outlawed  through  the 
statute  of  limitations,  a  promise  to  pay  it  will 
renew  the  liability  of  the  debtor. 

THE  STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS. 
The  English  Statute  of  Frauds,  which  has 
been  re-enacted  in  most  of  the  American 
States,  provides  that  "  no  action  shall  be 
brought  whereby  to  charge  the  defendant  upon 
any  special  promise  to  answer  for  the  debt, 
default  or  miscarriage  of  another  person,  un- 
less the  agreement  upon  which  such  action 
shall  be  brought,  or  some  memorandum  or 
note  thereof,  shall  be  in  writing,  and  signed 
by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  some 
other  person  thereunto  by  him  lawfully  author- 
ized. "  This  is  held  not  to  apply  to  original 
promises,  but  only  to  collateral  engagements 
or  cases  where  a  debt  already  exists  on  the 
part  of  a  third  person.  As  in  the  case  of  a 
note  already  given  to  Brown  by  Jones,  a 
promise  from  Smith  to  pay  must  be  in  writing 
to  be  binding.  If  Brown  tells  Jones  to  deliver 
goods  to  Smith,  saying:  "  I  will  pay  if  he 
doesn't,"  or  "  I  will  see  you  paid,"  it  is  a  mere 
offer  of  guaranty,  and  is  a  collateral  undertak- 
ing, which  comes  within  the  statute  ;  but  it  is 
different  if  he  says:  "  Charge  them  to  me," 
or  "  I  will  pay. "  The  latter  is  an  original 
promise,  and  need  not  be  in  writing.  No 
consideration  is  necessary,  so  far  as  the  person 
who  guarantees  is  concerned,  if  it  is  a  benefit 
to  the  person  in  whose  favor  the  promise  is 
made.  This  statute  does  not  apply  in  cases 
where  an  original  promise  is  made  at  the  time 
the    debt    is    created.      The  statute    of    frauds 


"71 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


455 


also  provides  that  no  sale  shall  be  binding  un- 
less the  buyer  shall  first  accept  part  of  the 
goods  so  sold,  and  actuallj-  receive  them  ;  or, 
2d,  give  something  in  earnest,  to  bind  the  bar- 
gain, or  in  part  payment;  or,  3(1,  that  some 
note  or  memorandum,  in  writing,  of  the  said 
bargain  be  made  and  signed  by  the  parties 
or  their  agents.  The  writing  must  state  the 
promise,  and  also  the  consideratii)n.  Where 
goods  exist  in  the  condition  in  which  they  are 
to  be  delivered,  and  the  delivery  is  to  take 
place  in  the  future,  a  sale  of  such  goods  comes 
within  the  statute. 

CAUSES  WHICH  VITIATE  CONTRACTS. 

There  are  several  causes  which  void  con- 
tracts, first  among  which  is  fraud.  Fraud  is 
defined  to  be  "  every  kind  of  artifice  employed 
by  one  person  for  the  purpose  of  wilfully 
deceiving  another  to  his  injury."  No  fraudu- 
lent contract  will  stand  in  law  or  in  equity. 
The  party  upon  whom  the  fraud  has  been 
practiced  must  void  the  contract  as  soon  as  he 
discovers  the  fraud,  for  if  he  goes  on  after 
having  knowledge  of  the  fraud  he  cannot  after- 
wards avoid  it.  But  the  one  who  perpetrates 
the  fraud  cannot  plead  that  ground  for  voiding 
it.  Contracts  in  restraint  of  trade  are  void, 
as  also  are  contracts  in  opposition  to  public 
policy,  impeding  the  course  of  justice,  in 
restraint  of  marriage,  contrary  to  the  insolvent 
acts,  or  for  immoral  purposes.  Any  violation 
of  the  essential  requisites  of  a  contract,  or  the 
omission  of  an  essential  requisite^  will  void  it. 

THE  DEFENCES 

which  may  be  set  up  against  an  action  on  con- 
tract are  eleven  in  number,  and  may  be  sum- 
marized thus:  Performance,  Payment.  Re- 
ceipts, Accord  and  Satisfaction,  Arbitrament 
and  Award.  Pendency  of  Another  Action,  Re- 
lease, Tender,  Statute  of  Limitations.  Set-Off, 
Recoupment. 


A  Building  Contract. 

Memorandum  of  Ag^reem^nt,  iiia<ic  this  loth  day  of  May,  One  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  cighly-thrcc,  between  Henry  Davis,  of  Sl  Louis, 
of  ihc  first  part,  and  Joseph  Stephenson,  of  the  same  place,  builder,  of  the 
second  part.  The  said  party  of  the  second  part  covenants  and  agrees 
with  the  said  p.irty  of  the  fir>t  part  to  make,  erect,  build  and  finish  in 
good,  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner,  on  the  lot  belonging  to  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  and  known  as  Xo.  243  North  Nineteenth  street,  one 
brick  house,  agreeable  to  the  draft,  plan  and  explanation  hereto  annexed, 
of  good  and  substantial  materials  (or  of  such  materials  as  the  parly  of  the 
firsit  part  may  find  and  provide  therefor),  by  the  1st  day  of  September 
next.  And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  covenants  and  agrees  to  pay 
unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  for  the  same,  the  sum  of  one 
thousand  dollars  lawful  money  of  the  United  .States,  as  follows  :  the  sum 
of  $200  on  the  1st  of  June,  $200  on  the  ist  of  July,  ^00  on  the  ist  of 
August,  $400  on  the  completion  of  the  house. 

i If  the  otvHtr  is  to  furnisk  tiiateriais,  add:  and,  also,  that  he  will 
furnish  and  procure  the  necessary  materials  for  the  said  work,  in  such 
reasonable  quantities,  and  at  such  reasonable  time,  or  times,  as  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part  shall  or  may  require.) 

And  for  the  true  and  faithful  performance  of  all  and  every  of  the 
covenants  and  agreements  above  mentioned,  the  parties  to  these  presents 
bind  themselves,  each  unto  the  other,  in  the  penal  sum  of  $200,  as  liqui- 
dated damages  to  be  paid  by  the  failing  party. 

In  loitness  ivkero/^  The  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  set 
their  hands  {and  seals)  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Henry  Davis. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  presence  of    J    Joseph  Stephbnson. 
James  Wilson. 
H.  C.  BovD. 


Ill 


Contract  with  Employe. 

This  Agreetnent,  made  this  22d  day  of  December,  1883,  between  J. 
F.  Townley,  of  Chicago,  of  the  first  part,  and  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co.,  of 
St.  Louts,  Mo.,  of  the  second  part,  witnesscth :  That  the  said  J.  F. 
Townley  agrees  faithfully  and  diligently  to  serve  the  said  Campen,  Strauss 
&  Co.,  as  clerk,  in  the  store  of  said  Campen,  .Strauss  &  Co.  (or  other- 
■jvise),  at  Sl  Louis,  for  the  period  of  one  year,  from  and  after  the  ist  day 
of  January  next,  for  the  sum  of  $1,500  per  year.  In  consideration  of 
which  service,  so  to  be  performed,  the  said  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co. 
agree  to  pay  the  said  J.  F.  Townley  the  sum  of  $125  per  month,  payable 
on  the  first  day  of  each  month,  during  said  term. 

And  it  is  understood  and  agreed  that  the  death  of  either  of  them, 
occurring  prior  to  the  expiration  of  said  term  of  one  year,  shall  terminate 
this  agreement.  • 

Ik  7i'itness  ivhereof,  etc.  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co. 

J.  F.  Townley. 

Contract  for  the  Sale  of   Property. 

This  Agreement,  made  this  5th  day  of  March,  1883,  between  Alan 
McDowell,  of  St.  Louis,  and  C.  S.  Wheeler  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  wit- 
nesscth: That  the  said  Alan  McDowell  agrees  to  sell  and  deliver  to 
the  said  C.  S.  Wheeler  &  Co.,  at  their  store  in  New  York,  five  thousand 
bushels  of  potatoes  on  or  before  the  2d  day  of  May,  1S83,  and  the  said 
C  S.  Wheeler  &  Co.,  in  consideration  tlicreof,  agree  to  pay  to  the  said 
Alan  McDowell  fifty  cents  per  bushel  for  said  potatoes,  immediately  upon 
the  completion  of  the  delivery  thereof. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands,  this  sih  day  of 
March,  1883.  at  New  York  City.  C.  S.  Whrelek  &  Co. 

^LAN  McDowell. 

Short  Form  of  Contract. 
John  I).  Simons  kcreby  agrees  to  sell  one  thousand  bead  of  two-year- 
old  cattle,  to  be  delivered  in  Chicago  before  February  i,  1883,  to  Knox, 
Stout  &  Co.,  at  $20  a  head,  and  the  said  Knox,  Stout  &  Co.  agree  to  pay 
$20  per  head  for  all  two-year-old  cattle,  up  to  one  thousand  head,  deliv- 
ered by  said  John  1>.  Simons,  prior  to  February  i,  1883. 
Signed  at  Chicago,   III.,  this  20th  day  of  September,  1881. 

Knox,  Stout  &  Co. 
John  D.  Simons. 


Vl 


\ 


456 


AGENCY  AND  ATTORNEY. 


^ 


-7\ 


i«^#^®i»:^-#— #: 


enev  •>  Qnd  •:•  fithopnev.  ^^^^ 


•2^3^ 


my-^^rc^i 


^^^^^■■°<^-^ 


5-f^Ppf- 


HEN  one  person  is  authorized  to  act 
in  a  business  capacity  for  another, 
m  under  a  contract  either  express  or 
"^•^5^  implied,  he  becomes  the  agent  of 
the  latter,  and  the  act  of  the  agent,  when 
legally  authorized,  is  the  same  as  if  done 
by  the  principal.  For  ordinary  contracts 
constituting  an  agency,  a  written  or  verbal 
agreement  or  appointment  is  required,  but 
contracts  required  to  be  under  seal  can  onl)^ 
be  made  by  an  agent  whose  appointment  is 
established  by  a  sealed  instrument.  An  agent 
may  be  so  constituted  by  his  acts  without  a 
formal  appointment.      Where  a  principal  will- 


ingly and  knowingly  allows  a  person  to  do 
acts  in  his  name,  he  will  be  presumed  to  have 
given  him  authority.  Where  several  persons 
are  appointed  by  law  as  agents,  the  thing  to 
be  done  may  generally  be  executed  by  a 
majority  of  them. 

The  extent  to  which  the  agent's  authority 
binds  the  principal  is  to  be  gathered  from  the 
appointment,  and  depends  upon  the  power 
which  has  been  delegated  to  him  by  express 
or  implied  contract.  The  principal  is  not 
bound  if  the  agent  go  beyond  his  authority, 
unless,  with  knowledge  of  the  fact,  he  has 
taken  the  benefit  of  it. 


-«i^i^- 


~^. 


fe^-j* 


^T^^^ 


-*->^-«)) 


I  J)iFfepent-+gnd^-of-^^eney.  | 


r  p  y  H 1'^  various  kinds  of  agency  arc  called 
J  ^  special  and  general  ;  limited  and  un- 
■■''Jt/  limited  ;  factor  and  broker.  A  special 
^  agency  is  an  agency  to  do  a  single  act, 
and  every  person  doing  business  with  a  special 
agent  must  ascertain  what  the  extent  of  his 
authority  is,  and  at  his  own  risk.  A  general 
agency  consists  of  delegated  authority  to  do 


anything  about  a  particular  business,  the  prin- 
cipal being  bound  for  all  acts  of  the  agent  that 
come  within  the  scope  of  the  business.  Lim- 
ited agency  is  that  in  which  particular  instruc- 
tions restrict  and  limit  tlie  agent's  authority. 
Unlimited  agency  is  one  in  which  a  special 
agent  is  given  authority  to  use  any  means  he 
may  find  necessary  to  accomplish  the  desired 


^ 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  AGENCY. 


457 


end.  The  factor,  commonly  called  commis- 
sion merchant,  is  one  who  has  the  property  of 
his  principal  in  his  own  possession,  for  sale, 
such  property  being  called  a  consignment. 
Such  agent,  accompanying  a  cargo  on  a  voy- 
age, is  called  a  supercargo.  A  broker  is  one 
who  is  employed  to  negotiate  sales  between 
the  buyer  and  seller.  He  does  not  have 
possession  of  the  property  which  he  nego- 
tiates, nor  authority  to  sell  in  his  own  name. 

With  few  exceptions  to  the  rule,  an  agent  is 
not  obliged  to  account  for  the  price  of  goods 
he  has  sold  until  he  has  recovered  the  money 
from  the  purchaser. 

When  an  agent  makes  the  contract  in  the 
name  of  the  principal,  and  under  his  authority, 
he  generally  avoids  personal  liabilit}-. 

The  agent  is  given  the  right  of  lien  on  the 
property  in  his  possession,  and  also  the  right 
to  insure  it,  to  secure  the  payment  of  his  com- 
mission. He  is  also  entitled  to  reimbursement 
for  costs  and  damages  which,  through  no  fault 
of  his,  he  has  been  obliged  to  pay  in  relation 
to  the  agency. 

The  principal  has  reciprocal  rights  against 
third  persons,  corresponding  with  his  own  lia- 
bilities, and  may  sue  them,  when  they  are 
responsible,  or  their  contracts  made  with  the 
agency.  He  is  liable  to  third  persons  for  the 
negligence  or  unskilfulness  of  the  agent,  when 
he  is  acting  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  agenc)' 
business,  even  if  he  is  not  under  his  immedi- 
ate direction.  The  general  principle  is,  that  for 
all  torts,  frauds,  misfeasances  and  defaults  of 
the  agent,  done  in  the  regular  course  of  the 
ageijcy  business,  the  principal  is  liable,  whether 
he  participated  in  it  or  not,  provided  it  were 
not  the  agent's  wilful  act.  The  agent  is  liable 
equalh'  with  the  principal  for  all  wrongs  done 
by  him  under  order  of  his  jsrincipal. 

Unless  expressly  authorized,  the  agent  has 
no  right  to  delegate  his  own  powers  to  a  sub- 
aeent. 


A  notice  to  an  agent  is  generally  considered 
notice  to  the  principal. 

Money  paid  by  an  agent  can  be  recovered 
b)'  the  principal,  if  it  has  been  paid  by  .mis- 
take ;  if  the  consideration  has  failed  ;  if  the 
money  was  illegally  e.xtorted  from  him  as  agent; 
or  if  it  was  fraudulently  applied  to  some  illegal 
purpose  by  the  agent. 

An  agency  may  be  dissolved  :  by  a  revoca- 
tion by  the  principal  of  the  power  of  the  agent; 
by  operation  of  law. 

Power  of  Attorney — Short  and  Simple  Form. 
A'nojv  all  titt-n  by  tkest-  f<rt-st'fits  :     Th.it  I,  the  undersigned,  of  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.,  do  hereby  make,  constitute  and  appoint  R.  J.  Uclford,  of 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me,   and  in  my  name 

and  stead (here  insert  the  subject-matter  o/  the  jfoiver ) ;  to  do  apd 

perform  all  the  necessary  acts  in  the  execution  and  prosecution  of  the 
aforesaid  business,  and  in  as  full  and  ample  a  manner  as  1  might  do  if  I 
were  personally  present. 


Executed  in  presence  of 

Henrv  Lemson. 


Howard  Belden. 


Letter  of  Substitution. 

(  To  be  endorsed  on  the  po'.ver  of  attorney. ) 
I  hereby  appoint  Geo.  W.  Jones  as  my  substitute  and  in  my  stead  to 
do  and  perform  every  act  and  thing  which  I  might  or  could  do  by  virtue 
of  the  within  power  of  attorney.  ( Si^'ned I  R,  J.  Belfokd. 

Power  of  Attorney  to  Collect  Debts,   Rents,   Etc. 

Kno':v  all  men  by  these  presents :  That  I,  Samuel  Adams,  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  do  by  these  presents  make,  constitute  and  appoint  Chas.  E.  Foster 
my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me,  and  in  my  name,  place  and  stead, 
to  demand,  ask,  sue  for,  collect  and  receive  ail  sumi  of  money,  accounts, 
debts,  dues,  rents  and  demands  of  every  description,  kind  and  nature 
whatsoever,  which  arc  due,  owing  or  payable  from  any  person  or  persons 
whomsoever,  and  to  give  good  and  sufficient  receipts,  acquittances  and 
discharges  therefor:  giving  and  granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full 
authority  and  power  to  do  and  perform  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever 
necessary  and  requisite  to  be  done  in  the  premises,  as  I  might  or  could  do 
if  personally  present. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 

day  of. ,  i88 — .  Samuel  Adams,  [l.s.] 

signed  and  sealed 

m  presence  of 

JEKO.ME  BEASEV. 


J 


Letter  of  Revocation. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :     That  I,  R.  S.  Miller,  of  Covington, 

Tenn.,  in  and  by  my  letter  of  attorney,  bearing  date  the  day  of , 

did  make,  constitute  and  appoint  J.  H.  Pitt  my  attorney,  as  by  said 
letter  more  fully  appears. 

That  I,  the  s.-iid  K.  S.  Miller,  do  by  these  presents  annul,  countermand, 
revoke  and  make  vuid  said  letter  of  attorney  and  all  authority  and  power 
thereby  given  said  attorney,  J.  H.  Pitt. 

I H  witness,  flic.  K.  S.  Miller.  [l.s.] 

Power  of  Attorney  to  Sell  Stock. 

Know  all  men  hy  these  prest'Hts :  That  I,  J.  E.  Hartman,  of  Ccn- 
iralia,  III.,  do  by  these  presents  make,  constitute  and  appoint  J.  A.  L. 
Romig  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  fur  me  and  in  my  stead  to  sell  and 
transfer  unto  any  persons  whomsoever,  and  for  such  price  as  my  said 
attorney  shall  think  fit,  all  and  any  of  the  following  stocks  (describing 
them.} 


^ 


^ 


45  S 


AFFIDAVITS. 


And  also  for  me,  and  in  my  name,  to  make  and  pass  all  necessary  acts  of 
assignment,  and  to  give  and  receive  receipts  and  releases  for  the  consider- 
ation inoney  arising  from  the  sale  thereof. 

And  also  for  me,  and  in  my  name,  to  give  receipts  for  all  interest  and 
dividends  now  due  or  that  shall  hereafter  become  due  on  said  capital 
stock,  until  the  sale  and  transfer  thereof. 

/«  -juitMess.  etc. 

Power  to  Vote  as  Proxy  at  an  Election. 

Ktw7t>  ail  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Homer  Huston,  of  Paxton, 
111.,  do  hereby  appoint  T.  M.  Elliott  to  vote  as  my  proxy  at  any  election 
of  directors  or  other  officers  of  the  (name  tht'  company  or  corporation) 
according  to  the  number  of  votes  I  should  be  entitled  to  if  I  were  then 
personally  present. 

HoMEi;  Huston,  [l.s.] 


Power  to  Take  Charge  of  and  Carry  on  Business. 

Kho7u  ail  men  hy  these  presents  :  'I'hat  I,  Julius  .Schonfeld,  of  Jeffer- 
son, Texas,  do  by  these  presents  appoint,  constitute  and  make  R.  V. 
Jennings  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  place  and  stead, 
to  take  charge  of  my  business  of  general  merchandising,  at  Marshall, 
Texas;  to  purchase  and  sell,  for  cash  or  on  credit,  all  such  articles,  goods, 
merchandise  and  wares  as  he  shall  deem  proper,  necessary  and  useful  to 
said  business;  to  sign,  accept  and  endorse  all  notes,  drafts  and  bills;  to 
state  accounts;  to  sue  and  prosecute,  compromise,  collect  and  settle  all 
claims  or  demands  due  or  to  become  due,  now  existing  or  hereafter  to 
exist  in  my  favor;  to  adjust  and  pay  all  claims  or  demands  which  now 
exist  or  may  hereafter  arise  against  me,  either  connected  with  said  busi- 
ness or  otherwise. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day 

of ,  i8S — .  Julius  Schonfeld.  (.i-s.] 


^<**-^+|e^^=^H^< 


^FFid 


a\/' 


f:'3  ■• 


^N  affidavit  is  a  sworn  declaration,  taken 
before  a  competent  official,  which  dif- 
"IMyt  fcs  from  a  deposition  in  the  fact 
'^^^^^^^^  that  no  cross-examination  is  possible. 
When  an  affidavit  is  amended  by  order  of  court, 
it  must  be  re-sworn.  It  should  be  positive  in 
the  description  of  amounts,  places,  persons, 
etc. ;  even  if  an  amount  is  uncertain,  some  sum 
must  be  named.  It  must  also  specify  the  day 
and  place  whereon  it  was  sworn.  The  date  is 
given  in  what  is  called  \.\\&  jurat,  and  the  place 
in  the  venue  of  the  affidavit.  Where  a  person 
is  unable  to  read  or  write,  or  is  blind,  the  jurat 
must  show  that  the  affidavit  was  read  over  to 
the  affiant,  and  his  mark  or  sis^nature  must  be 
properly  witnessed,  and  thcy«;7r/  must  be  also 
signed  in  all  cases  by  the  officer  before  whom 
the  affidax'it  is  made.  The  J/trat  is  that  part 
of  an  affidavit  which  tells  how,  when,  by  whom 
and  before  whom  the  oath  was  taken.  The 
venue  simply  states  the  place  where,  thus  : 

State  of ,  I 

County  of ,  f     ' 

An  omission  of  the  venue  is  fatal,  as  it  is 
the  only  evidence  that  the  person  administer- 
ing the  oath  had  power  to  swear  witnesses. 


Where  an  affidavit  is  required  by  law,  the 
maker  of  a  false  one  can  be  punished  for  per- 
jury, although  in  courts  of  law  or  equity  affi- 
davits are  not  considered  as  testimony. 


General  Form  of  Affidavit. 

State  of  Missouri,  Franklin  County,  Town  of  Washington,  ss. 

Bernard  Mense,  being  duly  sworn,  deposes  and  says  (or  alleges  and 
says);  That — (Here  set  out  in  fuU  and  accurate  language  ike  mat- 
ters to  be  alleged.} 

[Seal.]  Bernard  Mense. 

Sworn  (or  affirmed)  before  me,  this  twenty-ninth  day  of  August, 
A.  D.  1883.  John  Wellenkami-, 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 

{If  the  affiant  is  unable  to  read,  the  subscription  should  be  as  follows :) 

Subscribed, and  sworn  to  before  me,  this  day  of  ,  A.D.  18 — , 

the  same  having  been  by  me  (o*"  in  my  presence)  read  to  this  affiant,  he 
being  illiterate  (or  blind),  and  understanding  the  same. 

(Officer's  signature  and  title.) 

Affidavit  to  Accounts. 

State  of  Illinois,  Pulaski  County,  ss. 

Hefore  me,  the  undersigned,  one  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  and  for 
said  county,  personally  came  Theodore  Wehrfritz,  of  Mound  City,  and, 
being  duly  sworn  according  to  law,  deposes  and  says  ;  That  the  above 
account,  as  stated,  is  just  and  true. 

That  the  above  sum  of  seventy-nine  dollars  is  now  justly  due  and 
owing  to  this  deponent  by  the  above  named  Robert  Robinson, 

That  he,  the  said  Theodore  Wehrfritz,  has  never  received   the  same  or 

any  part  thereof,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  nor  any  person   for  him,  by 

his  direction  or  order,  knowledge  or  consent. 

Theodore  Wehrfritz. 

Sworn  and  subscribed  before  me,  this  thirteenth  day  of  August.  A.D. 
^^^3-  William  Westermann, 

Justice  0/  the  Peace. 


y=. 


K 


"Tf 


APPRENTICES. 


459 


Affidavit  to   Petition. 

State  of  Illinois,  Clinton  CoL'ntv,  ss, 

Theodore  V'olmcr,  being  duly  sworn,  says  :  That  the  facts  set  forth 
in  the  foregoing  petition  arc  true  to  the  best  of  hi*  knowledge  and  belief. 

Theodore  Volmer. 

S7"t>r»,  etc.  fas  in  preceiiing forms f. 

Affidavit  to  Signature  of  Absent   or   Deceased   Witness. 
Statr  ok  Kansas,  Ckawi-oko  County,  ss. 

Be  it  reniemberfil,  That  on  the  f»jurth  day  of  September,  A.D.  1883, 
before  me,  the  undersigned,  James  Atkinson,  one  of  the  justices  of  the 
peace  in^said  county,  personally  appeared  William  Hawley,  who,  being 


duly  sworn,  deposes  and  says  ;  That  Alexander  Stuart,  one  of  the  sub- 
scribing witnesses  to  the  within  { will  or  deed )  \<,  ( dead  or  absmt  from 
the  State,  as  the  case  may  he f. 

That  he  has  frequently  seen  said  Alexander  Stuart  write,  and  that  he 
is  well  acquainted  with  the  handwriting  of  said  Alexander  Stuart. 

That  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief  (or  he  verily  believes) 
the  name  of  Alexander  Stuart,  signed  to  the  same  as  one  of  the  subscrib- 
ing witnesses,  is  the  proper  and  individual  handwriting  of  said  Alexander 
Stuart.  William  Hawlev. 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  me,  this  fourth  day  of  September, 
A.D.  1883.  Jamks  Atkinson, 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 


-¥M^l^- 


^pppentiee^. 


N  APPRENTICE  is  one  bound  out  to 
service  in  due  form  of  law,  to  learn  some 
^  art,  trade  or  business.  The  contract  con- 
■'^#^^  tinucs  for  no  longer  time  than  the  minor- 
ity of  the  apprentice,  and  the  instrument  should 
be  signed  by  the  apprentice  and  his  father,  or,  in 
case  of  death  or  incapacity  of  the  latter,  by  the 
mother  or  legally  constituted  guardian. 

The  master  stands  toward  the  apprentice  in 
the  relation  of  a  parent,  and  cannot  dismiss  the 
latter,  except  by  decree  of  the  proper  tribunal, 
assigned  by  the  laws  of  the  particular  State. 
An  apprentice,  on  his  part,  is  under  obligation 
to  obey  all  the  lawful  commands  of  the  master, 
to  advance,  as  far  as  he  may,  his  interests,  to  en- 
deavor to  learn  his  art,  trade  or  business,  and 
perform  all  the  covenants  entered  into. 

The  death  of  the  master  terminates  the  appren- 
ticeship, unless  the  indenture  run  to  the  execu- 
tors or  administrators.  An  apprentice  will  be 
discharged  by  the  proper  authority  for  acts  of  the 
master  injurious  to  his  mind  or  morals. 


Indenture  of  an  Apprentice. 

This  indenture  of  apprenticeship  between  John  Garrett,  father  of  Philip 
Garrett,  on  the  one  part,  and  William  Ne.id,  of  the  other  jiart,  witnesseth : 
That  the  said  Philip  Garrett,  aged  15  years  on  the  20th  day  of  August, 
A.D.   1882,    is  hereby  bound   as  an  apprentice  under  the  said  William 


Nead,  from  the  dale  hereof  until  the  20th  day  of  August,  1886,  to  k-arn 
the  trade  and  art  of  a  printer:  and  is  faithfully  to  serve  the  said  William 
Nead  and  correctly  to  conduct  himself  during  the  term  of  his  apprentice- 
ship. 

And  the  said  William  Nead  hereby  covenants  that  he  will  teach  the 
said  Philip  Garrett  the  said  trade  and  art,  and  will  furnish  him,  during 
said  apprenticeship,  with  board,  lodging,  washing,  cluthlng,  medicine, 
and  other  necessaries  suitable  for  an  apprentice  in  sickness  and  in  health; 
and  will  send  him  to  a  suitable  public  school  at  Iea.it  three  months  during 
each  of  the  first  two  years  of  the  said  term  ;  and  at  the  expiration  of  the 
said  apprenticeship  will  furnish  him  with  two  new  suits  of  common  wear- 
ing apparel  and  nnc  hundred  dollars  in  money. 

In  testimony  whereof,  the  parties  hereto  have  set  their  hands  and 
seals  this  twentieth  day  of  August,  A.D.  1882. 

Executed  in  presence  of  \ 

Peter  Day, 

Notary  Public.  \ 


John  Garrett.  [l.s.I 
William  Nead.    [l.s.] 


Consent  of  the   Minor. 

I   hereby  consent  to  the  foregoing  indenture,  and  agree  to  conform  to 
the  terms  thereof  in  all  things  on  my  part  tu  he  performed. 
Dated  the  20th  day  of  August,  in  the  year  1882. 

PiiiLir  Garrett. 


Release  of  an  Apprentice. 

Knoiv  alt  men  by  these  presents :     That  Philip  Garrett,  son  of  John 

Garrett,  did   by  his  agreement,  hearing  dale  the  day  uf ,  hind 

himself  as  an  apprentice  unto  William  Nc:id,  of ,  for  a    term   of  

from  the  date  thereof,  as  by  said  indenture  more  fully  appears. 

That,  complaint  having  been  made  to  the  undersigned  Justice  of  the 
Peace  upon  oath  of  Philip  Garrett,  apprentice  of  William  Nead,  to  whom 
said  Garrett  is  bound,  that  (here  state  the  cause  for  release).  That  by 
reason  thereof,  said  William  Nead  docs  hereby  release  and  forever  dis- 
charge said  Philip  Garrett  and  John  Garrett,  his  father,  of  and  from  said 
agreement  and  all  service  and  all  other  agreements,  covenants,  matters 
and  things  therein  contained,  on  their  or  either  of  their  parts  to  be 
obser\'ed  and  performed,  whatsoever,  from  the  beginning  of  the  world 
unto  the  date  licreof. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand,  this day  of , 


A.D. 


William  Nead. 


\. 


~A 


460 


ARBITRATION. 


^, 


«^ 


(g^f^j?#»^|^#»|^-#^-|     ^-j^#^-^     |-S^#^|»^»|^»^jti^ 


7i\ 


f^Lihpation.   •)[(• 


C^i^^*^-*^ 


iS-^*  ***^**-*^ 


^' 


^eu 


f^HEN  it  becomes  necessary  or  expe- 
dient in  matters  of  dispute  to  have 
WM^^\  an  equitable  settlement  without  the 
(.  c;/i>^  interposition  of  the  courts,  what  are 
termed  arbitrators  are  selected  by  the  parties 
in  interest.  In  ordinary  cases  the  question  is 
usually  referred  to  a  single  person  who  has  the 
confidence  of  both  parties,  and  is  conversant 
with  the  law  and  the  rules  of  evidence.  Ar- 
bitrators are  not  bound  by  legal  rules  in  the 
admission  or  exclusion  of  evidence,  unless  it 
is  so  stipulated  in  the  agreement.  An  award 
must  be  conformable  to  the  terms  of  the 
submission,  and  only  the  precise  questions 
submitted  to  them  should  be  answered.  A  sub- 
mission to  arbitration,  voluntarily  entered  into 
by  the  parties,  without  the  aid  of  the  statutes 
or  rules  of  court,  may  be  revoked  by  either  of 
the  parties  at  any  time  before  the  publication 
of  the  award,  though  this  would  render  the 
revoking  parties  liable  in  damages,  which  would 
include  all  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  other 
party  and  all  he  could  prove  he  had  lost  in  any 
wa)'  by  the  revocation. 

Form  of  Submission  to  Arbitration. 

Kho'a'  all  men.  Thai  a  controversy  exists  between  the  undersigned, 
Lewis  Anderson  and  James  Ray,  concerning  the  boundary  and  division 
lines  of  the  following  tract  of  land,  situated  in  i here  describe  the  land, 
and  state  the  portion  in  controversy). 

That  said  Lewis  Anderson  and  James  Ray  do  hereby  submit  said  con- 
troversy to  the  abitrament  of  Nelson  West  aii<l  John  Farnswnrih. 


That  said  award  shall  be  made  in  writing  under  the  hands  of  said  arbi- 
trators, ready  to  be  delivered  tn  said  parties,  or  such  of  them  as  may  de- 
sire the  same,  on  or  before  the  second  day  of  February  next. 

That  said  award  shall  in  all  things  by  us  and  each  of  us  be  well  and 
faithfully  kept,  observed  and  performed. 

Witness  our  hands,  etc. 
In  presence  of  |  Lewis  Anderson. 

Walter  Rex.  >  James  Ray. 

Notary  Public.  \ 


Form  of  Arbitration  Bond, 

Knotv  all  inen  by  these  presents  :      That  Lewis  Anderson  and  James 

Ray  have,  this day  of ,  A.  D. ,  submitted  their  matters  in 

controversy,  concerning  the  boundary  and  division  lines  of  a  certain  tract 
of  land  (describe  it),  to  Nelson  West  and  John  Karnsworth,  to  arbitrate, 
award,  order,  judge  and  determine  of  and  concerning  the  same. 

That  we,  the  undersigned,  bind  ourselves,  in  the  sum  of  dollars, 

that  said  Lewis  Anderson  and  James  Ray  shall  submit  to  the  decision  and 
award  of  said  arbitrators,  provided  said  award  be  made  in  writing  on  or 

before  the  second  day  of  February,  A.D. . 

(Signed)  Eltgene  Small. 

Jl'dson  Willis. 

Form  of  Notice  to  Arbitrators. 

Gentlemen — You  have  been  chosen  arbitrators  on  behalf  of  the  under- 
signed, to  arbitrate  and  award  between  them,  in  divers  matters  and  things, 
set  forth  in  their  submission,  which  will  be  produced  for  your  inspection 

when  you  meet  at ,  in ,  on  the day  of ,  at  —  o'clock 

—  M.,  to  hear  the  allegations  ?tnd  proofs. 

Dated,  etc.  Lewis  Anderson. 

James  R«v. 

General  Form  of  Arbitrators'  Award. 

To  all  to  ivhont  these  presents  shall  come,  or  ?nay  concern,  knoiv ye  .* 

That  the  matter  in  controversy  existing  between  Lewis  Anderson,  of , 

and  James  Ray,  of ,  as  by  their  submission  in  writing,  bearing  date 

the day  of ,  more  fully  appears,  was  submitted  to  Nelson  West 

and  John  F'arnsworth,  as  arbitrators. 

That  said  arbitrators,  being  sworn  according  to  law,  and  having  heard 
the  proofs  and  allegations  of  the  parties,  and  examined  the  matter  in  con- 
troversy by  them  submitted,  do  make  this,  their  award,  in  writing: 
(  Write  out  in  full  the  award.) 

In  ivitness  ivhereo/,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names,  this 

day  of ,  A.D. . 

Nelson  West, 
John  Farnsworth, 

Arbitrators. 


V 


ASSIGNMENTS. 


461 


/ 


iwii:^  V    ^^^i^nment^.  •:• 


-1*^^ 


/jj^jB^NY  transfer  of  property  made  in  writing 
vriiTU  '^  properly  called  an  assignment,  thus 
^It-AV  distinguishing  the  act  from  a  transfer 
'^^^^^  made  by  deliver}-.  In  effect,  it  is  pass- 
ing to  another  person  all  of  one's  title  or  inter- 
est in  any  sort  of  real  or  personal  property, 
rights,  actions  or  estates.  However,  some 
things  are  not  assignable  ;  an  officer's  pa\'  or 
commission,  a  judge's  salary,  fishing  claims, 
Government  bounties,  or  claims  arising  out  of 
frauds  or  torts.  Personal  trusts  cannot  be 
assigned,  as  a  guardianship  or  the  right  of  a 
master  in  his  apprentice. 

Unlike  many  other  legal  devices,  the  holder 
of  an  assignment  is  not  bound  to  show  that  a 
valuable  consideration  was  given.  The  owner 
of  a  cause  of  action  may  give  it  away  if  he 
pleases,  and  in  the  absence  of  positive  evi- 
dence to  the  contrary  the  court  will  presume 
that  the  assignment  was  for  a  sufficient  con- 
sideration. Proof  will  only  be  called  for  when 
it  appears  that  the  assignment  was  a  mere 
sham  or  fraudulent.  No  formality  is  required 
by  law  in  an  assignment.  Any  instrument 
between  the  contracting  parties  which  goes  to 
show  their  intention  to  pass  the  property  from 
one  to  another  will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be 
proved,  for  instance,  by  the  payee  of  a  note, 
that  he  endorsed  (or  delivered  without  endorse- 
ment) the  note  to  the  assignee,  and  this  is 
sufficient  evidence  of  assignment 


In  every  assignment  of  an  instrument,  even 
not  negotiable,  the  assignee  impliedly  war- 
rants the  validity  of  the  instrument  and  the 
obligation  of  the  third  party  to  pay  it.  He  war- 
rants that  there  is  no  legal  defence  against  its 
collection  arising  out  of  his  connection  with  the 
parties  ;  that  all  parties  were  legally  able  to  con- 
tract, and  that  the  amount  is  unpaid. 

An  assignment  carries  with  it  all  the  collat- 
eral securities  and  guaranties  of  the  original 
debt,  even  though  they  are  not  mentioned  in 
the  instrument. 

It  is  usual  to  use  as  operative  words  in  an 
assignment  the  phrase,  "  assign,  transfer  and 
set  over;"  but  "  give,  grant,  bargain  and  seli," 
or  any  other  words  indicating  an  intention  on 
the  part  of  the  parties  to  transfer  the  property, 
are  sufficient  in  law. 

Where  property  is  assigned  for  the  benefit 
of  creditors,  its  actual  transfer  to  the  assignee 
must  be  made  immediately.  When  an  assign- 
ment is  made  under  the  common  law,  the  as- 
signor may  prefer  certain  creditors;  but  in  a 
State  where  this  sort  of  an  assignment  is  gov- 
erned by  statute,  no  preference  can  be  shown. 
An  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  cov- 
ers all  of  the  assignor's  property,  wherever  or 
whatever  it  may  be,  that  is  not  exempt  from 
execution. 

When  insured  property  is  sold,  the  insurance 
policy  should  be  assigned.      This  can  only  be 


^P 


\ 


done  with  the  consent  of  the  insurer,  and  that 
consent  must  be  at  once  obtained. 

Correct  schedules  of  the  property  assigned 
should  accompany  and  be  attached  to  every  as- 
sis^nment. 

Assignment  of  a  Note. 

I  hereby,  for  value  received,  assign  and  transfer  the  within  written 
(or  above  written),  together  with  all  my  rights  under  the  same,  to  John 
Dobson.  William  Atwood. 

Assignment  with  Power  of   Attorney. 

In  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  (the  receipt  of 
which  is  hereby  acknowledged),  I  do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over 
to  John  G.  Stewart  {of  St.  Louis,  Mo.),  all  my  right,  title  and  interest  in 
and  to  (here  describe  ivhat ). 

(And  I  do  hereby  constitute  said  John  G.  Stewart  my  attorney,  in  my 
name  or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own  costs  and  charges,  to  take  all  legal 
measures  which  may  be  proper  or  necessary  for  the  complete  recovery  and 
enjoyment  of  the  premises.) 

Witness  my  hand  (and  seal)  this  28th  day  of  August,  1883. 

( Witnesses.)  William  Snvder.     [l.s.] 

Assignment  with  Guaranty  of  Assignor. 

For  value  received,  1  do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to  John 
G.  Stewart  the  within  obligation,  and  all  moneys  due  and  to  become  due 
thereon. 

In  case  the  same  cannot  be  recovered  of  the  within  named  Edwin 
Byron,  I  agree  and  promise  to  pay  to  said  John  G.  Stewart  the  amount 
thereof,  together  with  all  necessary'  and  reasonable  charges  thereupon 
accruing. 

Witness  tny  hand,  etc.  William  Snvder, 

(Witnesses,) 


Shorter  Form. 

For  value  received,  I  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to  John  G. 
Stewart  the  within  obligation,  hereby  guaranteeing  payment  thereof. 
(Witnesses.)  William   Snyder. 

Assignment   Without    Recourse. 

For  value  received,  I  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to  John  G. 
Stewart  the  within  obligation,  and  all  moneys  due  (and  to  become  due) 
thereon.  All  failure  of  recovery,  liabilities,  losses,  wholly  at  the  risk  of 
said  John  G.  Stewart,  without  recourse  in  any  event  upon  me. 

(Witnesses.)  William  Snyder. 

Assignment   of  Wages. 

Kno7v  all  men  by  these  presents:  That  I,  William  Snyder  fof  St. 
Joseph,  Mo.),  in  consideration  of  one  hundred  dollars,  the  receipt  of 
which  I  hereby  acknowledge,  do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to 
John  G.  Stewart  (of  St,  Louis,  Mo.)  all  claims  and  demands  which  I  now 
have,  and  all  which,  at  any  time  between  the  date  hereof  and  the  30th  day 
of  December  next,  I  may  or  shall  have,  against  Edwin  Byron,  for  all  sums 
of  money  due  or  to  become  due  to  me  for  services  as . 

That  I  do  hereby  appoint  and  constitute  said  John  G.  Stewart  and 
his  assigns  my  attorney,  irrevocable,  to  do  and  perform  all  acts,  matters 
and  things  in  the  premises,  in  like  manner  and  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses as  I  could  if  personally  present. 

In  ivitness  ivhereo/^  etc. 

Assignment  of   Money  Due  on  Account. 

Kno'jv  till  tnen  by  these  presents :  That  William  Snyder,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars  to  him  in  hand  paid,  does 
hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  all  his  title  and  interest  in  and  rights 
under  an  account  for  (state  ivkat)  in  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars,  hereunto  annexed,  and  all  other  sum  and  sums  of  money  remain- 
ing due  and  payable  upon  said  account,  unto  John  G.  Stewart,  with  full 
power  to  ask,  demand  and  receive  the  same  (at  his  own  costs  and  ex- 
pensesj  to  his  own  use,  and  to  give  discharges  and  receipts  for  the  same, 
or  any  part  thereof. 

That  there  is  due  said  William  Snyder,  on  said  account,  at  the  date  of 
these  presents,  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  that  he  has 
not  received  or  discharged  the  same. 

In  ^fitness,  etc 


:•  ^ill^voFv^ale. 


BILL  OF  SALE  is  a  formal  written  con- 
II'  veyance  of  personal  property.  If  the 
^llli'A%  property  is  delivered  when  sold,  or  if 
part  of  the  purchase-money  is  paid,  a 
written  instrument  is  nut  necessary  to  make 
the  conveyance,  but  it  is  convenient  evidence 
of  the  transfer  of  title.  But,  to  protect  the 
interests  of  the  purchaser  against  the  creditors 


of  the  seller,  the  bill  is  not  sufficient  of  itself; 
there  should  also  be  a  delivery  of  the  prop- 
erty. If  an  actual  and  continued  change  of 
possession  does  not  accompany  the  sale,  it  is 
void  as  against  the  creditors  of  the  seller  and 
subsequent  purchasers  and  mortgagees  in  good 
faith,  unless  the  buyer  can  show  that  his  pur- 
chase was  made  in   sjood   faith,  without  intent 


i^ 


^^pv 


V 


BONDS. 


46j 


to  defraud,  and  that  there  was  some  good  rea- 
son for  leaving  the  property  in  the  hands  of 
the  seller. 

Short  Form  of  Bill  of  Sale. 

I,  Henry  Anderson,  of  Chester,  Pa.,  in  consideration  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars,  paid  by  A.  D.  Crisle,  of  Munsier,  Pa.,  hereby  sell  and 
convey  to  said  A.  D.  Criste  one  bay  horse  (give  sex^  size,  color,  age,  etc.^, 
warranted  against  adverse  claims. 

Witness  my  hand,  this  4th  day  of  Sept.,  A.D.  1883. 

(Witness.)  (Signed)     Henry  Andrkson.  [l.s.] 

Cpmmon  Form — \A^ith  Warranty, 

A'wcTf  aii  men  by  these  presents :  That  tn  consideration  of  one  thou- 
sand dollars,  the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  I  do  hereby 
grant,  sell,  transfer  and  deliver  unto  A.  A.  McHatton,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  the  following  goods  and  chattels,  viz. ; 
(here  describe  the  property). 


To  have  and  to  hold  all  and  singular  the  said  goods  and  chattels  for- 
ever.  And  the  said  grantor  hereby  covenants  with  said  grantee  that  he  is 
the  lawful  owner  of  said  goods  and  chattels;  that  they  are  free  from  all 
encumbrances:  that  he  has  good  right  to  sell  the  same,  as  aforesaid;  and 
that  he  will  warrant  and  defend  the  same  against  the  lawful  claims  and 
demands  of  al!  persons  whomsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  grantor  has  hereunto  set  his  hand,  this 
12th  day  of  December,  A.D.  1883. 

(Witness.)  N.   R.  Jennek. 

Sale  of  Personal  Property. 

Kno7o  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Peter  Dolan,  of  the  city  of 
Cleveland,  county  of  Cuyahoga,  Slate  of  Ohio,  farmer,  in  consideration  of 
four  hundred  dollars,  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  Conrad  Ullner,  the  receipt 
whereof  I  hereby  acknowledge,  have  bargained,  suld,  granted  and  con- 
veyed unto  the  said  Conrad  Ullner  the  following  property,  to-wii:  two 
horses;  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same;  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns  forever. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  20th 
day  of  March,  1883.  Pe^er  Dolan. 


-kim^^ 


3— SI. 


-<^- 


^ 


s— er 


)r^   goHGl^. 


/l\ 


J^— 3 


=^ 


Tie— 2 


-o- 


WRITTEN  instrument,  admitting  an 
Mf/l  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  maker 
ltt/'\%  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  to 
?K^^^  another  specified  person  at  a  fixed 
time,  for  a  vakiablc  consideration,  is  called 
a  bond.  The  obligor  is  the  one  giving  the 
bond;  the  beneficiary  is  called  the  obligee. 
This  definition  applies  to  all  bonds,  but  gen- 
erally these  instruments  are  given  to  guarantee 
the  performance  or  non-performance  of  cer- 
tain acts  by  the  obligor,  which  being  done, 
or  left  undone,  as  the  case  ma\'  be,  the  bond 
becomes  void,  but  if  the  conditions  are  broken, 
it  remains  in  full  force.  As  a  rule,  the  bond 
is  made  out  for  a  sum  twice  the  amount  of  any 
debt  which  is  apt  to  be  incurred  by  the  obligor 
under  its  conditions,  the  statement  being  set 
forth  that  the  sum  named  is  the  penalty,  as 
liquidated  or  settled  damages,  in  the  event  of 
the  failure  of  the  obligor  to  carry  out  the  con- 
ditions. 


An  act  of  Providence,  wherebv  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  bond  is  rendered  impossible, 
relieves  the  obligor  of  all  liabilit)-. 

A  bond  may  be  sued  upon  twenty  years 
after  right  of  action  begins. 

A  bond  simply  for  the  payment  of  money 
only  differs  from  a  promissory  note  in  having 
a  seal. 

Short  Form  of  Bond. 

Knoitf  alt  men  by  these  presents  :  That  we,  John  Smith,  as  princip.ll, 
and  William  Meescr  and  A.  J.  Driscoll,  as  sureties,  all  of  litadcnsburg, 
in  the  county  of  Prince  George,  State  of  Mar>-land,  are  holden  and 
stiind  firmly  bound  unto  Davi^l  Wright,  of  said  county,  in  the  sum  of  nine 
hundred  dollars  to  be  paid  to  the  said  David  Wright,  to  the  payment 
whereof  we  jointly  and  severally  bind  ourselves  and  our  respective  heirs 
firmly  by  the*ie  presents.     Sealed  with  our  seals. 

Dated  al  Bladensburg,  this  tenth  day  of  June,  l88z. 

(The  condition  attached  is  the  same  as  in  the  succeeding  forms.) 

John  Smith.  [l.s." 

Wii.r.iAM  Mef.ser.     L.S. 
.\.  J.  Dkiscoll.        [l.s. 


Executed  and  delivered  J 
in  presence  of 

Waltkk  Wkkn.  \ 


Bond  Secured  by  Mortgage. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Arthur  Dean,  of  Towanda, 
in  Bradford  county,  and  .State  of  Pennsylvania,  am  held  and  firmly  bound 
unto  Samuel  Crafts,  of  Wyoming,  in  the  same  county  and  .State,  in  the 
sum  of  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  the  said  -Samuel  Crafts,  his 


k- 


rv 


464 


y\ 


heirs,  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  and  to  this  payment  I  hereby 
bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  lirmly  by  these  pres- 
ents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal,  this  12th  day  of  November,  A.D.  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is; 

That  if  I,  the  said  Arthur  Dean,  or  my  heirs,  executors  or  adminis- 
trators,  shall   pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  said  Samuel  Crafts  the 

sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  on  the  — ^  day  of ,  with  interest  at  the 

rate  of per  cent  per  annum,  payable  six  months  from  the  date  hereof, 

and  every months  afterwards,  until  the  said  sum  is  paid,  then  the 

above  obligation  shall  be  void  and  of  no  effect;  and  otherwise  it  shall 
remain  in  full  force. 

And  I  further  agree  and  covenant,  that  if  any  payment  of  interest  be 

(ivithheld  or  delayed  for days  after  such  payment  shall  fall  due,  the 

said   principal   sum   and   all  arrearage  of  interest  thereon    shall  be   and 

become  due  immediately  on  the  expiration  of days,  at  the  option  of 

said  Samuel  Crafts,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns. 

Executed  and  delivered  J 

in  presence  of  > 

John  Si.m.mons.  j 


Arthur  Dean.  [l.s.I 


General  Form  of  Bond. 

Knoiv  all  tnen  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  John  Grubb,  of  the  town 
of  Mound  City,  in  the  county  of  Pulaski,  and  State  of  Illinois,  am  held 
and  firmly  bound  unto  J.  A.  Williams,  of  Cairo,  in  the  sum  of  one  thousand 
dollars,  to  be  paid  to  the  said  J.  A.  Williams,  his  executors  or  assigns;  for 
which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors and  administrators,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.     Dated  the  28th  day  of  July,  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  Is  such : 

That  if  the  above-bounden  John  Grubb,  his  heirs,  executors  or  admin- 
istrators, shall  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  imto  the  above- 
named  J.  A.  Williams,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  the  just 
and  full  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  in  five  equal  annual  payments,  from 
the  date  hereof,  with  annual  interest,  then  the  above  obligation  to  be  void; 
otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force  and  virtue. 


Sealed  and  delivered  in 
presence  of 
Jno.  G.  Stewart, 
W.  F.  George. 


John  Grubb.  [l.; 


A  Bond  to  Execute  a  Deed. 

Knoiv  all  men  by  these  presents:  That  I,  John  T.  Nixon,  of  the 
city  of  St.  Louis,  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto 
George  Kline,  of  the  same  place,  in  the  sum  of  nine  hundred  dollars, 
to  be  paid  to  the  said  George  Kline,  his  executors,  administrators  or 
assigns;  for  which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my 
heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.     Dated  the  30th  day  of  July,  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such: 

That  if  the  above-bounden  John  T.  Nixon  shall  well  and  truly  make, 
execute  and  deliver  to  the  said  George  Kline  a  deed  of  release  and 
quit-claim  of  said  John  T.  Nixon's  interest  in  ( designating  the  property } 
and  shall  suffer  and  permit  the  said  George  Kline,  his  heirs  and  as- 
signs, to  peaceably  occupy  and  possess  said  interest,  then  this  obligation 
is  to  be  void;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

Scaled    and    delivered      i  John   T.  Nixon,   [l.s.] 

in  presence  of  > 

Jos.  Peterson.  ) 


A  Bond    to  Execute  an  Assignment. 

Knoiu  all  men  by  these  presents :  That  I,  Chas.  Curtman,  of  the 
town  of  Washington,  in  the  county  of  Franklin,  State  of  Missouri,  am 
held  and  firmly  bound  unto  William  T.  Smith,  of  the  town  of  Pacific, 
in  the  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  the  said  William  T. 
Smith,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns;  for  which  payment,  well 
and  truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administra- 
tors, firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.     Dated  the  14th  day  of  August,  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such  ; 

That  if  the  above-bounden  Chas.  Curtman,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators or  assigns,  on  or  before  the day  of next,  shall,  upon  the 

reasonable  request,  and  at  the  proper  cost  and  charges  of  the  said  Will- 
iam T.  Smith,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  make,  execute  and  deliver,  or  cause  so  to 
be,  to  the  said  William  T.  Smith,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  or  to  such  person  or 
persons  as  he  or  they  shall  nominate  and  appoint,  and  to  such  uses  as  he  or 
they  shall  direct,  a  good  and  sufficient  assignment  of  all  such  estate  and 
interest  as  he,  the  said  Chas.  Curtman,  now  has  in  the  lands  and  tene- 
ments of  John  Thompson  at  Washington,  Mo.,  then  this  obligation  to  be 
void;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

Sealed  and  delivered    1  Chas.  Curtman.     [l.s.] 

in  presence  of  > 

Sol.  Winston.  \ 


:C^ 


V_ 


\ 


V 


K" 


CORPORATIONS. 


465 


/ 


-1^ 


^^--^  •••  Cor^popation^.  •> 


|V^=" 


^-^^^ 


^f^i^i-i^- 


EVERAL  persons  joining  together  for 
the  accomplishment  of  any  business 
or  social  purpose  can,  if  they  wish, 
't^.'-  legally  organize  themselves  into  a  cor- 
poration, a  form  of  partnership  which  C(mi- 
bincs  the  resources  of  all,  and  yet  gives  a 
limited  pecuniary  liability,  amounting  only  to 
the  amount  of  stock  owned  by  each  stock- 
holder. In  the  States,  the  legislature  of  each 
Commonwealth  enjoys  the  power  of  regulating 
the  corporations,  and  in  the  Territories  this 
power  is,  of  course,  vested  in  the  General 
Government.  The  actual  cost  of  organization 
amounts  to  something  less  than  $10,  most  of 
which  is  in  fees  to  the  Secretary  of  State. 
When  the  stock  has  been  subscribed  a  meeting 
is  called,  where  each  shareholder  casts  a  vote 
for  every  share  which  he  owns  or  holds  a 
pro.xy  for,  for  each  person  who  is  to  be  elected 
director,  or  he  may  give  one  director  as  many 
votes  as  the  number  of  shares  he  is  voting, 
multiplied  b)"  the  number  of  directors  to  be 
elected,  amounts  to,  or  distribute  his  votes  as 
he  chooses.  Thus,  if  he  owns  ten  shares  of 
stock  and  there  are  si.x  directors  to  be  elected, 
he  has  sixty  votes,  which  he  can  give,  either 
ten  for  each  director,  or  twenty  for  each  of 
three,  or  si.xty  for  one,  or  in  any  other  way 
that  he  sees  fit,  so  that  his  whole  vote  will  not 
be  more  than  sixty  votes.  These  directors 
meet  as  soon  after  the  election  as  possible  and 
choose   a    president,  vice-president,   secretary 


and   treasurer,   whereupon   the    corporation  is 
ready  for  business. 

FORMS  FOR  INCORPORATING. 

The  law  in  all  the  States  on  the  subject  of 
incorporating  companies  is  very  similar,  and 
the  following  forms  of  the  Milwaukee  Water 
Gas  Company  will  furnish  a  good  example  of 
how  this  important  public  act  is  accomplished: 

STATE  OF  WISCONSIN,  I 
City  of  Milwaukee.        f 

7*0 ,  Secretary  0/ State  : 

Wc,  the   undersigned,  John  Smith,  John  Jones,  Charles  Ford,  James 
Bell,  John  O'Neil,  propose  to  form  a  corporation  under  an  act  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  State  ol  Wisconsin,  entitled  "  An  act  concerning  cor- 
porations," approved  May  24th,  1880,  and  all  acts  amendatory  thereof,  and 
that,  for  the  purpose  of  such  organization,  wc  hereby  state  as  follows,  tn- 
wit: 
The  name  of  such  corporation  is  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company. 
The  object  for  which  it  is  formed  is  to  carry  on  the  business  of  manu- 
facturing water  gas,  or  hydrogen,  and  to  sell  the  product  so  manufactured. 
The   capital   stock    shall   be  five  hundred   thousand   {.'F50o,ooo)  dollars, 
divided  into  five  thousand  shares  of  one  hundred  dollars  each. 

John  S.mith. 
JoH.N  Jones. 
Charles  Ford. 
James  Hell. 
John  O'Nhil. 

{Endorsed  0H  the  hack  by  the  notary.) 

STATE  OF  WISCO.NSIN,  ». 
City  OK  MiLWAUKKK.        f 

I,  a  notary  public,  in  and  for  the  said  city  of  Milwaukee,  and  State 
aforesaid,  do  hereby  certify  that  on  this  30th  of  November,  A.D.  1880, 
personally  appeared  before  me  John  Smith,  John  Jones,  Charles  Ford, 
James  licll,  John  O'Ncil,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  same  persons 
who  executed  the  foregoing  statement,  and  severally  .acknowledged  that 
they  executed  the  same  for  the  purposes  therein  set  forth. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  the  day  and 

year  above  written.  , 

Notary  Public, 

Also,  there  must  be  a  further  endorsement  describing  the  nature  of 
the  corporation  thus;  Statement  of  incorporation  of  the  Milwaukee  Water 
Gas  Co.  Location,  City  of  Milwaukee,  State  of  Wisconsin.  Capital 
stock,  $500,000.     Object,  manufacture  of  water  gas. 


At 


K 


466 


'7\ 


CORPORATIONS. 


State  License  for  Incorporating. 

STATE  OF  WISCONSIX,  I       „        ,  r  ^,   . 

Department  or  State.      f     Secretayy  0/ State. 

To  all  to  Tvkom  these  presents  shall  cotne — Greeting  : 

Whereas,  It  being  proposed  by  the  persons  hereinafter  named  to 
form  a  corporation  under  an  act  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of 
Wisconsin,  entitled  "An  act  concerning  corporations,"  approved  May 
24th,  18S0,  the  object  and  purposes  of  which  corporation  are  set  forth  in  a 
statement  duly  signed  and  acknowledged  according  to  law,  and  filed  this 
day  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State, 

Now,  therefore,  I, ,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin, 

by  virtue  of  the  powers  and  duties  vested  in  me  by  law,  do  hereby  author- 
ize, empower  and  license  John  Smith,  John  Jones,  Charles  Ford,  James 
Kelt  and  John  O'Neil,  the  persons  whose  names  are  signed  to  the 
before  mentioned  statement,  as  commissioners  to  open  books  for  subscrip- 
tion to  the  capital  stock  of  the  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Co.,  such  being  the 
name  of  the  proposed  corporation  as  contained  in  the  said  statement,  at 
such  times  and  places  as  the  said  commissioners  may  determine. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  hereto  set  my  hand  and 
cause  to  be  affixed  the  great  seal  of  State. 
(  '-—'—->  J  Done  at  the  city  of  Madison,  this  6th   day 

J  GREAT  (  of  December,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord   one 

j  SEAL,   t"  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-one,  and 

'  —-^r^  of  the   Independence   of  the  United   States 

the  one  hundred  and  sixth. 

Secretary  of  State. 

To , 

Secretary  of  State: 
The  commissioners  duly  authorized  to  open  books  of  subscription  to 
the  capital  stock  of  the  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company,  pursuant  to 
license  heretofore  issued,  bearing  date  of  the  sixth  day  of  December,  A. 
D.  1881,  do  hereby  report  that  they  opened  books  of  subscription  to  the 
capital  stock  of  the  said  company,  and  that  the  said  stock  was  fully  sub- 
scribed :  that  the  following  is  a  true  copy  of  such  subscription,  viz. ;  We, 
the  undersigned,  hereby  severally  subscribe  for  the  number  of  shares 
set  opposite  our  respective  names  to  the  capital  stock  of  the  Milwaukee 
Water  Gas  Company,  and  we  severally  agree  to  pay  the  said  company  on 
each  share  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars, 

SHAKES  AMOUNT, 

John  Smith 1,000  $100,000 

John  Jones — 1,000  100,000 

Chas.  Ford 1,000  joo.oco 

James  Bell 1,000  100,000 

John   O'Neill 1,000  100,000 

5,000  $500,000 


That  said  subscribers  met  at  the  time  and  place  specified  and  pro- 
ceeded to  elect  directors,  and  that  the  following  persons  were  duly  elected 
for  the  term  of  one  year  :  John  Smith,  John  Jones,  Chas.  Ford,  James 
Bell,  John  O'Neil. 

(Signed)  John  Smith. 

John  Jones. 
Chas.  Ford, 
James  Bell. 
John  O'Neil. 

When  this  document,  properly  endorsed,  is  sent  to  the  Secretary  of 
State,  he  at  once  issues  a  charter  to  the  corporation,  which  reads  as 
follows: 


J-     Secretary  0/  State. 


STATE  OF  WISCONSIN, 
Deft,  of  State. 

To  all  to  lohont  these  Jtresents  shall  come — Greeting: 

Whereas,  A  statement  duly  signed  and  acknowledged  has  been  filed 
in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  on  the  30th  day  of  November,  1881, 
for  the  organization  of  the  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company,  under  and 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  "An  act  concerning  corporations," 
approved  May  24,  1880,  and  in  force  July  i,  1880,  and  all  acts  amenda- 
tory thereof,  a  copy  of  which  statement  is  hereto  attached  ;  and 

Whereas,  A  license  having  been  issued  to  John  Smith,  John  Jones, 
Charles  Ford,  James  Bell,  John  O'Neil,  as  commissioners,  to  open  books 
for  subscription  to  the  capital  stock  of  said  company  ;  and 

Whereas,  The  said  commissioners  having,  on  the  20th  day  of  Decem- 
ber, A.D.  1881,  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  a  report  of 
their  proceedings  under  the  said  license,  a  copy  of  which  report  is  hereto 
attached  : 

Now,  therefore,  I,  .  Secretary  of  State  of  the  State  of  Wiscon- 
sin, by  virtue  of  the  powers  and  duties  vested  in  me  by  law,  do  hereby 
certify  that  the  said  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company  is  a  legally  organ- 
ized corporation  under  the  laws  of  this  Stale. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  hereby  set  my  hand  and  cause 
to  be  affixed  the  great  seal  of  State,  Done  at  the 
city  of  Madison  this  10th  day  of  January-,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty- 
two,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States 
the  one  hundred  and  seventh. 


Secretary  0/ State. 


-N 


DEEDS. 


467 


^«:s@ 


R3p^^5t5JcncES3:J^- 


v^^iv 


V  J)eeGl^.  V 


;\\\ss\A-.\\-.'  rt^y 


/jfyC-fv  DEED  is  a  writing  by  wliich  lands,  tenc- 
Iffinl?  mcnts  or  hereditaments  are  conveyed, 
zM^  scaled  and  delivered.  It  must  be  written 
"^■^^  or  printed  on  parchment  or  paper  ;  the 
parties  must  be  competent  to  contract ;  there 
must  be  a  proper  object  to  grant ;  a  sufficient 
consideration  ;  an  agreement  properly  declared  ; 
if  desired,  it  must  have  been  read  to  the  party 
executing  it ;  it  must  be  signed  and  sealed ; 
attested  by  witnesses,  in  the  absence  of  any  stat- 
ute regulation  to  the  contrary  ;  properly  acknowl- 
edged before  a  competent  officer,  and  recorded 
within  the  time  and  in  the  office  prescribed  by 
the  State  wherein  executed. 

The  maker  of  a  deed  is  the  grantor ;  the  party 
to  v.'hom  it  is  delivered,  the  grantee.  If  the 
grantor  have  a  wife,  she  must,  in  the  absence  of 
a  statute  to  the  contrary,  sign  and  acknowledge 
the  deed ;  otherwise,  after  the  husband's  death, 
she  may  claim  the  use  of  one-third,  during  her 
life. 

By  a  general-wairanty  deed  the  grantor  cove- 
nants to  insure  the  lands  against  all  persons 
whatsoever  ;  by  a  special-warranty  deed,  he  war- 
rants only  against  himself  and  those  claiming 
under  him.  In  deeds  made  by  executors,  admin- 
istrators or  guardians,  there  is  generally  no  war- 
ranty. A  qnit-claiiH  deed  releases  all  the  interest 
which  the  grantor  has  in  the  land,  whatever  it 
may  be. 


A  deed  of  trust  is  given  to  a  person  called  a 
trustee,  to  hold  in  fee  simple,  or  otherwise,  for 
the  use  of  some  other  person  who  is  entitled  to 
the  proceeds,  profits  or  use. 

A  deed  may  be  avoided,  by  alterations  made 
in  it  after  its  execution  ;  by  the  disagreement  of 
the  parties  whose  concurrence  is  necessary;  or 
by  the  judgment  of  a  competent  tribunal. 

Interlineations  or  erasures  in  a  deed,  made 
before  signing,  should  be  mentioned  in  a  note, 
and  witnessed  in  proper  form.  After  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  a  deed,  the  parties  have  no  right  to 
make  the  slightest  alteration.  An  alteration  of 
a  deed  after  execution,  if  made  in  favor  of  the 
grantee,  vitiates  the  deed.  Ifaltered  before  deliv- 
ery, such  alteration  destroys  the  deed  as  to  the 
party  altering  it. 

The  statutory  provisions  of  the  several  States 
and  Territories  relating  to  deeds  will  be  found 
under  the  head  of  "Special  Laws." 

Chancellor  Kent's  Deed. 

This  form  is  given  by  Chancellor  Kent  as  sufficient  to  convey  an  abso- 
lute fee  in  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

I,  F.  H.  Hill,  in  consideration  of  three  thousand  dollars,  to  me  paid 
by  John  F.  Waite,  do  bargain  and  sell  to  John  F.  Waite  (and  his  heirs) 
the  lot  of  land  (bounded  or  described)^  etc. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  ttc. 

Short  Deeii  ir.  California. 

I,  W.  B.  Baird,  grant  to  D.  D.  Parsons  all  that  real  property  situated 
in  El  Dorado  county,  in  the  State  of  California,  bounded  (or  described) 
as  follows: 

Witness  my  hand  this day  of . 

W.   B.   BAIRn. 


ik= 


rr 


■71 


468 


ABSTRACT  OF  TITLE. 


Short  Form  in  Indiana. 
Enos  Baldwin   conveys  and  warrants    to   William  Green  (description 
of  the  premises)  for  the  sum  of  four  thousand  dollars. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  this day  of . 

Enos  K.-\ldwin.   [l.s-I 

Short  Form  Used  in  Virginia  and  Texas. 
M.    F.    Crenshaw  doth  bargain,  sell  and  grant  unto  W.   H.   Cavanagh 
all  i here  follo~.vs  the  description  0/  the  real  estate  co7a'eycd). 

Witness  the  following  signature  and  seal. 

M.  F.  Crenshaw,  [l.s.] 

Short  Form  Warranty  Deed  with  Full  Covenants. 

This  conveyance,  made  this  loth  day  of  May,  by  C.  S.  Smith,  of 
lieloit.  Wis.,  to  Wm.  Evans,  of  Lansing,  Alich.,  witnesseth: 

That  in  consideration  of  (state  nvkat),  the  said  Smith  doth  with  the 
said  Evans  bargain,  sell  and  grant,  all,  etc.  (here  describe  the  property, 
and  add  ivhateT/er  coz'enants,  conditions,  restrictions,  limitations, 
etc.,  agreed  upon }. 

And  the  said  Smith  covenants.  That  he  has  the  right  to  convey  said 
land  to  the  grantee;  that  the  same  is  free  from  all  encumbrances:  that  the 
grantee  shall  have  quiet  possession  of  said  land;  that  he  will  e.vecute 
such  further  assurances  of  said  lands  as  shall  be  requisite;  and  that  he 
will  warrant  generally  [or  specially)  the  property  hereby  conveyed. 

Witness  the  following  signature  and  seal,  etc. 

General  Form  of  Warranty  Deed. 

Knoiv  all  men  by  these  presents:  That  I,  J.  A.  Yarbro,  of  Tipton 
county,  in  the  State  of  Tennessee,  have  this  isth  day  of  October,  for  and 
in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars,  to  me  in  hand 
paid,  granted,  bargained  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant, 
bargain,  sell  and  convey  unto  J.  B.  Coals,  of  the  same  place,  the  following 
described  tract  or  parcel  of  land,  situate  in  the  county  of  Shelby,  in  the 
State  of  Tennessee,  that  is  to  say  (here  /olloivs  the  description). 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  premises  hereby  conveyed,  with  all  the  rights, 
privileges  and  appurtenances  thereto  belonging,  or  in  anywise  appertain- 
ing, unto  the  said  Coals,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever. 


And  I,  the  said  Yarbro,  hereby  covenant  to  and  with  the  said  Coals, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators, 
to  warrant  and  defend  the  title  to  the  premises  hereby  conveyed  against 
the  claim  of  every  person  whomsoever.     *     * 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  subscribed  my  name  and  affixed 
my  seal,  this day  of .  J.  A.  Yarbro.  [l.s.] 

Quit-Claim    Deed, 

Knoiv  all  men  by  these  presents:  That  we,  W.  H.  Cooley,  of 
Council  Bluffs,  la.,  and  Mary  E.,  wife  of  the  said  Cooley,  in  consideration 

of  the  sum  of ,  to  us  >n  hand  paid  by  Charles  Chapman,  of  Hastings, 

Neb.,  the  receipt  whereof  we  do  hereby  acknowledge,  have  bargained, 
sold  and  quit-claimed,  and  by  these  presents  do  bargain,  sell  and  quit- 
claim unto  the  said  Chapman,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all  our 
and  each  of  our  right,  title,  interest,  estate,  claim  and  demand,  both  at 
law  and  in  equity,  and  as  well  In  possession  as  in  expectancy  of,  In  and 
to  all  that  certain  piece  or  parcel  of  land  situate,  etc.  (give  description), 
with  all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto 
belonging. 

In  ^fitness  ivhereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered,  etc, 

W.  H.  CooLEV.         [l.s.] 
Mary  E.  Coolev.  [l.s.] 


Short  Form  of  Trust  Deed. 

This  conveyance,  made  this day  of ,  witnesseth: 

That  Thomas  Pritchard,  of  Mills  county,  in  the  State  of  Iowa,  conveys 
fand   warrants)   to  N.   W.  Coleman,  of   Decatur  county,  in  the  State  of 

Iowa,  for  the  sum  of dollars,  all  the  following  described  real  estate, 

situated  in  the  county  of  Fremont  and  Stale  of  Iowa,  to  wit:   (here  f ol- 
loivs the  description). 

In   trust,    nevertheless,  for    the  following  purposes,   to-wit;   (here  set 
forth  the  objects  and  purposes  to  be  ejff'ected). 

In    loitness   whereof,  said  parties  have  hereunto  set  their  hands,  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written.        (Signed)        Thomas  Pritchard. 

N.  W.  Coleman. 


-#*^=*4-^ 


"SSi^!- 


-:SV9S' 


met-oP-^itle.  •>   I 


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tpSTRACTS  OF  TITLE  are  brief  ac- 
/  counts  of  all  the  deeds  upon  which 
\  titles  rest,  and  judgments  and  instru- 
"^'■;  '""  ments  affecting  such  titles  —  synopses 
of  the  distinctive  portions  of  the  various  in- 
struments which  constitute  the  muniments  of 
title. 

The  evidences  of  title  are  usually  convey- 
ances, wills,  orders  or  decrees  of  courts,  judg- 
ments, judicial  sales,  sales  by  officers  appointed 


by  law,  acts  of  the  Legislature  and  of  Congress. 
Conveyances.      The    abstract    of   convey- 
ances should  show  : 

1.  Date. 

2.  Character  {wlictlicr  an  absolute  or  condi- 
tional conveyance;  as,  in  fee,  mortgage,  or  a 
lease) . 

3.  Names  and  residence  of  parties,  and  of 
executors,  administrators,  guardians,  trustees, 
corporations,  officers,  or  the  like. 


\ 


ABSTRACT  OF  TITLE. 


469 


"71 


4.  All  recitalswhich  materially  affect  the  title. 

5.  The  testatum  clause.  This  part  of  the 
conveyance  embraces  : 

I.  Name  of  grantor.  2.  Name  of  grantee 
anti  words  of  limitation  ;  as  to  "  C.  D.,  his 
heirs  and  assigns,"  or,  to  "  C.  D.  and  his  as- 
signs," or,  to  "  C.  D.  and  E.  I*".,  and  the  heirs 
of  C.  D. "  3.  The  consideration.  4.  The 
description  of  the  premises  or  parcels.  This  is 
generally  done  by  giving  the  premises  at  large 
in  the  abstract  of  the  first  conveyance,  and  in 
subsequent  conveyances  to  note  each  variation. 
5.  The  Iiabcnditvi  —  carefully  and  accurately 
stated.  6.  The  declaration  of  uses,  trusts, 
limitations,  or  special  agreements,  if  any.  7. 
Powers.  If  a  settlement  is  made  in  pursuance 
of  articles,  or  an  appointment  by  virtue  of  a 
power,  an  inspection  should  be  made  of  the 
articles  of  power.  A  deed  executed  by  attor- 
ney should  be  produced  with  evidence  that 
the  power  of  attorney  was  recorded,  and  that 
the  principal  was  alive  when  the  deed  was  exe- 
cuted. 8.  Covenants  which  may  affect  the 
vendee,  and  especially  exceptions  against  en- 
cumbrances. 9.  By  what  parties  the  deed  is 
executed,  the  fact  of  signing,  sealing,  attesta- 
tion and  acknowledgment  and  recording,  as 
required  by  statute. 

If  any  of  the  deeds  in  the  chain  of  title  arc 
quit-claim,  the  reason  therefor  should  be  as- 
certained. 

Wills.  In  abstracting  wills  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  : 

1.  The  date  of  the  testator's  death. 

2.  The  court  in  which  the  probate  is  made. 
The  date  of  letters  testamentary,  and  any 
change  in  the  executors  or  administrators,  by 
death,  removal,  or  otherwise. 

3.  Any  charge  imposed  by  the  payment  of 
debts,  legacies,  etc. 

4.  The  persons  to  whom  the  lands  are  de- 
vised. 

5.  Words  of  limitation,  modification,  condi- 
tions, charges  on  the  devisee,  etc. 


6.  Facts  which  operate  a  partial  revocation 
of  the  will  ;  as  the  birth  of  a  child,  or  the  sub- 
sequent alteration  of  the  estate  inconsistent 
with  the  terms  of  the  will. 

Codicils  should  be  given  in  the  order  of  their 
dates. 

Orders  or  Decrees.  Orders  or  decrees 
material  to  the  title  should  be  abstracted. 

JUDGMEXTS.  A  party  claiming  title  to  real 
estate  under  an  execution  must  show  : 

1.  A  valid  judgment. 

2.  A  levy  and  sale  as  required  by  law. 

3.  A  deed.  The  sheriff's  deed  must,  in  gen- 
eral, recite  the  substance  of  the  execution,  the 
names  of  the  parties,  the  action,  the  amount, 
and  the  date  of  the  rendition  of  the  judgment 
by  virtue  of  which  the  estate  was  sold,  and  be 
executed  and  acknowledged  as  required  by 
law. 

Jutlicial  sales  made  by  officers,  executors, 
administrators,  guardians  of  minors,  lunatics, 
etc. — 

1.  Must  be  examined  for  the  appointment 
and  authority  of  the  person  making  the  sale, 
and  whether  his  authority  continued  in  force 
till  the  sale. 

2.  The  service  of  summons,  notice,  or  t)ther 
process,  upon  all  defendants,  or  persons  inter- 
ested. 

3.  The  appointment  of  guardians  ad  litem 
for  minors  when  necessary. 

4.  The  order  of  sale  and  its  confirmation. 

5.  The  deed. 

Other  sales  include  those  by  assignees  or 
commissioners  of  insolvents,  or  assignees  of 
bankrupts  and  tax  sales.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  proper  records  should  be  examined  with 
the  utmost  care,  in  order  to  detect  any  omis- 
sion or  defect  in  compliance  with  all  the  requi- 
sitions of  the  statute  ;  in  the  former  case,  the 
leading  points  are  the  authority  of  the  assignee, 
etc.,  the  order  of  sale  and  its  confirmation, 
and  the  deed 


_M 


47° 


GUARANTY. 


Acts  of  the  Legislature  maybe  consid- 
ered in  the  same  manner  as  private  convey- 
ances.     The  abstract  should  show  : 

1 .  The  date  of  the  act. 

2.  The  title  of  the  act. 

3.  The  recitals  of  the  act. 

4.  The  enacting  clause  in  its  own  terms. 

5.  A  strict  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the 
act. 

Titles  by  Descent.  In  the  absence  of 
deeds  pedigree  should  be  ascertained,  authen- 
ticated and  incorporated. 

Encumbrances.  Encumbrances  may  be  as 
follows  : 

I.   Judgments  in  the  county  where  the  land 
lies. 
^    2.    Judgments  in  the  United  States  courts. 

3.   Executions  from  other  counties. 


4.  Mortgages. 

5.  Liens  of  the   creditors  of  deceased  per- 
sons. 

6.  Dower. 

7.  Decrees  in  chancery. 

8.  Action  pending. 

9.  Taxes. 
Mechanics'  liens. 
Lien   of  executor,  administrator,   guar- 

or  agent,  who  pays  taxes  upon  the  estate. 

Leases. 

Equity  of  a  vendee  in  possession. 

Lien  of  a  vendor  for  purchase-money. 

Caveats  in  case  of  a  contested  will. 

Rents  assigned  in  lieu  of  dower. 

The  levy  of  a  distress  warrant  upon  the 
property  of  certain  debtors  of  the  United 
States. 


1 1. 

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lan. 

12. 

13- 

14- 

15- 

16. 

17- 

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Gaaran: 


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^Wt-i)  GUARANTY  is  an  assurance  made  by 
\m|f  a  second  party  that  his  principal  will 
ylh^%  perform  some  specific  act.  For  in- 
"^^^^^F^  stance,  "A"  gives  "B"  a  note,  and  "C" 
by  endorsing  the  instrument  guarantees  to 
"  B  "  that  "  A  "  will  pay  it  at  maturity.  "  C  " 
is  the  guarantor.  His  liability  is  special,  and 
if  "  B  "  renews  the  note  when  it  becomes  due, 
then  he  is  no  longer  liable.  A  guaranty  for 
collection  is  a  very  different  thing  from  a  guar- 
anty of  payment.  The  first  warrants  that  the 
money  is  collectible;  the  latter,  that  it  will  be 
paid  at  maturity.  In  the  first  case  the  party 
guaranteed  must  be  able  to  prove  that  due 
diligence  was  employed  in  attempting  to  col- 
lect the  money;  in  the  second,  no  such  proof 
is  necessary.  The  only  form  necessary  in 
guaranteeing  a  note  is  writing  one's  name  across 


R_ 


the  back   of    it,    a    process   commonly    called 
endorsing. 

Guaranty  of  a  Note. 

For  value  received,  I  gu.ir.-intee  the  due  payment  of  a  promissory  note, 
dated  October  8,  1S83,  whereby  John  Paxson  promises  to  pay  George 
Andrews  eighty  dollars  in  three  months. 

St.  Louis,  October  10,  1883.  Peter  Faber. 

General    Guaranty. 

I  hereby  guarantee  payment  to  any  person  who  shall  accept  and  retain 
this  instrument  as  a  guaranty,  for  all  goods  which  he  may  from  time  to 
time  supply  to  Eugene  Parsons,  not  exceeding  at  any  time  the  sum  of 
five  hundred  dollars,  this  to  be  a  continuing  guaranty  till  specially 
revoked.     Notice  to  be  given  me  within  ten  days  after  its  acceptance. 

St.  Louis,  September  8,  1883.  Dakbv  Conger. 

Extension  of  Time. 

In  consideration  that  George  Andrews  gives  to  John  Paxson  ad- 
ditional time  to  the  e-vtcnt  of  one  month  for  payment  of  the  indebtedness 
due  him  from  said  John  Paxson  guaranteed  by  me,  I  hereby  continue  my 
guaranty  for  due  payment  thereof 

January  8,  1884.  Peter  Faber. 

Guaranty  of  Fidelity. 

In  consideration  of  the  performance  of  the  agreements  and  convenants 
specified  in  the  within  agreement  by  M.  M.,  with  my  son,  A.  A.,  I  do  hereby 
bind  myself  to  said  M.  M.  for  the  true  and  faithful  observatio;,  and  per- 
formance of  all  the  matters  and  things  by  said  A.  A.  agreed  and  cov- 
enanted therein,  and  that  he  shall  well  and  truly  serve  said  M.  M. 

Witness  my  hand  this day  of ,  A.D.  . .  P.  A. 


LANDLORD  AND   TENANT. 


471 


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AxM-?,   LEASE  is  a  contract  for  the  possession 
mWV-      ^""^  enjoyment  of  real  estate  on   one 
9jhAx      hand,  and  for  the  payment  of  rent  or 
^'^^     other  income  on  the  other.      A  land- 
lord is  one  who  holds  lands  and  houses  which 
he   lets   out   to  others.      A   tenant   is  one  who 
has  temporary  use  of  real  estate  belonging  to 
another,  the  duration   and   terms  of  his  occu- 
pancy  being    defined    in    the    lease.      In    this 
instrument    no    particular    form    of    words    is 
necessary  ;    but   it    is    important   that    all    the 
conditions    be   plainly   set   forth,    so    that    no 
misunderstanding  can  ensue. 

Verbal  promises  amount  to  nothing  ;  the  law 
only  considers  what  the  lease  states,  so  that 
the  importance  of  clearness  and  comprehen- 
siv-cness  in  this  document  is  apparent. 

Unless  expressly  prohibited  by  the  lease, 
the  lessor  can  sublet  any  part  of  the  property 
acquired  by  the  lease,  or  the  whole  of  it. 

A  married  woman  cannot  lease  her  prop- 
erty, under  the  common  law  ;  but  under  the 
statute,  in  many  of  the  States,  this  prohibi- 
tion is  removed,  as  will  be  found  by  consult- 
ing the  section  devoted  to  the  rights  of  married 
women.  A  husband  cannot  make  a  lease 
which  will  bind  his  wife's  propcrt}'  after  his 
death ;  even  the  common  law  terminates  his 
control  with  his  life.  A  guardian  cannot 
give  a  lease  extending  beyond  the  ward's 
majorit)'  which   the   ward   cannot   annul,  if  he 


wishes.  But  if  the  ward  docs  not  annul  the 
lease,  the  lessee  is  bound  by  it. 

When  no  time  is  specified  in  a  lease,  it  is 
understood  to  run  for  one  year.  A  tenancy 
at  will  is  terminable  by  notice  given  from  one 
month  to  si.x  months,  in  advance,  according 
to  the  peculiar  statute  of  the  State  in  which 
the  property  exists.  In  the  Eastern  States  a 
written  notice  of  three  months  is  the  general 
custom;  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States, 
six  months,  and  in  the  Western  States,  one 
month. 

The  phrase  "  a  term  of  years  "  is  construed 
to  mean  at  least  two  years  when  the  figure  is 
not  given. 

Leases  on  mortgaged  property,  whereon  the 
mortgage  was  given  prior  to  the  lease,  termi- 
nate when  the  mortgage  is  foreclosed. 

Where  a  tenant  assigns  his  lease,  even  with 
the  landlord's  consent,  he  will  remain  liable  for 
the  rent  unless  his  lease  is  surrendered  or  can- 
celled. 

There  are  a  great  many  special  features  of 
the  law  of  landlord  and  tenant  in  relation  to 
agricultural  tenancy,  which  the  reader  will  do 
well  to  read  carefully. 

Ciciierall)-  an  outgoing  tenant  cannot  sell 
or  take  away  the  manure.  A  tenant  whose 
estate  has  terminated  by  an  uncertain  event 
which  he  could  neither  foresee  nor  control  is 
entitled  to   the   annual  crop   which  he    sowed 


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K" 


472 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT. 


while  liis  estate  continued,  b)-  the  hiw  of  em- 
blements. He  may  also,  in  certain  case.s,  take 
the  emblements-  or  annual  profits  of  the  land 
after  his  tenancy  has  ended,  and,  unless 
restricted  by  some  stipulation  to  the  contrary, 
may  remove  such  fixtures  as  he  has  erected 
during  his  occupation  for  convenience,  profit 
or  comfort.  For,  in  general,  what  a  tenant  has 
added  he  may  remove,  if  he  can  do  so  with- 
out injury  to  the  premises,  unless  he  has 
actually  built  it  in  so  as  to  make  it  an  integral 
part  of  what  was  there  originally. 

The  immovable  fixtures  are  the  following  : 
Agricultural  erections.  Fold-yard  walls,  cart 
house,  barns  fixed  in  the  ground,  beast  house, 
carpenter  shop,  fuel  house,  pigeon  house, 
pineries  substantially  fixed,  wagon  house, 
box  borders  not  belonging  to  a  gardener  by 
trade,  flowers,  trees,  hedges.  Ale-house 
bar,  dressers,  partitions.  Locks  and  keys. 
Benches  affixed  to  the  house.  Statue  erected 
as  an  ornament  to  grounds,  sun-dial.  Chim- 
nc\'  piece  not  ornamental.  Closets  affixed  to 
the  house.  Conduits.  Conservatory,  sub- 
stantially affixed.  Doors.  Fruit  trees,  if  a 
tenant  be  not  a  nurseryman  by  trade.  Glass 
windows.  Hearths.  Millstones.  Looms  sub- 
stantially affixed  to  the  floor  of  a  factory. 
Thrashing-machines  fixed  by  bolts  and  screws 
to  posts  let  into  the  ground. 

Short  Form  of  Lease. 

John  Parks    leases  to  George  Drake  (description  0/ premises),  for  a 

term  of ,  upon  the  payment  of . 

Dated  the  1st  day  of  May,  1883.  John  Parks. 

Common  Form   of  Lease. 

This  Instrument,  Made  the   1st  day  of  May,  :S83,    U'itnesset/t,Th3.i 

Dominic  Holden,  of  the  city  of  St.   Louis,  State  of  Missouri,  hath  rented 

from   William   Hicks,  of   St.  Louis,    aforesaid,    the   dwelling   and   lot  82 

Chouteau  Avenue,  situated  in  said  town  of  St.  Louis,  for  five  years  from 

the   above   date,    at    the   yearly   rental    three    hundred    dollars,    payable 

monthly,  on  the  first  day  of  each  month,  in  advance,  at  the  residence  of 

the  said  William  Hicks. 

At   the   expiration   of  said   above  mentioned  term,  .the    said    Holden 

agrees  to  give  the  said  Hicks  peaceable  possession  of  said  dwelling,  in  as 

good  condition  as  when  taken,  ordinary  wear  and  casualties  excepted. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  place  our  hands  and  seals   the  day  and   year 

aforesaid. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  j  Dominic  Holden.    [l.s.] 

in  presence  of  I 

John  Dochertv,      [  William  Hicks.       [l.s.] 

A'oCary*Pu6lic.  J 


/ 


Lease  of  Farm  and  Buildings. 

This  Indenture,  Made  this  ninth  day  of  June,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eighty-two,  between  Raymond  Johnston,  of  the  township  of 
Lake,  county  of  Ripley,  and  State  of  Missouri,  of  the  first  part,  and 
Anson  Lee,  of  the  said  township  and  county,  of  the  second  part, 

Witnesseth,  That  the  said  Raymond  Johnston,  for  and  in  consider- 
ation of  the  yearly  rents  and  covenants  hereinafter  mentioned,  and  re- 
served on  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  said  Raymond  Johnston,  his  heirs, 
executors  and  administrators,  to  be  paid,  kept  and  performed,  hath 
demised,  set  and  to  farm  let,  and  by  these  presents  doth  demise,  set  and 
to  farm  let,  unto  the  said  Anson  Lee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  that  certain 
piece,  parcel  or  tract  of  land  situate,  lying  and  being  in  the  township  of 
Lake  aforesaid,  known  as  lot  No.  (description  of  /arm  here},  now  in  the 
possession  of  Joel  Hancoe,  containing  one  thousand  acres,  together  with 
all  and  singular  the  buildings  and  improvements,  to  have  and  to  hold  the 
same  unto  the  said  Anson  Lee,  his  heirs,  executors  and  assigns,  from  the 
frrst  day  of  July  next,  for  and  during  the  term  of  seven  years  thence, 
next  ensuing,  and  fully  to  be  complete  and  ended,  yielding  and  paying 
for  the  same,  unto  the  said  Raymond  Johnston,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  the 
yearly  rent,  or  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars,  on  the  first  day  of  July  in 
each  and  every  year,  during  the  term  aforesaid,  and  at  the  expiration  of 
said  term,  or  sooner  if  determined  upon,  he,  the  said  Anson  Lee,  his 
heirs  or  assigns,  shall  and  will  quietly  and  peaceably  surrender  and 
yield  up  the  said  demised  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said 
Raymond  Johnston,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  in  as  good  order  and  repair 
as  the  same  now  are,  reasonable  wear,  tear  and  casualties,  which  may 
happen  by  fire,  or  otherwise,  only  excepted. 

In  witness  'svhereof,  we  have  hereto  set  our  hands  and  seals. 
Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  j  Raymond  Johnson.    [i..s.] 

in  the  presence  of  I  Anson  Lee.  [l.s.J 

JuSEl'H    JaRLEV. 

Lease  of  a  Mill. 

This  Agreement,  Made  this  first  day  of  January,  between  George 
Bain,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  St.  Louis  county,  and  State  of  Missouri,  of  the 
first  part,  and  James  Meek,  of  Marissa,  in  St.  Clair  County,  and  State  of 
Illinois,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth  : 

That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the 
rents,  covenants  and  agreements  hereinafter  mentioned,  reserved  and 
contained,  on  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  to  be  paid,  kept  and  performed,  duth 
lease  the  mill  property  of  the  party  of  the  first  part,  being  one  of  the  mills 
ki.own  and  designated  as  the  Atlantic  Mills,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
together  with  all  the  machinery  now  in  the  same  belonging  to  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  and  aU  stoves,  boilers,  fixtures,  heaters  and  machinery, 
and  every  article  now  in  the  said  mill  which  appertains  to  the  same,  and  is 
necessary  to  its  successful  operation;  and  also  all  the  dwellings  and  store- 
houses used  in  connection  with  said  mill,  which  now  belong  to  said  party 
of  the  first  part. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  further  agrees  to  pay  all  taxes  and 
insurances  on  said  premises,  and  to  furnish  water-power,  water-wheels, 
main-shafting  and  gearing  sufficient  at  all  times  to  keep  in  constant  and 
full  operation  said  mill,  and  all  the  running  works  of  the  same,  and  all 
machinery  driven  by  water-power  now  in  said  mill. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  pant  further  agrees  to  secure  to  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part  the  quiet  and  peaceable  possession  of  all  and 
every  part  of  said  premises,  machinery  and  tools,  and  all  grounds  apper- 
taining to  said  mill,  and  all  passage-ways  to  and  from  the  same  which  are 
now  used  and  may  be  necessary  for  the  accommodation  of  the  same,  for 
five  years  from  the  first  day  of  April  next. 

It  is  mutually  understood  and  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto,  that 
in  case  said  mill  should  be  necessarily  slopped  from  casualty,  or  in  case 
there  shall  be  a  want  of  or  failure  of  water-power,  the  rent  above  men- 
tioned to  be  paid  shall  cease,  and  not  be  chargeable  during  the  continu- 
ation of  such  stoppage,  want  or  failure. 

In  ivitness  ivhereof,  etc. 

Landlord's   Agreement. 

This  is  to  certify  that  I  have  this  first  day  of  May,  1883,  let  and  rented 
unto  Dominic  Holden   my  house  and  lot  known  as  number  82  Chouteau 


\ 


\ 


/ 


RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


473 


Avenue,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  with  the  appurtenances  and 
sole  and  uninterrupted  use  thereof  for  five  years,  to  commence  on  the  first 
day  of  June  next,  at  the  yearly  rental  of  three  hundred  dollars,  payable 
monthly  in  advance  on  the  first  day  of  each  and  every  month. 

Wii.i.iAM  Hicks. 


Tenant's  Agreement. 
This  certifies  that  I  have  hired  and  taken  from  William  Hicks  his 
house  and  lot,  number  82  Chouteau  Avenue,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, with  appurtenances  thereto  belonging,  for  five  years,  to  commence 
on  the  first  day  of  June,  1883,  at  a  yearly  rental  of  three  hundred  dollars, 
10  be  paid  monthly  in  advance. 

Dominic  Holdkn. 


Notice  to  Quit. 
To  Charles  Egan  : 

Sir  :   Please  observe    that  the  term  of  one  year  for   which  the  house 

and  land  at  No.  380  Walnut  Street,  and  now  occupied  by  you,  were  rented 

to  you,  expired  on  the  first  day  of  June,  1883,  and  as  I  desire  to  repossess 

said  premises,  you  are  hereby  requested  and  required  to  vacate  the  same. 

Respectfully  yours, 

St.  Louis,  June  8,  1S83.  Amos  Norton. 

Tenant's  Notice  of  Leaving. 

Air.  Amos  Norton  : 

Take  notice  that!  shall,  on  the  first  day  of  May  next,  deliver  up  to  you 
the  premises  I  now  occupy  as  your  tenant,  known  as  No.  380  Walnut 
Street,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis.  Charles  Egan. 

St.  Louis,  April  1,  1883. 


■^1"^- 


.0  ■- — rsa/fa.^- 


^  Ri^l7l:^-oF-[Dar^r^ieGl-V/omen.^ 


n 


\!ly 


W^^HE  common  law  of  the  United  States 
has  some  curious  provisions  regard- 
ing the  rights  of  married  women, 
"^''  though  in  all  the  States  there  are  statu- 
tory provisions  essentially  modifying  this  law. 
As  it  now  stands  the  husband  is  responsible 
for  necessaries  supplied  to  the  wife  even  should 
he  not  fail  to  supply  them  himself,  and  is  held 
liable  if  he  turn  her  from  his  house,  or  other- 
wise separates  himself  from  her  without  good 
cause.  He  is  not  held  liable  if  the  wife 
deserts  him,  or  if  he  turns  her  away  for  good 
cause.  If  she  leaves  him  through  good  cause, 
then  he  is  liable.  If  a  man  lives  with  a 
woman  as  his  wife,  and  so  represents  her,  even 
though  this  representation  is  made  to  one  who 
knows  she  is  not,  he  is  liable  the  same  way  as 
if  she  were  his  wife. 

In  many  of  the  States  ante  -  marriage  con- 
tracts are  recognized,  and  they  will  secure  to 
married  women  even  greater  privileges  than 
are  intended  to  be  secured  by  statute,  or 
greater  powers  and  rights  may  be  secured  by 
transferring  the  property  owned  by  them  to 
trustees.      Such  instrument  should  clearly  set 


forth   what  the  trust  is,  and   should   be   care- 
fully drawn. 

When  estates  are  to  be  settled  where  the 
widow  is  entitled  to  a  dower  interest,  some 
definite  calculation  is  necessary  to  learn  how 
long  she  will  probably  live  and  the  present 
value  of  her  interest  in  the  estate.  For  this 
purpose  the  following  table  is  generally  used. 
When  the  sum  is  ascertained  the  estate  can  be 
promptly  settled. 

Expectation  of  Life. 


-^ 


474 


REAL  FSTATE  MORTGAGES. 


y 


^^  Real  V  Estate V [Do r^t^a^e^.  ^ 


^mm- 


CONVEYANCE  of  property,  either 
B^^  real  or  personal,  made  in  order  to 
'^  secure  payment  of  a  debt,  is  called 
a  mortgage.  When  the  debt  is  paid 
the  mortgage  becomes  void  and  of  no  value. 
The  word,  like  many  others  of  our  legal 
terms,  comes  from  the 
French.  "Mort,"dead, 
and  "gage,"  pledge; 
a  "dead-pledge,"  so 
called  because  the 
property  is  dead  to 
the  mortgageor  unless 
he  fulfils  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  re- 
deem it.  In  real  estate 
mortgages  the  person 
giving  the  mortgage 
retains  possession  of 
the  property,  receives 
all  the  rents  and  other 
profits,  and  pays  all 
taxes  and  other  ex- 
penses. The  instru- 
ment must  be  acknowl- 
edged, like  a  deed, 
before  a  proper  public 
officer,  and  recorded 
in  the  office  of  the  county  clerk  or  recorder, 
or  whatever  officer's  duty  it  is  to  record  such 
instruments.  Ail  mortgages  must  be  in  writ- 
ing.     They  must  contain  a  redemption  clause 


How  THE  Mortgage  Genekally  Ter.minates. 


and  must  be  signed  and  sealed.  The  time 
when  the  debt  becomes  due,  to  secure  which 
the  mortgage  is  given,  must  be  plainly  set 
forth,  and  the  property  conveyed  must  be 
clearly  described,  located  and  scheduled. 
Some  mortgages  contain  a  clause  permit- 
ting the  sale  of  the 
property  without  de- 
cree of  court  when  a 
default  is  made  in  the 
payment  either  of  the 
principal  sum  or  the 
interest. 

A  foreclosure  is  a 
statement  that  the 
property  is  forfeited 
and   must  be   sold. 

When  a  mortgage  is 
assigned  to  another 
person,  it  must  be  for 
a  valuable  considera- 
tion ;  and  the  note  or 
notes  which  it  was 
given  to  secure  must 
be  given  at  the  same 
time. 

If  the  mortgaged 
property,  when  fore 
closed  and  brought  to  sale,  brings  more  money 
than  is  needed  to  satisfy  the  debt,  interest  and 
costs,  the  surplus  must  be  paid  to  the  mort 
gageor. 


_N 


■Tf 


REAL  ESTATE  MORTGAGES. 


475 


Satisfaction  of  mortgages  upon  real  or  per- 
sonal property  may  be  either — 

1.  By  an  entry  upon  the  margin  of  the  rec- 
ord thereof,  signed  by  the  mortgagee  or  his 
attorney,  assignee  or  personal  representative, 
acknowledging  the  satisfaction  of  the  mort- 
gage, in  the  presence  of  the  recording  officer; 
or — 

2.  By  a  receipt  endorsed  upon  the  mortgage, 
signed  by  the  mortgagee,  his  agent  or  attorney, 
which  receipt  maybe  entered  upon  the  margin 
of  the  record  ;   or — 

3.  It  may  be  discharged  upon  the  record 
thereof  whenever  there  is  presented  to  the  prop- 
er officer  an  instrument  acknowledging  the  sat- 
isfaction of  such  mortgage,  executed  by  the 
mortgagee,  his  duly  authorized  attorney  in 
fact,  assignee  or  personal  representative,  and 
acknowledged  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
instruments  affecting  real  estate. 

Mortgages  of  personal  property  will  be  found 
set  forth  at  length  under  the  head  of  Chattel 
Mortgages. 


Promissory  Note  Secured  by  Mortgage. 

5^1,000.  Eansing,  Mich.,  Dec,  ist,  1883. 

One  ye.ir  after  date  I  promise  lo  pay  to  S.  H.  Moore  one  thousand 
dollars  at  the  First  National  IJank  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  with  interest  at 
the  rate  of  ten  percent  per  annum,  for  value  received. 

This  note  is  secured  by  a  mortgage  of  even  dale  herewith,  on  a  cer- 
tain tract  or  parcel  of  land  situate  (describe  t/te premises), 

(Sidled)  R.  S    Marsh. 

Mortgage  to   Secure  Payment  of  Money,  with   Power  to 
Sell   on  Default. 

This  Indknturk,  Made  this  aoih  day  of  Jan'y»  A.D.  1884,  between 
John  Stanton,  of  Norwich,  Conn.,  of  the  first  part,  and  Lyman  Randall, 
uf  the  same  place,  of  the  second  part,  witncssclh: 

That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  ttie 
Sinn  of  six  thousand  dollars,  docs  grant,  bargain,  sell  and  convey  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  paxt,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  (give  a 
complete  description  0/  the  premises  tnortg-aged),  together  with  all  and 
singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging,  or  in 
anywise  appertaining. 

This  conveyance  is  intended  as  a  mortgage,  lo  secure  the  payment  of 
the  sum  of dollars,  in from  the  day  of  the  date  of  these  pres- 
ents, with  •  interest,   according  to  the  conditions  of  a  certain  bond, 

dated  this  day,  executed  by  the  said  John  Stanton  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part;  and  these  presents  shall  be  void  if  such  payment  be  made. 


Uut  in  case  default  shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  principal  or 
interest,  as  above  provided,  then  the  party  of  the  second  part,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  are  hereby  empowered  to  sell  the 
premises  above  described,  with  all  and  every  of  the  appurtenances,  or 
any  part  thereof,  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law  ;  and  out  of  the  money 
arising  from  such  sale,  to  retain  the  said  principal  and  interest,  together 
with  the  costs  and  charges  of  making  such  sale  ;  and  the  overplus,  if  any 
there  be,  shall  be  paid  by  the  party  making  such  sale,  on  demand,  to  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  etc. 

In  witness  whereof,  said  party  of  the  first  part  has  hereunto   set  his 
hand  and  seal  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Executed  and  delivered  1  John  Stanton,  [l.s.] 

in  presence  ij{ 

U.  S.  Gakuner.  \ 


Assignment  of  Mortgage. 

Knoiu  all  men  by   these  presents  :     That  I,  C.  C,  of ,   in   

county.  State  of  • ■,  the  mortgagee  named  in  a  certain   mortgage  given 

by  A.  B.,  of ,  in county,  State  of •,  to  said  C.  D.,  to  secure  the 

payment  of dollars  and  interest,  dated  the day  of ,  recorded 

in    volume  ,  on  page  ,  of  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  county 

of ,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of dollars,  to  me  paid  by  K.  K., 

of ,   in  county,    Stale  of ,   the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby 

acknowledged,  do  hereby  sell,  assign,  transfer,  set  over  and  convey  unto 
said  E.  F.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  said  mortgage  and  the  real  estate  there- 
by conveyed,  together  with  the  promissory  note,  debt  and  claim  thereby 
secured,  and  the  covenants  therein  contained. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  him,  the  said  E.  F.,  and  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  to  his  and  their  use  and  behoof,  forever;  subject,  nevertheless,  to 
the  conditions  therein  contained  (and  to  redemption  according  to  law). 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  (and  seal),  this 

day  of  ■ . 

Executed  and  delivered  |  [Signature.}         [Seal.\ 

in  presence  of  V 


Release  or  Discharge  of  Mortgage. 

This  debt,  secured  by  the  mortgage  dated  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  Jan- 
uary, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty- 
three,  and  recorded  with  mortgage  deeds  volume  two,  page  two  hundred 
and  six,  has  been  paid  to  me  by  Martin  Klotz,  and  in  consideration  thereof 
I  do  discharge  the  mo-tgage,  and  release  the  mortgaged  premises  to  said 
Martin  Klotz  and  his  heirs. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  December  sth,  1883. 

Benjamin  Eaton,  [l.s.] 
Executed  and  delivered  1 
in  presence  of  V 

Georce  Smith.  ) 

CITV  OF  ST.  LOUIS,  I  .,. 
State  OK  Missouki,      p''^"  December  5th,  A.D.  1883. 

The  said  Benjamin  Eaton  acknowledged  the  foregoing  instrument  to  be 
his  free  act  and  will.  Be/ore  me, 

Gordon  Smith, 

Clerk  0/  Circuit  Court. 


Shortest  Form  of  Mortgage. 

I,  Joseph  Smith,  in  consideration  of  five  hundred  dollars,  to  me  paid 
by  Finley  Burke,  do  mortgage  unto  Finley  Burke,  and  his  heirs,  the  follow- 
ing tract  of  land  (describe  it). 

To  secure  the  payment  q{  (state  what  amounts,  places,  times,  etc.) 

Joseph  Smith,     [l.s  ] 


/ 


V 


476 


CHATTEL  MORTGAGES. 


A 


TOT===?':"UfiABH|EaiEaiEig  EaiBaiBaiBa  eh  bh  bsibh  eh  eh  eh  BaiB»v^>r-|f«a 
'":f/^^^^    ^^BalEalsalEa  EalaalEalea  aa  saiEalEa  EalEa  EalEao)  >>w  - '  """^i-:-  "^ 

i  ?f^ V  Chattel  •  [Dopttafe<?.  vll  1 


^^^1  MATTEL  mortgages  are  mortgages  on 
Wlw^  personal  property.  Most  of  the  rules 
a|vMI      applicable     to     mortgages      on       real 

^^^  estate  apply  also  to  those  on  personal 
property,  though  in  some  States  there  are 
laws  regulating  personal  mortgages.  Any 
instrument  will  answer  the  purpose  of  a  chat- 
tel mortgage  which  would  answer  as  a  bill  of 
sale,  with  a  clause  attached  providing  for  the 
avoidance  of  the  mortgage  when  the  debt  is 
paid.  As  with  real  estate,  so  with  a  chattel 
mortgage,  great  care  should  be  taken. 

A  chattel  mortgage  will  not  cover  property 
subsequently  acquired  by  the  mortgageor. 
Mortgages  of  personal  property  should  con- 
tain a  clause  providing  for  the  equity  of 
redemption.  A  mortgagee  may  sell  or  trans- 
fer his  mortgage  to  another  party  for  a  con- 
sideration, but  such  property  cannot  be  seized 
or  sold  until  the  expiration  of  the  period  for 
which  the  mortgage  was  given.  Mortgages 
given  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors  are  void. 

Form   of   Chattel  Mortgage. 
Kmoiv  all  men  by  these  presents  :    That  I,  John  Johnson,  of  the  city 
of   Chicago,    in    the   county  of   Cook,    and    State   of  Illinois,   am  justly 


indebted  unto  James  Lewis,  of  the  same  place,  in  the  sum  of dollars, 

on  account,  to  be  paid  on  the day  of ,  with  interest  from  this  date. 

Now,  therefore,  in  consideration  of  such  indebtedness,  and  in  order  to 
secure  the  payment  of  the  same,  as  aforesaid,  I  do  hereby  sell,  assign, 
transfer  and  set  over  unto  the  said  James  Lewis,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  the  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  in  the  schedule 
hereto  annexed,  and  now  at  the  residence  No.  14.10  Jackson  Street,  in  the 
city  of  Chicago  aforesaid. 

Provided,  however,  that  if  the  said  debt  and  interest  be  paid,  as  above 
specified,  this  sale  and  transfer  shall  be  void:  and  this  conveyance  is  also 
subject  to  the  following  conditions; 

The  property  hereby  sold  and  transferred  is  to  remain  in  my  possession 
until  default  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  debt  and  interest  aforesaid, 
or  some  part  thereof;  but  in  case  of  a  sale  or  disposal,  or  attempt  to  sell 
or  dispose  of  the  same,  or  a  removal  of  or  attempt  to  remove  the  same 
from  said  residence  aforesaid,  or  an  unreasonable  depreciation  in  value 
[or  if  from  any  other  cause  the  security  shall  become  inadequate),  the  said 
James  Lewis  may  take  the  said  property,  or  any  part  thereof,  into  his  own 
possession. 

Upon  taking  said  property,  or  any  part  thereof,  into  his  possession, 
either  in  case  of  default,  or  as  above  provided,  the  said  James  Lewis  shall 
sell  the  same  at  public  or  private  sale;  and  after  satisfying  the  aforesaid 
debt  and  the  interest  thereon,  and  all  necessary  and  reasonable  costs, 
charges  and  expenses  incurred  by  him,  out  of  the  proceeds  of  such  sale, 
he  shall  return  the  surplus  to  me  or  my  representative. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand   and  seal,  this 

day  of . 

Executed  in  presence  of  | 
Wm.  F.  George.        f 


John  Johnson.  \\..s.\ 


Release  and  Satisfaction  of  Mortgage. 

Knoiv  all  men  by  these  presents  :    That  the  debt  secured  by  mortgage 

upon  the  following  described •  property,  situated  in ,  in 

county,  in   the   State  of ,   to   wit:  (describing  it),   wherein   John 

Johnson  is  grantor,  and  James  Lewis  is  grantee,  and  dated ,  a 

of  which  is in  volume ,  page ,  in  the  office  of  the  (register  or 

recorder)  of  deeds  of county,  ,  has  been  fully  satisfied,  in  con- 
sideration of  which  said  mortgage  is  hereby  released. 

James  Lewis. 

Witness:  . 


-^ 


MECHANIC'S  LIEN— WILLS. 


477 


I  V  ^ee\2Bn\e\'  hien. 


3332233^3 


§  t>7-^l> 


^HE  purpose  of  all  lien  laws  is  to  retain 
A  the  possession  of  personal  property  in 
(f     the  hands  of  the   owners  until   it  has 


^''  been  properly  paid  for.  Without  pos- 
session no  lien  is  admitted  at  common  law.  It 
is  a  created  right,  for  the  benefit  of  mechanics, 
tavern-keepers,  liverymen,  pasturers  and  car- 
riers. Builders  and  persons  furnishing  mate- 
rial are  given  by  statute  a  lien  on  both  land 
and  building,  if  their  claim  is  made  within  the 
time  named  in  the  different  statutes.  These 
periods  will  be  found,  under  their  appropriate 
heads,  in  another  chapter.  No  possession  is 
necessary  under  this  lien,  and  the  right  of  re- 
demption is  lost  by  the  sale  of  the  property 
under  the  lien.  The  surplus,  of  course,  goes  to 
the  owner.  Liens  are  foreclosed  by  order  of 
court,  upon  petition  duly  made.  Liens  will 
lie  against  vessels  and  wharves  as  well  as 
other  buildings. 

When  a  mechanic  desires  to  dra\^'  up  a  lien  for 
the  recovery  of  money  due  him  for  labor  or  ma- 
terial, the  form  given  below  will  be  found  conve- 
nient.   It  is  a  statement  addressed  to  the  county 


clerk  setting  forth  his  bargain,  the  failure  to 
receive  his  pay,  and  the  fear  that  he  will  lose 
the  money  unless  the  lien  be  now  made.  This 
paper  must  be  sworn  to  and  filed  in  the  county 
clerk's  office,  and  if  it  is  not  paid  in  a  reason- 
able time  the  property  will  be  sold  for  the  debt. 
It  does  not  make  any  difference  if  it  is  the  con- 
tractor or  the  owner  of  the  building  who  is  in 
default.  The  mechanic  has  nothing  to  do  with 
either  of  them — he  holds  the  property  itself  for 
his  money;  and" even  if  the  owner  has  paid  the 
contractor,  who  should  have  paid  the  laborer, 
the  property  will  be  sold  unless  the  laborer  is 
paid. 

Sub-Contractor's  or  Workman's  Notice. 


To- 


-  lo  (kfre 


You  are  hereby  notified  that  I  have  been  employed  by  ■ 
state  liiltether  to  labor  or/urnisk  material,  and  substantially  the  na- 
ture of  the  contract }  upon  your  (here  state  the  building,  and  ivliere 
situated,  in  general  terms);  and  that  I  shall  hold  the  (building,  or  as 
the  case  may  be)  and  your  interest  in  the  ground  liable  for  the  amount 
that  (is  or  may  become)  due  me  on  account  thereof. 

(Signature. ) 

This  notice,  with  a  copy  of  the  contract,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  shall  be 
served  within  40  days  after  payments  should  have  been  made.  The  owner 
may  retain  money  due  the  contractor  to  pay  such  claims,  and  if  there  is 
not  enough  to  pay  them  in  full,  he  shall  pay  them_/r(»  rata.  If  such  pay- 
ment shall  not  be  made  within  ten  days  after  the  same  may  become  due, 
suit  may  be  brought  to  enforce  it 


•7i\- 


V/Ikk, 


•7i\- 


WILL  is  an  instrument  of  writing  de- 
W^  daring  what  a  person  desires  to  have 
'*M\\  done  with  his  property  after  his  de- 
'^^^^  mise.  Any  one  of  lawful  age  and 
sound  mind  can  make  a  valid  will,  although 
in    some   States   during    the  lifetime   of  their 


husbands  married  women  cannot  do  so.  A 
will  only  becomes  of  force  upon  the  death  of 
the  maker,  and  can  be  changed  or  modified  at 
his  pleasure  until  that  event  occurs.  The  last 
will  annuls  all  previous  ones,  unless  it  be  a 
codicil  or  amendment  to   a  previous   will.      A 


-N 


\ 


478 


EXECUTORS   AND  ADMINISTRATORS. 


great  deal  of  latitude  is  allowed  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  will.  For  instance,  if  the  testa- 
tor marries  after  making  a  will,  or  has  chil- 
dren subsequent  to  its  date,  it  is  supposed 
that  he  intended  to  change  the  disposition  of 
his  property,  and  the  law  accordingly  will 
change  it  for  him.  Courts  do  not  always  re- 
quire written  wills;  sometimes  what  are  called 
nuncupative  wills  are  admitted  to  probate. 
These  depend  upon  the  testimony  of  witnesses, 
and  are  uncertain  and  dangerous.  Many  of 
the  States  will  not  admit  nuncupative  wills 
unless  made  within  ten  days  before  death,  or 
by  persons  in  the  army  or  navy. 

A  wife  cannot  be  deprived  of  her  right  of 
dower,  which  is  one-third  of  the  proceeds  of 
the  real  estate  and  appurtenances  of  her  hus- 
band. She  may  be  devised  property  in  lieu  of 
dower,  which  she  can  so  take  or  not,  as  she 
may  choose  ;    but    if  the    words    "  in    lieu   of 


dower  "  are  not  used,  she  may  take  the 
bequest  and  her  dower  also. 

A  corporation  cannot  accept  bequests  unless 
that  power  is  expressly  granted  in  its  charter. 

No  one  can  serve  as  executor  of  a  will  who 
is  under  age,  a  lunatic,  a  drunkard  or  a  con- 
vict. An  executor  may  decline  the  trust  if  he 
chooses,  which  declension  must  be  made  in  the 
presence  of  two  witnesses.  There  is  no  differ- 
ence in  the  duties  of  an  e.xecutor  and  adminis- 
trator ;  the  names  have  this  origin:  the  execu- 
tor is  appointed  by  the  person  ipaking  the  will, 
the  administrator  is  appointed  by  the  court. 

When  a  married  woman  makes  a  will,  her 
husband  must  be  appointed  administrator  in 
preference  to  any  one  else. 

No  witness  to  a  will  can  inherit  any  prop- 
erty under  it.  They  are  not  required  to  know 
what  the  will  contains,  but  simply  to  witness 
the  signing  of  the  document. 


Executors  and  fidniiiiistrators.  m 


■^i^ 


j,^"^^S  soon  after  the  death  of  the  testator 
\mIv/  as  may  be  possible,  the  will  must  be 
iJrAx  produced  in  court,  and  filed  there  with 
-E-;?,-^^  affidavits,  showing  its  custody  and  the 
death  of  the  testator.  The  judge  orders  pub- 
lication to  be  made,  advertising  the  day  when 
the  will  is  to  be  offered  for  probate,  and 
notices  must  be  sent  to  the  heirs-at-law.  At 
the  appointed  time,  all  of  the  persons  inter- 
ested, including  the  executor  or  executors, 
assemble  in  court.  The  witnesses  swear  to 
the  signature   of  the  will,  and   to   the  state   of 


the  testator's  mind  at  the  time  the  will  was 
signed.  Letters  of  administration  are  then 
granted  to  the  executor,  and  a  certified  copy 
of  the  will  and  of  the  letters  should  be  recorded 
in  every  county  where  the  deceased  owned 
real  estate.  The  person  administering  must 
give  a  bond  yi  double  the  amount  of  the  estate 
for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties.  When 
a  person  owning  property  dies  intestate,  that 
is,  leaving  no  will,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the 
ne.xt  of  kin,  or  the  widow,  to  petition  the  Pro- 
bate Court  for  letters  of  administration 


K- 


-^ 


\p. 


K 


/' 


WILLS 


479 


As  soon  as  tlie  letters  are  granted,  the  ad- 
ministrator or  executor  addresses  himself  to 
the  settlement  of  the  estate.  This  is  done  by 
advertising  for  all  persons  owing  the  estate  to 
settle  the  same,  and  for  creditors  of  the  estate 
to  present  their  claims.  At  the  same  time  a 
careful  inventory  of  the  property  of  the 
deceased  is  made,  and  the  same  appraised. 
This  appraisement  and  inventory  is  filed  in  the 
Probate  Court.  The  first  money  coming  in  is 
applied  to  the  payment  of  the  funeral  expenses 
and  the  medical  and  nurses'  bills;  next  in  order 
come  debts  to  the  Government,  liens  or  mort- 
gages, and,  last  of  all,  general  debts  of  all 
kinds.  If  there  is  not  enough  property  to  pay 
the  debts,  the  Probate  Court  must  be  at  once 
notified  of  this  insolvency,  and  the  estate  must 
then  be  settled  according  to  the  insolvent  laws. 

The  administrator  is  responsible  for  all  the 
property  of  the  deceased,  valued  and  listed  ac- 
cording to  the  inventory  and  appraisement, 
and  he  must  keep  very  careful  accounts  of  all 
his  transactions  for  the  estate.  He  must  make 
semi-annual  reports  of  the  condition  of  the 
property,  and  when  everything  is  ready  for 
settlement,  he  presents  a  report,  called  his  final 
settlement,  to  the  court,  and,  upon  presentation 
of  the  receipts  in  full  of  the  heirs  and  credit- 
ors, he  is  discharged  from  his  office  and  his 
bond  cancelled  and  destroyed. 

Short  Form  for  a  Will. 

I,  James  Dickson,  of  tlie  city  of  Chicago,  in  the  county  of  Cook,  and 
State  of  Illinois,  being  of  sound  mind  and  memory  and  understanding,  do 
make  my  last  will  and  testament  in  manner  and  form  following  : 

First,  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  daughters  Mary  and  Jane  two  thou- 
sand dollars  each  after  they  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty  years. 

Second.  I  give  and  betiueath  to  my  wife  Susan  all  my  household  furni- 
ture, and  all  the  rest  of  my  personal  property,  after  paying  from  the  same 
the  legacies  already  named,  to  be  hers  forever:  but  if  there  should  not  be 
at  my  decease  suRicient  personal  property  to  pay  the  aforesaid  legacies, 
then  so  much  of  my  real  estate  shall  be  sold  as  will  raise  suflficicnt  money 
to  pay  the  same. 

Third.  I  also  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  wife  .Susan  all  the 
rest  and  residue  of  my  real  estate  as  long  as  she  shall  remain  unmarried. 
and  my  widow:  but  on  her  decease  or  marriage,  the  remainder  thereof  I 
give  and  devise  to  my  said  children  and  their  heirs,  respectively,  to  be 
divided  in  equal  shares  between  them. 

I  appoint  my  wife  Susan  sole  executrix  of  this  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment. 

In  testimony  ivhtreof,  I  hereimto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  and  publish 
and  decree  this  to  be  my  last  will  and   testament,  in  presence  of  the  wit- 


nesses named  below,  this  eighth  day  of  March,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three. 

James  Dickso.v.    [l.s,] 

Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the  said  James  Dickson  as 
and  for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his  request 
and  in  his  presence,  and  in  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our 
names  as  witnesses  hereto. 

John  Smith,  residing  at  Chicago  in  Cook  County. 
Peter  Jones,      "         "       "         "      "  " 

Another  Form  of  Will. 

Kno'^v  all  nun  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Joseph  Atkinson,  of  Media, 
in  the  county  of  Chester,  and  State  of  Pennsylvania,  merchant,  consider- 
ing the  uncertainty  of  this  life,  and  being  of  sound  mind  and  memory,  do 
make,  and  declare,  and  publish,  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

First.  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved  wife  Mary  the  use,  im- 
provement and  income  of  my  dwelling-house,  warehouses,  lands,  and  their 
appurtenances,  situate  in  Nelson  township,  Chester  county.  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania, to  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  her  for  and  during  her  natural 
life. 

Second.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  son  Robert  two  thousand  dollars, 
to  be  paid  to  him  by  my  executor,  hereinafter  named,  within  six  months 
after  my  decease;  and  I  also  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  said  son 
Robert  the  reversion  or  remainder  of  my  dwelling-house,  warehouses,  lands 
and  their  appurtenances,  situate  in  Nelson  township,  Chester  county.  State 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  all  profit,  income  and  advantage  that  may  result 
therefrom,  from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  beloved  wife  Mary. 

Third.  I  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife  Mary  all  the 
residue  of  my  estate,  real,  personal  or  mixed,  of  which  I  shall  be  seized  or 
possessed,  or  to  which  I  shall  be  entitled  at  the  time  of  my  decease;  to 
have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  her  and  her  executors  and  administrators 
and  assigns  forever. 

Fourth.  I  do  nominate  and  appoint  my  brother  James  Atkinson  to  be 
the  executor  of  this,  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  testimony  lohereo/,  I  have  to  this,  my  last  will  and  testament,  con- 
tained on  two  sheets  of  paper,  and  to  each  sheet  thereof,  subscribed  my 
name  and  set  my  seal;  ani  to  this,  the  last  sheet  thereof,  I  have  here  sub- 
scribed my  name  and  affixed  my  seal,  this  eighteenth  day  of  May,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three. 

James  Atkinson.     i.l.s.] 
Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the  said  James  Atkinson, 
as  and  for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his  request 
and  in  his  presence,  and  in  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our 
names  as  witnesses  hereto. 

Thomas  May,  residing  at  Media,  Pa. 
John  Nolan,        "         "        '*        " 
Henry  Mann,       "         "       "        *' 

Codicil  to  a  Will. 

Whereas,  I,  Richard  Roe,  of  the  city  of  Pittsburg,  in  the  county  of 
Allegheny  and  State  of  Pennsylvania,  have  made  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment, in  writing,  bearing  date  the  fourteenth  day  of  Februarj-,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three,  in  and  by  which 
I  have  given  to  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes,  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars. 

Xoiv,  there/ore^  I  do,  by  this  my  writing,  which  I  hereby  declare 
tc  be  a  codicil  to  my  said  last  will  and  testament,  and  to  be  taken  as  a 
part  thereof,  order  and  declare  that  my  will  is  that  only  the  sum  of 
five  hundred  dollars  shall  be  paid  to  the  said  Pennsylvania  Institution  Tor 
Deaf  Mutes  as  the  full  amount  bequeathed  to  the  said  institution,  and  that 
the  residue  of  the  said  legacy  be  given  to  the  person  who  shall  be  acting 
as  treasurer  at  the  time  of  my  decease  of  the  Baptist  Publication  Society, 
located  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  to  be  expended  by  the  society'  in  such 
manner  as  the  ofiicers  of  the  said  society  may  deem  best  for  the  interests 
of  said  society  :  and,  lastly,  it  is  my  desire  that  this  codicil  be  annexed  to 
and  made  a  part  of  my  last  will  and  testament  as  aforesaid,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes. 

In  testimony  ivhereo/y  etc.  (as  in  the  form  of  a  wili). 


V 


48o 


DUTIES  OF  ADMINISTRATORS. 


(^<^ 


^^^ 


siHH 


^^ 


Duties  of  fidiiiinistrators  in  fettling  Estates.  #1 


(te^^— >t  *"it"S" 


HM^^i"   l- { 


i  '^  '|iiM"I'g"I"»3»S'®'S"KiS)'itiiSi«M-?<->-^ 


^-m 


^P^r^^HEN  a  person  dies,  leaving  no  valid 
-1  1  A  i'  will  behind  him,  his  estate  is  dis- 
\j\  IH^yllJl  tributed  among  his  heirs  by  what 
L~o,ii>^  i^X^nown  diS  operation  of  /azv.  This 
is  regulated  by  the  statute  of  the  State  in 
which  the  deceased  resided  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  The  distribution  must  be  made  by  an 
adininistratov  duly  appointed  by  law.  The 
administrator  is  appointed  by  the  court  having 
jurisdiction  in  such  cases,  on  being  satisfied 
that  the  person  proposed  is  legally  qualified. 
The  appointment  must  be  made  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  person  appointed.  It  is  the  gen- 
erally accepted  rule  that  any  one  is  legall}' 
competent  to  be  an  administrator  who  is  com- 
petent to  make  a  contract.  Certain  classes  of 
persons  are  disqualified  by  statute,  as  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  for  instance,  drunkards, 
gamblers,  spendthrifts,,  etc.  The  relatives  of 
the  deceased  are  considered  as  entitled  to  the 
appointment  to  administer  the  estate,  and  the 
order  of  precedence  is  regulated  by  statute. 
The  husband  is  to  be  granted  administration 
on  the  wife's  personal  estate,  and  administra- 
tion on  the  husband's  estate  is  to  be  granted  to 
the  widow  and  the  next  of  kin  in  the  following 
order  if  they  or  any  of  them  will  accept: 

1 .  To  the  widow. 

2.  To  the  children. 

3.  To  the  father. 

4.  To  the  brothers. 

5.  To  the  sisters. 


6.  To  the  grandchildren. 

7.  To  any  other  of  the  next  of  kin  who 
would  be  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  estate. 

The  guardians  of  minors  who  are  entitled 
may  administer  for  them.  In  case  none  of  the 
relatives  or  guardians  will  accept,  the  admin- 
istration will  be  given  to  the  creditors  of  the 
deceased.  The  creditor  who  applies  first,  if 
legally  competent,  is  to  be  preferred.  If  no 
creditor  applies,  any  person  who  is  legally 
qualified  may  be  appointed.  In  the  city  of 
New  York  the  public  administrator  may  ad- 
minister the  estate  after  the  next  of  kin.  In 
the  State  of  New  York  the  surrogate  may 
select,  among  the  next  of  kin,  any  one  in 
equal  degree,  and  appoint  him  sole  adminis- 
trator to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.  In  case 
there  are  several  persons  of  the  same  degree 
of  kindred  to  the  intestate  entitled  to  admin- 
istration, they  are  preferred  in  the  following 
order: 

1.  Males  to  females. 

2.  Relatives  of  the  whole  blood  to  tho'ie  of 
the  half  blood. 

3.  Unmarried  to  married  women  ;  and 
should  there  be  several  persons  equally  enti- 
tled, the  surrogate  may  grant  letters  to  one 
or  more  of  them,  as  his  judgment  may  sug- 
gest. 

If  letters  of  administration  should  be  un- 
duly granted  they  may  be  revoked. 


V 


■^ 


PARTNERSHIP. 


481 


Administration  ma)-  likewise  be  granted  on 
certain  conditions,  for  a  certain  limited  time, 
or  for  a  special  purpose. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  an  administrator 
differ  from  those  of  an  executor  only  inasmuch 
as  he  must  distribute  and  dispose  of  the  estate 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  law,  as  he 
has  no  will  to  follow. 

First.  The  administrator  must  give  bond, 
with  sureties,  for  the  faithful  execution  of  his 
trust. 

Second.  He  must  make  an  inventory  of  the 
goods  and  chattels  of  the  intestate,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  law. 

Third.  Two  copies  of  this  inventory  shall 


be  made,  one  of  which  will  be  lodged  with 
the  judge  of  the  court,  and  the  other  will  be 
kept  by  the  administrator.  The  latter  will  be 
obliged  to  account  for  the  property  mentioned 
in  the  inventory. 

Fourth.  Having  completed  the  inventory, 
the  administrator  must  then  collect  the  out- 
standing debts  of  the  intestate,  and  also  pay 
the  debts  of  the  same.  The  order  of  payment 
is  regulated  by  local  statutes. 

Having  liquidated  all  the  debts  of  the  in- 
testate, the  administrator  will  divide  the  re- 
mainder of  the  assets  among  the  surviving 
relatives  of  the  deceased.  In  so  doing,  he 
will  act  under  the  direction  of  the  court. 


^%mi¥ 


epaF'tnei^^l^ip.  |p-^ 


PARTNERSHIP  is  an  agreement  be- 
■mwu  tween  two  or  more  persons  to  share  in 
ki^  the  profit  and  loss  arising  from  the  use 
^V^^  and  application  of  their  capital,  labor  and 
skill,  in  some  lawful  business,  whether  the  capi- 
tal be  supplied  by  one,  and  the  labor  and  skill 
by  another,  or  each  contribute  both  labor  or 
skill  and  capital.  It  is  not  constituted  merely 
by  an  interest  of  different  parties  in  the  .same 
thing ;  the  test  is,  whether  there  is  a  participation 
in  profits  and  a  joint  liability  to  loss. 

A  i^cncral partncrslup  is  one  formed  for  trade 
or  business  generally,  without  limitations;  a 
special  partnership  is  one  in  which  the  joint  inter- 
est extends  only  to  a  particular  concern,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  erection  of  a  house  ;  a  limited 
partnership  is  one  in  which  one  or  more  of  the 
partners  put  in  a  certain  amount  of  capital,  which 
is  liable  for  the  contracts  of  the  firm, but  beyond 


that  amount  the  party  or  parties  advancing  are 
not  liable.  The  regulations  concerning  the  last- 
named  species  of  partnership,  in  any  particular 
State  where  it  is  recognized,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  statutes  of  such  State  ;  and  a  strict  compli- 
ance with  the  statutes  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
avoid  incurring  the  responsibilities  attaching  to 
the  position  of  general  partner. 

A  person  who  lends  his  name  as  a  partner,  or 
who  suffers  his  name  to  continue  in  the  firm  after 
he  has  actually  ceased  to  be  a  partner  thereof,  is 
still  responsible  to  third  persons  as  a  partner. 

A  partner  may  buy  and  sell  partnership  effects; 
make  contracts  in  reference  to  the  business 
of  the  firm  ;  pay  and  receive  money  ;  thaw,  and 
indorse,  and  accept  bills  and  notes  ;  and  all  acts 
of  such  a  nature,  even  though  they  be  upon  his 
own  private  account,  will  bind  the  other  part- 
ners, if  connected  with  matters  apparently  having 


/ 


\' 


-7[ 


482 


PARTNERSHIP. 


reference  to  the  business  of  the  firm,  and 
transacted  with  other  parties  ignorant  of  the  fact 
that  such  deahngs  are  for  the  particular  partner's 
private  account.  So,  also,  the  representation 
or  misrepresentation  of  any  fact  made  in  any 
partnership  transaction  by  one  partner,  or  the 
commission  of  any  fraud  in  such  transaction,  will 
bind  the  entire  firm,  even  though  the  other 
partners  may  have  no  connection  with,  or 
knowledge  of  the  same. 

If  a  partner  sign  his  individual  name  to  nego- 
tiable paper,  all  the  partners  are  bound  thereby, 
if  such  paper  appear  upon  its  face  to  be  on  part- 
nership account.  So,  if  the  negotiable  paper  of 
a  firm  be  given  by  one  partner  on  his  private 
account,  and  in  the  course  of  its  circulation  pass 
into  the  hands  of  a  bona  fide  holder  for  value, 
without  notice  or  knowledge  of  the  fact  attend- 
ing its  creation,  the  partnership  is  bound  thereby. 

One  partner  cannot  bind  the  firm  by  deed, 
though  he  may  by  deed  execute  an  ordinary 
release  of  a  debt  due  the  partnership,  thereby 
precluding  the  firm  from  a  recovery  of  the  same. 

If  no  time  be  fixed  in  the  articles  of  copart- 
nership for  the  commencement  of  such  partner- 
ship, it  is  presumed  to  commence  from  the  date 
and  execution  of  such  articles.  If  no  precise 
period  is  therein  mentioned  for  its  continuance, 
a  partner  may  withdraw  at  any  time,  and  dissolve 
such  partnership  at  his  pleasure;  and  even  if  a 
definite  period  be  agreed  upon,  a  partner  may, 
by  giving  notice,  dissolve  the  partnership  as  to 
all  capacity  of  the  firm  to  bind  him  by  contracts 
thereafter  made ;  such  partner  subjecting  himself 
thereby  to  a  claim  for  damages,  by  reason  of  his 
breach  of  the  covenant. 

The  death  of  cither  partner,  also,  dissolves  the 
partnership,  unless  there  be  an  express  stipula- 
tion that,  in  such  an  event,  the  representatives  of 
such  deceased  partner  may  continue  the  business 
in  connection  with  the  survivors,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  widow  and  children. 

A  partnership  is  dissolved  by  operation  of  law; 
by  a  voluntary  and  bona  fide  assignment  by  any 


partner  of  his  interest  fherein  ;  by  the  bankrupt- 
cy or  death  of  any  of  the  partners  ;  or  by  a  war 
between  the  countries  of  which  the  partners  are 
subjects. 

Immediately  after  a  dissolution,  a  notice  of 
the  same  should  be  published  in  the  public 
papers,  and  a  special  notice  sent  to  every  person 
who  has  had  dealings  with  the  firm.  If  these 
precautions  be  not  taken,  each  partner  will  still 
continue  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  others  to  all 
persons  who  have  had  no  notice  of  such  dissolu- 
tion. 

Partnership   Agreement. 

This  Agreetmni,  made  this  first  day  of  April,  18S3,  between  Charles 
Jean  and  David  Sellers,  both  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  witnesseth  ; 

The  said  parties  agree  to  associate  themselves  as  copartners  for  two 
years  from  this  date,  in  the  business  of  buying  and  selling  cotton,  under  the 
name  and  style  of  Jean  &  Sellers. 

For  the  purpose  of  conducting  the  above-named  business,  Charles  Jean 
has  at  the  date  of  this  writing  invested  ten  thousand  dollars  as  capital 
stock,  and  David  Sellers  has  paid  in  the  like  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars, 
both  of  which  amounts  are  to  be  expended  and  used  in  common,  for  the 
mutual  advantage  of  ths  parties  hereto  in  the  management  of  their  business. 

That  the  details  of  the  business  may  be  thoroughly  understood  by  each, 
it  is  agreed  that  during  the  aforesaid  period  accurate  and  full  book  accounts 
shall  be  kept,  wherein  each  partner  shall  enter  and  record,  or  cause  to  be 
entered  and  recorded,  full  mention  of  all  moneys  received  and  expended, 
.IS  well  as  every  article  purchased  and  sold  belonging  to,  or  in  any  wise 
appertaining  to  such  partnership  ;  the  profits,  gains,  expenditures  and 
losses  being  equally  divided  between  them. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  once  a  year,  or  oftener  should  either  partner 
desire,  a  full,  just  and  accurate  e.xhibit  shall  be  made  to  each  other,  or  to 
their  executors,  administrators  or  representatives,  of  the  losses,  profits  and 
increase  made  by  reason  of  such  copartnership.  And  after  such  an  exhibit 
is  made,  the  surplus  profit,  if  such  there  be,  resulting  from  the  business, 
shall  be  divided  between  the  subscribing  partners,  share  and  share  alike. 

Should  either  partner  desire,  or  should  the  death  of  either  of  the  parties, 
or  other  reasons,  make  it  necessary,  they  will  each  to  the  other,  or,  in  case 
of  death  of  either,  the  surviving  partner  to  the  executors  or  administrators 
of  the  party  deceased,  make  a  full,  accurate  and  final  account  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  partnership  as  aforesaid  and  will  fairly  and  accurately  adjust  the 
same. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  in  case  of  a  misunderstanding  arising  with  the 
parlies  hereto,  which  cannot  be  settled  between  themselves,  such  difference 
of  opinion  shall  be  settled  by  arbitration,  upon  the  following  conditions,  to- 
wit  :  Each  party  to  choose  one  arbitrator,  which  two  thus  chosen  shall 
select  a  third  ;  the  three  thus  chosen  to  determine  the  merits  of  the  case 
and  arrange  the  basis  of  a  settlement. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  undersigned  hereto  set  their  hands  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

Signed  in  presence  of  *l  Charles  Jean. 

Frank  Smith,     v  David  Sellers. 

Henry  Stiles.   ) 


Notice   of  Dissolution. 

The  partnership  heretofore  existing  under  the  name  of  Jean  &  Sellers  is 

this day  of ,  A.D. -,  dissolved  by  mutual  consent. 

Charles  Jean. 
David  Sellers. 


-N 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A   PATENT. 


483 


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tNY  PERSON  who  has  invented  or  dis- 
covered a  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture  or  composition  of  matter, 
'  -^^^  or  any  new  and  useful  improvement 
thereof,  may  obtain  a  patent,  provided  the 
invention  or  discovery  has  not  been  known 
or  used  by  others  in  this  country,  and  not 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application,  unless  the  same 
is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned.  A  patent 
may  also  be  obtained  b\'  any  person  who,  by 
his  own  industry,  genius,  efforts  and  expense, 
has  invented  and  produced  any  new  and  orig- 
inal design  for  a  manufacture,  bust,  statue, 
alto-relievo  or  bas-relief;  any  new  and  original 
design  for  the  printing  of  woolen,  silk,  cotton 
or  other  fabrics  ;  any  new  and  original  impres- 
sion, ornament,  pattern,  print  or  picture  to 
be  printed,  painted,  cast,  or  otherwise  placed 
on  or  worked  into  any  article  of  manufacture  ; 
or  any  new,  useful  and  original  shape  or  con- 
figuration of  any  article  of  manufacture,  the 
same  not  having  been  known  or  used  by  others 
before  his  invention  or  production  thereof,  nor 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  publica- 
tion. 


In  case  of  the  death  of  the  inventor,  the 
application  may  be  made  by  his  e.xecutor  or 
administrator.  In  such  case  the  oath  will  be 
made  by  the  executor  or  administrator. 

In  case  of  an  assignment  of  the  whole  inter- 
est in  the  invention,  or  of  the  whole  interest 
in  the  patent  to  be  granted,  the  patent  will, 
upon  request  of  the  applicant  or  assignee, 
issue  to  the  assignee  ;  and  if  the  assignee  hold 
an  undivided  part  interest,  the  patent  will, 
upon  like  request,  issue  jointly  to  the  inventor 
and  the  assignee  ;  but  the  assignment  in  either 
case  must  first  have  been  entered  of  record, 
and  of  a  day  not  later  than  the  date  of  the 
payment  of  the  final  fee.  The  application 
and  oath  must  be  made  by  the  actual  inventor, 
if  alive,  even  if  the  patent  is  to  issue  to  an 
assignee.  If  the  inventor  be  dead,  it  may  be 
made  by  the  executor  or  admmistrator,  or  by 
the  assignee  of  the  entire   interest. 

THE  APPLICATION. 

All  applications  for  letters  patent  must  be 
made  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  A 
complete  application  comprises  the  petition, 
specification,  oath  and  drawings,  and  the 
model  or  specimen  when  required. 


V 


484 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A  PATENT. 


An  application  for  a  patent  will  not  be  placed 
upon  the  files  for  examination  until  all  its 
parts,  except  the  model  or  specimen,  are 
received. 

THE  SPECIFICATION 

Is  a  written  description  of  the  invention  or 
discovery,  and  of  the  manner  and  process  of 
making,  constructing,  compounding  and  using 
the  same,  and  is  required  to  be  in  such  full, 
clear,  concise  and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any 
person  skilled  in  the  art  or  science  to  which  it 
appertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most  nearly 
connected,  to  make,  construct,  compound  and 
use  the  same.  It  must  conclude  with  a  spe- 
cific and  distinct  claim  or  claims  of  the  part, 
improvement  or  combination  which  the  appli- 
cant regards  as  his  invention  or  discovery. 

In  framing  the  specification  the  applicant 
should  follow  the  appended  arrangement,  such 
portions  as  refer  to  drawings  being  omitted 
when  the  invention  does  not  admit  of  repre- 
sentation by  drawings. 

1.  Preamble  giving  the  name  and  residence 
of  the  applicant,  and  the  title  of  the  inven- 
tion. 

2.  General  statement  of  the  object  and 
nature  of  the  invention. 

3.  Brief  description  of  the  drawings,  show- 
ing what  each  view  represents. 

4.  Detailed  description,  explaining  fully  the 
alleged  invention,  and  the  manner  of  con- 
structing, practicing,  operating  and  using  it. 

5.  Claim,  or  claims. 

6.  Signature  of  inventor. 

7.  Signatures  of  two  witnesses. 

In  original  applications  the  applicant  must 
distinctly  state,  under  oath,  whether  the  in- 
vention has  been  patented  to  himself,  or  to 
others,  with  his  consent  or  knowledge,  in  any 
country. 

THE  OATH. 

The  applicant,  if  the  inventor,  must  make 
oath   that  he  believes  himself  to  be   the  first 


and  original  discoverer  or  inventor  of  the  art, 
machine,  manufacture,  composition  or  im- 
provement for  which  he  desires  a  patent,  and 
that  to  his  best  knowledge  and  belief  the 
same  was  never  before  known  or  used.  He 
must  also  state  his  place  of  residence,  and  the 
State  or  country  of  which  he  is  a  citizen. 

When  applications  are  made  by  an  adminis- 
trator or  executor,  the  form  of  oath  varies 
accordingly. 

DRAWINGS. 

The  applicant  for  a  patent  is  required  by 
law  to  furnish  a  drawing  of  his  invention, 
where  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of  it. 

1.  Drawings  must  be  made  upon  pure 
white  paper  of  a  thickness  corresponding  to 
three-sheet  Bristol  board,  and  the  surface  of 
the  paper  must  be  calendered  and  smooth. 
India  ink  only  must  be  used,  to  secure  per- 
fectly black  and  solid  lines. 

2.  The  size  of  sheet  on  which  a  drawing  is 
made  must  be  exactly  ten  by  fifteen  inches. 
One  inch  from  its  edges  a  single  marginal  line 
is  to  be  drawn,  leaving  the  "  sight"  precisely 
eight  by  thirteen  inches.  Within  this  margin 
all  work  and  signatures  must  be  included. 

3.  All  drawings  must  be  made  with  the  pen 
only. 

4.  Drawings  should  be  made  with  the  fewest 
lines  possible  consistent  with  clearness. 

5.  Letters  and  figures  of  reference  must  be 
carefully  formed.  They  must  never  appear 
upon  shaded  surfaces,  and,  when  it  is  difficult 
to  avoid  this,  a  blank  space  must  be  left  in  the 
shading  where  the  letter  occurs,  so  that  it  may 
appear  perfectly  distinct  and  separate  from  the 
work.  If  the  same  part  of  an  invention  appear 
in  more  than  one  view  of  the  drawing,  it  must 
always  be  represented  by  the  same  character, 
and  the  same  character  must  never  be  used  to 
designate  different  parts. 

6.  The  inventor's  signature  must  be  placed 
at  the  lower  right-hand   corner   of  the    sheet. 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A  PATENT. 


485 


/ 


and  the  signatures  of  witnesses  at  the  lower 
left-hand  corner  ;   all  within  marginal  line. 

7.  Drawings  should  be  rolled,  not  folded, 
for  transmission  to  the  office. 

MODELS 

Must  clearly  exhibit  every  feature  of  a  ma- 
chine which  forms  the  subject  of  a  claim  for 
letters  patent,  but  should  include  no  other  mat- 
ter than  that  covered  by  the  actual  invention 
or  improvement,  unless  necessary  to  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  invention  in  a  working  model. 

Very  often  a  working  model  is  desirable  in 
order  to  fully  and  readily  understand  the  opera- 
tion 

EXAMINATION. 

Applications  are  classified  and  taken  up  for 
examination  in  regular  order,  those  in  the  same 
class  being  examined  and  disposed  of,  as  far  as 
practicable,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
presented. 

AMENDMENTS,   ETC. 

The  applicant  has  a  right  to  amend  before 
or  after  the  first  rejection  ;  and  he  may  amend 
as  often  as  the  examiner  presents  any  new 
references  or  reasons  for  rejection. 

When  an  original  or  reissue  application  is 
rejected  on  reference  to  an  expired  or  unex- 
pired domestic  patent,  which  substantially 
shows  or  describes  but  does  not  claim  the  re- 
jected invention,  or  to  a  foreign  patent,  or  to  a 
printed  publication,  and  the  applicant  shall 
make  oath  to  facts  showing  a  completion  of  the 
invention  before  the  filing  of  the  application 
for  the  domestic  patent,  or  before  the  date  of 
the  foreign  patent,  or  before  the  date  at  which 
the  printed  publication  was  made,  and  shall 
also  make  oath  that  he  does  not  know  and  does 
not  believe  that  the  invention  has  been  in  pub- 
lic use  or  on  sale  in  this  country  for  more  than 
two  years  prior  to  his  application,  and  that  he 


has  never  abandoned  the  invention,  then  the 
patent  or  publication  cited  will  not  bar  the 
grant  of  a  patent  to  the  applicant,  except  upon 
interference. 

When  an  application  is  rejected  on  reference 
to  an  expired  or  unexpired  domestic  patent 
which  shows  or  describes,  but  does  not  claim, 
the  rejected  invention,  or  to  a  foreign  patent, 
or  to  a  printed  publication,  or  to  facts  within 
the  personal  knowledge  of  an  employe  of  the 
office,  set  forth  in  an  affidavit  of  such  em- 
ploye, or  on  the  ground  of  public  use  or  sale, 
or  upon  the  mode  or  capability  of  operation 
attributed  to  a  reference,  or  because  the  alleged 
invention  is  held  to  be  inoperative,  or  frivolous, 
or  injurious  to  public  health  or  morals,  affida- 
vits or  depositions  supporting  or  traversing 
these  references  or  objections  may  be  received  ; 
but  they  will  be  received  in  no  other  cases, 
without  special  permission  of  the  Commis- 
sioner. 

In  case  an  applicant  neglects  to  prosecute 
his  application  for  two  years  after  the  date 
when  the  last  official  notice  of  any  action  by 
the  office  was  mailed  to  him,  it  will  be  held 
that  the  application  has  been  abandoned. 

DESIGNS. 

Patents  for  designs  are  granted  for  three  and 
one-half  years,  or  for  seven  years,  or  for  four- 
teen years,  as  the  applicant  may,  in  his  appli- 
cation, elect. 

When  the  design  can  be  sufficiently  repre- 
sented by  drawings  or  photographs,  a  model 
will  not  be  required. 

Whenever  a  photograph  or  an  engraving  is 
employed  to  illustrate  the  design,  it  must  be 
mounted  upon  Bristol  board,  10  by  15  inches 
in  size,  and  properly  signed  and  witnessed. 
The  applicant  will  be  required  to  furnish  ten 
extra  copies  of  such  photograph  or  engraving 
(not  mounted),  of  a  size  not  exceeding  71^ 
inches  by  1 1. 


K- 


486 


-7\ 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A  PATENT. 


REISSUES. 

When  the  original  patent  is  invalid  or  in- 
operative by  reason  of  a  defective  or  insuffi- 
cient specification,  or  by  reason  of  the  patentee 
claiming  as  his  invention  or  discovery  more 
than  he  had  a  right  to  claim  as  new,  a  reissue 
will  be  granted  to  the  original  patentee,  his 
legal  representatives,  or  the  assignees  of  the 
antire  interest,  provided  the  error  has  arisen 
from  accident,  mistake  or  inadvertence,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive  intention. 

APPEALS. 

An  applicant  for  a  patent  or  a  reissue,  any 
of  the  claims  of  whose  application  have  been 
twice  rejected,  may  appeal  from  the  decision 
of  the  primary  examiner  to  the  Board  of  Ex- 
aminers-in-Chief,  having  once  paid  a  fee  of 
$10.  The  appeal  must  be  made  in  writing, 
signed  by  the  applicant  or  his  attorney,  and 
must  set  forth  the  points  of  the  decision  upon 
which  the  appeal  is  taken. 

FORM,  DATE  AND  DURATION   OF 
PATENTS. 

livery  patent  will  bear  date  as  of  a  daj-  not 
later  than  si.K  months  frcim  the  time  at  which 
the  application  was  passed  and  allowed,  and 
notice  mailed  to  the  applicant,  if  within  that 
period  the  final  fee  be  paid. 

A  patent  will  not  be  antedated. 

Every  patent  will  contain  a  short  title  of 
the  invention  or  discovery,  and  a  grant  to  the 
patentee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  for  the  term 
(jf  seventeen  years,  of  the  exclusive  right  to 
make,  use  and  vend  the  invention  or  discover)- 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Territories 
tliereof. 

EXTENSIONS. 

Patents  granted  since  March  2,  1861,  can- 
not  be  extended,  except  b\'  act  of  Congress. 


CAVEATS. 

On  payment  of  a  fee  of  $10,  any  citizen 
of  the  United  States  who  has  made  a  new 
invention  or  discovery,  and  desires  further 
time  to  mature  the  same,  may  file  in  the 
Patent  Office  a  caveat  setting  forth  the  distin- 
guishing characteristics  of  the  invention  and 
praying  protection  of  his  right  until  he  shall 
have  matured  his  invention.  Such  caveat 
shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential  archives  of 
the  Patent  Office,  and  shall  be  operative  for 
the  term  of  one  year  from-the  filing  thereof. 

ASSIGNMENTS. 

Every  patent,  or  any  interest  therein,  shall 
be  assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument  in 
writing.  The  patentee  or  his  assigns  may 
also  grant  and  convey,  in  like  manner,  an 
exclusive  right  under  his  patent  for  the  whole 
or  any  specified  part  of  the  United  States. 


Schedule  of  Fees. 

Oil  filing  each  application  for  a  Patent $15 

( )n  issuing  each  Original  Patent  (17  years) 20 

On  application  for  Re-issue 30 

On  application  for  Extension 50 

On  granting  every  extension  of  Patent  {7  years) 50 

( >n  each  Caveat 10 

On  appeal  to  Examiners-in-Chief 10 

On  appeal  to  Commissioner  of  Patents 20 

On  filing  a  Disclaimer 10 

On  application  for  Design  (sJ^  years) 10 

On  application  for  Design  (7  years) 15 

On  application  for  Design  (14  years) 30 

On  each  Trade-Mark  (30  years)  25 

On  each  Label  (28  years) 6 


CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE 
PATENT  OFFICE. 

Personal  attendance  of  applicants  at  the 
Patent  Office  is  unnecessary,  as  all  business  is 
required  to  be  transacted  in  writing. 

Correspondence  should  be  addressed  to 
"  The  Commissioner  of  Patents.  " 

Express  charges,  freight,  postage,  and  all 
similar  charges,  must  be  fully  prepaid  to  ensure 
reception. 


jy- — 


PENSION  LAWS. 


4S7 


A  letter  concerning  an  application  should 
state  the  name  of  the  applicant,  the  title  of  the 
invention,  the  serial  number  of  the  application 
and  the  date  of  filing  the  same. 

A  letter  concerning  a  patent  should  state  the 
name  of  the  patentee,  the  title  of  the  inven- 
tion, and  the  number  and  date  of  the  patent. 

All  correspondence  of  the  Patent  Office  will 
be  answered  without  unnecessar)-  delay. 
Telegrams  must  ordinarily  be  received  before 


three  p  m.  to  insure  an  answer  the  same  day. 

AGENTS  AND  ATTORNEYS. 

An>-  intelligent  person  of  good  moral  char- 
acter, upon  filing  a  proper  power  of  attorney, 
may  appear  as  the  agent  or  attorne)-  in  fact 
of  an  applicant. 

The  power  of  attorney  must  be  filed  in  all 
cases  before  an  attornc)-,  original  or  associate, 
will  be  allowed  to  inspect  papers  or  take  action 
of  an\'  kind. 


•7i\- 


eDen^ion  •:•  kav/^. 


•  •  — ;•> —  •  • 


XjHfXNY  person  who  has  been,  since  the  4th 
■  >fn\t  °*^  March,  1861,  disabled  in  the  mili- 
Sj^\)  tary  or  naval  service  of  the  United 
^^^<p^~^  States,  or  in  its  marine  corps,  shall, 
upon  making  due  proof  of  the  fact,  be  placed 
on  the  list  of  invalid  pensioners  of  the  United 
States.  No  claim  for  pension  on  the  part  of  a 
State  militiaman,  or  non- enlisted  person,  on 
account  of  disability  from  wounds  received  in 
battle,  shall  be  valid  unless  prosecuted  to  a 
successful  issue  prior  to  July  4,  1874. 

RATES  OF  PENSION   PER  MONTH. 


DISABILITIES. 


20  00 
25  00 


Loss  of  boih  hands ^25  00 

Total  disability  in  both  hands 

!,<>ssof  ImhIi  leet 

Total  disability  in  lioth  feet. . 
Loss  of  sight  uf  both  eyes. . . 
Loss  of  sight  of  one  eye,  the  sight  of 
the  other  having  been  previously  lost 

Loss  of  one  hand  and  one  foot 

Total  disability  in  one  hand  and  one 

foot...... 

Any  disability  equivalent  to  the  loss  of 
a  hand  or  loot 

Any  disability  incapacitating  for  the 
performance  of  any  manual  labor. . . . 

Any  disability  resulting  In  a  condition 
requiring  the  regular  aid  and  attend- 
ance of  another  person 

Total  deafness 


$ao  00 


$25  c» 
20  00 

25  00 


20  00 
15  00 
20  00 


>1 


3"  =5 
31  25 
31  25 
31  2S 

31  25 
24  00 

24  00 

18  00 


^^ 

$72  00 

72  00 

72  00 

72  00 
36  00 


24  00  

June 

4.  '74- 
31  25  50  00 
13  00  


•  R.itc-  from  June,  1880,  in  case  the  disal)ility  in  permanent  and  requires 
the  regular  aid  and  attendance  of  another  person.  An  applicant  for 
increase  of  pension  from  $31.25  to  $72  per  month  must  furnish  the  testi- 
mony of  his  physician,  or  of  two  credible  witnesses,  to  prove  the  extent 
to  which  he  requires  the  aid  and  attendance  of  another  person. 


The  same  provision  of  law  which  entitles  to 
$31.25  per  month  entitles  to  $72  per  month, 
provided  that  in  the  latter  case  the  disability 
is  permanent.  The  loss  of  a  leg  above  the 
knee,  or  an  arm  at  or  above  the  elbow,  entitles 
the  person  so  disabled  to  a  pension  of  $24  per 
month  after  June  4,  1874. 

The  rates  of  $10,  $12,  $14  and  $16  per 
month  will  be  allowed  in  cases  in  whjch  the  dis- 
ability bears  the  same  proportion  to  that  pro- 
duced by  the  loss  of  a  hand  or  foot  that  those 
rates  bear  to  the  rate  of  $18  per  month. 

The  phrase  "  total  disability  "  is  construed 
to  refer  to  a  total  disabilit)-  for  the  perform- 
ance of  manual  labor  requiring  severe  and 
continuous  exertion.  The  phrase  "  any  man- 
ual labor"  includes  the  lighter  kinds  of  labor 
which  require  education  and  skill. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  by  an  applicant 
for  pension  is  to. file  a  declaration  before  a 
court  of  record,  or  before  some  officer  thereof 
having  custody  of  its  seal,  setting  forth  the 
ground  upon  which  he  claims  a  pension.  Blank 
forms  of  declaration  are  furnished  upon  request 
at  Commissioner  of  Pensions  office.  The  iden- 
tity of  the  applicant  must  be  shown  by  the 
testimony  of  two  credible  witnesses,  who  must 
appear  with    him  before  the  officer  by  whom 


-^ 


L^ 


\ 


488 


PENSION  LAWS. 


the  declaration  may  be  taken.  A  pensioner 
who  may  deem  himself  entitled  to  an  increase 
of  pension  should  file  a  declaration  on  a  blank 
form  furnished  for  the  purpose,  setting  forth 
the  ground  upon  w  hich  he  claims  such  increase. 
A  declaration  for  increase  of  pension  may  be 
taken  before  any  officer  duly  authorized  to 
administer  oaths. 

All  invalid  pensions  granted  under  the  gen- 
eral law  will  terminate  at  re-cnlistment,  or 
when  the  disabilities  for  which  they  were  al- 
lowed shall  have  ceased. 

A  widow's  pension  will  end  at  her  remar- 
riage, and  not  be  renewable  should  she  again 
become  a  w  idow. 

Pensions  allowed  to  dependent  mothers  and 
sisters  end  at  remarriage,  or  when  dependence 
ceases.  Pensions  allowed  to  dependent  fathers 
end  when  the  dependence  ceases. 

The  name  of  any  pensioner  shall  be  stricken 
from  the  roll  upon  his  or  her  failure  to  claim 
a  pension  for  three  years  after  the  same  shall 
have  become  due. 

To  entitle  a  widow  or  children  to  pension, 
the  death  of  the  husband  or  father  must  have 
been  the  result  of  injury  received  or  disease 
contracted  under  such  circumstances  as  would 
have  entitled  him  to  an  invalid  pension  had  he 
been  disabled. 

A  widow  is  entitled  to  a  pension  of  the  same 
rate  as  that  to  which  the  husband  would  have 
been  entitled  had  he  been  totally  disabled.  In 
addition  to  this  rate,  she  will  be  allowed  $2 
per  month  for  each  child  of  the  officer  or  soldier 
under  the  age  of  si.xteen  years. 

In  the  applications  of  widows  and  children 
for  pensions,  they  will  be  required  to  prove 
that  death  of  husband  resulted  from  the  injury 
or  disease  on  account  of  which  his  pension  was 
granted;  and,  if  the  husband  had  not  estab- 
lished his  claim  for  an  invalid  pension,  the 
widow  shall  prove  origin  and  cause  of  the  fatal 
disease.  Widows  will  be  required  to  prove 
their    marriage  to    the   person   on   account  of 


whose  service  and  death  the  claim  is  made  ; 
also  proof  of  dates  of  birth  of  children  bj- 
copy  of  church  record. 

A  mother  claiming  a  pension  must  prove  the 
cause  add  date  of  the  death  of  her  son  ;  her 
relationship  ;  that  he  left  no  widow  or  minor 
child  or  children  surviving ;  and  her  depend- 
ence upon  him  for  support. 

A  father  claiming  pension  on  account  of  the 
death  of  his  son,  upon  whom  he  was  depend- 
ent for  support,  must  prove  facts  similar  to 
those  required  of  a  mother. 

The  claim  on  behalf  of  minor  brothers  and 
sisters  should  be  made  by  a  guardian  duly  ap- 
pointed. 

In  administration  of  the  pension  laws,  no 
distinction  is  made  between  brothers  and  sisters 
of  the  half  blood  and  those  of  the  whole  blood. 
Evidence  in  a  claim  for  pension  cannot  be  veri- 
fied before  an  officer  who  is  engaged  in  the 
prosecution  of  such  claim. 

In  claims  for  increase  of  pension,  a  fee  of 
$10  will  be  allowed.  All  letters  of  enquiry 
relative  to  claims  pending  in  Pension  Office 
should  give  the  number  of  the  claim. 

No  sumof  money  due,  or  to  become  due, 
to  any  pensioner,  shall  be  liable  to  attachment, 
levy  or  seizure,  under  any  legal  or  equitable 
process. 

Agents  for  paying  pensions  shall  receive 
two  per  centum  on  all  disbursements  made  by 
them  to  pensioners. 

No  agent,  or  attorney,  or  other  person,  shall 
demand  or  receive  any  other  compensation  for 
his  services  in  prosecuting  a  claim  for  pension 
or  bounty-land  than  such  as  the  Commissioner 
of  Pensions  shall  direct  to  be  paid  to  him,  not 
exceeding  $10. 

Every  officer,  or  enlisted  or  hired  man,  who 
has  lost  a  limb,  or  the  use  of  a  limb,  in  the 
military  or  naval  service  of  the  United  States, 
is  entitled  to  receive,  once  every  five  j^ears,  an 
artificial  limb  or  apparatus,  or  commutation 
therefor.      The  period  of  five  years  is  reckoned 


J- , 


K 


THE  LEGAL  FENCE. 


489 


from  the  filing  of  the  first  application  after  June 
17,  nS/O.  The  commutation  allowed  in  cast 
of  the  amputation  of  a  leg  is  $75  ;  in  all  other 


cases,  $50.  Applications  for  artificial  limbs 
should  be  transmitted  through  the  proper  pen- 
sion agent  to  the  surgeon-general  of  the  army. 


-**f-5ff^ 


Si 


-^T^ 


'l7evke^a 


F'enee. 


-^i^ 


HE  legal  regulations  of  the  States  and 
Territories  with  regard  to  fences 
are  embodied  in  the   followint:  sum- 


mar)*  : 

Alabama. — Legal  fence,  live  feet  high. 

Arizona. — Four  and  one-half  feet. 

Arkansas. — Five  fccL 

California. — The  legal  fence  is  described  with  great  particularity — 
wire,  post  and  rail,  brush,  picket,  ditch  and  pole,  and  hedge;  wire  fences, 
not  less  than  three  separate  strands,  the  first  eighteen  inches  from  the 
ground,  the  others  two  and  one  foot  apart. 

CoLOKAiX). — Four  and  one-half  feet. 

Connecticut. — Five  and  a  half  feet,  with  provisions  essentially  as  in 
Massachusetts. 

Delaware. — Four  feet,  with  a  ditch  within  two  feet,  is  a  lawful  fence. 
Wood  or  stone  fences,  or  hedge,  four  and  a  half  feel  high. 

Florida. — Five  feet. 

Georgia. — Five  feet. 

Idaho. — Four  feet. 

Illinois. — "Fences  four  and  one-half  feet  high,  of  whatever  material 
the  fence-viewers  shall  deem  sufficient." 

Indiana. — Any  structure  in  the  nature  of  a  fence,  such  as  good  hus- 
bandmen generally  keep. 

Iowa. — Four  and  one-half  feet  high,  or  fifty-four  inches.  Harbcd  wire 
fence  prescribed  as  legal  fence,  1S76. 

Kansas. — "Worm  fences  four  and  one-half  feel  :  turf,  four  feet,  with 
ditches  ;  wire  fence,  posts  twelve  feet  apart." 

Kenti;ckv. — "All  sound  or  strong  fences,  five  feet  liigh.  so  close  that 
stock  cannot  creep  through,"  is  the  definition  of  the  legal  fence. 

Maine. — Four  feet. 

Maryland. — Five  feet. 

Massachusetts.— The  legal  fence  is  four  feet  high.  A  "sufficient 
barrier"  only  is  demanded,  whether  the  equivalents  be  furnished  by 
strc.inis,  ditches,  live  growths,  or  constructions  in  wood,  stone  or  other 
material. 


Michigan. — Fences  four  and  one-half  feet  high,  or  rails,  timber, 
buards,  stone,  or  other  things  deemed  equivalent  thereto  in  the  judgment 
of  fence-viewers. 

Minnesota.— Fences  four  and  one-half  feet  high,  etc.  Barbed  fence 
defined  by  the  act  of  1877. 

Missouri. — Hedge  five  feet,  fence  four  and  one-half  feet. 

Montana. — Four  and  one-half  feet. 

Nebraska. — The  legal  fence  is  described  as  "such  a  fence  as  good 
husbandmen  generally  keep." 

Ntw  Hampshire. — Four  feet. 

New  Jersey. — Fences  are  to  be  four  feet  two  inches  high,  of  wood, 
brick  or  stone,  and  four  and  a  half  feet  if  of  other  materials. 

New  Mexico. — Four  feet. 

New  York. — The  town  meetings  prescribe  what  shall  be  deemed  a 
legal  fence  in  each  town.  Assessors  and  commissioners  of  highw.ays  per- 
form the  duties  offence-viewers.  Four  and  one-half  feet  is  the  usual  height 
prescribed. 

North  Carolina. — Five  feet. 

Ohio. — "  A  fence,  of  whatever  material,  constructed  in  all  respects  such 
as  good  husbandmen  ought  to  keep."     Statute  of  1865. 

Pennsylvania. — Towns  and  counties  secure  special  legislation  for 
fencing  railway  lines,  and  to  prevent  running  of  the  stock  at  large. 

Rhode  Island. — Stone  or  wood  fences  must  be  four  and  a  half  feet 
high  ;  hedges  and  ditches  arc  elaborately  described. 

South  Carolin.a. — Fences  must  be  six  feel  high,  of  wood  or  hedge, 
or  ditches  equivalent  as  barriers. 

Tennessee. — Five  feet. 

Texas. — Five  feet  high.     Harbcd  wire  defined  as  legnl  fence. 

Utah. — Four  and  one-half  feet.  ' 

Vermont. — The  legal  fence  is  five  and  a  half  feet  high,  with  provisions 
essentially  as  in  Massachusetts. 

Virginia.— Five  feet. 

Washington  Territory. —Four  feet.  Harbed  wire  fence  must  carry 
a  top  rail  of  wood. 

West  Virginia.— Legal  fences,  four  and  a  half  feet  high. 

Wisconsin. — "Fences  four  and  one-half  feet  high,"  etc.  By  act  oi 
April,  1878,  barbed  wire  fence  is  defined  as  a  legal  fence. 


\ 


49° 


GERMAN    LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


GERMAN    LEGAL   BUSINESS   DEPARTMENT. 

ler  lanbebmann  un5  ledjtagelelitle. 

Jtusjiicjc  aus  6cn  ®cfcfebud]ern  jum  (gebraud]  im  f)anbcISDerfcfjr.  —  IDinfc  fiir  ben 

©cfd}dftsmann. 


-^««- 


»»> 


S}anbd5vcd}k  un6  ^ormularc. 


~;'|>^t^  511111  9lnfang  bc6  tnu|'eiibjnl)vigeii  3teic^co  luivb 
^^C/  bcv  D-liciiid;  oljiie  C«cridjtc,  05cfcl(e  uiib  3ted)tg; 
'vEX^  gt'le^vte  nidjt  lu'ftc()fii  toniicii.  5115  bie  9Jieii[d)5 
I)eit  nod)  in  i[)vcin  Dtntiiv^uftnnbe  roax,  ei)e  fic  nod)  ba§ 
gcfeU|d;aftlid)c  23anb  iim[d;lot>,  luav  SOiadjt  bnS  f)cvv= 
fd^enbe  ©efel^  ifigcnt^um  ge(;ortc  nid)t  umimganglid) 
bom,  bev  i'5  fdjiif  ofter  faiib,  fonbcni  bcm,  bcr  bie  pr)i)fifd}c 
ih'rtft  Ijntte,  eg  gegeii  bie  C?ingviffc  'Jlnbcvcr  jii  ncv; 
t^eibigen.  9JJnd;t  gtng  oor  9{ed)t.  Unb  Ijcute  no^, 
niogcn  roiv  nnd)  nod)  fotiifl  non  bcv'i'evniinftigfcit  nnb  bcr 
(frd'udjtuiig  unfcvev  (Jiuilifntioii  fpvcdjcn,  ift  biefe  5;£)t'ovic 
bie  ©runblage  eiiu-g  jebeit  3tcd)t§ucvfn^rcn§.  3"""ft 
fnd;te  bov  9.1u'n|i^  bn6  @cfcl3  im  (?tnflnng  mit  fetnem 
mititrlidjcn  i>evftnnb  ju  briitgcn,  nicld)C6  cine  %xt  mitbcs 
9{ec^t  [)i(betc,  bnd  3u|nmmciigel'ct<t  max  au§  alien  3lrteu 
Ungcrecfjtigfeitcn  unb  in  bcm  bie  'JobcSftvafc  nig  atlein 
giillig  nnerfnnnt  luurbc.  ^nnn  untcvnnljin  bii§  g-nmilicn; 
Ijnnpt  bie  ^Inoitlntng  bfs  ®cfet5e§  —  cin  (Sc^vitt  in  ber 
xcd)tcn  9tid)tnng,  nbev  and)  mix  ein  Sd)vitt  —  unb  fo, 
mit  bem  ii.nid)feu  in  SSeioIjcit  unb  g-vfaljvung,  luuvbe 
nien[d)iiclicr  lliibill  cvft  tiuvd;  ben  I1icn|d)cn  fclbft,  bann 
buret)  bie  g-nmilie,  ben  Stnmin  uiib  5ulcl3t  burd;  ben 
Slant  abge()oIfeii,  ^i-'^c  biefer  9lenbcrnngcn  raar  ein 
9®ed)|ct  u>in  23c|'|'eren,  cin  Sdjritt  nnl)cr  jur  Unpnrtcilid); 
teit  unb  (?crcd)tigtcit.  iSelbft  [djoii  in  bent  bnnfelften 
3eitalter  ftellten  lucife  9tid)ter  Jormcln  ,3uiammen,  au§ 
benen  nad)  unb  nad)  unfcre  3fcd)tgniiffcnfd)aft  cntftanb, 
unb  ift  uiifcr  [jciitiges  grofeartigec.  (Mc[cl}|'yftem  c6cnfofcI;r 
loie  unfere  6tuiIi[ntion,  ein  nntiir(id)c§  SRefuItnt  ber 
iP)iiinanitat.  '2d)oii  in  ben  friir)cftcii  gtabicn  ber  ®e: 
fd)id)te  un|'erer3ta|fc  jcigtc  cG  fid),  bnft  bev  Urtl)eil'3fprnd) 
bcr  ®d)icb5vid)ter,  benen  ©trcitfragen  jnr  Sofniig  uor; 
gclcgt  raareu,  iiidjt  gcniigte,  urn  bcm  Snnb  (^vicben  unb 
9hi()e  JU  fidjcru,  unb  tvaten  t>cftl)alb  oou^cit  ju  ^cit  unb 
in  jcbem  25olfe  @efe(3geber  auf,  bie  ®efel3biid)cr  nieber: 


fdjrieben,  aug  roeld)en  roir  roieber  ba§  gemetue  9ted)t  unb 
bieStaat^gefe^jc  bee  neunjebnten^aljrljunbcrts  gcfainmelt 
Ijaben.  ^ciiex  9>oIf6uerbanb  l)at  feiiic  eigcncii  i'anbc§; 
gcfeljc,  unb  luie  ucrfd)tebeii  fic  and;  atle  fein  niogcn,  fo  ift 
Bod)  jcbeg  auf  ®ercd;tigfcit  unb  gefunben  9Jtcnfd)cn; 
uerftaub  gcgriinbet.  jDo^  cnglifd)e  Stedjt,  ba§  luiv  non 
(Jnglanb  l)icr  nad)  9Iincrita  mitgebrndjt  Ijaben,  ift, 
luie  bie  cnglifd)e  ©prad;e,  ein  9Jtifd;mafd)  ucrfdjicbencr 
(Jkinente.  35a§  altfadirifd^e  9tedE)t,  mit  fciner  ftarfen 
icnbcnj  fiir  perfontid)c  gveitjcit  unb  fciner  ftvciigcn  unb 
glcidjcn  @cvcd}tigfcit  fiir  Jpodj  unb  3iicbrig,  bilbct  baS  tyun- 
bameiit.  9Jfit  bcr  normanif^en  ©roberung  famen,  juglcid) 
mit  ber  (^infiifjruiig  ber  fraujijfifdjcn  j?rieg6i,  SIBilb;, 
.U'vinunat;  unb  Vc[)nf>rccl)te,  9(enberungcn  im  in-fit^rcd)!. 
'Saju  fiigtc  bie  voinifc£)e  Stixije  bn§  geiftlid;e  9tec^t  unb 
cinen  ^[}cil  be6.fi'riminalred)t§,  raao  bircft  uon  bcm  grofu'u 
3;uffinianifd)cn  £obcr  be§  rfimifd)cn  9teid)§  ^ergclcitet 
luovben,  unb  l)at  fid)  bicfe  cigciit[)iiinlid)c  ilfifdjiing  im 
i'nufc  bcr  3ial)rt)unbcrte  jn  ber  grofenrtigen  ©ciualjrlciftuiig 
uon  Jrcitjcit  unb  ®ered)tigfcit  entroicfcit,  bcrcn  luir  uiig 
Ijciite  in  unferen  ©efcl^cii  cvfrcucn.  UnfcrcmJtrimiiinlrcd)t 
liegt  bcr  ®cbanfe  jn  @vunbe,  bafe  bcr  5)crbrcd)er  bes 
@d)u^c§  bcbarf,  nnb  banad;  rid)tet  fid)  unfer  $roje§; 
uerfal)ren.  3)ie  erftcn  ©trnfcn,  mcldje  bcr  9Jfcnfd; 
fannte,  luaren  ^ob  ober  iH-rftiimmelnng.  ^m  OJtittel; 
alter  rourben  "Diebc  in  Oel  gcfotteit  unb  3tauber  lebenbig 
bcgrnben.  3f"fl''"  imivbcn  auf  bie  J-oItcv  gcfpnnnt 
nnb  Jlu^ingen  mittelft  ber  'Sttumenfd;raubc  unb  besS 
eifernen  (Sd)ul)'§  erjmungen.  ^m  Saufc  bcr  ^fo^ve  Dcr= 
beffcrtcn  fid)  bicfe  3»ftSii''e  unb  I)cutc  ift  @ered)tigfeit 
mit  ®nabc  gcpaart  unb  bie  fd;nmIofc  i^arbavci  ber  mitfcl; 
alterlid;cn  ®crid)tg(}ofc  roirb  intmer  felteucr. 

(5§  ift  nid)t  unfere  ?lufgnbe,  au§  bem  Scfcr  cinen 
9h'd)tGgclcl)rtcn  ju  niadjcn,  unb  mdre  e§  Iad)crlid),  he- 
^ttupten  5U  toollcn,  bnjj  cine  fo  grogartige  Sfi>iffenfd;aft, 


■>^ 


\ 


"Tf 


GERMAN    LEGAL  BUSINESS  '  DKPARTMENT. 


491 


luic  bic  :Kcd)t^ii)ificiiid)nft,  in  ciiicm  iBud}  luie  biefcs 
foUtc  ^iifnmmonflcfafet  lucrbeii  foniicn.  i)le\n,  luev 
eiiiiitiil  in  ciiicii  3u'd)tQftvcit  ucnuicfclt  ift,  gi'()c  u'  cincm 
9(&uofntcii,  uiib  511  bcm  bcftcii,  bcii  cv  fiiibeii  faiiii. 

iSit  bns  Spnid)iuovt  fogt,  ift  cine  Unjc  '-l>oifid)t  nicl)r 
lut'vtl),  nl^  eiu  '•^Jfunb  itfud^fid)!,  unb  (jlnnbcn  miv,  bcv 
Si'l'cv  luiib  in  ben  ncU'ljfolgcnBcn  Syiiittcvn  nuind;e  Unjc 
i'Oii"id)t  finbcn.  @cvid)tc  fiub  tf;cnie  iH-vcjniignngen,  unb 
SJicninnij  foUto  fie  uev|"iid)cii,  |'o  dingr  3tvcitigfeitcn  auf 
cine  eiiifnd)cvc  unb  biliigerc  !!i.H'i|'c  gelijft  iiu-vben  fonncn. 
jDerSBcife  nieibet  fic  loie  23aiifcvott  unb  rvcncv,  unb  fict;t 
fid)  Dov,  nid)t  in  ^trcitiiagen  iievn'icteft  5n  nunben.  3[Siv 
bcfjniipten,  baf;  bev  luifnicvfianic  Vcft'v  biefcv  3i'ili-''i  ""U; 
ftanbig  jn  bicfcm  ^mcd  uovbevcitet  tuirb. 

T>n5  (Scl'eli  ift,  luie  u)iv  norbev  bcnicvften,  eiu  t()cuvc? 
'-Bevgniigen,  unb  die  3iH-iol)eit  bcv-.HItcn,  bic  bio  Wcfcbc  gc  = 
mnd)t  (;nbcn,  l)at  auf  bicfcn  SBatjvfpvud)  gebaut.  (Sine 
bcv  erftcn  Jiit'cl",  bic  ben  j^inbcvu  cv;n()lt  luivb,  ift  bic 
(Me|'d)id)te  uon  ben  jmei  iiiUicn,  bic  ben  Stveit  nnt  cincn 
^dfe  cincni  vcd)t§gelel)rten  ?tffen  uoilcgtcn,  unb  lUoBci 
bn6  ©tveitobjcft  atlnuilig  int  3."lcngcn  be§  iSd)ieb^rid)tev?i 
ocvfdjiuanl).  J'ic  auf  vScite  4r>-2  iUuftvivte  @cfd)id)tc 
le()vt  cine  9}foni(,  bic  '^llle  bcl)ev5igcn  folltcn. 

®er;t  end)  bie  5a(;cn  ©tveitfiid^tigen  nn,  mie  fie  bcibe, 
bee  cine  am  Jtopf  i:nb  bee  nnticie  nni  ^Sdjiiuinj  bev  beftvit; 
tcnen  ,ftn[)  jict^en ;  luie  entfdjloffen  eiii;^'^'"^''  'f*/  "•'')'  bie 
Jli!()  fclbft  yi  gciuinncn,  ueiu,  nne  ben  ''^Inbevn  bnoon  nbju; 
[jnlten,  fie  5U  geiuinneu,  uub  fel)t  end)  ben  'Jlbuotntcn  nn, 
niie  geledit  unb  anftiinbig  cv  bnbei  ftebt,  unb  luie  fleif;ig 
cv  bic  03ebiil)vcn  unb  epovtedi  ^u  luelfeu  uevfte()t,  iDa()veub 
er  bcni  jllagcv  vtitb,  feft  unb  beftiinbig  nn5u[)n[tcn.  Uub 
lueuu  bann  bic  Siul]  tvocfen  genmlfeu  ift,  fe()t  uiic  bev 
"J-U'DjeiJ  enSet :  Tev  (5'ine  ()nt  bie  .hijvncv  un'!)  einen  tiid): 
tigeu  Jail,  unb  bcr  3liibcre  beu  ®d)iunnj  unb  einen  uid)t 
mcniger  nnangencbnien  Stnv^,  unibvcnb  bev  ?lbyofnt  fid) 
uiif  Mut)  unb  OJiild)  nub  cinev  nnfu'vovbentlid)  gutcn 
DJJeiuuug  uom  (Mefelj  unb  feiuev  9lu^(cguug  fovtinnd)t. 
Tie  Sative  niog  gcfnd)t  genanut  luevbcn,  e^  ftcr)t  nbev 
fcft,  unb  jcbev  lu'vuiinftige  I'lcnid)  luirb  es  yigcben,  bnfi 
®evcd)ligfcif  in  biefev  ii}e(t  cine  uevyueifelt  ll)enie 
aSnnve  ift. 

3!ebcv  (5'eid)nft6mnnn  ()nt  beveit^  bie  i)iot()mcnbigfeit 
cinev  cinfnc()cii  unb  gviinblid)cn  t^-vflavung  bev  ge|et}lid)en 
'^^vinnipien  uub  (^5ebvnnd)e,  bie  nllen  G>'cfd)nftfibe',iel)nugen 
5u  Wvunbe  licgen,  fenuen  gclevnt.  T)a'3  Oievid)t  niuinit 
nn,  biifj  3>-'^c''""i""  i'''-'  CMefete  fount,  unb  iucuh,  mie  es 
Oft  oovfonunt,  iuid)tigc  t^vgcbniffe  nuf  bent  Spiele  fteljcn, 
iftUuiuiffenbeit  uuv  ju  oft  uevbevblid).    Alcin  Jug  ucvgef)! 


in  gvoKen  .5>«iibel5()iiufcvn,  on  beni  uid)t  bie  cine  obev 
nnbevc  Jvngc  nuftnud)t,  bie  eine  genaue  .Slenntnif^  bev 
bctveffeiibon  C'iei'etu-  cvfovbevt.  9(llen  renou,  bio  bno 
i^ebiivfnij;  eiuoo  fid)evcn  unb  ciufad)cn  Jiailjgcbevo  in  ben 
t(iglid;en  @efd)nftofd)iuievigfeiteii  ciniel)cn  gclevnt  bnbeu, 
unbnicn  miv  bic  folgenbon  .Unpitet.  ?lllc  ini  gcaii.il)nlic()en 
OJofdjiiftolcbon  yovfoniuionfton  ''.)liigclcgenl)eiton  finJi  cin; 
gel^eub  bef)nnbelt  nub  niit  (fvliiutcvungeu  oevfel)eu,  bie  bet 
fovgfciltigoni  >2tnbinni  ,3vi'tt'iiniev  unniijglid)  nirtd)cn. 

3icbevninnn  foUle  fooicl  ("'U'lel.UenntniK  bofitjeu,  uui  feinc 
gemijt)ulic^eu  uub  nllgemeincn  3ted)te  miil)ven  ^u  fijnneu, 
unb  jebov  i'eia  mivb  ^igobon,  baf^  Okfdiriftolente  ^uni 
niiiibeften  in  beu  (MefelH'ii  bonninbcvt  fein  follton,  bie  bcveii 
^nnptfrid)lid)ftcu  @e)d)nft^bc5iei)ungen  betvcffcn  ;  jnm 
23ci[pic(  ,ftoniprtgnon:(Mc)d)nfte,  "iH-vtviige  unb  .ffontvnftc, 
"■iH'vfcinfe,  bie  3lne<fteUnng  unb  Lvin^ichnng  uon  "Jioten  niib 
ii>ed)felii  u.  f.  u).  ©ie  ytenntnijj  bev  ©vuubpvinjipien 
bev  .^anbelSved)tr  mivb  teiglid)  fd)weven  .^vvtbiiuievu 
Bovbcugen,  bie  gvo^e  iH'vlogeul)citen  nnO  'iH-vlui'lc  iiu 
®cfo[ge  t)nben  fijnueu. 

'i^ie  (Mcfel^e  fiub  ()iev  ftnv  in  fid)  felbft  bnvgetcgt,  fo 
bnf?  JU  jebcv  rfvage  cine  bontlidjc  uub  jufviebenftellenlio 
"'}(ntmovt  gcfunbcn  mevbcn  tnun.  J^ic  in  beni  engliid)cu 
Xtieile  btofeS  "iin-vtes  nngegebenen  Jovnien  un?  bie  t)iev 
iu'^  r'eutfd)o  iibovietUeu  (f-vfliivnngen  finb  iiusiuibni(jH)cife 
oollftnubig  unb  gennu,  unb  biic>  (f-vgebnig  fovgfiiltigcv  uub 
gemi|"ienl)aitev  5(nt.nvbcitung  unb  ^Iniifnug. 

9iBn§  !^l)V  and)  uutevuel)nien  niijgt,  ftubivt  cvft  unfcve 
(Me|"d)ciftofovineln  unb  nebnit  I5ud)  bie  Ji>infe,  bie  luiv 
gobon,  ^i  .Oevjcu.  ficnntnif^  ift  i1nid)t,  unb  befonbcvg  in 
(Mofd)nftfifnd)en.  ii>ev  finb  bie  evfolgvcidjcn  i'ento?  iMoo 
bio,  bic  bicfe  .fi'enntuiffo  bofit^en.  3?h-v  oou  (fuvcn  (vveuubeu 
ift  in  ffjeuve,  uielleidjt  vninivcnbe  Sfveitigfeiteu  uovmicfoliV 
Anngt  i^n,  luie  ev  e^  nugefnngon  ()nt,  unb  ev  mivb  nuf  einen 
floiitlidion  3i'>'tl)uni  juviirfmeifcii,  inollcidjt  in  ftV(iflicl)ov 
llnu'i(icnl)cit  bcgnngen,  bev  jcbodi  uevniioben  luovtion  uuive, 
f)atte  ev  unfeve  i,'ef)ve  uov  5(ugen  gebnbt.  jDnvuni  ftubivt 
biofe  Soitou  nufntevffani,  menu  .^Vx'  beu  i'ovtheil,  ben  fie 
gomii()ven,  genief'on  moUt.  (J'ine  ()nlbftiinbige  Jlufuicvf: 
fiiuifeit  cf)e  ^i)\-  ein  ©cfdjiift  nbfci)lief!t,  mag  Cud) 
iaufenbe  cv)paveu.  jTov  f(eif;igo  Vofcv  fann  fid)  auf  oino 
oevtafl'eu,  baf;  cs,  menu  ev  mil  biofoiu  i^nd)  ^uv  .rianb, 
unfcve  58infe  beadjtcl,  unfcve  ^el)vcu  befolgt  unb  unfcve 
Aovmen  gcbvand)t,  cine^i  gefd)cibteven  'Jltiuofatou,  al§  eiu 
duvd)fd)nittlid)ov  (Mcfdjiiftomann  ift,  bobavf,  urn  il)u  in 
einen  :1ied)t^ftveit  ^n  Dcviuicfolu,  unb  movbeu  foinc  ;)fed)ie  fo 
fid;ev  fein,  ale  menu  fie  uon  ben  ()oc!)ftou  ©evid)t6()i)fon 
bev  3fepub(if  gciua(ivlcit"tot  uub  boftiitigt  miivon. 


/• 


-^ 


F 


49- 


GERMAN    LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


(Negotiable  Paper.) 

©egenfcitigeg  93cvtraiieii  ift  ber  (Suintftein  aiif  ten  ba§ 
gaiije  (Sefdjaft^lebcii  riiht.  9Jiiv  fdjiutiinnfe  l)at  c^  ftc^  5ur 
^eutigeu  ©vbfee  empovgefdjiruiigeii.  3""f'  'oar  eS  iiur 
2:aiiid)t}aiitel,  ba^S  (gtiitau)d)en  ciiic^  iDJajse^  ©etreil'e  fiiv 
einc  ?lii,5al)l  *t.!feilipi^cii  311m  S3fiipiel,  rote  mx  e$  ^eute  noc^ 
bei  beii  JSiIteii  feljeu;  baint  iialjiit  gepvagteS  ®elt  tie  Stetle 
a\§  3;auf(^mittel  ein,  uiib  juletjl  tameii  an  teffeit  Stette  rcte^ 
ber  umfetsbare  ^apiere,  b.  i.  jcfcriftlidje  Sotuiiieiite  itt  ?(ii= 
erteitiiuiig  eiucr  (i^elt  djiilb.  Uiitcr  bie  fiategorie  biefev  iimfe^^ 
bareit  ober  tcrtjantelbarcu  *)!apiere  tommeii  SJcteii,  @d)ult= 
fdjctue,  Svatteii,  SSaiiiaiirotiiungen,  2)cpofitenfct)eine,  Sedo'el, 
33an[noteii,  ©taat^  =  Saffenjcljeiite  (Greenback-),  tuvj  atle 
©c^ulbl'd^eine,  beren  glgent^itmSret^t  Boit  eiiiev  *|3cvfDn  anf 
eine  onbere  iibertvagbav  i|i.  Sie  bloOe  9tncrtoitiuiiig  einer 
■@d)ulb  gcniigt  iiidjt,  biefelbe  umfe^bai-  ju  mac^cii:  eiii  ^a\^' 
( iin  g  ^  »  c  r  I p  V e  d)  e  n,  obev  bie  21 11  f  f  0  v  b  e  v  11  n g  an  eine 
aiiteve  '•I'evfou  eine  3ahlnng  jii  Iciften,  ift  uiierla6lict).  35ie« 
ff5  3>eripTe(^cii,  obev  Mufiorbeniiig,  mug  fletS  fiiv  (Selb  feiii. 
35cv  33otrag  mujj  gcnau  aiigegeben  feiit  unb  cbeiifo  nnt§  ba§ 
@igentt)iim§reci)t  iibeitragbav  jeiii.  -Cicfe  leBterc  gigeiif(t)aft 
niiife  auf  ber  SJorbevjeite  beS  ®(t)eiiieg  burc^  bie  aSovie 
"  Bearer"  ober  "  Order"  auSgebriirft  fein. 

3n  eiiijelneu  ©taaten  fe^veibt  ba^  @efe^  geiuiffe  *;*t)rafeu 
Bor,  alg  J.  sB-wSi^"""^  Dl)iie2lt5ug  ober  9Jabatt"  ober  „3at)l= 
bar  ill ,"  iiiit  Siigabe  ber  53an[  ober  Office. 

3(f|ult>fif)eine  unb  SSed)fet 

(Promissory  Notes  and  Drafts.) 

Unter  Promissory  Note  Derfte^t  man  einen  gefd^riebenen 
SSertrog,  in  bem  [lA}  eine  *]3erfon  ccrpflicfctet,  einer  anteren 
'}.Hnfon  5n  einer  feftgefegteu  3eit  eine  teflinimte  'Summe  @elbe§ 
5U  jaljlen.  2)nrd)  bas  3al)lt'armac^cn  an  ben  Ueberbvinger, 
ober  anf  bie  Order  eineS  anbevn,  imvb  bcrfelte  i:nifebbar.  31B 
ein  35erirag  bobingt  bie  32ote  bie  Slngabe  einer  SJergiitung. 
Unb  tro^bem  eine  foldje  9?ote  jnjifdjen  ben  jroei  Jjauptperfonen 
luigiiltig  fein  mag,  rcirb  biefelbe  bnrc^  iljre  Uebertragbarteit 
in  ber  >^anb  einer  britten  *}.!evfon,  bie  in  UnFenntnig  it^rer 
il'iangelt^aftigtcit  cine  2Bovtl)entfd)abignng  bafiir  geg.bcn  t)at, 
Bollgiiitig  nnb  totleftirbav.  3ii  ber  ,'^eitbered)nnng  roirb  ber 
Jagbcv  Mn^-ftcUnng  nidjt  mitgejal)It;  c§  iflbicSter^tngenbltd, 
Bon  bem  an  bie  3^''  beginnt,  bei  beren  ?tb[auf  bie  3ol)l»"g 
ftattftn^en  ninfj.  3)aS  2ln§taffen  bcS  Satnmg  madjt  eine  9Jote 
bennoc^  nid)t  nngiiltig,  e§  fattt  jebod)  bann  bem  3''l)aber  bev= 
felbeu  anl^eim,  bie  3lu§fte(InngS3eit  jn  beweifen.  Sa>5  3"^= 
lungSBerfprec^cn  mnij  genau  bie  Saner  ber  3^''  «''>fi'  9'ote 
ongeben  @^  mng  bie§  eine  beftimmte  ^eriobe  fein,  ober 
bebingnng^roeife  onf  ba§  Sintreffcn  einc3  geroiffen@reigniffe§ 
bafirt  fein,  5.  S3.  „!8ei  ©ic^t,"  „Siinf  Xage  iiad)  Sidjt,"  „?luf 
SBerlangen,"  „®rei  3)iDnale  Don  tjente,"  „3f '"i  Jage  nad)  bem 
2obe  beS  3ol;n  2om"  11.  f.  w.  3>i  Jvatlen,  tBO  bie  3''i'  "i'^' 
bcfonbevS  aiigegebeu  ifl,  ttiirb  angeitommen,  bafj  bie  9Jote  anf 
C  e  r  t  a  n  g  e  n  jaljlbar  ift  unb  tann  fofortige^lagc  eiugeleitet 
loerben. 


2)er  3JnSfteUer  einer  Dfote,  ber  bag  3a^lung§Der|pre(^en 
inad)t  nHb  beffen  llnterfd)vift  biefelbe  tragi,  nui6  tompetent 
fein.  aSatjnftnntge  iiiib  33Uibftiinige  finb  iiaturgemajj  infont= 
petcnt;  ^lu^-Ianber,  aitinbevj:ibrige  iiiiD  Bevtjciratl)ete  ^rauen 
tbnnen  gefe(5lid)  unbefngt  crtlart  rccrben.  2)er  ^liiSftcUer  ift 
Bevantn)ort(id)  nnb  Berpflidjtot  fi(^,  ten  genannten  8?etrag  ber 
DJote  bei  beren  S5crfall;eit  ju  sal^teii.  (gr  braudjt  nidit  »orl)cr 
jn  beja^len ;  foltte  er  e§  bennod)  tljnu,  unb  babei  nitterlaffcn,  bie 
ytote  JU  Dernidjteu,  fo  bleibt  feine  2>erantniortIid)teit  anbeven 
^erfonen  gegeniiber,  bie  eine  fcldje  9Jote,  oljue  iicuntnig 
ber  Borl)ertgcn  Se,;at)[nng  uiib  Bor  ber  g?evfa[I',eit,  ficr  eine 
5>ergiitnng  an  ftd)  gebvadit  haben,  DoUftantig  bcftc^en.  ©elbff 
tie  Ouittung  beS  erften  3J^'»ng'5beredjtigtcn  loiirbc  in  biefem 
galle  einer  britten  ^JJerfon  gegeniiber  roertI)(o-3  fein. 

Sie  *Perfon,  in  beren  9{amen  eine  9?ote  auSgeftellt  ift,  ifl  ber 
gefet3lid)c  3nl)abcr,  unt  an  fte  mug  bie  3.it)lung  geid)tt)en. 
3ft  bie  Sfote  jcbod)  einfac^  auf  ben  3nt)aber  auSgeftcUt,  ol)ne 
eine  beftimmte  *Perfon  jn  nennen,  fo  tann  ein  S^ter,  ber  fte 
e^rlid)  cvroirbt,  biefelbe  tollcttiven.  Sine  nadjfolgente  "jjavtei, 
in  beren  Seftts  eine  9Jote  nad)  bem  erften  3"l?abcr  berfelben 
fomnit,  l)at  ein  beffereS  ?lnfprnd)^red)t,  al-J  bev  trfle  SBefi^er, 
au§  bem  ®runbe,  b.ig  jroifdjen  bem  9hilftettcv  nab  bem  erften 
3al)Iung§bered)tigtcn  irgenb  ein  S^erftantnifj  ober  eine  93ctin» 
gung  befteljen  mag,  tie  ter  3al)Iniig  bei  35eifatt  roiberfprid)t,  bie 
tritte  ^Urtei  jetod),  oljneSeiintnig  te§5Porl;cvge^enben,  jaljlt 
ten  2Bert^  nnb  empfangt  tie  'JJote.  Da§  ©efeg  t)dlt  ftetS  ben 
'Mnfprud)  ber  britten  *J3artei  aiifrei^it. 

®er  3nboffant  ift  Berantioorttid),  rcenn  ber  StnSfteller  ber 
5Jote  am  SBerfalltag  ber  3^1)liing  berfelben  nid)t  nadjfommt. 
Sine  auf  tie  Order  einer  *l.H-rfon  auSgeftellte  9cote  ninfj  bei  ber 
lU'bertragung  on  eine  antere  'iferfon  Bon  ter  erften  intofrtrt 
njertcn  unb  ba  bei  bem  jebeSmaligen  Uebertragen  cine  aBevtl)» 
cntfi^abigung  bafiir  gegebeu  rocrben,  fo  ^alt  [id:)  ber  (e^te 
3n^aber  an  ben  nadjftDDrl)erget)enben  unb  alle  anteren. 

3n  gaUen,  too  eine  Otote  al»  'jjfaub  Ijinterlegt  ift,  reirt  ter 
jeitroeilige  3nl)aber  terfelben  ter  3a')Iung§bered)tigte,  unb 
mug  biefelbe  bei'm  SJerfall  foUeftiren. 

SnUofrtrung. 

®ie  auf  ©cite  404  ongegebene  (^ormgibtbieSlrtnnbSScife 
in  ber  cine  9Jote  an^geneUt  nnb  iiibofftrt  roerbcn  follte.  Uiiter 
Snboifivnng  Bcvftcht  man  bie  fd)riftlid)e  Uctertragung  anf  bem 
9tucfen  einer  9fote,  bnrc^  TOelite  ber  3ntofiant  oter  Ueber= 
trager  fic^  flir  ten  Setrag  ter  Dtote  BerantTOovtlid)  mac^t. 

Sic  JBcranttoortli^fcit  ber  ^nhofftrcr. 

®§  rcirt  allgemein  jugegebcn,  bafj  bie  trei  erften  3ntot= 
rirnngcn  in  tern  Borftetjenten  gormnlar  anf  etnS  l)ev.iu§tora= 
men,  t.  t).  tic  offenc  Snboirtvnng  foirobl,  aU  bie  ootte  unb 
allgemeine,  beredjtigcn  ten  3iih'>ber  ter  9Jote  gteidjntafjig  ju 
teren  S^etvag  nub  geben  iljm  gleid)en  9lnfprud)  an  3aoi§  ini 
9Jid)t3al)lnng§fotI  S^enfon'S.  lUan  Ijal  fogar  angcnommen, 
baf;  in  emer  ottgeincincn  3nbDfrirnng  ter  3nl)abcr  ter  DJote 
ta§  9?ed)t  ^at,  tie  SBorte  "or  order"  nad)  tem  iljamen  SI}a'5. 
QnanS  oug,5nfiiIIen.  Site  bcfc^vantte  (qualified)  3ntofftrung 
befreit  ten  3ntDffanten    Bon   ieber  SJerpflic^tung    im  %aUe 


GERMAN    LEGAL  BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


493 


^citfoii  uid)t  3al)(cit  foDtc;  tie  SBortc  "  without  recourse" 
lohiie  Shicfaiiipvud))  eutbinbcn  ben  3iitoffauteit  Don  jebev 
Scrpfiidjtmi.ibcni  ^I'ljiibcr  ber  9Jotc  gegeiiiibct.  ®ic  bettn- 
iliinc)§w<:ifc  ^utoiruuiig  cvfldvt  fidi  jctbft  buril)  tl)vcii  i£Bort« 
laut  inib  ii'ivb  bloS  in  fpcjicUen  gallcii  gcbvaucfjt.  3ltlc  3n= 
boffirev  ^llt^  eiii;eln  unb  inSgcfamnit  fiiv  ben  iPetrag  eiiter 
9Jote  fevaiitroortlid),  Dorau^geje^t,  bag  biefelbe  ini  OJidjtjal;^ 
Innggfalle  gel)ong  protcflirt  uiib  em  3eber  berfelben  Don  ber 
Jbatfadjc  bcnadnidjtigt  rcovbeit  ifi.  Xcv  Gnboifivcr  l)alt  ^id)  an 
feiiie  SJorgdngcr,  unb  fo  jnviicf  bii°  aiif  bou  'Jln^fletter  ber  9tote. 
©obalb  cine  Jiotc  pvoteiiitt  ift,  ift  c§  nniungdnglid)  iibt^ig,  bag 
otte  tnteveifitteii  *^Jcifonen  fofort  bcnac^vidjtigt  roerben. 

Sine  S4tninlicI'!Rote. 

Obg(ei(^  ia§  anf  £eiie  407  angegcbene  alte  ©d)roinblev< 
niitfdjen  fdjon  oft  bloggei'teBt  worben  ift,finbcte^bod)aUiabvlid) 
ncHC  Opfov.  (Sin  Sc^ein  njirb  anf;iefft*t.  in  roeldieni  fi<^  em 
gavnift  Dcvpflidjtet,  je^n  obcr  STOiJlj  Sljalcv  jn  jableii,  fobalb 
er  SEBaaren  5u  einem  bejiimnitcn  Setrag  Dertauft  l)at.  Sffienn 
man  bann  red^tS  einen  Sbeil  be5  ®ct)ein§  abrcigt,  fo  entfteljt 
baraiiS  einc  9}otc  fiir  einc  betrad}t(ic^e  Snmnie.  Sicfe  9Jotc 
li'ivb  bann  in  bor  33antDcrtanft  niib  fommt  bamit  in  bie  §anbe 
einor  britton  unb  nnfdjiilbigen  *l.!artei  unb  bev  ^lugfiettev  ber 
9iotc  nine  biefelbe  ido1)1  obcr  iibel  bejal^len. 

Sie§  ,5eigt,  roie  n'idjtig  e§  tft,  bag  3cl'«rinann  aUe  *]3apiere, 
bie  ibm  jur  Unterfc^iift  Dorgelegt  roerben,  Dorfic^tig  licSt  unb 
prilft. 

Uetiereinfommcn  un^  tScrtragc. 

(Agreements  aiul  Coiitructs.) 

®ic  gefeglidje  2)efinition  cmc'3  Contracts  ift  ein  lleberein» 
tonmicn  jwifdjen  jroci  ober  mel)reren  bajn  befugti'n*l.ierfonen, 
uni  filr  eine  geniiffe  9?ergjitnng  irgenb  cine  nanil)aft  gcniadjte 
©adje  5n  tt)un  ober  nidjt  jn  ttjun.  2)em,5nfolge  fmb  ,^anpt: 
bebingniffe  eineS  ftontratteS:  bie  '^3artcien  felbft,  fomie  bercn 
gcfet3lid)c  4<efngniO  nnb  Uebereinftimnumg.  3"  cineni  Aon= 
tratt  gcljbrcn  fiets  jroci  ober  mel;rcre  '(Jerfonen,  unb  bcren  gc= 
fcl}lid)c  !yefugni6  ifi  einc  ipauptbcbmgung.  2)ev  9iamc 
,4*erionen"  ift  l)ier  in  feinem  9fed)t§bcgriff  yi  nchnien,  unter 
bent  er  and;  Oefetlfdja'tcu  nnb  ^gtaaten  rcprifcntirt.  (?efeU> 
fc^aften  tijnncn  n»r  .ffonirafte  eingeben,  foweit  fie  i^re  gefel}« 
lid)cn  'J.iriDilcgien  ba^u  be;ed)tigen,  Staatcn  imr  im 
Sintlang  mit  ibrcr  jjonflitution.  2)Jinbcria^rigc  fijnnen  Hn= 
ter  geroijljnlic^cn  SJcrljaltniffcn  tcinc  Sontrafte  madjen,  mijgcn 
jeboc^,  irenn  fie  bag  gcif(5lid)c  "alter  errei(^en,  folt^c,  in  iljrer 
3J?inbcriabTigtelt  cingcgangeiic  ifertrage,  befiatigcn.  Jpei= 
ratl)§Dertrdgc  fiju:icn  in  jebcm  ■Jlltcr  abgcfc^loffen  werbcn. 
Slobfinnigc  nnb  iDaljiifmnigc  >|lerfoneii  fmb  gcfctjlit^  unfaljig, 
i'frtrdgc  ein",n9f'H'"-  ISinroiUignng  ift  nottjiocnbig  jn  jcbcni 
Sontraft.  Sic  mag  burd)  cin  iSort,  einen  SSinf,  eine  i<eiDe= 
gnng  bcr.'piinb  ober  bnrdi  irgenb  cin  3fi<l)C"  gegebcu  lucrben. 
Oft  fc^on  fmb  fogcnaimte  „ftiUf(^roeigenbc  llcbcreinfomnien" 
alS  rcdjtSfrdftig  in  eiiiem  9ted)t5i'erfabren  anfred)t  crljalfen 
roorben.  3n  einem  .fd)riitlid)en  Sjcrtrag  ift  bie  Unterfd)rift 
ober  ein  3-<*f"  ^''T  ^arteien  beiociSgitltii. 

Ser  erfle  (3d)ritt  j»  cinent  ^(oitiratt  ift  ber  S5orfd)lag  ober 


taS  ?lnerbieten,  bie  jcbcrjeit  Dor  bem  3lbft^lu§  be§  SJertrageS 
jnriicfgenommen  loerbcn  tiinnen  gin  miinblidjcr  .'Intrag  ift 
unr  bann  binbenb.  roenn  er  fofort  angenonimcKi  reirb.  ®a§ 
Sorrec^t  ober  SSa^Uaffeit  in  einem  33crtrag  ift  einfac^  bie 
geftfe^ung  einer  beftimmten  ^e\t  jur  9litnal)nie  be§  3>er» 
tragg  nnb  ift  nnv  bann  binbenb,  rocnn  bie  Scfliinmnngcn  Dor 
"Jlblauf  biefcr  3^''  angononmien  lucrben.  Jiie  '^artei,  bie  baS 
Sttedjt  ber  l>orbanb  gibt,  fann  ben  3(ntrag  3nriic{;,ie^en  unb 
bciifelben  35evtvag  mit  ilnbern  eiitgeljcn,  folaitgebic  crfie'|5ar= 
tei  benfelbcn  nid)t  angenommcn  l)3t,  fdbft  Dor  ber  fcftgejefeten 
3cit  ber  ilnna^mc,  ba  ber  Jlntrog  nnr  roiUfilrltd)  unb  auf 
teineSBergiitnng  ober  (Sntgclb  geftil^t  ifl. 

gin  fdjriftlit^er  Slntrag  fann  ju  jcber3eit  Dor  ber  93enad)" 
ridjtignng  ber  3"riirf'"'^'"f  angenoinmen  roerben.  gbeiifo 
tann  ber  5IntragfteUer  bcnfelben  ^u  jeber  3^''  "or  b;'ffcn  3ln> 
naljme  roiberrufen.  Sobalb  jebod)  cin  9tnnat)mcbricf  ber  ^»oft 
iibcrgeben  ift,  bicibt  ber  ilittrag  binbenb,  felbft  bann  roenn  em 
SSiberruf  fofort  nad)  bem  Sbgaiig  bcg?lnnal)incbriefe'J  cintref= 
fen  folltc.  gin  9lnnabmebrief  madjt  ben  Sjcrtrag  giiltig  Don  bev 
3eit  ber  1>oftanfgabe  an,  nnb  nic^t  Don  ber  3''''  ^e^  gmpfan« 
gc5  burd)  'i^en  9lntragfteUer,  jcbod;  mug  bie  ■Jlnnabme  genau  in 
Uebereinftimmung  mit  bem  uvfpriiuglit^cn  ^Intrag  fein;  jebc 
i)(brocid)niig  roiirbe  cinfad)  einen  ncnen  3lntiag  l-ilbcn.  ®ie 
3lnuabme  eineS  SBorfdjlage^J,  mUnblid)  ober  fc^riftlid),  iji  eine 
an5briidlid)cginn)illigiuig  unb  be§l)alb  binbenb.  fiine  foldje 
aU'Sbviicflid^e  ginioiUignng  loirb  nid)t  burd)  (Scroobnbeit  ober 
Jpanbel^braucfe  bcemtvdd)tigt.  gin  ftillfdjrocigcncer  SJerirag, 
iDcun  in  Ucberfinftiniinniig  mit  bem  gefniibeit  2)Jenfd)cn» 
Dcrftanb,  ifi  red)t'^gitlfig.  3-  2^-  ^'J'?"  3one^  ,^ie^t  einen  JSedjfcI 
auf  %■  SiDift,  beuiSroift  ansunebmcu  Derioeigcrt,  nnb  3ame§ 
©mitt)  acccptirt  benfclteu,  um  ben  Srcbit  bC'3  3ot)n  3one§  ju 
roal)vcn,  fo  cntflcftt  bavanS  cin  ftillfdiroeigcnbcv  SBertrag,  bem= 
jnfolge  3one§  ben  Smith  ■,»  cntfd)dbigcn  l)at. 

gin  i'crtrag,  anf  em  >J.T?if!Derftcl)en  bc§  (MefctJcS  geftiifet,  ifl 
bennod)  giiltig.  iUan  iiinimt  an,  bag  ."sftermann  bie  ®efe(5e 
tennt,  unb  Uuroiffcnbcit  ift  teiite  gntfdjntbignug.  Sie§  jcboc^ 
bejioht  fid)  lebiglid)  auf  9.!ertrdge,  bie  in  ftrcnger  Ueberein- 
flimmuug  mit  bem  ©cfc^  unb  frei  Don  Setrng  fmb.  gine 
iBcrtrag-^^Off 'rte,  in  ber  ber  'Jlntragftellcr  ber  anbern  'J>aitei 
cine  geroiffc  3fi'  5»>'  Snuabnie  fctst,  faun  nid)t  obne  bie  3'" 
ftimnmng  bev  jrocitcn  'l.!avtei  ^uviidgejogeu  roerben.  Xa§ 
■.Hblcbuen  einer  9.U-rtrag»offerte  enbet  bie  Sad)e.  92iemanb 
hat  baa ;)fed)t,  einen  'Jjcrtrag^Dorfc^lag  anjuue^men,  auger  bie 
'IJerfon,  an  bie  er  gevid)tet  ift. 

Sie  Consideration  ober  SertragSbebingung  ifl  ber  Orunb 
ober  bie  ®ad)e,  anf  bie  bin  5iDei*^3artcien  ud)  tontraftlic^  bin- 
ben,  nub  faun  biefelbe  in  einem  fiir  ben  9>crfpred)er  crroad)> 
fcnben  Siiorthcil  ober  9iad)tbcil  fiir  bie  an^erc  *}.5artci  beftehen. 
l>crtvag'jbebiugungen  fmb  tcAnifd)  roertbDoll  nub  gut, 
end)  tann  e^  Dovtommen,  bag  biefclbeit  blo-j  angcbeuiet  nub 
Mid)t  au'Jbviidlid)  angegebeu  fnb.  gincv  roert^Dollen  ::Bebtn« 
gnng  licgt  entrocber  ®elb,  gigeiithnni,  einc  J)ieuftleiflnng, 
ober  eiu  5n  erieibenber  Jfadjt^cil  ju  CSmnbe.  gin  .^ei' 
ralhSfontraU  j.  8  gel)ijrt  in  bicfe  piaffe.  S?crtrdge,  anf 
eine  iogcnaunte  gutc  35ertraggbebingung  geftii^t,  roerben  ge^ 
robbn(id)  auf  (Srunt  Don  8lntgDevroanbtfd)aft  ober  Jiebe  ein« 


/ 


\ 


\ 


494 


GERMAN    LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


gegaiigen,  betcii  ©oHjie^uiig  tann  jebod)  nic^t  getic^tlid)  er» 
Smiingeii  rei-ttcn.  2ie  g^ultigtcit  ctiier  iH-rtraggbeMiigung 
eviueift  f"!)  aii§  liem  Umftaiib,  njonadj  1>nn  i^erfprtdjer  ciii 
SBortljetl  oter  ter  anteren  ^avtei  ein  9Jact)tlKil  baraiiS  evreai^ft. 
?tcgt  ctn  gejetjlic^er  SBertI)  311  Oruiite,  fo  ift  beffeu  Oibge 
unerl)eblict).  %u6)  braiit^t  bem  i'fvfpvccijev  iiic|)t  immer 
ein  3.5ortl;ei(  ou§  bem  $icrtvag  511  enradjieit,  rote  3.  3?. 
6oim  3nbofrtrcn  emev  SZote,  roobei  ber  3u^o)l"il■c^■  fic^  bhu 
bet,  cl)iic  eiiieii  SJortbeil  baraug  jii  sieben.  93erfpricbt  je= 
bo(I)  3cinaiib,  eiiie  geroiffe  3ad)e  311  tbiiii,  obiie  Dafur  ein 
gntgelb  ober  gntfcbabigung  ,5n  Dcrabveben,  f o  ift  tie  9ad)tau!5= 
fiibvnng  biefcS  SerfpvccbenS  fein  SBerttaggbvud).  ,311  ben  gc= 
niigenbeii  Oviinben  tanii  man  and;  -Mnffdjitb  ved)nen,  ba^  ®v« 
irarten  tiou  3ablungen  ober  bie  ansfiibvnng  etneS  anbeven 
^ontratt^,  ebcnfogegenfeitigeS5erfpved)iingen,  roenn  bicfelbcn 
gleicbjeitig  gcmacht  ftnt,  unb  enbtid;  and;  ba0  SBorljanbenfein 
einer  moralifdicn  SBevpfltdjtmig,  alS  3.  SB-  ba§  3al)lnng5« 
Uevfpred)en  einev  Sdintb,  bie  fdjon  gefet^lid)  Berjabvt  ift,  roo= 
buvdj  bie  35evbinb[id)teit  be5  ScbnltneiS  erneuevt  wtrb. 

llrfo^cn,  tocl^e  SBcrtriigc  ungiilJig  moreen. 

S^  gibt  Biele  ©viinbe,  rceldie  einen  SBertrag  ccrnicbten  Imu 
lien;  tev  ^a«ptfa(^Iid)fte  ift  Setrug.  man  uctftebt  tavuntev 
ivgeiib  einen  iinnftgriff  einer  <pevfon,  eine  anbere  abfit^tlicbsu 
binterge^cn  ober  jii  fdwbigcn.  Sein  betrugerifdjer  ^ontratt 
tann  in  9ted)t  niib  5BiUigteit  befteben.  ®ie  gefd)abtgte  *13avtei 
innf!  jebod),  gleidj  nad)  gnttedung  ber  betriigcrifc^cn  abridjt, 
itn  flontraft  ala  nngiiltig  erflarcu,  anbernfaa-J  bleibt  ber= 
felte  biiibenb.  2)te  antere  l^artei  jebod),  bie  ben  iBetrng  be= 
abfidjtigt,  fann  tiet^  iiid)t  a(:3  @rnnb  beiUngiiltigmadjnng  beg 
.ftontvattg  Oorbringeit. 

35ertvagc  3ur  SSeeintraditigung  be^  ^anbeU  finb  nngiiltig, 
ebenfo  fmb  biejenigen,  rcctd)e  gcgen  bic  ajerfaffnng  tievftogeii, 
fevncr  fotdje,  bie  ben  i'anf  ter  6^eveditigtcit  aHf3nbalten  geeig= 
net  ftnb,  3ioang5betrat^cn,  jlontvatte  bent  Sanferotlgcfeis 
3nioiberlanfenb,  nnbfoldje  flir  nnmovalifdje  3tBecfe  eingegan« 
gen.  Xie  Sevleljnng  otev  Uingebnng  irgenb  einer  n)cfent= 
.  lidien  gvfovtentig  in  eincin  iiuntraft  tnadit  bcnfclben  nn= 
giiltig. 

Sic  Sttttutcn  bttreffg  SBctrug,  Sfilftftunfl  u.  f.  to. 

Sie  engli(d)en  Setrngsgefei^o,  bie  m  ten  meiften  amevitani= 
fdjen  Staatcn  eiugefubrt  finb,  fd)reiben  ojv,  bajj.  anf  @rnnb 
eine«  fpesiellen  SBcrfpredjeng  teine  'ISerfon  fiir  bie  ®^nlb, 
ba§  Untevlaffen  ober  gcblfcblagen  beS  JlontrattcS  einer 
anberen  »;!orfon  oerantroortdd)  gcntad)t,  unb  fein  ®erid)t§= 
uafabien  gegen  eiiie  2oId)e  eiiigcleitet  roerben  tann,  c§  fei 
Bcnn,  bag  biefc§  9;erfpred)en,  ober  ein  ba-sfelbc  betrcffenbcS 
SDiemoiaubnin  ober  9Joti3  fdjriftltd)  gemadjt  ift,  nut  oon 
bev  >^5cifon  jelbft,  ober  inm  eiiicm  non  berfelbcit  jpc',icll  ante 
nfirten  95ertreter  untcvfdirieben  ift.  ®ie5  be3iebt  fid)  nidjt 
auf  nrfpriing(id)e  Serpfddjtungcn,.  fcntevn  nur  anf  nitttel= 
bare  3?evbiiitlid)teiten  ober  rtaUe,  in  beiien  bic  Sdjulb  einer 
brittcn  fivion  bereitci  eyifitrt.  3nm  iBeifptct,  im  JaU  einer 
9Jote  iBroion'g,  jablbar  an  3Diie§,  mnjj  ein  Serfpredjeu  bou 
Sinitb  biefelbe  3n  sablen,  fdjrifttic^  genmdjt  fetn,  nm  bintenb 
3U  fein.    Senn  )8\:omn  ben  3oncl  beanftvagt,  SBaaren  an 


©rnitb  3u  liefern,  unb  babei  benierft:  „3dj  roerbe  bc3al;len, 
roenn  cr  e§  nicbt  tbut,"  ober  „3i^  roerte  feljen,  bafj  3I)r  be= 
jablt  roerbet,"  fo  ift  bie'3  (ebiglit^  ein  5fnerbieten  son  !8iivg= 
fdjaft,  nub  bemnad)  bloSutittclbare  SUcrbinblicbteit,  unbfoinnit 
foinit  nid)t  in  ben  3?ereid)  ber  ©tatnten. 

®agt  jebodj  93roron:  „iSd)reifcen  Sie  e§  auf  nteine  9{ect)' 
uung,"  ober  „3d)  roerbe  bafiir  be3al)Ien,"  fo  entftebt  tarau6 
eine  bivette  2Serpflid)tung  nub  biefelbe  braiicbt  nid)t  fdjriftlid) 
3n  fein. 

®ie§  Oefeg  ft^reibt  ferncr  Dor,  bag,  nni  einen  i^ertauf  biu« 
bent  3U  ntacben,  ber  Sdnfer  crft  einen  Jb^i'  bc0  Sanfgnig  an» 
netjnieit  unb  roirf(id)  enipfangen  mug;  ober  3roeiten^,  bajj  ber» 
felbe  ein  Sraufgelb  geben,  ober  3ln3ablung  madden  mug,  ober 
britteni,  bag  ein  fd)riftlid)e§  5)(emoranbum  ober  92oti3  oon 
tern  5>erFauf  gemai^t  roirt,  mit  ber  ltnterfd)rift  beiber  $ar» 
teicn  ober  beren  Stellrertrctev.  (gin  foldjcS  ®d)riftftitcl  mug 
foiocljl  bag  SBertraggobjett  aU  aucb  bie  Sjevgiititiig  entbaftcn. 
3ntunft!lDertanfe  con  SSaaren,  bie  fd)on  je^t  im  felben  3»= 
ftanbe  oovbanben  finb,  in  bcm  fte  fpatergeliefertroerteufoflen, 
lomincn  ebenfaUg  in  ben  SBercid)  ber  Statuten. 

Sic  iRci^tfcrtigungcn, 

bie  in  einein'iJ.U-osegoevfabren  loegeit  eiite§  ^ontratteS  gemac^t 
luerben  tiinnen,  luib  bercn  eg  elf  gitt,  fiiit  tnrj  gefagt  bie  foI» 
genbcu:  Sugfiibrnng,  3iiblnng,  Siiipfaitg,  giitlidier  Sergleid) 
unb  3"fi'tetenftel[nng,  fd)ietgrid)terlid)e  gntfdjeitnng  unb 
3nevtennnng,  bag  ed)itiebeit  eineg  anbeveu  *!|.U-o5effeg, 
giitlaffung,  Jlnerbieten,  SBevjabrnitgggefe^,  ®egenforberung 
uifb  33erminberung  beg  St^abcnevfa^cg. 

SIflcnturcn  un^  'iBcuoUmadttigtc. 

(Agency  mid  Attonie.T.) 

SSenn  eine  1.ser)Dn  ermadjttgt  ift,  eine  anbeve  in  gefdjaft= 
(id)erS8e5iebniig  3n  Dertreten,  entroeber  unter  einemaugtriirfs 
lid)eu  ober  ftillfdjroeigenbem  SSevlvage  fo  rotrb  fie  ber  Slgeiit 
ber  (e^teren.  2)ie  §.inblung  eiucg  'Jlgenteu,  roenn  berfelbe 
gefe^lid)  bevodmadjttgtift,  iftgleii^bebeutent  nut  oonberfelben 
Xragioeite,  alg  bie  ber  Jpauptperfon.  giir  geroijbniidje  .liou^ 
tratte  3ur  Stnfeljnng  eineg  i'eBollniad)iigten  geniigt  ein 
tuiivtlidjeg  ober  fd^nftlidieg  Ucbereintontinen,  ftontratte  bage« 
gen,  bie  einen  ©tempcl  bebingcn,  tcnnen  blog  Ooii  einein  iin= 
ter  Srief  nitb  ©iegcl  beftdtigtcn  5tgenten  gemac^t  roerben. 
(Sin  3(gent  tann  alg  foldjer  bnrc^  feine  §anb(nng  unb  ol)ne 
eine  fi5iinlic^e  (Srnennnng  eingefcfst  roerben.  2Bo  eine  .5>anpt= 
perfon  lotllentlid)  iinb  roiffentlid)  einer  anberen  eriaubt,  in 
ibrem  9!amen  jn  banbeln,  luirb  augenommen,  bag  biefelbe  bie 
anbcre  ta3n  beDoIlinad)tigt  tjabe.  3''  S'iUf",  rco  bag  ®cfet3 
mebrcre  'perfoiieii  alg  9lgenteu  eriteniit,  entfd)etbct  eine  TOeftr^ 
beit  terfelben  bie  ipaiiblnng. 

S)er  Utnfang  ter  3Serbinblid)feit  teg  *4.!rtn3ipalg  fiir  bie 
Jpanblungeu  eineg 3tgenteu  i)auqt  »on  bciii  (Siate  ber(5rntad)= 
tignngab,  bie  bemfelben  augbriidlidj  ober  tin  ftiHfcbioeigenten 
?Jertrag  ertbeilt  luorbcn  finb.  Die  SJevbiublidjtcit  biJrt  anf, 
roo  ber  3lgcnt  feine  i8eB'olIntad)tigniig  iiberfdjreitet,  angge= 
nominen  ber  *)3rin3ipal  3iebt  im  iScrongtfein  ber  Jbatfadte  ben 
Sn^cn  baoon. 


^ 


\ 


GERMAN    LEGAL   BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT 


495 


Scrf^ittient  Hrten  don  Vgentfiiiaftcn 

Sic  oerfc^icteitcii  9tvieii  Boit  Jlgciitictjaftcn  fiiib  einget^cilt 
ill  fpejicUe  iiiib  atljcmeiuc,  beidjraullc  iinb  iiubc(ct)vaittte, 
.H'oiiimiifioiiave  iinb  iUJalli'r. 

Sine  ipoiiellc  OUjeiiifc^aft  ift  tie  (Sniiac^tigiiiig  ,511  ciiiet  gc« 
loiffeii  ciiijcliicii  Apautliuig,  uiiC'  3etfv,  tcv  mit  euicm  «pcjial= 
'.'Igeiitcii  ©cicftafte  tt)iit,  iniiu  fui)  aiif  feiii  oigoiie^  Stififo  ocv= 
rirfjcrii,  rcic  rocit  bit-  3>oUiiiad)t  bc-J  Sctveffeiibcii  gel)t.  Uiitcr 
@cuera(=3(gciitur  ucrftcbt  man  bie  a3e»oflindcl)tiguiig  jit  ivgeiib 
eiiiev  §aiibliiitg  in  eiuciu  bi-fonbcven  (Sefdjaft,  unb  ift  bavin 
bev  *15vin;ipal  fiiv  aUe  JpauMungcn  be§  agenton,  foroeit  fit- 
fein  (5Jc(d)afl  bctveffcn,  Ofrantroovtlid). 

Sef.tjranttc  -agcnticljaft  ift  eine  foldje,  in  roetc^er  bcfonbeve 
■MnrociinngenbieSBoIlinad)tbe«3lgenieiifeflfe§cii  niib  bcf(^ran» 
ten.  3ii  unbcfc^vanltev  -itgeitifdjaft  ift  ber  Sgent  crmddjtigt, 
ivgeiib  meli^e  iDJittel  aiijnroeitben,  bie  jiir  (Srreic^uiig  eineg 
geiDiinid)teii  ^iiUS  nijtbig  evjdjeinen. 

Ser  iloininiirtoiiSr  ober  fiominifrton§«Saitfmaii«  l)at  iaS 
ffiigcutljnin  feincS  '•}.U-iii3tpal'3  obcv  Inftraggcter-S  in  (cinem 
cigencn  i'efi^  nnb  jnni  93cvfanf,  unb  man  be^otdjnet  foId)e§ 
(Jigcntljnm  alg  ttoiiriguation^roaaven. 

gin  foldjer  3tgent,  rocnn  in  sPeglcitnng  cincv  !iSaaien» 
fenbung  ouf  bev  $Reife,  tcivb  Suijercargo  gcnannt.  ©in  a)idf(cv 
ift  angcftcllt,  um25evt:infc  jroifdjcn  bcm  25cvtaiifev  nnb  fidnfev 
5n  Bevmittcin.  (Sr  l)at  ba-ji  jn  uevtanfenbe  gigentt)um  nid)t 
in  [einem  sycft^,  '""1)  t"""  «i'  baSfelbe  \n  feinein  eigciien  3fa= 
men  oevtaiifen. 

2Hi(  moiiidcn -XuSiiafjmen  ift  teiirJtgent  gebnnbcn,  iiber  ben 
•■^Jvei'j  bet  Bevtauften  SBaarcn  iRedjenjdjafi  abjulcgon,  bi5  cr 
felbft  ba§  ®elb  fiir  biefelbeu  oon  beni  .fiSufet  eingejogen  Ijat. 

Sffieiin  em  3lgcnt  im  Siamen  nnb  nntcv  bev  35eDoUmad;ti= 
guiig  feiiieS  ^ivinjipal^  obev  3lHftvagiicbcv-5  eiiien  ftontvatt 
eingeljt,  fo  ift  ev  gcroijljnlid)  nidjt  povfijiilid)  t^aftbav. 

Sev  -Mgent  l)at  gcfc^lidjeit  -Jlnfpvnd)  anf  baS  gigentljnm  in 
ftiuev  §anb,  nnb  ba«  9fi-d)t  bagfolbe  511  Bcvfid)evii,  nm  fid)  bev 
3al)lnng  bev  it)m  jnfonimenbcn  it'ommifrion  ,511  Bevgetnifjevn. 
@v  ift  ebenfallS  jnm  (Svfa^  Bon  .Vtbften  nub  gntfc^abigniigeu 
beved)tigt,  bie  er,  oljne  fciu  SJevfdjulben,  in  feinev  SieUiing 
al§  3Igent  ju  jaljlen  gi'saningen  fein  mag. 

Sev  *}Jviit5ipal  t)at  au'djielfeitige  9fed)te  gegeu  bvitte  ^Jerfo= 
nen,  ini  SBevljaltnijj  ju  feinev  cigcnen  syevbinblidjtcit,  nnb 
taiin  gegen  biefelbeu  JJlagc  fiiljvcn,  iBcnn  biofclben  BevantiBovt= 
lid)  Tinb  obev  JTontvatte  mit  bcm  3lgenten  abgefdjloffen  I)abeii. 
gv  ift  bvittcn  '•JJevfoneit  gegeniibev  fiiv  bie  JJadjIciffigteit  obev 
Ungefd)i(flid)teit  bc^  Slgenten  Dcvantrooitlic^,  menu  bevfelbe 
in  bev  i!Dll,5iet)nng  feinev  3(gentfd)aft,  obgleic^  nic^t  nntcv 
feiuev  biveficn  3(uroeifnng,  I^anbclt. 

Uiitev  gciBiJbnlidjeu  Umftanben  ift  bev  'fvinjipal  fiiv  a\ie 
gcl)Iev,  Sdjiibignngcn,  Ucbevtvctuiigeu  nnb  95evuad)ld|fignn» 
gen  be-3  3lgenten  Bevantroovtiid),  folangc  biefelbeu  im  tegel» 
mdgigen  iBevlanf  bev  3tgeutfd)aft  Bovfalleu  nnb  i^ncn  fcine 
biiS.riUige  3tbrid)t  be§  3tgenten  511  (^vunbc  licgt.  I>cv  3lgeut 
ift  im  glcic^cn  ®vabe  mit  bcm  ^Jviujipal  fiiv  alleS  Unvedit  Bev< 
iinttBOvtlic^,  ba§  ev  im  31uftvag  bc§  -livinjipalS  bcgebcu  maq. 

jjeiu  3lgent  bat  ba§  9fed)t  feiiie  SoUniadjt  an  eiiien  aiibcvcn 


JU  iibevtvagen,  cS  fei  benu,  bag  ev  fpcjietl  baju  erma(^tigt  ifi. 

giue  iRotij,  anbcn31gcntengevi(^tet,  ifl  gleiifibebeutenb  mit 
cincv  9}otij  ai\  ben  '^Uinjipal. 

(Selbet,  buvd)  einen  3l3eutcn  auSbejablt,  tonnen  buvt^)  bcu 
'JJvinjipaltBicicvgeiBonneu  roevben:  evfieaSipeuiibte  3ablung 
im  3vvtbuin  geinad)t  ift;  .^mi-'i""^  "'f'"'  *'«  S.'bingnngen, 
uiitev  beucii  fie  bejablt  rouvben,  nid)t  anSgcfiibvt  Tmb-,  bv't= 
tens  iBCiiu  bev  3lgcnt  nngcfiaUid)  jii  beren  ,3"'1)''"'3  OfJ""'"' 
gcu  iBovbeu,  obcv  cnblid),  menu  biefelbeu  Don  bcm3U3enten  ju 
cinem  nngcfctJlidjeu  .c,wid  ocvrccubet  iBovbcu  finb. 

giue  3(gcutfd)aft  fann  anfgcbobcn  wevbcu,  fercobl  buvcb  bie 
3uviicfuabme  bev  9>ollinad)t  fciteuS  be^  '(JvinjipalS,  al§  bnrd) 
cine  gevicbtlicbe  @ntfd)eibnng. 

!Bcf(f)Uforcnc  ('^rflaruttgen. 

(AfBdiiTits.) 

gin  AflSdavit  ift  cine  gcfd)vicbeue,  eiblid)  tetraftigte  grtla^ 
vung  Bov  einem  .^nv  gtbuabmc  bcfugten  ©eamtcn,  nub  Hn'ev= 
fdjeibct  ftt^  infofcvn  Don  einevSepofition  obev  3[nSfage,  a\S  in 
bem  etfteven  tein  Sveii5Devbi3v  miiglid)  ift.  3Benn  cine  gvtla» 
vung  anf  3lnovbnnng  bc3 Oevidjtg  Berbeffcvt  roevben  foil,  fo  inufi 
fie  Bou  9Jcnem  befri)iBovcn  roevben.  3n  bev  i8cfd)reibuug  Bpii 
Sctvagen,  Ovteu  unb  >;n'vfoucu  n.  f.  ib.  ,  fcUte  c§  ftot*  5UBeilafrig 
fein;  felbft  roo  bev  ii^.tvag  iu  llngeroifibeit  ift,  uinf:  eine 
bcftimmtc  iSnmmc  evroSbui  rocrbeu.  Sev  Jag  nub  Cvt  an 
bem  bicfflbe  befdjroorcn  ift,  miig  cbciifalB  angcgcbeii  ieiii. 
2)er  Saturn  ift  in  bem  fogciianuteii  Jurat,  bev  Ovt  in  bem 
Venue  ber  gvllovnng  augegeben. 

3m  gatle  ber  UufSbigleit  einer  ^evfon,  ju  Icfen  ober  }U 
fdireiben,  obcv  imgalle  i  oiriMinbbeit,  mug  eSbaSJur.it  cviDei= 
feu,  bafj  bie  gvtldvung  bov  *i*evfoii  Dovgelefeu  roovben  ifl.  unb 
incn  3'-"'*en  obev  Untcvfd)vift  miife  Bon  3^"9f"  beftatigt 
jeiii;  cbcnfo  mnfi  ba§  Jurat  in  alien  Sdllcu  Bon  bem  Seamtcn 
nutcvfdjvicbcu  fein,  Bovbembie  gvtiavung  bctdiroovi-n  ift.  Sa§ 
Jurat  ift  ber  Sbeil  bev  gvtidvung,  iu  tem  augegeben  ift,  luie, 
iBcnu,  Don  roem  nub  Bov  roem  bev  gib  abgelegt  roovben  ift. 
Sa§  Venue  gibt  einfad)  ben  Ovt,  roie  folgt: 

pate  of      1    ^ 

County  of  J 

gill  SBcglaffcn  be§  Venue  ifl  fcbliinm,  ba  bie§  baS  ein^igc 
i^eiDeiSftiict  ift,  bafi  bie  *l.!evfoii,  bie  ben  Sib  abiummt,  befugt 
ift,  3eufleu  cin5iifd)robveu. 

311  Sdllen,  roo  ba§  (S'<c\ct}  eine  grtldvnng  Bevlangt,  faun 
bi'v  Sevfevtigcv  cincv  gefdlidjleu  gvtiavung  roegcn  2.1Jcineib§ 
te'tvaft  roevben,  obglcid)  iu  ('■^evtduSbi.'fen  unb  ScbiebSgeriditcn 
gvllavnngeii  iiidjt  alS  3engiiii!  betvad)tet  rocrben. 

Ji  e  f)  V  ( i  u  0  c. 

(Apprentices.) 

UutevScbrling  Berflebt  man  eine'}>cvfon,  gcroiibnlid)  minber= 
jdbvig,  bie  Tttl)  fiiv  cine  Sfcibe  Don  3ab>eii  jit  cincv  Sieiift' 
Iciftnng  Berpflidjtct  bat,  um  eine  .Hniift  obev  cin  ^panbrocvt  ,vi 
cvlcvncn.  ®iefe  Sln-vpflidnung  fotlte  jdjviftlid)  gemadft  fein  u\C!> 
bio  Unterfd)vift  be?  I'ebvIingS  foroobl  aU  beffen  SatevS  cut. 
b.ilten,  obev  im  iyalle  beffen  SobeS  obev  Unfdbigtcit,  bie  bev 
ilfuttev  ober  be«  gcfctilidjen  l!ovmiinb«.    Scbvlingc  fiub  uidjt 


\ 


\ 


496 


GERMAN    LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


Iot)nt?ve(^tigt,  aiijjei-  btc§  i(i  auSbriidlic^  aiigegeben ;  ber  ajjei= 
ftcv  icbodi,  in  (einemSerljaltiiij;  311111  Seljriiiig,  ift  gcsmuigeii, 
fill-  beffeit  arjtlid^e  S!?ef)aiibliiiig  511  bejaljleii,  foroie  bciifelbeii 
mit  otten  iJebeiiSbcbiirfiiiffeii  311  Ucvforgen  2)ev  aWeifter  ift 
311  bcm  Ootteit  (grroerb  be§  SehvIingS  berec^tigt,  unb  fciiic 
iSiad^tbefiigniB  iiter  beffeii  ^erfoii  lommt  bcr  bcv  (Slterii  ober 
bci'  Hcrmnitba  gleic^.  ®a§  Slblebeii  beg  TOeiftevd  enbet  bie 
8el)re,  auger  iit  golge  bcftimiittcv  65cfe^Dcrorbiuiiigeii.  ®er 
a)!ciftet  tatiit  ben  Seljvtiiig  iiidjt  eiitlaffeii,  felbfl  wciiu  bevfelbe 
firf)  3iir  Srtcniuiig  beg  ^anbroertl  itiitaiiglid}  evnjcifeit  fotltc; 
bod;  tijinieit  foldje  gade  auf  giitcii  Wrinib  Ij'ni  coii  beiii  Oevic^t 
emic^iebeu  roerbeii. 

<Sdltc^eri(t(terlt(l)c»  tl^crfal^rcn. 
(Arbitration.) 

SBciiii  eg  111  ctiier  Stveitfadje  iuunfd)eii§iriertt)  erfc^eiiit,  cine 
gcvcd)tc,  iiiiparteiifdje  Seileguiig  berfelbeii,  cljne  (gtn= 
luiydjuiig  bev  Oevidjte,  I)er6ei3nfiil)reii,  \o  irerbeit  Bon  bcii 
iiitereffivteii  ^>arteieii  2d)ieb§ri(^ter  ernjatjlt.  3it  gemijt)li= 
(ic^cu  gatleit  icirb  bie  ©tveitfvage  ciiier  ciu3igeu  *(3evfott  t)cr= 
getegf,  bie  bag  SBertraucit  beiber  I'avteieii  beftt't  iiiib  mit  bem 
®e(e^  uiib  ber  33enjei'5fii()niiig  Bcllftftiibig  tiertraut  ift. 
ed^iebgvic^ter  fuib  iiid)t  biirc^  gefc(j(id)e  l^ovidjrifteit  jitr  3"- 
laffuiig  obev  ?tu§fd;lujj  tioii  3?ciucigftiideii  Bcrpflidjtet,  aiig= 
geiiommeit,  bem  ift  in  bem  Uebcveintommeii  angbriidlic^  »or= 
gcfeljeii.  ®ie  freiroidige  lIiiteriBevfuiig  beiber  '^arteien  luitev 
eiiieii  fd;iebgrid)terlic^en  ©priid),  ol)iie  bie  §utfe  Bon  @crid)tg= 
Berorbnungen  nnb  gefelslidjen  iyorfdjrifteii,  !ann  jcberseit  Bor 
ber  I'erLiffentlidjiuig  beg  2'd)icbgfpnid)g  sen  irgenb  einer  ber 
"^Sarteien  snviidgenomineii  tBerben;  eg  iBiirbe  bieg  jebod)  bie 
iBiberrufenbe  1.!artei  fiir  @d)abenerfa^  Beraiitroovtlid)  madjcn, 
eiiifdjlicglidj  atter  ,<f  often  nnb  ber  bnrdi  ben  SOSiberrnf  erlitteneu 
Serlufte  ter  anberen  'ipartet. 

Ucticrtragundcn. 

(Assignments.) 

3ebe  fdjriftlidje  Ucbevtragiing  Bon  gigeiitljnm  reirb  paffeiib 
Assignment  genaiint,  pun  Untcrfdjieb  Bon  einer  Uebertragnng 
burd)  Jlblicfcrniig.  3n  2BtrlIid;feit  ift  e§  eiue3tbtretnng  a\icx 
?(nfpriid)e  nnb  2liit^et(e  an  irgenb  welc^eg  @rnnb»  ober  pev= 
fijntidjeg  gigcntljuin,  ?tnrcd)te,  t(agefad)en  nnb  93ermijgcn. 
gg  gibt  jcbod)  Bcrfd)iebcne  3)ingc,  bie  iiid)t  iitcvtragbar  finb; 
3nm  S?eifpio[  ber  @el)alt  inib  bie  Sommiirioii  eineg  33camtcH, 
bie  Sefolbiing  eineg  3}id)terg,  giid)red)te,  aiegiernnggpraniien, 
ober  biird;  9?etriig  nnb  llnrcd)t  erroorbcne  5lnret^te.  (Sbeiifo= 
lueuig  tijnnen  aiiBevtrantc  Sfedjte,  wie  jnm  Sieifpicl  SBorninnb* 
fd)aft  ober  bie  3}et^te  eineg  2)2eifterg  bem  Sebrling  gegeni.bev, 
iibertragcii  iterbeii.  3ni  (Segenfa^  3n  Bielen  anberen  red)t= 
(idjen  33el)e(fcn,  ift  ber  3n^aber  in  bem  Assignment  nidjt  3iir 
Jtngabe  cincg^reifeg  ober  einer  SPevgiitnnj  Berpftic^tet.  ®er 
gigent^iimer  eiucS  .Sjanbtniiggobjettg  mag  baffclbc  nad)  @ut= 
biinten  megfdjenfen;  in  bcr  Jtbroefenljeit  Bon  beftimmten  23e= 
rocifen  Bom  (Segentt^eil  rciib  bag  ®eiid)t  ftetg  annetjmen,  baft 
bie  Uebertragnng  fiir  eine  geniigcnbc  53crgiitHiig  ftattgcfnn« 
ben  l)at.  S3cipei§  reirb  nur  bonu  Berlangt,  wenn  bie  Hcbcr^ 
tragung  a(g  ftitgirt  ober  betriigcrifd)  erfdjcint.  ®og  ®efc(5 
fdneibt  feine  Jormolitaten  in  einem  Assignment  Bor.     3fbcg 


beliebige  ©djriftftild  jiBife^en  ben  tontraljirenben  IJarteieii, 
bag  beven  Sbfidjt  einer  Uebertragnng  Bon  Sigenlljnm  Bon  ber 
eiiicn  jur  anberen  seigt,  ift  genitgenb.  @j  mag  3nm  iBeijpiel 
erroicfeu  roerben  bnrt^  ben^nl^abcr  einer 9Jote,  baft  er  biefctbe 
an  ben  Assignee  obcr  SBeooUmadjtigten,  inboffirt  ober  oljne 
^nboffirnng,  an  benfelbenabgelicfertl)nt,  nnb  bieg  ift  geniigen= 
ber  SBciBeig  ber  Uebertragnng. 

3n  jcber  Uebertragnng  einer  ©d)H(b'Urtunbc,  fefbft  rcenn 
bicfclbe  nidjt  nmfe^bar  ift,  Berbiirgt  bcr  As-ignee  bie  (Siiltigfeit 
berfelben,  nnb  bie  9?erpf[id)tnng  an  bie  brittc  *)Jartei,  biefelbc  311 
bejatjtcn.  @r  Berbiirgt  [id),  baft  ang  feiiiev  SBerbinbung  mit 
ben  ''^Sarteien  icinc  rc(^tlid)e  Urfaci^e  cntfteljt,  bie  3a^Inng  ber 
SPerbinblic^feit  5u  umgetjen;  ferner,  baft  allc ''}>arteieii  gcfe^= 
lid)  jnr  (Singe^ung  eineg  Sertragg  befngt  fn'l',  ""t'  ^ift  i'"' 
SBetrag  nnbejal^lt  ift. 

(Sin  Assignment  tragt  atie  mittelbaren  SJerbinblidjtciten  nnb 
SBiirgfc^ofteu  in  fic^,  felbft  tsenu  biefc  in  bem  Sotument  nit^t 
erroa^iit  finb 

(£g  ift  gebrSni^tii^,  in  einer  Uebcrtraggnrtniibe  bie  3!Bovte 
"assign,  transfer  and  set  over  "  anjUlBenben;  "give,  grant, 
bargain  and  seU"  jeboc^,  ober  irgenb  mettle  anbere  Sorte,  tic 
bie  Slbftdjt  einer 'Uebertragnng  Bon  gigeiUl)iim  feiteng  bcr 
1'arteien  augbriitfcn,  geniigen  Bor  bem  (Sefe^. 

So  eine  Uebertragnng  Bon  Stgentl^nm  jnm  SSeften  ber 
©lanbigcr  ftattfinbct,  ift  bie  fofortige  wirllidje  Ucbergabe  bcg« 
felben  nnbcbingi  notfjig.  SBcini  eiii  Assignment  unter  bem 
gemeincii3tc(^te  gemac^t  loirb,  lanu  bcr  Uebertragcnbc  getBiffe 
(Sldubigcr  Bor5icl)c:i;  in  ©taatcn  jebod),  in  bencii  biefc  Slrt 
Bon  Assignment  Bou  ben  "Statntcu  Borgefebeit  ift,  ift  cin  folc^cr 
3>or3ug  nnmijglic^.  gin  Assignment  3nm  33eften  ber  ®Ian= 
bigererftvedtrK^  iibcrbag  fammtlid^egigentljnm  bcgAssignors, 
ttjo  nnb  >Bag  eg  anc^  fei,  foroeit  baffelbc  nic^t  uiiter  bem  ®efc^( 
eyetntiongfrei  ift.  3Benn  Berfidjertcg  gigentfjnm  Bertauft 
loirb,  foQtc  bie  3?erfid)crnnggpoti3e  ebenfattg  iibcrtragen  rocr= 
ben.  Sieg  fann  jcboc^  nur  mit  ber  giuroiUigung  beg  25er= 
fidjererg  gcfdjeljen  nub  muft  beffen  ginroiUignng  fofort  cingc= 
t)oIt  rocrbeu.  gin  genaueg  I^er5eid)iii6  beg  iibertrageneu 
gigent^nmg  fotltc  jcbeg  Assignment  bcglciteu. 

aScrfauf«l»ri<fc. 

(Bills  of  Sale.) 

Unter  BiUs  of  Sale  oerfteI)t  man  bie  augbriirflic^e,  gefd)rie= 
bene  Uebertragnng  Bon  perfbnlidjcm  gigcntt)nni.  SBenn  bag 
gigenttjum  bcim  9>erEauf  iiberlicfcrt  roirb,  ober  tBcnn  ein 
Jbcil  beg  .tanfgelbcg  bcjatjlt  ift,  ift  ein  filjriftlidjcg  Sotument 
iiid)t  nijtbig,  eg  ift  jeboc^  ein  bequemeg  9?en)eigmittel  fiir  bie 
Uebertragnng  ber  3Inred)tc.  Um  jebod;  bie  3ntereffen  eineg 
.ftauferg  gcgcn  bie  ©lanbigcr  beg  I'crtauferg  jn  fdjiiljcu,  ift 
bie  Bill  of  Sale  obcr  I'ertaufgred/nung  iii  fid)  felbft  nid)t  ge= 
niigcnb;  eg  muft  3ugleid)  eiuc  Ucbergabe  beg  gigcntbumg  ftatt« 
fiiiben.  ®olange  tcin  iBirt(id)er  nnb  boucruber  3?eft^iBedifcI 
ben  3Sertanf  begleitet,  iff  berfctbe  ben  ®lanbigern  beg  3.!er' 
Iiiuferg  forool)(,  alg  ben  folgenben  ©lanbigern  nub  §PPotl)c. 
taren  gegcniibcr  ungiiltig,  eg  fei  bcnu,  baft  bcr  ifanfer  bcroeifen 
!aun,  baft  fein  Sanf  in  gntcm  ®lanbeii  geinat^t  roar,  of)ne  bc= 


kL 


;;c 


K- 


■^ 


GERMAN    LEGAL  BUSINESS    DEPAR  1  MENT. 


497 


Ijattc,  taSgigeiillfuin  in  I'cii  JiSiibcii  bcS^ertaufevS  su  laficii. 

Vcrfd)rcit>un0cn. 

(Bonds.) 

Sine  geft^riebeiie  Urliinbe,  in  bev  ciii  Jljeil  fic^  »erpf(i(^tet, 
ill  ciitcv  aiigegctciicii  3f't  ci"f  gfiwiffe  Summe  ait  etiie  tc* 
flinimlo  *pcvfon  filr  eiiic  genjipe  SJergiitiiiig  311  jaljleii,  iiciiiit 
man  ciiicit  Bond  obcr  ^c^iilbBcrfc^vcttiiiig.  SevSfrpfli'^'fti" 
njivbOhUyor,t'er  ©Kiubiger  Obligee geiianiit.  Siefc  S8fgriff^» 
beftimiiniitg  gilt  fitv  atle  Bonds;  im  3l(Igemeiiieii  jct'oe^reevbeii 
biefe  Xotiimciite  iiiir  atS  58ilrgfd)afteii  fitv  tic  SBottjie^itiig 
obcv  SJid^tDoKjicljititg  gcroiffev  SJertrage  gcgebcii,  bie  btr 
Oliligor  eiitgel;t,  ititb  con  bercit  Svfiilluitg  dbevi8ritd)bic@iil« 
tigtcit  bcis  Bonds  abljditgt.  ®erobl)iilic^  n?irb  ber  Bond  jiiiit 
boppclteit  iBctrag  bcr  Sdjulb  ait-3gemad)t,  bic  betii  Obligor 
Hitter  bfii  S^cbiiigiiiigeit  criBachfeit  laiut,  itiiter  Sarlegitiig  bcr 
■Jltatfadje,  bay  bie  gcitaniite  ©itiitme  bie  Strafe  ift,  alS  Iii|ui  = 
birtcr  ©d)abciierfat<,  iiit  gatlo  bcr  SJidjterfiitlung  ber  poii  bcm 
Obligor  eiitgegaiigciicii  SJcrtragSbebiitguiigeit. 

gilt  3ltt  berSJorfeljuiig,  burc^  bcit  bie  grfiiUuitg  ciiteS  Bonds 
uitiiuiglid)  gemadjt  mirb,  erIS|t  ben  Obligor  Don  aOer  iBev= 
l-iiibltdjtcit. 

gill  Bond  taitii  iioc^  nad)  3roaiijtg  3a^rc»«  "on  bcm  9>ei  = 
fatltag  ait,  eiitgetlagt  rocrbeit. 

gilt  Bond  fiiv  bic  ciitfad)c  3ab'ii"g  i^oii  (Selb  uitterfc^eibet 
fid)  coil  eiiier  $>aitbnote  itnr  burc^  ba^  ©iegel. 

Stot^fovationen. 

(Corporations.) 

SBenii  fid)  me^rere  ^erfoiicn  jiir  ?(u§fiil)rung  eineS  gemein» 

fd)aft(id)cii  C^cfdjaft?  ober  fojialcit  .3nJC(f^  u.-rcinigeii,  fo  !Lin» 
ncii  fie,  ineiui  fic  tooUeit,  cute  ^ntieiigefellfdjaft  griinbeii;  cine 
Jlrt  Atom)Jagnoiigefd)aft,  tpcld^el  bicaj?ittel  ^Jlder  Bcreinigt  nnb 
bod)  niir  cine  bcfd)raii[te  5>erantn;ort(id)toit  aiiferlcgt,  inbcm 
jeber  ?(ttionar  itnr  filr  ben  Setrag  feiner  OUticn  oerbinblidi 
ift.  3it  ben  Stoaten  hat  ber  gcfcggebenbc  ifijrper  bic  5Wad)t, 
bie  Sorporationen  ju  reguliren,  in  ben  Jerritoricn  ift  bie§ 
ber  33nnbc'°=9tcgieviing  ant)eintgcgebeii.  2)ie  wirflidjcn  iifoften 
ber@riinbnngcincriiorporation  tclanfcit  fid)  anf  cine,ftleinig  = 
fcit  untcr  5el)it  Xlialcrn,  nnb  bc)'tct)eit  mcifteitS  in  ©cbii^ven  bc§ 
'StaatSfefrctdrS.  9;.id)bcni  bie  3f''ll"""9  ber  3lttien  lic[(eii= 
bet  i|l,  wivb  cine  SJevfammlnng  ber  Jlfttonare  bernfen,  nnb  je» 
bcr  bcrfoU-cit  ift ,;»  finer  Stiinme  fiir  jebe  3lltie  bcred)tigt,  bic 
er  cntipcbcr  fclbfl  bcft^t  ober  Bertritt.  ®iefe  Stimme  fiir 
jfbe  'Jlftic  taint  cr  nun  in  bcr  Sirettoreniral)!  fiir  jcbe  jit  er» 
redl)[cnbe  ^crfon  abgeben,  ober  aber,  er  tann  awd)  eiiicin  ber 
2)ivcftoien  fcoicl  Stiiiimcn  jnroenben,  aU  bie  9tn3al)(  fciitcr 
Jtriicn  tniiltiptijirt  niit  ber  ?liijal)l  bcr  jn  crroiitiienbcit  JivcN 
torcn  ergibt.  ®einnai^,  inenn  cin  9lttionar  5cl)it  3(ttten  oer. 
tritt  nnb  c^  finb  fed)§  Eircrtorcn  }u  erTOal)len,  fo  if^  cr  511 
fec^jig  Stiiuincn  bcrct^tigt,  Bon  bcnen  cr  nad)  3?eliebcn  einem 
jcben  ber  Sirettorcn  5el)it,  ober  breien  jroanjig,  ober  eiiicnt 
aUe  fed)5tg  jnroenben  tann,  ober  in  irgenbeinetn  aitbcren  SJer- 
battnifj,  folaitge  eS  nid)t  fed),',ig  -Stimmeit  iibevfdircitct. 
3)ie  fo  evroahltcii  ®ircftorcn  Bevfammeln  fic^   fobolb  roic 


mijglid)  nad)  ber  SBa^l,  nut  cineit  *^raftDenten,  4>ice»~|!rdfiben" 
fen,  (Setrctdr  nnb  ®d)o(5tneif}er  jn  errodt)fcn,  nnb  nad)  bercn 
OnftaHirnng  loniteit  bie  @cfd)aftc  bcr  jtovporation  begonitcit 
rcerben. 

Sic  0cfe(5e  in  ben  Berfd)icbenen  ©taaten,  bic  fit^  anf  bie 
^\itforporation  |old)cr  ©cfcUft^oftcit  bcjiehen,  fmb  jiemlid)  bie 
g(eid)en,  nnb  bic  anf  Scitc  466  angegcbcnc  gorin  bet  Wi'.- 
wantce  aBaffer>(Sa§=i?onipagnie  mag  al5  i8eifpic(  bienen,  reie 
biefe  roic^tige  ijffentlit^e  ^anblnng  ausgefii^rt  roirb. 

U vtu n  ben. 

(Deeds.) 

Unter  Deed  Berftet)t  man  ein  fchriftlid)e^  Siofnmcnt,  in 
njcld)cm  Saiib,  ©cbditbc  ober(iitbere§3"'^f')or  Boit  ciiier'^icrfon 
anf  cine  anbere  iibertragcii  iBevben.  SiefeS  Xotiiinont  luirb 
niiterfd)ricbcii,  gcftcgclt  nnb  nad^  gcfc^iiii^ei!  95orfd)riftcii  iibov= 
geben.  g5  iiiiijj  Don  gefc^lid)  bajn  bcfngteit'^crfonen  an§gc= 
fiil)rt  iDcvbeii  uiib  tann  entrocber  anf  ^^japier  ober  *iiergament 
gcfd)ricben  ober  gebrndt  fein.  ®ie  Jlnevfennnng  einc§  I)e<.d. 
tann  nut  Bor  geroiffcn^'crfonen  ()e(d)ct)eii,  bie  in  ben  Bcrfdiic 
beneii  *taateitbiffcriveit  inbgeii,  aber  in  ben  meificn  gvicbeit;- 
rid)tcv,  9Jotave,  ftanjleiridjter,  (i^cridjtsbeamte,  Siivgecmciflcv 
nnb  anbeve  in  fic^  begrcifcn.  Uin  einen  Deed  red)ti^giiltig  311 
iiiad)cn,  muf;  eiiie  3.>criBillignng  unberocglidjcn  gigcntlntmiS 
nnb  cine  geniigenbe  Hergiitnng  bariit  anSgcfprodjcit  fein. 

Uin  gigentbnin  red)tSgiiltig  iibertragen  jn  fiinnen,  mug  ein 
9J?oitn  ober  cine  Jran  bci  gefunbcm  3?erftanb,  Bon  gcfe^lidjem 
filter  nnb  ba§  gigcntl)nm  red)tindBig  criBorben  fein.  Scr 
?ln§ftcUer  einc§  Deeds  roitb  Grantor,  bcr  gntpfSnger  Grantee 
gen.iiint.  9Eo  bie  ®cfe^c  eS  nid)t  befonbcrS  regnliren, 
iniifj  bie  gran  be§  9lu§ficllcr^  ben  Deed  mitnntcrfdjrcibei!,  fic 
iDiirbe  foitfl  nac^  bent  Jobe  bc^S  ai(aniie§  nnb  lDdl)renb  bcr 
iiatiirlid)cn  Saner  i^re-j  Seben^?  311  einem  Jrittljcil  beg 
gigcntt)niii'5  bcred)tigt  fein.  ®ie  mng  biefe  9Inertennuiig 
fveiiBiUig  nnb  an-J  eignent  5lntrieb  ntad)cn,  nnb  ber  "i^camte, 
DoriBeld)cnt  biefe  ■Jlncrtcnnnng  gcfd)iel)t,  inn6  fciitcUiitcrfd)rift 
al'3  3>^i'9i''fi  bafiir  geben,  bag  fein  3'B'ii'g  gebrand)t  lonrbc, 
11111  bie  giitiBiUignng  jn  cvtjalfen.  iKan  tann  nid)t  Bovftd)tig 
gcitng  fein,  iiad)3nfehcn,  bag  ei"  l>'^ed  rec^tmdjjig  Bor3fiigcii 
ancrtannt  nnb  geftempelt  ift. 

SBcnn  in  einem  S'ofnment  Jlbdnberungen  nnb  Jtittcrlinea* 
tioneii  BDrgcitommcn  iBcrbcn,  fo  foUtcit  biefe  am  nnteven 
giibe  notirt  nnb  Don  3f''3f"  bcftdtigt  fciit.  Viad)  ber  Sln> 
crfcnnitng  beS  Deeds  ift  gjicmanb  bercd)tigt,  anc^  nnv  bie 
gcvingftc  'Jlciiberitiig  311  niad)en.  3rgenb  cine  Jlenbernng  sn 
©niiftcn  bcS  gmpfdiigfr«  mad)t  ben  Deed  tDertl)log. 

aSenn  eiu  Warranty  Deed  (?lUgeineinet  i!?iirgfd)aft«fc^ein) 
gegcbcn  loirb,  fo  Derpf(id)tet  ftth  bcr^InSftcUcr,  ba«  ilbertrfi'>--- 
gigent^um  gegen  alle  nnb  jebc  51nipriid)f 
Quit-claim  Deed   (i<;er5id)tIeiflnitg§=Url| 
Mn^ftellcr   Bon   alien  9lnfprii(^cn  anf 
ond)  Ben  alien  lUrpflic^tungcn. 

9ia(^  ber  Uebergabe  cineS  Deeds  foUte  c 
betreffenben  @cti(^t  regiflrivt  irerben. 


kL 


FT 


498 


~7\ 


GERMAN    LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


8H»fd)riftcn  i>on  !ScfiHucfun9en. 

(Abstracts  of  Title.) 

Unter  biefeii  serlleljt  man  eiiic  tiirsgefafjte  Sefdjretbung 
aller  Deeds,  auf  beiten  9iec^t§anfpriicl)e  ruljeit,  forote  ber  ge= 
vic^tlid)  aiiertanntcn  (3d)u(ben  unt  aiiberev  Sotiimente,  bie 
biefe  5lii(prucf)e  betreffeii  —  cine  Uebeiftc^t  ber  unterfd)eibcii= 
beii  Jljeite  ber  uerfcijiebeiien  Sotumente  aii§  benen  bie  %\it\-- 
llvtiuibe  beftel)t. 

2)ie  2:ite(6eroeife  fiub  geTOb^nlid;  Uebortragiingeit,  2:efta= 
iiieiite,  ■•Inorbninigen  unb  Setrete  beg  ©eric^tl,  Urtljeile,  ge= 
vid)t(id)e  SBertaitfe,  sBefd^Iiiffe  ber  SegiSlatiir  unb  be§  ifoii- 
greffeS. 

lBurgf(i)aft  wn^  3i(i)cr()eit. 

(Guaranty.) 

tJtiie  Guaranty  ifl  btc  ffierftdjevung  eiiier  ^erfoit,  bag  eine 
iinbere  ^erfon  eine  fpejielle  §anb(ung  au§fiit)ren  roirb. 
Seuu3.  S.  "A"  bent  "B"  eine 9Jotc  gibt  unb  "C  "  bnvd)  fein 
3nbofrivcnbe§ScI>rittftutf§  firt)  bem  "B-'gegeniiber  Berbnrgt, 
bag  "A"  ant2?erfalttag  jaljlen  roirb,  folcirb  "C"  ber  Guaran- 
tor, ©eine  SBerantroortUdjteit  ift  auSbriicflid),  tjijrt  jebo^  anf, 
roeun  "  B  "  bie  DJote  bet  Sgerfad  ernenern  foUte.  Sie  i8iirg» 
fcftaft  einer  SottettiDn  ift  uerfc^ieben  bon  einer  3i^Iui'S^* 
garantie.  Sie  erftere  garantirt,  bag  ba§@elb  totlettirbor  ift, 
bie  le^tere,  bag  e§  bei  Serfall  gejaljit  roirb.  3m  erfteren 
)5alt  mug  bie  garautirte  ^erfou  int  ©tonbe  feiu,  ju  beroetfeu, 
bag  ber  uottjige  gifer  im  SSerfud;  beg  (fiu,?iel)eug  be§  @elbe§ 
angcroenbet  ronrbe;  im  jroeitcn  gad  tji  foli^e  S8eroeigfiil)rung 
uid)t  ubt^ig. 

Um  eine  5?ote  ju  garantireu,  brancfit  man  bIo§  fetnen  5Ja  = 
men  auf  'itw  9f  itrfen  berfelbcn  ju  ft^reiben,  ober,  roie  e§  ge= 
roolinftd)  genannt  roirb,  btefelbe  gu  inbofftren. 

9Bictrje(»err  unK  SPitctJjcr. 
(Landlord  and  Tenant.) 

giue  Lease  (9MietIjg=  ober  *pact)ttontratt)  ift  ein  SBertrag, 
ber  einerfeitg  ben  SBefi^  nub  beu  Oeung  Bon  ©ruubeigentbnm 
ober  nnbeireglidjem  Out,  anbrerfeitS  bie  3a!)tung  einer  ge= 
luiffen  iTOietlje,  ober  fonftigcii  ginlommcnl  bebiugt.  SBer 
Saub  unb  ®ebaulid)teiten  bcfi^t  nub  fo(d)e  an  anbere  oermie- 
tl)et  ober  Berpadjtet,  roirb  Landlord  genannt,  unb  berjenige, 
ber  ben  tcmporareit  @enug  con  bem  einem  anberen  getjiirigeu 
@runbeigcntt)nm  l^at,  ift  oer  Tenant. 

2>ie  Jauer  unb  SBebingnngen  ber  ©efi^naljme  fiub  in  bem 
<Pod)ttcntraft  fcsjeidjnet.  Q.i  ift  nid)t  notl)ig,  bag  bie  legtere 
nad)  einem  beWmmtcr.  2?orttaiit  anSgefevtigt  fei;  bod)  ift  eS 
loidtiig,  bag  ',fle  3?cbingungi-n  liar  unb  beutlidi  barin  aufge^ 
fiit)rt  ftub,  um  otle  aji'.goerftanbniffe  ju  I'ermeiben. 

lOfitnblid^e  SCerfpredinngea  fommen  nie  in  iBetradjt;  1:0.-% 
®efet}  tjalt  \\i)  lebiglid)  an  bie  sPfbiugnngen  in  bem'ipa(^ttou= 
tratt,  unb  beren  itlarljeit  uci  JBerftdnblidjteit  roirb  baburd; 
boppelt  roic^tig. 

(golange  c3  nit^t  auSbrftdltc^  inbem$ad)tfontratt  oerboten 
ift,  tann  ber  2)?iet!)er  irgenb  einen  Jljeit  ober  ba§  @an,5e  bc§ 
geniiettjeten  gigentbuniis  toieber  Dermietl)en. 

Sine  perljeiratljcte  Jran  faun  nnter  bem  gemeinen  SRedH 
i^reigentljum  nidit  Ocnnictljen;  unter  ben  ©tatuten  tierfd)ic» 


bener  Staaten  jebo(^  i|l  bie§  S?erbot  anfgeljobcn.  Sin  ®l)e« 
niann  tann  feinen  5WietI)#!ontratt  eingeljen,-  ber  ba§  Stgen= 
ttjiim  fciner  grau  noc^  nad;  feinem  lobe  binbet;  fclbft  unter 
bent  gemeinen  3{ed^t  enbet  feme  i^ontroUe  mit  fcinent  i'ebeu. 
@in  Sjormunb  tann  [einen ''}3ad)tlontrattgeben,  berbie9JHnber= 
jaljrigfcit  feineSSSiinbel-j  iibcrbanert,  unb  tanu  ter  lefetere  bei 
Srlangeu  feiner  SBoUjaljngteit  benfelbcu  annuttircn.  Unter= 
(agt  baS  2Kuntel  jeboc^  ben  *pad)ttontvatt  su  annuHireit,  fo 
bk'ibt  berfetbe  in  Sraft. 

SBenn  in  einem  ^?ad)ttontraft  teine  beftimmte  3eitbauer  an= 
gegeben  ift,  fo  roirb  angeitommen,  bag  biefelbe  fiir  ein  3al)r 
befte^t. 

3ft  eina)?ietl)§tontraFt  nad)  2Billtiir  enbbar,  fo  ift  c«  ni3tt)ig, 
benfetbcn  Pon  einem  bi§  fed)^  2)Jonaten  BorauS  aufjntiinbi^ 
gen,  je  nadjbem  bie  @efe(3e  beS  ©taateS,  in  bem  bag  Sigentljnm 
(iegt,  eg  Borfdjreiben.  3n  ben  oft[id)cn  Staaten  iff  cine  brei« 
monatlti^e  3Inftuubigung  gebrdud)lic^,  in  ben  2)?itte(»  uub 
Sub»©taaten  eine  fec^gmonattid^e  unb  in  ben  roeftltdien 
©taaten  eine  einmonat(id)e. 

Xie  '^it^rafe  „eine9{eit)e  Bon  3abren",  roeun  teine  beftimmte 
3al)l  gegeben,  bebeutet  5um  2Benigfien  jroei  3at)re. 

'^?ad)t!cntrafte  Bon  Ijppotljetirtem  Sigenttjum,  roelc^eg  fdjoit 
Bor  ber  yjermietljnng  mit  ipppotbete  betaftet  roar,  enben  mit 
ber  Serfallgertlarnng  berfelben.  SBenn  ein  Sfietber  fetnen 
''!).'ad)ttontratt  felbft  mit  ber  SJeroilliguug  be§9Jiiet^gl^errn  an 
eiiten  3lnberit  iibertragt,  fo  bleibt  er  fiir  beit  9.1Jictl)g5ing  fo» 
lange  ^aftbar,  big  ber  '^Sac^ttontratt  entroeber  anfgcgeben  ober 
Bernidjtet  ift. 

3n  ben  ben  aWiet^gfeerrn  unb  SlJietl^er  betreffenben  (Mefetjen, 
namentlid)  in  Sejietiung  auf  21iiet^e  con  itderban^Sanbereien, 
gibt  eg  ciete  befonbere  3ii9f.  i^'f  f'"e  forgfalttgc  Slufmer!fom= 
teit  Berbieiten. 

©eroijtintid)  tann  ein  abjieljeitber  ajfietber  ben  3j;ift  nid)l 
certanfen  ober  mitroegne^men. 

3fl  ein  aWiett;er  bnrd)  greigniffe,  bie  er  roeber  covl^erfelien, 
nod)  tontrottiren  tonute,  gejronngen,  ben  iBefib  aufjugeben, 
fo  ift  er  gefe^tid)  ,^um  Srtrag  fciner  felbft  angepflanjten  gelber 
bercc^tigt.  3n  geiciffen  gallen  tann  er  fogar  noc^  nad;  bem 
■J(nfl)i3ren  feiner  JBeftljnaljinc  bie  grtrage  beg  Sanbeg  bean=' 
fprucl)cn  unb  tann,  roeun  bag  (Segentljeil  nidjt  befonberg  im 
S'ontratt  corgefel)en  ift,  aHeg  nagetfefte  §au§gerat!),  bag  er 
fetbft  fiir  feinen  etgenen  Ohil^en  unb  S8egucmltd)Ieit  roaljrenb 
feiner  Cttupation  errid)tet  I)at,  roieberroegvaumcn.  Jenn  im 
5(tlgemeinen  roag  einiD!iet[)er  tjinsugcfiigt  bat,  tann  er  roicber 
roegneljmen,  folange  bieg  oljne  9?ad)tt)eil  fiir  bie  @cbau(id)= 
teitcn  gcfdjeticn  tann,  eg  fei  beuii,  cr  l)at-ebicfe$inuifitgnngen 
fo  l)crgeftet(t,  bag  biefelbeit  einen  intcgrirenbeit  Sl)ei[  beg  cor= 
Ijer  Sagerocfencn  bilben. 

2>ie  nnberoegbare;!  ©cgenftdnbe  fiiib  bie  folgenbeii:  l'anb= 
roirtl)fd)aftlid)e  Qiebanbe,  <l!fei-''^3anne,  2Sagenfd)nppcn,  in  bent 
Sobcn  befeftigte  ©d^ennen,  IMcljftaUc,  3''"incrroertflcfle, 
.Oo[,5l)aug,  Janbenljaug,  SBnd)gbannilKden,  folange  gf  nit^t 
einent  §a"bclggdvtncr  get)i3icn,  SBliimen,  33dnmc  nnb3aune. 
©d)cuttifd)e,  Jlitridjttifdie  itub  4!crfd)ldge.  ©c^Iiiffer  unb 
©d)liiffc(.  Jim  .<!iaufe  befeftigte  a3dnte,  ©tatuen  jnr  '^xixiit. 
ber  2titlagen  errid)tct,  ©onnenul)rcn,  jjaminftiide,  fotange  ge 


V- 


.V 


K" 


-y\ 


GERMAN    I.EGAI,    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


499 


nic^t  jiir  3''">I^''  i^n  Tii't'-  3iii  .>>iitjo  bo|eiligtc  ffatiiiclc. 
SBaffcrleitmigen.  @croad)§l)ciufcr.  S^ihfii.  gruc^tbiumt, 
iBciiii  bcv  aJiietljcv  iiid)t  felbft  ?3auiiit)anMcr  ift.  ®Ia«fenftcv. 
.'pccvtc.  2}hiI)Iftctiie.  2Be6ftitl)ie,  mciiii  fie  fcaucvl)aft  aiif  bcm 
!8obeii  ciiicv  Jabrif  augebvadjt  fiiib.  'Svefdjmafc^ineii,  bif 
mit  Soljcit  iiiib  Sdjraiiben  an  in  ten  ©ruiib  ciiigelafieiicii 
'i^fofteii  bcfcftigt  Tint. 

9iedf)tc  t)crl)eiratl)ctcv  ^rauen. 
i^Rlghts  of  Married  Women.) 

.Jm  geiiieiiicii  3fccl;t  ijcv  SScrciiiiiveii  Staateii  befiitbeu  ftd; 
ciiiige  cigcnHiimIid)c  Serfiigiiiigcii  in  ^ejug  auf  bie  Sfcdjtc 
ucvljeirat^eicr  J?raiieii,  obg(ei(^  aKe^taateit  wicter  iljrc  cige^ 
lieu  ftatiitavifdjcu  SBevfiigiingeii  l)abeii,  tie  biofeS  (Sefe^  mcrf- 
lid)  inotifisiven.  92od)  bem  ^eiitlgeit  Staiib  beg  @efe|}c§  ifl 
ber  Sljeiiiaiiii  fiiv  atle  feiiievgvau  gclicfevtcii  :?obiUfiitffc  ccv« 
antiBDvKid),  fogar  tvciiii  ev  felbft  bcren  Sefdjaffuiig  ni(^t  \\\\- 
fevlaffoii  foUte.  5r  ift  Pevaiitroovtlid),  ipenu  et  feiiie  %X\x\\  auS 
belli  §aiife  weifi,  obcv  \\<i)  foiift  obiie  geiiiigeiiboii  ®viinb  Dcii 
iljr  tremit.  Seine  SBerbinMi(^tcit  l)i,ht  anf,  luenii  iljn  bie 
gvau  Pcvlajjt,  obcv  er  fie,  anf  gnte  (Siiinbe  Ijiit,  IjinauSireift. 
Sevlagt  fie  iljii  anf  geniigenbellvfadjc,  fo  ifl  ertieiaiitrcortlit^. 
SBcitn  eiii  iDJanii  mit  einev  5vau  .pifammeiilebt  nub  biefelbc 
al§  fein  (S^cwcib  au^gibt,  fo  ift  cr,  felbft  wenii  biefc  S3ovftcl= 
lung  einev  ^Jerfon  gegeniibet  gefd)iel)t,  bie  rceiji,  bag  biefelbe 
falft^  ifl,  in  beinfelbeii  ©rabe  Deraiitroortlid),  ata  roenn  fie  fein 
angetranteS  2Seib  TOare. 

SiiLMcIen  Staatenmerben  bieciovberipo(^3etteiiigegangenen 
§ciratl)^tontrattc  anevlaniit  nnb  ridjcrn  biefclben  ben  bevl)eiva= 
tljeten  ^vanen  nod;  griJBeve  I'vioilegicn,  al'j  il^nen  ba:3  ®efelj 
fdjDn  fo  jnevlennt.  SBeitere  3)?ad;tbefnguiffe  luib  Stec^te  tijii= 
neii  \\t>i)  bind)  bieUebevtragung  bet?  con  bev  ^van  gelialtenen 
Gigeiitl)nin§  anf  SeBollmfic^tigte  gefidjert  wevben.  5old;c 
Uvtnnben  foUten  bentlidj  angeten,  anS  n?aS  ba§  anoertronte 
@iit  bel'tcljt,  nnb  foUteit  forgfdltig  anSgefcvtigt  fein.  SBeiin 
3lbfd)tufi  einev  ^lintcvlaffenfdiaft,  in  ber  eine  SBittire  jn  einem 
Sitttjnm  bevedjtigt  ift,  iniifj  beven  inatjvfdjcinlidje  Scben^jeit 
bevedinel  roevbeii,  nm  ben  gegeni»artigeu3Bertl)  iljveS  'Jlntl)eil§ 
an  bie  ©interlaifenfdjnft  feftjuflellen.  3Benn  bev  i^etvag  fefl^ 
gefefet  ift,  taiin  bev  •Mbfdilng  fofovt  gefc^cbeii. 

(Koal  Estate  M<(rta:as:es.) 

Jiic  Uebertragung  ton  ®vnnb«  obcv  pevfijnlidjem  Sigeii' 
tljum,  jnv  Sidievnng  einev  2d)ulb,  irivb  Mortgage  (.pt)potl)eI) 
geimnnt.  SiJenii  bie  Sdiiilb  bcjablt  ifl,  ii'ivb  bie  Mongayr 
mertljlos.  Xev  Oiaiiie,  ivie  oiele  Stjnlidje  im  ;)ted)t'5rcefen, 
tomint  an«  bem  gvanHififdjcu.  "Mori,"  Job,  nnb  "gage," 
t'fanb;  cin  „tobtcy 'jjfanb",  fogcnannt,  meil  baS  gigeiitbnm 
fiiv  bcn'MuSfteltov  bev  .N>i)Votl)ete  folange  tobi  ift,  bi§  crbie  5>e» 
binguugcn  evfiillt  l}at,  bie  feinc  Sln-Slijfnng  bebiiigen.  3" 
.N>npotl)t'Icn  anf  @vunbi'igentt)uni  beljiilt  bev  JtiiSflellev  bo5 
(Sigentlnim  in  feinem  33cfi^,  ,5iebt  bie  9J!iell)cn  nnb  aiibevc 
gintomiiien  eiu,  nnb  bo^al^lt  alte  Stenevn  nnb  fonftige  Uii- 
lofteu.  Siefcv 'l?faiibtniof  iiing  uon  eincni  a3camtcn  bcglaii> 
bigt  fein  inib  in  bcv  Office  be§  (5onntn»Slecf§  obev  Mecorbevo, 
obcv  foiiftigen  SJeamteii,  bent  biefe  I'tlidit  obliegt,  rcgifirivt 
werbcu. 


Site  ^ijpotljefeii  miiffen  fdjvifttid)  auSgcferttgt  fein.  @ie 
iiiiiffeu  eine  Sln^IiifniigStlanfel  cntljalteu  nnb  befdjrooven  nnb 
geftcinpelt  fein.  3)ic  I'cvfalljoit  bev  3d)ulb,  fiiv  bie  bie 
.ft^potljef  gcgebeii  ifl,  iiiiiB  beutlid;  evivd^nt  fein,  nnb  ba§ 
gigentljuni  felbft  innfi  tlav  befd^rieben,  feine  Sage  aiigegebfii 
iinb  in  gcl)lnigev  Ovbnnng  anfgejaljlt  fein. 

giiijclnc  §t)potl)eleii  enttjalten  eine  Slaufcl,  bevjufolge  feinc 
gevic^tlidje  (Sntfdjeibuiig  nbttjig  ift,  biefelbe  im  92id^t5al)lnng«= 
fall  be>3  ,<Japital§  obev  bev  3'"if"  fi'i'  Pcvfalleii  ju  evtlareii. 

Sie  gjcrfalUevIldvung  irivb  Foreclosure  geiiaiint. 

ilBeini  eine  .'ntjpotbcte  anf  eine  oubeve  '^crfon  iibettvageii 
luevbeu  foil,  fo  lann  bieS  imv  fiiv  eine  iBergiitnug  gefdjeljcn, 
unb  bie  9foteii,  fiiv  bcveii  Sidjevung  bie  .vippotljete  gegebcn 
ronvbe,  miiffen  mit  iibevtvagen  iDcvbcii.  Sotlte  ba?  ht)potl)e= 
fivte  gigentlnim  bcim  3itiang5Devtauf  niel)v  eiubringen,  al§ 
5nv  ?(btvagnng  bcv  SAulb  mit  3'"f<!"  ""*  Soften  iiiMbig  if't, 
fo  mnfj  ber  Uebevfd)nfi  an  ben  3lii§flcllev  ber  .'pi)potl)eIe  jiiviid^ 
evflattet  roerben. 

2>ie3;ilguiig  einev  .v)t)pDtl)eIcii-3d)uIb  anfSviiiib  obcv  pcv» 
ibnlidiC'j  Sigentljnm  taiin  erfolgen: 

1.  J>nrd)  eine  iHanbgloffe  anf  bcv,v)tipott)el>Uvtiinbe  ielbft, 
uon  belli  .'pt)pott)efav  ober  beffen  i^etiollmdc^tigten  umcvfdjvic' 
bcH,  nnb  rooviii  bie  tetjtcven  im  Seifcin  bev  bctvcffenbcii 
9kgiftviviing§beamtcn  bie  Jilgnng  bev  Sdiiilb  aiievfcniieii; 
ober 

2.  3)urtb  eine  (Smpfang^befd)einigiiug,  ebenfallS  bind)  ben 
.§ppott)eIar  ober  beffen  ©tellBertrcter  nnterfdjvieten,  ireldio 
anf  bem  iRanbc  bcv  bctveffenbcn  llvtniibc  eiiigctvagen  irerbeii 
tann;  obev 

3.  Diivd)  ivgeiib  eiu  fd)riftlid)c>3  Xolnmcnt,  in  U'cldKiu  bic 
lilgung  berec^ulb  uor  einem  bajii  befugtcn  iSeamtcit  feiten^ 
bc5  iJ^potbefavS  obev  beffen  4^euoUindd)tigteii  anevfaniit  unb 
bcglanbigt  luivb  ;  —  ganj  in  berfelbcn  lijeife  roie  aitbcven 
(aviiubbefi^  betveffeube  Uvlunbeu. 

^D)>oti)cfcii  auf  )>crfdnlt(ftce  unD  ti(lvc(|ltd)ce 
C^idcittDum. 

(Chattel  Mortirairos.^ 

Xic  mciftcn  Sicgcln,  bie  ipi)pottietcii  anf  @vuubbefiy  be 
tveffeu,  finbaud)l)ieroufaniuenbbav,  trciiii  e^  anc^  in  einjclueii 
2t(iateii  befoubcrc  ©efc^^e  gibt,  bic  foldje  iiijpotbcfen  anf  bc« 
iueglid)c>o  gigentbmn  rcgnliren.  0*rgcnb  eiii  Jdiriftfliirf, 
ba»  al5  i'cvfanfiSfd^ciu  gelten  tbiintc,  taiui  and)  al-'  .^^llpotbet 
anf  pcrfbnlid)e?  Sigcntbnm  biciicn,  fobalb  edcine  Wlanfel  cnt- 
biilt,  monad)  bcim  i^e.^ablcn  bev  Sdjiilb  bie  .vMipotbet  cvlifcbt. 
Jiefelbc  Sovgfalt  foUte  bei  .Cippotbeten  anf  bciocglidieg 
Gigeiitbnm  angerecnbet  luevbeu,  reie  bci  foldu-n  anf  @iiiub' 
cigentbum.  Chaitcl  Mortgages  evftvcdeii  fid)  iiid)t  iiber  fpdtev 
crworbeucu  (gigentbuin.  5ie  fofltcn  ftet-S  eine  bie  '3?illigleit 
bcv  3lH>51l'fung  betveffeube  .tlanfcl  cntbalten.  gin  .^-)t)potbetav 
taun  feinc  Apijpotbcfc  nevtaiifcn  obcv  anciueii  iliibcvu  fiiv  eiuc 
in-vgiitiing  iibevtvagen,  bod)  tann  fold)cS  Sigcuibuiu  uirfii  !?ov 
bcv  SJevfalljcit  bcv  ipt)potbcIc  mit  'i«cfd)lag  bclegt  obev  uevtau't 
irevbcii.  §Dpotbeteii,  bie  ill  bcv  ^Ibfitbt  gegebcn  ivcvbcn,  iim 
®laubigev  ju  bctviigcn,  fuib  ircrtblo-J. 


K 


-A 


GERMAN    LEOAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


SletentionSccdite  iter  j^antttvetfcr. 
Mechanics'  Liens. 

Ser  '^vitd  aViix  ©cfc^e  in  3?ejug  aiif  SJett'iition^redjte  iff 
t'ie  ©i^cvung  bev  3liirect)te  aiif  pevfoiilid^eS  gigent^um  in  ten 
^aiiben  t'eKSigcnttjiimcvS,  bi-3  ba'Sfelbe  gebiil)renb  beja^lt  ift. 
Obne  SBefi^  ftnt  fcinc  3tetentiDn'3rcd)te  for  bcm  (Sefe^  aii= 
ev!annt.  @§  iff  ciii  im  Sntereffe  tet  ©antwerter,  SBivtlje, 
®icner,  ^ivtcn  itnb  SBoten  gcf(^affencS  9iecl)t.  Sauleute  iinb 
\vM)t,  bie  Sauniaterial  liefevn,  Ijabcn  iintcr  bem  @cfe§  etn 
3Invecf)t  anf  bai°  'i.^xw'i  unb  6'iebaube,  roenn  fic  tt)i'  9iccDt  in  ber 
»orge|(t)riebencn  3^''  geltenb  mad)en.  3n  biefem  3"<iUc  ift 
teine  Seritjiiabme  nbt^ig,  nub  gel)t  ba§  3tu§lijfnng§reci;t  bei 
35ertanf  be§  beldjlagnabmten  @tgentl;nm§  biivd;  ba0  9feten  = 
tiou'ovedjt  Bevloren.  ®ev  lIcberfdjuB  bc§  beim  SBerlauf  ge= 
lijften  ©iibe:§  geljovt  natiirlid;  bem  ©igentljitmer.  9tetentiDnl» 
befi^nal^mcn  rcerben  anf  vec^tfiirniigfS  Srfnc^eii  ^in  bnrd) 
ricl)terlici)e  Sntfcfjeibung  alg  cerfallen  ertldrt.  9ietention2!» 
befifenal^me  lijiinen  ebenfomotjt  anf  ©djiffe  nnb  SBerften,  al^ 
anf  anbere  ©ebdulic^teiteu  gelegt  roerben. 

Senu  t'in  §anbroevfer  einen  "  Lien  "  au^fevtigcn  mitt,  urn 
bie  il)ni  jufommenben  Oelber  fiiv  9Itbeit  ober  gelieferteS  3Mas 
terial  jn  eriangen,  fo  nni6erinfeinerSingabeanben  Sountt)' 
Sterf  bie  3(rt  unb  2Beife  feineS  S3ertragc§,  bie  Unterlaffung 
feiner  Seja^lnng  nnb  bie  33eforgnii;  erroa^nen,  bag  er  bnrc^ 
9H(i)tgerodt)rnng  beS  Liens  bal  @e(b  jn  serlieren  ®efa^t  Iduft. 
®iefc§  Oefud)  ning  befdjraoren  unb  in  ber  Office  beg  (5onutp» 
Sleifg  abgeliefevt  merben.  aSerben  baun  bie  ?lnfpru({)e  ni(f)t 
in  gebcviger  3fi'  befriebigt,  fo  mirb  ba§  gigcnt^nm  fiiv  bie 
©t^ulb  uevtanft. 

gSbleibt  fic^  glcid),  obber  ffontvaFtor  ober  ber  gigentljiimev 
be§  @ebanbe§  im  9fiictftanb  ift.  3)er  §anbroer[er  l)at  niit 
teiuem  ber  Seiben  ctwaS  i\\  tl^nn;  er  pit  \\i)  an  ba^  (5igeu» 
tt)um  felbft  fiir  feme  SBcjaljIung.  ©elbft  rcenn  ber  @igen= 
ttjumer  ben  jtontraltor  fctjou  fiir  bie  3lrbcit  beja^tt  l)aben 
foUte  unb  ber  le^tere  fd^nlbet  noc^  ben  3(rbeitern  ober  fiir  ba§ 
SKaterial,  fo  tann  bag  (5igentl;nm  benuod)  certauft  recrben, 
wenn  nic^t  Bovl)erige  SBejatjInng  erfotgt. 

Seftamcnt  o^tx  lci}tct  SSiQc. 

(Wills.) 

gin  leftament  ift  bie  fc^riftlid)eUr!nnbe,  in  ber  eiueSevfon 
Derfiigt,  mag  mit  i^remgigent^nm  nad;  t^rcni  Jobc  gefd)el)cn 
foQ.  ^rgcnbeine^lSerfon  Bon  gefe\5lid)cm Sitter  nnb  gefuubem 
SSerflanb  lann  eiu  ret^tsgiiltigeg  2:eftament  mac^en,  obg(eid) 
in  manc^en  ©taaten  eine  Bevl^eiratljete  grau  tnaljrenb  bev 
Sebjeit  i^reg  Oattcn  baBon  anggefd)Ioffcn  ift.  gin  Jeftanient 
tritt  erft  mit  bem  Sob  bc§  grblafferS  in  fivaft  nub  taun  bou 
i^m  bi§  5n  beffen  gintritt  nad;  93eIioben  gednbert  ober  mobi» 
fi;irt  roerben.  ®a§  (etjtgemai^te  Seftameut  ^ebt  alle  Borl)er= 
ge^enben  anf,  auSgeuommen  eg  ift  eiu  Sln^augfel  ober  91men» 
bemeut  eineg  Bor^erge^euben.  Unter  Umftdubcu  criaubt  ein 
Seftameut  eine  jiemlic^  freie  Seutung.  SBcnn  jum  SBeifpiel 
ein  SKann  uoc^  ?lnffel?nng  femeg  Jeftamcnteg  Ijeiratljct,  unb 
ingolge  beffen  .Viinber  belommt,  [o  loivb  angenoinmen,  bag  ev 
beabfidjligte,  bieSJevfiiguugcn  iibcriein  gigentljnmjnanberu, 
unb  &ag®cfe^  iiimnit  begljalb  bicfeSlenberunnen  fiir  iljn  Bor. 
©cric^te  Berlangeu  iiidjt  immerfdinftlic^ejeftamente,  manc^» 


mat  roerben  auc^  fogeuannte  miinblidje  Seflamente  jnr  Sc» 
ftatignng  jngelaffeu.  ®ietc  ftiitsi-n  ffl)  jebod)  anf  3''»i!f"= 
ansfageu  nnb  finb  uugeroijj  unb  gefabrlic^.  SBiele  ©taaten 
laffen  foldje  iniinblidje  Jeftameute  gar  nic^t  jn,  roenn  fte  nic^t 
binnen  je^n  Sagen  Bor  bem  Job,  ober  Bon'iperionen  ber  Strmee 
unb  iWariue  gemac^t  fmb. 

giue  g^efrau  tann  nid)t  urn  bog  3lnred)t  iljreg  aSitt^umg 
(Dowers)  boraubt  roerben,  bag  aitg  einem  3)rittt)cil  beg  griofeg 
Bon  bemSruubbefitj  nebft  3nbet)i3r  i^regJIZanueg  befte^t.  @g 
mag  iljr  gigentljnm  anftatt  beg  Dowers  jugeroiefen  fein,  roe[= 
djeg  fie  nad)  iBeliebcii  anneljmen  mag  ober  uidjt;  folangc  jebod; 
bie  SBorte  „anftatt  beg  Dowers"  uidjt  augbviirflid)  gebvaudjt 
fuib,  fanu  fie  2?eibeg,  bag  33ermdc^tnii5  forooltf  atg  ben  Dower 
beanfprndjen. 

giue  iiorpovation  barf  teiu  SBevmac^tuiB  annel^men,  ang« 
genommen  jebod),  roenn  bieg  befouberS  in  il)rcm  greibrtef  gc» 
ftattet  ift. 

^eiu  2l(tnberjdt)riger,  531bbrinniger,  Jvuutcnbolb  ober 
©trdfling  fann  alg  gjetutor  eineg  Jeftamcutg  bicnen.  gin 
gyetutor  tann  bie iBcftallnng  abletjnen;  er  mug  bieg  jebod)  im 
Seifeiu  jroeier  3f"i!f"  tbnn-  ®ic  15fltd)ten  beg  gyctutorg 
nnb  51bminifiratorg  finb  biefelben;  bie  9Jamen  t)aben  it)ren 
Uvfprung  barin,  'ia!^  ein  gyetutor  Bon  bem  grblaffer,  ber 
Slbmiuiftrator  bagegen  Bom  ©erit^t  eruaunt  roivb. 

SBenn  eine  Bert)eiratt)ete  gran  eiu  Jeftament  mad)t,  mug 
iljr  gl)emanu  ben  SJorjug  Bor  alien  3lnberii  alg31bmiuiftrator 
pbeu.  gin  3^ "3^  eineg  Jeftamentg  barf  nid)t  a(g  gvbe  barin 
bebac^t  fein.  Sie  3f"9f"  braudjeu  ben  3ul)alt  eineg  leftas 
mentg  nid)t  ju  tenncn,  fie  l)abcu  nnr  bie  Uiitcrfdjreibuug  beg= 
felben  jn  beftdtigcn. 

escftttorctt  ttnl>  9t5minlftrat«irctt 
(Executors  and  Administrators.) 

©obalb  alg  mijglid)  itat^  bem  Eob  be§  grblafferg  mug  bag 
Jeftamentim(5erid)tl)interlegt  roerben,  nnter  fd)viftlid)er  uub 
eiblid)  befd)roorener  grtldrnng  feiner  95erroal;rung  unb  beg 
grblaffcrg  Sob.  ®ag  ®erid)t  ovbnet  bie  lUn-bffentlidinug 
begfelbeu  an,  mit  ber  Slngabe  beg  Xageg,  an  bem  baffelbe 
beglaubigt  loerben  mug,  uub  bie  red)tgmdgigen  grben  miiffcn 
beuad)rid)tigt  roerben.  3>"'  fff'Sffffe'e"  3t'it  Berfammetu  fid) 
alle  interefftrten  'J.'erlonen,  einfc^Iiefttid)  ber  gj-etntoren,  ini 
@eri(^t.  Sie  3f"3f"  befc^robren  bie  gc^tl)cit  ber  Unter« 
fd)riften  unb  bie  gefnube  SSerucnft  beggrbtafferg  jur  3eit  ber 
3lugftelluu.i  beg  Xcftamentg.  2)ie  gyetntoven  roerben  algbanu 
mit  3lbminiftvatiougrec^ten  betrant  unb  eine  bcglaubigte 
3lbfd)vift  beg  Jeftanieutg  mug  in  jebem  Sonntp,  in  bent  bev 
35erftorbene  @ruubeigentl)um  befag,  regiftrirt  rocvbeu.  ®ev 
3lbmiuiftrator  mug  alg  ®arantie  fiir  bie  treue  3lugfiil)ruug 
alter  'i?f[id)teu  3id)evt)eit  geben  jum  boppelten  3?etrag  beg 
gigentl)nm§.  ©tivbt  eine  *perfou,  bie  @rnnbetgentl)nm  beglst, 
ol)ne  leytroillig  iiber  baffeibc  ju  ocrfiigen,  fo  erbeifd)t  eg  bie 
'i!flid)t  ber  ffiittrce,  bag®eri(^t  urn  gruenunng  tl)rer  felbft  alg 
Slbminiftvatriy  jn  evfut^en.  ®leid)  nac^  feiner  SBeftallnug 
roenbet  g'l)  ber  gyefntor  ober  31bniiniftrator  jur  9}egelnng  bev 
§interlaffenfd)aft.  Sieg  bcbingt  bie  S?enad)rid)tignng  aHer 
©c^ulbner  beg  grblaffevg,  it)reu  S3erpflid)tuugeu  nad^jntom* 


V_ 


V 


-/^ 


GERMAN    LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


S°' 


men,  iiiiij  allcr  ©laubigcr,  i^ve  Mitfpviicfje  gcttciib  ju  madjeii. 
.Sii'jlc"^  rcivb  ciii  gciiaucS  iyerjcidjiiijj  aUeS  Sijcm^umS 
aufgefe^t  uiib  taffelbe  abgejd^alJt. 

■l)ie|e3uDciitavaufiial)me  luit'JlbfdjS^uiig  niirlibem'lJvobat^ 
@ertd)t  tiovgclogt.  2)a5  Siievft  eiiiiommcitbc  ©clt  irirb  311V  33e» 
3al)liiiig  to^  iH-giabiiiffe^  uiib  tcv  avstlidjeii  9fect)iiiiugcu  ccv= 
iDciibct,  3uiuid)ft  toiiimcnbie'Sd)iiItcuanbie3icgievinig,  Liens 
iiiibApnpotlietoii  lint)  jiiletjt  tic  aKgcmeiiieii  Sdjiilbcn  jcbcr  *J(rt. 
3ft  ind;t  gciiiigfiigciit^iiiuuorl^aiiteii,  allciSdjiilbciisu  liejal;= 
leii,  fo  iiiiiijl'ic  Probate  Court  fofort  beiiadjric^tigtujcricii,  iiiiJ) 
bie  "JliifliJiinigtcr.'pinterlaffeii(d}aitiiiujj  baiiii  iiad)bom  i8antc» 
vott>®efcg  porgeiiomincii  rocrbcii. 

SevJlbmimfirator  tft  fiir  afle^  gigeiitljiim  beS  iicvftorbeiieit, 
bcr  3iaieiitavaiifiial)me  iiiib  ^Ibjdia^iiiig  gcmajj,  t;eraiitn?ovt« 
lid),  nub  iniiB  cine  gt'iiaiie3{cd)niuig  iibcvaUc  SraiiSattioiicu, 
bic  ipiiitcvlaiTciifc^iift  bctrcffcnb,  fi'ibrcit.  A>albial)vlid)  iiuifi 
cv  iibcv  ben  ,-(nftaiib  bcvidbcn  4V'vid)t  cvflattcn,  niib  li'cnn 
'iK^i:^  jnv  '.'In'octnanbcrfcgung  fcvtig  ift,  flaitet  cv  bcm  @cvid)t 
j'.'uicii  cnbgiilugcn  'J^crid)!  ab,  iiiib  anib  nadj  iiorjcignng  bcr 
iSnipfang^jdjcinc  aUcv  (Svbcii  nnb  (JJIdnbigcr  Don  feineii 
';iflic^ieu  entbiiiibeii  iinb  fcine  Siivgfc^aft  annullirt  unb  Ocv= 
niditct. 

tpfltditcn  fier  IHIiminiflratorcn  bcim  Ortinen  Don  §inter< 
laffcnf^aftcn. 

Seiiii  einc  'ilJevlDn  ftirbt,  ol)iic  cin  vecl)tgultige§  £e(lamcnt 
JU  t)iuterIaffoii,  fo  luirb  i^r  33cfi5tl)nin  niit.'pulfe  bc§  ©eridjiS 
untcr  tt)ve  tirbcu  »cvtl)eilt.  SJicjc  Xljciluug  roirb  uac^  bcu 
(Sefe(5c»  bo§  ataatcS,  in  n3clct)cm  bcr  S!erftorbcuc  jur  Heit 
feincSSobc'j  refibirt,  Borgenoninieii.  Sic  S5frfiignngge|i^iel)t 
bnrd)  etueu  gc(e^lid)  beftcUten  3(bniintftrator.  3)a§  fiir  foldje 
gdtlc  beftiinnitc  (3^crid)t  cvuonnt  bcu  ^Mbmiuiftrator,  uat^beni 
c^  fid)  iibcrjcugt  l)at,  bafj  bcrfclbc  bic  gcfc(}lid)  erforberIid)en 
@igcnfd)aitcii  bcfi(}t.  Sic  Sriicnming  nuifj  luitSiiiroilligniig 
bcr  betreffciibcn  "jfcrfou  gefd)ct)cn.  @'5  roirb  im  '^Ulgemeinen 
al§  9tcgcl  angcncmmcn,  bag  jcbcr  gcfc^ltc^  befatjigt  ift,  bcr 
ijur  (Singel)nng  eine^  itontvaii-3  bcfngt  ift.  ©crotffe  Mlaffeit 
finb  nad)  beni  Okfc^  I'on  ber  sBcfngnifj  anSgefd)loffen,  roic }.  58. 
in  9}cro  ^ort  Irnnlcnbolbe,  ©picler,  S!3crfct)icenbcr  u.  f.  vs. 
2)Jan  iiiniint  an,  bag  bie  Sjcvroanbtcn  bc-S  3>erftovbcneii 
iiiicrft  JU  bcr  (Srncniiniig  alo  "^Ibminiftrator  bcr  6intcrlaffeii  = 
fdjaft  bercd)tigt  fiiib  nnb  bcr  SJorjiig  ^licrin  roivb  Don  ben  @c- 
fegcn  gcvcgclt.  ®cnt  gl)eniann  ftebt  bie  "Mbininiftratioii  be^ 
pcrfi.iiilid)cii  gigcntl)nniS  feinc§  llU'ibcS  ju;  bic  I'eriDaltung 
bc§  Don  bcm  (Sl)i'manii  t)intcrlaffeiieu  i8efi^tl)um§  fdllt  txw  bie 
SlMtiroe  nub  fonftigcn  nad)ftcn  'Jlngcl)i)rigen,  iDcnii  bicfe  obcr 
ciner  bcrjctbcu  biefdbe  auniinmt,  unb  jioar  in  bcr  fotgciiben 
Orbunng:  1.  ber  SittiDc;  2.  bcu  Jtinbern;  3.  bcm  3?atcr; 
4.  ben  33riibcrn;  5.  bcu  iSd)iDeftcrn;  6.  ben  Snlclu;  7.  ir> 
gcnb  cinem  anbcvii  bor  nad)ftcu  33erroanbten,  bcr  bci  ber  2:[)ci» 
tnng  ber  £iiiitcvlaffciifd)aft  jn  cincin  *J.*flic^ttl)ci(  bcrcd)ugt  ift. 
Sic  l^ormiinbcr  Don  a.ihnbcvjat)rigcn  inogeu  an  bevcit  jStcHe 
bie  'Jlbmiuiftration  iibcrnel)iueu.  ai'eiiu  tcincr  bcr  33cnDanb» 
ten  ober  SBormiinber  bie  ■Jlbmiiuftratiou  auniiniut,  fdllt  bicfe 
ben  ©Idubtgern  bcS  SJcvftorbcncii  aul)cini.  ®cr  Oldnbigcr, 
bcv  fid)  juerft  barunt  bciDivbt,  t)at,  fall*  cr  fonft  ba',u  bcfd^igt 
ift,  ben  Sorjug.  SBcroirbt  fid)  fcincr  bcr  ©Idnbigcr  barnni, 
fo  tann  irgcnb  cine  gcfctjlid)  bcfdl)igtc  'Ifcrfou  aU3  3(bniiniftra' 
tor  criiannt  iDcrbcn.  3u  bcr  vStabt  *JJciD  I'jorf  lann  bcv  L'f= 
fentlic^cSlbminiftrator  nac^  ben  nad)flen'.Jlugel)ijrigen  bic  i'cr= 
roaltnng  ubcrnel)mcn. 

3m  "Staate  9fciD  yjort  tanit  ba3  Surrogat  irgcnb  eiiicii  an§ 
ber  ndd)ftcn  Scrauinbtfdjaft  anSiDdhlcii  iiub  mit  3ln§fd)Ing 
aflcr  iHnbevu  .lUm  alleinigcn  'Jlbniuiiftrator  ernennen.  ^!x\\.i 
mebvcve  $cvioncn  bcm  Sycrftorbcncn  glcid)  DcriDanbt  fmb, 
reirb  ber  S5or,5ug  in  bcr  folgcnbeu  Orbuiing  gcgeben: 

1.  2cn  manulid)cn  Dor  ben  iDcibIid)cn  SeviDanbtcu; 

2.  33UitoDcrn3anbtcn  Dor  angcheivat^cten; 

3.  UnDcrt)eiratbeteii  Dor  Dcrheiratt)ctcn  Stanen.  ^at(5 
me^rere  '■JJerfouen  ba  fi"*,  i'ie  glcid)e  3Inred)te  ^aben,  fann  ba^ 


©uvrogat  eiiier  obcr  iuel)rercn  bcrfclben,  itac^  eigenem  ®uts 
biinfen,  ".'lbminiftration§"*4Ja).ncre  juftcUen. 

llnrcd)tli(^  au-Jgcftelllc  5lbmiuiftratioit^  • 'J.'apieve  liJunen 
iDibcvnifcn  iDcvbcn.  (Sbcnfo  fbnii(H9lbininiftvation§red)tc  be« 
bingnngi'iDcife,  obcvfiivcinc  bcfd)vdutte  3^'',  obev  aiic^  fiir 
bcfoiibcre  3'Dede  bcujiUigt  iDcrbcn.  2)ie  iUiat^t  unb  'l.!flid)ieu 
cineS  i![bminiftratovS  uutcrfd)cibeu  fid)  Don  bcncn  cinc-S  lS):e= 
cntorS  infoiDcit,  ai-j  bcrfclbc  bic  5Bcrtl)cilnng  nnb  95crfiignng 
iibcr  bie  ,<;iiiiterlaffcnfd)aft  gciiaii  iiad)  bcu  gcfctjlic^cn  93or= 
fd)riftcn  Dornet)mcn  niiiB.  iSr  l)at  tciiien  eigeucii  SiQeu  in 
bcv  ®ad)c. 

.Bum  (Srftcii  miifj  bcr  •.Ubniiiiiftvator  i^iivgfd)aft  fiir  bie 
trciic  :'lnSfiil)rung  fcincr  Dblicgcnl)eitcn  flelleu. 

3nm  3'Dciten  miifj  cv  cin  ^'tPf'tar  atlcS  uubciDcglii^eu 
unb  bcrocglic^eii  (Siflenti)iim'»  anfncl)mcn,  in  llcbcvcinftini> 
uunig  mit  bcu  gcfi'yiid)cn  Srforbcruiffcu. 

SiittcU'S  miiffcu  jioci  Sopicu  ber  SuDcntaranfuabme  aiige» 
fcrtigtlDcvbcn,  iDoDon  eiiie  im  ®cvid)t  l)intcilegt  iDerbeu  mug; 
bcr  ^jibminiftvator  bcl)dlt  bie  anbere  unb  mufj  fiir  3111e§  in  bcm 
3nDcutar  ongcfiibrtc  eigcutl)um  anffominen. 

i^icrtciiS  mug  bcv  9lbniintftvatov  iiad)  ifollcnbniig  bcr  3n» 
Deiitaraiifnabme  atlc  ?lugcn)"tdube  be^  Sfcrftorbcncn  einjie^en 
unb  ebenfo  allc  Sd)nlbcn  bcJfclbcn  bc3Qt)len.  ®ie  Orbuuiig 
bicfer  3a^I«ngeii  loirb  burd)  bic  lotaleu  (Scfc^e  bcftimmt.  5ftac^ 
3al)Iung  allcr  aSerbinbIid)feiten  bc-o  Grblaffcr^  Dertl)eilt  ber 
XUbininiftvator  bcu  3tc|"t  be§  S8cril3tl)nin'3  uiitcv  bie  iibcrlebeuben 
SJcvroanbtcn.  3)ic5  gefd)iel)t  untcr  ber  '.)lnrocifung  beS  @e= 
vid)i'3. 

(Partnership.) 

SBeuit  jiDci  obcr  met)vcre  *(.'erfoncii  fi^  Dereinigeu,  um  gc= 
incinjd)aftlid)  il)rc  '^i\i,  '.(Irbcit  nnb  a)iittel  in  ctncm  Untcr' 
ncl)mcu  eaijnfci^eu,  unb  alle  on^  bicfcni  Uutcrnebmen  crroac^' 
fcnbcn  I'cvlufte  unb  ©croiunc  gemcintd)aftlid)  ju  tragcn,  (0 
cntftcbt  barauS  cin  jfompa3uon=@efd)dft  (Pannership).  Sie 
4!crcinbaruug  fann  iDortlid)  obcr  fe^rifilid)  gcfdje^en,  mit  ober 
ol)ne  Stcmpd. 

iSinb  teine  33cf(^rdnfungea  barin  Dorgcfel)eu,  fo  loirb  bie 
Partnership  eiue  allgcmeiue  gcnannt,  ift  ftc  jcboc^  fiir  bic  3luS= 
fiil)vung  eine^  bcfouberen  3'DedcS  gcgriinbct,  fo  reirb  bavau§ 
eiue  SpcjiaUPartnership.  Xicfe  Ic^tcreii  iDcvbeu  in  ben  ein» 
selneu  Staaten  gcic^lid)  rcgnlirt.  iijcuu  eiiicv  bcv  Jl)cill)abcv 
feiiic  pcvfLinIid)c  Untcrfd)rift  untcr  cin  fiir  ben  (Scbrauc^  ber 
girma  bcftiuinitc«  unifc^barea  ~;iapicr  fc^U,  fo  Derpflid)ttt  er 
bamit  allc  aubercn  3ut)abcr.  3rgeub  ciiic  aubcve  §anblnng, 
bie  uid)t  burd)  bic  Sfatnr  bcS  @cfd)aftC'5  bebiugt  ift,  biubet  bie- 
fflbcn  iiicbt.  gin  Xl)eitl)abcr  (Parmer)  faiiu  bie  Saaven  filv 
bie  ^ompagnie  ciu=  unb  Dcrtaufeii.  gr  fann  Jfoutratte  ab= 
fd)ticgcn,  l^'>e!bcr  eiiitafrircn,  9fotcn  uiibJCcdifd  ,5icl)cii,  iubof» 
fncii  nub  acceptivcn,  unb  iDdlncnb  btc§  anrldd)  fiir  fciucii 
'4.!riDatgcbvaud)  gefd)cl)cn  utng,  fo  ftiib  bod)  allc  2)itttl)cill)abcv 
fiiv  feme  .'o.iublnngcn  DcrantiDortlid),  folaugc  bicfe  fc^cinbar 
fiir  beii  9higeii  unb  (Sebvaud)  bcr  Wompagiiic  bc)'tiinnit  fi'it', 
unb  bie  *^.>artcicn,  mit  bciien  cr  bic  (Metd)dftc  mad)t,  lu  gntcm 
©laubeu  l)anbeln.  ifflcnn  3cmanb  fcincii  yfamcn  einer  girma 
Iciljt,  obcr  bcu  (Sebraud)  be^felbcu  gcftatict,  uac^bcm  er  anS 
bent  Sontpagnon=®efd)dft  au*gctrcteu,  fo  blcibt  er  beunot^ 
britteii  ^I'crfoneu  gegciiiibcr  aXi  Jucilbaber  Derantroortlit^. 
giiie  Xl)cill)abcrfd)aft  tann  jii  jcbcr  3f't  aufgcbobcii  rocrbcn, 
aiuSgcnommcn,  il)rc  Saiicr  ift  fiir  eiue  boftinimtc  3''>t  in  bcm 
35ertrag  fcftgcfe^t.  igclbft  bann  lann  cin  ibciU)aber  aiif  dov> 
t)erige  ■,'luftiiiibiguiig  au'°trctcu,  bleibt  abcr  fiir  ben  ctroa  bav» 
auS  cntfprtngcnbeH  St^abcn  DerantiDovtlidi.  ©tivbt  cin  Jljeil" 
l)abcv  nnb  feme  (Sjelntoven  unb  'Mbmiuiftvatoren  fiil)rcu  fcin 
®cfd)dft  fovt,  fo  iDcvbcu  fte  pcvfbnlid)  fiir  bic  iSdjulbeii  ber 
girma  t)aftbar.  Jbeilbabcv  ciner  girma  inbgen  biefdbe  anf 
gcgenfeitigcS  Uebcrciufommcn  auflbfcn,  ebenfo  laun  bic-S  auf 
?lnorbnon  bc§  @erid)t'j  auf  triftigc  nub  ^inreidieube  (Svilnbe 
hilt  gcfd)el)en.  ®ie  9luflijfnug  foUte  burc^  ijffcntlidjc  Slnjcige 
belauut  gemac^t  iDcrben. 


5°2 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


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*  0  O  0.9  9.. 0.  0  0  0  0  0  9  0  =  0  0  00  *  00.  00  .0  0  O  00000000000  0  O  O  6  ff.  0  O.  C  .0  0..?  .*.*,. 9,  *  *.  *^ 

Assignments,  Attachments.  Chattel  Mortgages.  Divorce.  Exemptions.  Rights  of  Married  Women.  Deeds  and  their  Acknowledgment. 
Wills  and  Mechanics*  Liens.     Illustrations :  The  Coats  of  Arms  of  the  States. 


—'-3 


ALABAMA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  regulated  by  statute,  which  forbids  prefer- 
ences or  anv  jirovision  for  the  release  of  the  debtor.  There  is  no 
insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS    may    issue     [T  a 

upon  affidavit  of  the  creditor  or 
his  agent  that  the  defendant  is 
non-resident,  has  absconded,  dis- 
posed of,  transferred,  or  attempt- 
ed to  remove  his  property  out  of 
the  State,  and  garnishment  pro- 
cess may  be  issued  in  aid  of  exe- 
cution. Judgments  do  not  con- 
stitute liens.  Stav  of  execution 
is  allowed  in  justices'  courts  for 
thirty  to  sixty  days,  but  the  only 
way  to  delay  the  collection  of  a 
judgment  of  the  Circuit  Court  is 
by  appeal,  which  requires  a  bond  for  double  the  amount,  legal  inter- 
est, damages  and  cost  of  the  appeal.  Under  the  Constitution  there  can 
be  no  imprisonment  for  debt.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace 
is  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  he  recorded  in  the  county  where 
the  grantor  reside.-.,  also  where  the  jiroperty  i.s  ;  and  if  tlie  properly  is 
removed  to  a  different  county  from  the  one  in  which  tlie  grantf)r  re- 
sides, must  there  be  recorded  within  six  months  from  the  removal, 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  within  the  State  before  judges  nf  a 
court  of  record  or  their  clerks,  chancellors  and  registers  in  chancery, 
justices  of  the  peace  or  notaries  public.  Out  of  the  State  and  in  the 
United  States,  by  the  judges  and  clerks  of  any  court  of  record  in  anv 
State,  notaries  public  or  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor. 
Out  of  the  United  States,  by  the  judge  of  any  court  of  record,  niavor  or 
chief  officer  of  any  city,  town,  borough  or  countv,  notarv  public  or  any 
diplomatic,  consular  or  commercial  agent  of  the  LTnited  States.  The 
wife  may  relinquisli  her  right  of  dower  by  joining  her  husband  in  a 
conveyance  .and  acknowledging  the  relinquishment.  The  husband 
must  join  in  conveyance  of  the  wife's  separ.ite  property.  Neither  seal 
nor  scroll  is  necessary.     One  witness  is  required. 

DIVORCE  may  be  obtained  for  the  following  causes:  Impotency, 
adultery,  desertion  for  two  years,  habitual  dnmkenness.  imprison- 
ment for  two  years  and  continued  cruelty.  An  allowance  must  be 
made  by  the  court,  out  of  (he  husband's  estate,  for  the  support  of  the 
wife  pending  suit  J  also  an   allowance  when  the  <lccrt'e  is  made.     The 


custody  of  minor  children  may  be  given  to  either  parent,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  court. 

EXEMPTIONS  are  as  follows:  A  homestead  not  exceeding  160 
acres  of  land,  or  a  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  with  a  dwelling- 
house  thereon,  not  exceeding  the  value  of  $2,000.  Personal  property 
to  the  value  of  $i.<x)o.  May  be  selected  by  the  debtor.  Waiver  of 
exemption  is  not  valid  unless  joined  in  by  the  wife. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  hold  all  property,  real  and  personal,  ac- 
quired before  and  after  marriage,  as  a  separate  estate  not  liable  for  the 
husband's  debts,  and  it  may  be  devised  or  bequeathed  as  by  a  single 
woman.  This  separate  estate  is  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  the 
woman  before  marriage,  and  for  contracts  after  marriage  for  articles 
of  comfort  and  support  of  family.  The  wife  is  entitled  to  dower  of 
one-half  of  husband's  real  estate,  if  he  leave  no  lineal  descendants, 
one-third  if  there  are  any,  provided  she  has  no  separate  estate  ;  if  her 
separate  estate  is  less  than  the  dower  interest  would  be, she  is  entitled 
to  as  much  as  would  make  it  equal.  Women  attain  their  legal  ma- 
jority at  twentv-one,  but  mav  marry  without  consent  of  their  parents 
at  eighteen, 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  The  process  of  collecting  on  liens  is  by 
attachment.  Proceedings  must  be  commenced  within  six  months 
after  the  work  is  finished.  Mechanics,  contractors  and  laborers  have 
a  lien  for  work  and  labor  done,  or  materials  furnished;  laborers  and 
other  emploves  of  railroad  companies  have  a  Hen  upon  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  company  for  work  done,  and  agricultural  laborers  have  a 
lien  on  the  crops  for  their  wages. 

WILLS  are  recorded  in  the  probate  judge's  office  ;  t\vo  witnesses  are 
required.  All  persons  over  twentv-one  years  of  age  can  dispose  of 
real  estate;  all  over  eighteen,  of  personal  property.  Married  women 
mav  bequeath  their  separate  estates.  No  nuncupative  will  can  dis- 
pose of  more  than  five  hundred  dollars*  worth  of  property. 

ARIZONA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  insolvent  or  assignment  law  in  this  Territon.'. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  in  actions  upon  contract  for  direct  pay- 
ment of  monev  where  pLaintiff  has  no  security,  or  when  defendant  is 
a  non-resident.  The  plaintiff  must  give  bond.  Jurisdiction  of  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  The  statute  specifies  certain  classes  of 
property  on  whicli  mortgage  can  be  placed.  If  mortgagee  has  pos- 
session of  property,  recording  is  not  necessary, 

DEEDS  maybe  acknowledged  at  any  place  in  the  Territory,  before 
a  justice  or  clerk  of  tlie  Sujjrem'^;  Court,  or  of  any  court  of  record,  a 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


5°3 


justice  of  the  peace,  the  mayor  of  a  city  or  a  registrar  of  deeds.  The 
officer  taking  llie  acknowledgment  must  affix  thereto  his  official  seal. 
All  rights  of  dower  and  curtesy  are  abolished.  The  wife  must  be 
examined  apart  from  her  husband  to  a:scertain  if  she  acts  by  her  own 
free  will. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  carry  on  business  and  sue  and  be  sued 
in  tlu-ir  own  names.  All  property  acquired  before  marriage,  and  all 
afterwards  actiuired,  by  gift,  grant,  devise  or  inheritance,  is  separate 
estate,  liable  for  her  own,  but  not  for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may 
control  it  and  dispose  of  it  in  all  respects  like  u  single  woman. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Ariisans,buildcrs,mechanics,  lumber  mer- 
chants, and  all  ollicrs  performing  labor  or  furnishing  material  for  the 
construction  or  repair  of  any  building,  have  a  lien  upon  the  same  for 
the  labor  done  or  material  furnished.  Besides  liens  of  the  usual  de- 
scription, any  mechanic  or  artisan  who  alters  or  repairs  any  article  of 
personal  property  has  a  lien  thereon  to  secure  his  just  charges,  and 
may  retain  possession  until  he  is  paid. 

WILLS.  The  statute  provides  in  great  detail  the  manner  in  which 
wills  shall  be  executed.  Testators,  male  or  female,  must  be  twenty- 
one  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are  required.  Nuncupative  wills 
cannot  dispose  of  more  than  three  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  property. 
Married  \vomen  may  devise  their  separate  estate, 

ARKANSAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  may  be  made  with  or 
without  preference.     Bond   must  be  given  by  assignee  in  double  the 

amount  of  property  assigned,  and 
all  property  received  under  as- 
signment must  be  sold  at  auction 
within  120  days. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue 
in  a  civil  action,  at  or  after 
commencement  thereof,  against 
property,  where  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  of  the  State,  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  h:is  been 
absent  fotir  months  from  the  State, 
or  has  departed  from  it  with  in- 
tent to  defraud  his  creditors,  or 
has  left  the  county  of  his  resi- 
dence to  avoid  service  of  a  summons,  or  conceals  himself  so  that  a 
summons  cannot  be  served  upon  him,  or  has  transferred,  sold,  con- 
veyed or  removed  his  property  out  of  tlie  State,  or  is  about  to  sell,  re- 
move or  dispose  of  the  same  with  fraudulent  intent.  Under  a  written 
attachment  debts  due  the  defendant  may  be  garnisheed.  Plaintiff 
must  give  bond  with  sureties  to  pay  all  damages  defendant  may  sus- 
tain if  the  action  is  wrongly  maintained.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  proved  as  other  mortgages. 
They  may  be  filed  and  not  recorded,  at  the  option  of  the  mortgagee, 
and  are  liens  from  time  of  filing.  Befare  sale  under  mortgage,  the 
property  must  be  appraised,  and  must  bring  two-thirds  of  the  ap- 
praised value,  or  it  is  reserved  from  sale  sixty  days.  At  second  offer- 
ing it  is  sold  for  what  it  will  bring. 

DEEDS  must  be  acknowledged  before  a  iudge  or  clerk  of  the 
Supreme  or  Circuit  Court,  judge  of  County  Court,  justice  "f  the  peace 
or  notary  public.  Two  witnesses  are  required.  No  scroll  or  seal  need 
be  used.  When  husband  and  wife  convey  the  lands  of  the  husband, 
the  certificate  must  show  that  the  wife  acknowledged  the  relinquish- 
ment. 

DIVORCE  maybe  granted  for  impotency,  bigamy,  adulton,',  con- 
viction of  felony,  habitual  drunkenness,  wilful  desertion  for  one  year, 
cruel  and  barbarous  treatment.  Plaintiff  must  reside  in  the  State  one 
year  before  bringing  suit.     Court  may  allow  alimony  to  the  wife. 

EXEMPTIONS.  The  homestead  of  a  married  person  or  head  of  a 
family  In  the  country,  not  exceeding  160  acres,  with  improvements, 
not  to  exceed  $2,500.     Personal  property  of  married  person,  $500  be- 


sides wearing  apparel,  and  of  a  person  unmarried,  ^00  and  wearing 
apparel. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  have  absolute  and  unqualified  right  in  prop- 
erty of  every  kind  and  are  not  liable  for  debts  or  contracts  of  the 
husband.  ^But  a  schedule  under  oath,  and  verified  by  some  other 
reputable  person,  must  be  made  by  the  husband  and  wife,  and  filed  in 
the  recorder's  office  of  the  county  where  the  property  is,  and  of  the 
county  where  they  reside.  The  wife  may  control  her  property,  may 
carry  tm  business  on  her  sole  and  separate  account,  may  sue  and  be 
sued,  may  make  a  will  and  may  insure  her  husband's  life  for  her  ben- 
efit. The  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  part  of  the  estate,  unless 
legally  relinquished  by  her. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  LaI>orers  have  a  lien  on  tlie  product  of 
their  l:ilior;  builde-s  and  lUL-chanics,  on  all  buildings  for  which  they 
have  furnished  work,  labor  or  materials.  The  original  contractor 
must  file  his  lien  with  the  circuit  clerk  within  three  months  after  all 
the  work  shall  have  been  done  or  the  material  furnished. 

WILLS  arc  recorded  in  the  Probate  Court  of  the  county  in  which 
most  of  the  bequeathed  land  is  situated  ;  but  if  only  personal  property. 
then  in  the  county  where  the  testator  died.  AH  over  twenty-one 
years  may  devise  real  estate;  all  over  eighteen,  personal  property. 
Three  witnesses  are  required.  Married  women  may  devise  their  sep- 
arate property. 

CALIFORNIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  law  by  which  a  debtor  surrender- 
ing his  property  may  receive  a  discharge  from  his  debts.  No 
preferences  permitted.  No  dis- 
charge in  case  of  fraud, nor  from 
debts  due  as  a  depositary  of  funds 
received  as  banker,  broker  or 
commission  merchant.  Assign- 
ments are  not  allowed  unless  un- 
der this  law. 

ATTACHMENT  issues  in  an 
action  upon  a  contract  for  the 
direct  payment  of  money,  where 
the  contract  is  made  or  is  pay- 
able in  this  State,  and  is  not  se- 
cured by  any  mortgage  or  lien 
upon  real  or  personal  property, 
or  any  pledge  of  personal  property  ;  or,  if  originally  so  secured,  ?*uch 
security  h;is,  without  any  act  nf  the  plaintiff,  become  valueless.  Gar- 
nishee process  can  be  had  in  all  cases  where  property. is  liable  to 
attachment.     Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  to  be  valid  against  third  parties,  must 
show  the  residence  and  trade  of  the  mortgageor  and  mortgagee,  the 
rate  of  interest  charged  and  when  and  where  it  is  payable,  and  mort- 
gageor and  mortgagee  must  each  make  affidavit  that  the  mortgage  is 
hona/idf  and  made  without  design  to  defraud  or  delay  creditors. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  within  the  State  before  any  judge 
or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  recorder,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary 
public.  Without  the  State,  before  any  judicial  officer,  commissioner 
or  notary.  Husband  or  wife  can  convey  separate  property  without 
the  other  joining,  but  both  must  join  when  the  property  is  !n  common. 
A  conveyance  by  a  married  woman  h.as  no  validity  until  acknowl- 
edged. Deeds  arc  known  as  grants,  and  need  not  be  under  seal. 
Two  witnesses  arc  required. 

DIVORCES  arc  granted  for  adultery,  extreme  cruelty,  conviction  of 
feh>ny,  wilful  desertion,  neglect  or  habitual  intemperance  continued 
for  one  year.     No  divorce  can  be  granted  by  default. 

EXEMPTIONS.  The  homestead  on  which  debtor  resides,  to  the 
value  of  55,000,  if  he  is  the  head  of  a  family;  if  not,  to  the  value  of 
$1,000.  Personal  property  exempt  includes  chairs,  tables,  desks  and 
books, $200;  necessary  household  and  kitchen  furniture, sewing-ma- 
chines, stoves,  beds,  etc. ;  provisions  for  family  forthrce  months,  three 
cows,  four  hogs,  two  horses,  oymrv  or  mules;  seed,  grain  and  vege- 
tables for  sowing,  not  above  $200  in  value;  tools  and  implements  of 


\ 


504 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


^ 


-yff 


r 


a  mechanic  or  artisan;  instruments  of  a  physician,  surgeon  or  den- 
tist;  professional  library  of  attorney,  minister,  editor  or  teacher;  a 
miner's  cabin,  not  exceeding-  $500  of  value,  with  all  tools  and  gear 
necessary  for  his  business,  not  exceeding  $"oo.  Two  horses  or  mules 
with  harness,  and  the  miner's  claim  worked  by  him,  and  not  exceed- 
ing' $1,000  in  value,  are  also  exempt, 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  All  property  acquired  in  any  manner  before 
marriage,  or  afterwards  by  gift,  grant,  inheritance  or  devise,  is  wife's 
separate  property,  controlled  by  her  and  not  liable  for  debts  of  the 
husband.  The  husband's  property  similarly  acquired  is  not  liable  for 
debts  of  the  wife.  All  property  acquired  after  marriage  by  husband 
or  wife,  except  as  above, shall  be  common  property,  but  under  the 
husband's  control.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  abolished,  but  the  sur- 
vivor takes  half  the  common  property  after  payment  of  debts  and 
expenses  of  administration.  A  married  woman  may  dispose  of  her 
separate  estate  by  will  without  the  consent  of  her  husband  and  may 
insure  her  husband's  life  for  her  benefit. 

MECHANICS'  LflENS.  Mechanics,  laborers  and  material-men 
have  a  lien  on  buildings  for  work  done  or  materials  furnished.  An 
original  contractor  may  file  his  claim  within  sixty  days;  others,  within 
thirty  davs.  Suit  must  be  brought  within  ninety  days  from  the  date 
of  filing  the  claim.  A  lien  has  precedence  over  any  subsequent  or 
previous  unrecorded  encumbrance. 

WILLS.  Real  or  personal  property  may  be  disposed  of  by  will  by 
all  persons  over  eighteen  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are  required. 
Married  women  may  dispose  of  their  separate  property  without  con- 
sent of  their  husbands.  Nuncupative  wills  not  exceeding  $1,000  are 
valid,  but  must  be  reduced  to  writing  within  thirty  days. 

COLORADO. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  There  is  no  inscdvent  or  assignment  law. 
ATTACHMENTS.  Where  defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  a  foreign 

corporation,  evades  service  or  at- 
tempts to  remove  his  goods  with 
intent  to  defraud,  plaintiff  may 
obtain  a  writ  of  attachment  by 
making  affidavit  and  sfiving  suf- 
ficient bond.  Garnishee  process 
will  issue  in  aid  of  attachment 
where  sufficient  property  to  sat« 
isfv  the  same  is  not  found.  No 
civil  action  can  be  begun  by  ar- 
rest, except  in  cases  where  mal- 
ice, fraud  or  wilful  deceit  is 
shown,  when  execution  may  issue 
against  defendant's  body,  and  he 
mav  be  imprisoned  not  exceed- 
ing one  year,  or  until  the  judgment  is  satisfied.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  to  be  valid  as  to  third  parties,  must 
be  acknowledged  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public  in  the 
district  wliere  grantor  lives,  unless  possession  of  the  chattels  actually 
passes.  If  the  mortgageor  retain  possession  the  mortgage  must  ex- 
pressly provide  for  such  possession  ;  otherwise  it  is  void.  Mortgage 
may  be  given  for  a  term  of  two  years,  and  after  default  mortgagee 
must  take  possession  without  delay,  or  his  lien  will  be  void  as  to  third 
parties. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  justice,  clerk  or  deputy 
clerk  of  the  Supreme  or  District  courts,  county  judge,  county  clerk  or 
recorder,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  Outside  of  the  State, 
before  the  Secretary  of  any  State  under  the  seal  of  the  State,  any 
authorized  officer  in  any  State  or  Territory  or  any  commissioner  of 
deeds.  Witnesses  are  not  necessary,  but  are  desirable.  A  seal  is  re- 
quired, but  a  scroll  will  answer. 

DIVORCES  may  be  gfrantcd  for  adultery,  impotency,  bigamy,  wil- 
ful desertion  for  one  year,  habitual  drunkenness  for  two  years, 
extreme  cruelty  or  conviction  for  felony  or  infamous  crime.  One 
year's  residence  in  the  State   is  required  before  bringing  suit,  except 


where  the  offence  \vas  committed  in  the  State  or  while  one  or  both  of 
the  parties  resided  there. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  consisting  of  house  and  lot  in  town 
or  city,  or  a  farm  of  any  number' of  acres,  in  value  not  exceeding 
$2,000,  is  exempt  if  occupied  by  a  householder  and  head  of  a  family, 
provided  it  has  been  entered  on  record  as  a  homestead  and  so  speci- 
fied in  the  title.  Personal  property,  including  wearing  apparel  of  ttic 
debtor  and  his  family,  pictures,  school  books,  library,  etc.,  and  house- 
hold furniture,  not  exceeding  $100;  provisions  for  six  months,  tool;., 
implements  or  stock  in  trade,  $30o;  one  cow  and  calf,  ten  slicep  and 
necessary  food  for  six  months;  working  animals  up  to  $200;  the 
library  and  implements  of  a  professional  man  up  to  $300.  The  head 
of  a  family  may  select  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,000;  others, 
to  the  value  of  $300. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  are  treated,  in  all  respects,  as  to  their  prop- 
erty rights,  as  if  they  were  single.  A  wife  may  carry  on  trade  or 
business,  sue  or  be  sued,  contract  debts,  transfer  real  estate,  and  in 
all  ways  bind  her  separate  property,  without  the  husband's  joining. 
She  may  make  a  will,  but  cannot  bequeath  more  than  half  her  prop- 
erty away  from  her  husband  without  his  consent  in  writing.  The 
husband  cannot  by  will  deprive  his  wife  of  over  one-half  of  his 
property.  Dower  is  abolished.  The  husband  is  liable  for  debts  of  the 
wife  contracted  before  marriage  to  the  extent  of  the  property  he  may 
receive  through  her,  but  no  further. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  furnishing  materials  or  doing 
labor  to  the  amount  of  more  than  $25  on  any  building  may  hold  a  lien 
thereon.  The  principal  contractor  must  file  his  Hen  within  forty  days, 
and  sub-contractor  within  twenty  days.  Suit  must  be  brought  within 
six  months. 

WILLS.  To  devise  real  property,  the  testator,  if  male,  must  he 
twenty-one;  if  female,  eighteen  years  of  age.  Either  may  bequeath 
personal  property  at  seventeen  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are  re- 
quired. Neither  husband  nor  wife  can  deprive  the  other  of  more 
than  one-half  the  property  by  will,  except  the  wife  receive  written 
consent  of  the  husband  allowing  her  to  do  so. 

CONNECTICUT. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  In  cases  of  insolvency,  the  Probate  Court  may 
appoint  a  trustee,  on  motion  of  a  judgment-creditor  for  over  $ico, 
when  no  property  can  be  found 
to  attach.  On  the  hearing  which 
follows,  the  petition  may  be 
granted,  and  the  -trustee  takes 
possession  of  all  property  not  ex- 
empt. An  allowance  is  made  to 
the  debtor  for  the  support  of  his 
family,  and  if  the  estate  will  pay 
seventy  per  cent  he  receives  a 
full  discharge.  The  debtor's 
property  is  exempt  for  two  years 
from  legal  process  upon  debts 
which  might  have  been  proved. 
Voluntary  assignments  can  be 
made  by  a  debtor  to  a  trustee 
chosen  by  himself,  but  the  court  of  probate  may  substitute  another. 

ATTACHMENTS.  In  cases  of  fraud  or  judgment  for  damages  for 
misconduct  or  neglect,  defendant  may  be  arrested,  and  may  give  bail 
to  the  person  making  the  arrest.  Goods  concealed  in  the  hands  of 
agents,  or  money  due  the  judgment-debtor,  may  be  reached  by  foreign 
attachment;  and  no  assignment  of  future  earnings,  unless  recorded 
within  forty-eight  hours,  will  prevent  their  attachment  when  due. 
Where  goods  and  lands  cannot  be  found,  the  person  of  a  defendant 
may  be  attached.     Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  like  deeds  of  real  es- 
tate. Acliattul  mortgage  of  jiroperty  not  perishable  in  its  nature  is 
good  although  the  grantor  retains  possession.  Property  exempt 
from  execution  is  also  a  proper  subject  for  a  chattel  mortgage. 


A(^ 


~s  V 


\ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TEKKITOKI KS. 


5°5 


DEEDS  must  be  in  writing  and  under  seal,  a  scroll  being  sufficient. 
Two  witnesses  are  required.  Acknowledgment  in  the  ^ate  is  made 
before  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public, 
town  clerk,  commissioner  of  the  Superior  Court  or  commissioner  of 
the  school  fund.  The  wife  need  not  be  privately  examined  apart 
from  her  husband.  She  must  join  with  her  husband  in  conveyance  of 
her  separate  real  estate,  but  the  husband  conveys  his  property  without 
her  signature.  Dower  attaches  only  to  the  separate  real  estate  of  the 
Jiusband  at  his  death. 

DIVORCE,  Absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  by  the  Superior  Court 
for  adultery,  fraud,  duress  or  force  in  obtaining  the  marriage,  wilful 
desertion  for  three  years,  seven  years'  absence  without  being  heard  of, 
habitual  intumperance,  intolerable  cruelty,  sentence  to  imprisonment 
f<ir  life,  the  coinmission  of  any  crime  punishalile  by  imprisonment  in 
the  State  penitentiary  and  any  such  miscontluct  as  permanently  de- 
stroys the  happiness  of  the  petitioner  and  defeats  the  purposes  of  the 
marriage  relation.  Three  years'  residence  in  the  State  is  necessary 
before  filing  a  petition.  Either  party  may  marry  again  after  divorce, 
and  the  court  may  change  the  wife's  name  and  make  order  for  alimony 
and  custody  of  children. 

EXEMPTIONS.  There  is  no  homestead  exemption.  Personal 
property  is  exempt  as  follows :  Libraries  not  above  $500  in  value  ;  a 
cow  worth  $150;  ten  sheep,  not  over  $50  in  value;  two  hogs,  and  200 
pounds  of  pork.  Implements  of  trade,  the  horse,  harness  and  buggy 
of  a  practicing  physician,  and  the  boat,  not  exceeding  $200  in  value, 
of  a  person  engaged  in  fishing,  and  used  for  that  purpose,  are  also 
exempt. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  Previous  to  the  year  1S77,  the  husband  ac- 
quired a  right  to  the  use  of  all  the  real  estate  of  the  wife  during  her 
life,  and  if  he  liad  a  child  by  her  and  survived  her,  then  during  his  own 
life  as  tenant  by  curtesy.  By  the  act  of  May  Joth,  1S77,  the  rights  of 
married  women  are  materially  enlarged.  Any  woman  married  after 
that  date  retains  her  real  estate  as  if  unmarried.  Slie  may  make  con- 
tracts, convey  real  estate  and  sue  or  be  sued  in  regard  to  any  property 
owned  by  her  at  the  time  of  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired.  The 
estate  is  liable  for  her  debts,  and,  jointly  with  her  husband,  for  debts 
contracted  for  joint  benefit  of  both  or  household  expenses.  The  sepa- 
rate earnings  of  a  wife  are  her  sole  property.  Dower  exists  only  in 
real  estate  of  which  the  husband  is  possessed  at  the  time  of  his  decease. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  furnishing  materials  or  rend- 
ering services  exceeding  $^5,  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  any 
building  or  railroad,  may  have  a  lien  on  such  building  and  land  upon 
which  it  stands,  or  upon  the  railroad ;  provided  that  no  such  lien  shall 
attach  to  any  estate  not  owned  by  the  party  against  whom  such  claim 
exists.  A  certified  claim  must  be  lodged  witliin  sixty  days,  and  the 
premises  mav  be  foreclosed  as  in  the  case  of  a  mortgage.  A  person 
wishing  to  obtain  such  lien  shall  fiU  with  the  town  clerk  a  certificate 
in  writing  describing  the  premises,  the  amount  of  the  claim  and  the 
date  of  the  commencement.  Vessels  are  subject  to  a  Hen  for  work 
or  materials  furnished  exceeding  $jo  in  amount,  claim  to  be  filed  within 
ten  days  of  the  completion  of  the  work.  Liens  for  mariners*  wages 
have  precedence. 

WILLS  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  and  attested  by 
three  witnesses  in  his  presence  and  in  presence  of  each  other.  All 
persons  over  eighteen  years  of  age  can  bequeath  both  real  and  per- 
sonal property.  Wills  are  recorded  in  the  !*robate  Court,  and  ten  years 
are  allowed  to  probate  a  will  after  the  death  of  the  testator. 

DAKOTA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  are  allowed,  but  are  not  valid 
against  any  creditor  not  assenting  thereto,  if  they  tend  to  coerce  the 
creditor  to  release  his  claim,  or  provide  for  payment  of  fraudulent 
claim,  or  reserve  any  benefit  to  assignor  or  confer  any  power  on 
assignee  whicli  may  delay  the  conversion  of  the  assigned  property  or 
exempt  the  assignee  from  liability  for  neglect  of  duty.  No  insolvent 
law  is  in  force. 


ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  on  plaintiff's  giving  bond  when  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  absconds,  conceals  or  conveys  property  to 
defraud  creditors.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to 

$100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  \'oid  unless  the  original  or  an 
authenticated  copy  he  deposited  with  the  register  of  deeds  in  the 
county  in  which  the  mortgaged  property,  or  any  part  of  it,  at  such 
time  is  situated.  Mortgage  must  he  signed  by  mortgageorin  the  pres- 
ence of  two  persons,  as  witnesses  thereto,  and  no  other  proof  or 
acknowledgment  is  necessary.  A  chattel  mortgage  can  be  created, 
renewed  or  extended  only  by  a  writing  subscribed  by  the  mortgagcor, 
and  must  be  renewed  every  three  years. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing,  duly  signed  by  the  maker,  and  re- 
corded witli  the  register  of  deeds  of  the  county  in  which  the  properly  is 
situated.  Acknowledgment  may  be  made  in  the  Territory  before  a 
justice  or  clerk  of  the  Supreme  Court  or  of  any  court  of  record,  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  the  mayor  of  a  city,  or  a  register  of  deeds.  The 
ofticef  taking  the  acknowledgment  affixes  thereto  his  official  seal. 
Outside  of  the  Territory,  before  a  justice,  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court 
of  record  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  State  or  Territory,  a  notary 
public,  or  any  other  officer  authorized  by  law  to  take  such  proof  or 
acknowledgment,  or  by  a  commissioner  appointed  for  the  purpose  by 
the  Governor  of  Dakota  pursuant  to  the  Political  Code.  No  certifi- 
cate of  the  official  character  of  the  oflicer  is  needed  when  acknowledg- 
ment is  taken  out  of  the  Territory'.  Conveyance  by  a  married  woman 
has  no  validity  until  acknowledged.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  un- 
known, and  the  wife  need  not  join  in  conveying  propcrtv  of  the  hus- 
band, nor  the  husband  in  conveyance  of  land  belonging  to  the  wife, 
except  in  case  of  homesteads,  when  both  must  concur  in  and  sign  the 
same  joint  instrument,  provided  the  owner  is  married  and  both  hus- 
band and  wife  are  residents  of  the  Territory. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  consisting  of  not  more  than  ido 
acres,  with  buildings  and  appurtenances  thereon,  and  personal  prop- 
erty defined  by  statute,  aggregating  in  value  not  to  exceed  $],5oo,  is 
exempted  to  a  householder,  A  non-householder  may  have  So  acres, 
or  a  half  acre  in  town  or  city,  with  i>ersonal  property.  Tools  and 
implements  of  a  mechanic  to  the  value  of  $200,  books  and  instruments 
of  a  professional  man  to  the  value  of  $600,  are  also  exempt  from 
seizure. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  transact  business  in  all  respects  the 
same  as  if  uninarriedj  Neither  husband  nor  wife  has  any  interest  in 
the  separate  estate  of  the  other.  The  earnings  and  accumulations  of 
the  wife  are  her  separate  property  and  not  liable  for  the  husband's 
debts  nor  even  for  household  debts  contracted  by  her  as  her  husband's 
agent.  Her  separate  property  is,  however,  liable  for  her  own  debts, 
contracted  before  or  after  marriage,  if  such  debts  arc  contracted  on 
her  own  responsibility. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics,  laborers  or  material  -  men 
who  shall  perform  labor  upon,  or  furnish  materials,  machinerv  or 
fixtures  for,  any  building  or  other  improvement,  shall  have  for  such 
labor  performed,  or  materials,  machinery  or  fixtures  furnished,  a  lien 
upon  such  building  or  improvement,  also  upon  the  land  upon  which  it 
is  situate.  The  receiving  of  collateral  security  on  the  same  contract 
will  invalidate  the  Hen. 

\VILLS.  Both  real  and  personal  property  may  be  disposed  of  by 
will  by  all  persons  above  eighteen  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  arc 
re«iuired,  and  wills  the  body  of  which  is  in  the  testator's  handwriting, 
and  signed  and  dated  by  htm,  need  not  be  attested.  Married  women 
may  dispose  of  their  separate  property  without  consent  of  their  hus- 
bands. A  will  made  by  an  unmarried  woman  is  revoked  by  her  mar* 
riage  and  not  revived  by  the  death  of  her  husband. 


DELAWARE. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be   made   for  the  benefit  of  all    creditors 
aliltL'.     Voluntary  assignments  are  governed  by  the  common  law,  ex- 


5o6 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


~7[ 


.^ 


cept  that  a  special  partnership 
may.  not  give  preferences.  The 
assignee  must  file  within  thirty 
days  a  schedule  of  property  as- 
signed, and  two  appraisers  are 
then  appointed  by  the  chancellor. 
A  domestic  insolvent  law  is  in 
existence,  providing  for  a  full 
surrender  and  equal  distribution 
of  all  propertj',  but  it  is  seldom 
used,  and  no  provision  is  rflade 
for  the  discharge  of  the  debtor 
upon  his  making  an  assignment. 
ATTACHMENT  may  issue  in 
domestic  casus  when  the  debtor  cannot  be  found,  when  defendant 
has  fraudulently  left  the  State,  etc.,  and  against  foreign  corporations 
or  non-residents  of  the  State.  In  both  cases  an  affidavit  setting  forth 
the  above  facts  must  be  given  by  tlie  creditor  or  some  responsible 
person  in  his  stead.  A  capias  may  not  be  issued  against  the  body  of 
any  debtor  until  an  execution  against  his  goods  has  been  returned 
unsatisfied.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $100, 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  a  valid  Hen  for  three  years  when 
recorded  within  ten  days  after  acknowledgment.  The  lien  of  a  pur- 
cliase-money  mortgage  recorded  within  sixty  days  after  it  is  made 
has  preference  over  any  judgment  against  the  mortjjageor  or  other  un  - 
known  lien  of  a  prior  date.  Foreclosure  is  made  by  order  of  the 
court;  no  equity  of  redemption. 

DEEDS  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  in  which  the  land  lies 
within  one  year  after  the  sealing  or  delivery  thereof.  A  scroll  answers 
for  a  seal,  and  one  witness  is  sufficient.  Acknowledgments  maybe 
made  before  any  judge  or  clerk  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace  or 
notary  public.  Outside  of  the  State,  the  same  as  in  Alabama.  The 
wife  must  relinquish  her  right  of  dower,  must  be  separately  ex- 
amined, and  the  examination  certified. 

DIVORCE  may  be  granted  by  the  Superior  Court  for  adulter^',  im- 
potency  at  the  time  of  marriage,  habitual  drunkenness,  extreme 
cruelty,  desertion  for  three  years  or  conviction  of  crime  sufficient  to 
constitute  a  felony.  In  the  case  of  marriage  by  fraud  or  for  want  of 
age,  the  wife  being  less  than  sixteen,  the  husband  being  less  than 
eighteen,  at  the  time  of  marriage,  absolute  divorce  or  divorce  from  bed 
and  board  may  be  granted,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court.  The  wife 
receives  all  her  real  estate  and  such  other  allowance  and  alimony  as 
the  court  may  decree  where  the  husband  is  proved  to  be  in  fault. 
Wilful  neglect  of  the  husband  to  provide  the  necessities  of  life  also 
forms  sufficient  grounds  for  dii/orce. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Family  pictures,  family  Bible  and  library ;  lot  in 
burial-ground  and  pew  in  church  ;  family  wearing  apparel  and  tools 
and  implements  necessary  to  carry  on  business,  the  whole  not  exceed- 
ing $75  in  value,  are  exempt  from  attachment.  In  addition  to  the  above 
the  head  of  a  family  may  claim  $200  of  personal  property.  In  New- 
castle county  wages  of  laborers  are  also  exempt.     No  homestead  law. 

MARRIED  WOMEN,  married  since  1S73,  retain  all  real  and  per- 
sonal property  held  at  marriage,  or  since  acquired  from  any  per>on 
other  than  the  husband,  as  their  separate  estate,  and  not  subject  to 
the  disposal  of  the  husband  or  liable  for  his  debts.  They  may  receive 
wages  for  personal  labor,  sue  or  be  sued  in  respect  to  their  own  prop- 
erty as  if  unmarried ;  and  the  rents,  issues  and  profits  of  their  separate 
estate  are  not  controlled  by  the  husband.  The  widow  is  entitled  to 
one-third  dower  of  all  the  lands  and  tenements  whereof  her  husband 
was  seized  at  any  time  during  her  m.arriagc,  unless  she  shall  have  re- 
linquished such  right  for  and  during  the  term  of  her  natural  life.  She 
may  be  an  administratrix,  and  tlie  liush;ind's  life  may  be  insured  for 
her  benefit  if  premium  does  not  exceed  $150. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  who  has  furnished  material 
or  performed  labor  to  an  amount  exceeding  $25  may  obtain  a  lien  upon 
the  building  or  structure  for  which  such  labor  was  given  or  such  ma- 
terial furnished.    Claims   must  be  filed  within  ninety  days,  and  con- 


tractors must  file  a  statement  within  thirty  days  after  the  expiration  of 
ninety  days  from  completion  of  the  building. 

WILLS  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  and  two  wit- 
nesses are  required.  Any  person,  male  or  female,  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  and  of  sound  mind,  may  dispose  of  real  or  personal  property. 
Married  women,  in  order  to  dispose  of  their  property  by  will,  must 
obtain  the  written  consent  of  their  husband,  signed,  sealed  and 
attested  by  two  witnesses. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  assignment  or  insolvent  law  is  in  force,  ex- 
cept that  assignments  of  the  property  of  a  special  partnership  with 
preferences  are  not  valid. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  by  plaintiff  giving  bond  when  the  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  or  removes,  or  is  about  to  remove  his  prop- 
erly, etc. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  twenty  days 
after  execution.  In  case  of  bills  of  sale,  deeds  of  trust,  or  other  prop- 
erty which  is  exempt  from  execution,  the  mortgage  must  be  signed  by 
wife  of  grantor. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  justice  or  court  of  record 
and  of  law,  any  chancellor  of  State,  any  judge  of  Supreme,  Circuit, 
District  or  Territorial  Court,  any  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public  or 
commissioner  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  district  appointed  for  that 
purpose.  The  officer  must  annex  to  the  deed  a  certificate  under  his 
hand  and  seal.  Acknowledgments  outside  of  the  District  must  be 
accompanied  by  certificate  of  the  register,  clerk  or  other  public  officer, 
under  his  official  seal,  that  the  officer  was  what  he  purported  to  be 
at  the  time  of  the  acknowledgment.  Deeds  made  outside  of  the 
United  States  may  be  executed  and  acknowledged  before  any  judge  or 
chancellor  of  any  court,  master  in  chancery  or  notary  public,  or  any 
secretary  of  legation  or  consular  officer  of  the  United  btates. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Family  wearing  apparel;  household  furniture  to 
the  amount  of  $300;  provisions  and  fuel  for  three  months  ;  tools  or  in- 
struments necessary  to  carry  on  any  trade,  to  the  value  of  $200;  library 
and  implements  of  a  professional  man  or  artist  not  above  $300; 
family  pictures  and  library  to  the  value  of  $400,  and  a  farmer's  team 
and  other  utensils  to  the  value  of  $100,  are  exempt  from  attachment  or 
sale  on  execution,  except  for  servants'  or  laborers'  wages.  There  is 
no  homestead  exemption. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  bequeath,  devise  or  convey  property  or 
interest  therein  in  tlie  same  manner  as  if  unmarried.  Real  or  per- 
sonal property  belonging  to  the  wife  at  marriage  or  afterwards  ac- 
quired is  separate  estate.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  her  property,  and  the  husband  is  not  liable  for  any  con- 
tracts made  by  her  in  respect  to  her  personal  estate. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  mechanic  or  laborer  or  material-man 
who  shall  perform  labor  or  furnish  materials  for  the  construction  or  re- 
pair of  any  building, shall  have  a  lien  upon  such  building,  and  tlie  land 
upon  which  the  same  is  situated,  for  such  labor  done  or  material  fur- 
nished, when  the  amount  exceeds  $20.  Claims  must  be  filed  with  the 
clerk  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  within  sixty  days  after  the 
work  is  completed, 

WILLS.  To  dispose  of  real  estate  or  personal  property  by  will, 
males  must  be  twenty-one,  and  females  eighteen  years  of  age,  must  be 
of  sound  mind  and  capable  of  making  a  deed  or  contract.  Three  wit- 
nesses are  required.  Married  women  may  bequeath  their  separate 
estate.    Wills  are  recorded  in  the  registry  of  wills. 

FLORIDA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  As  no  insolvent  or  assignment  laws  are  in  exist- 
ence io  this  State,  debtors  may  assign  their  property  with  or  without 
preference. 


/ 


\ 


luwed   in 
of  fruud, 


ATTACHMENT  may  issue  by 
plaintiff  giving  bond  with  two  se- 
curities in  at  least  double  the 
debt  or  sum  demanded.  Adffia- 
vit  must  be  made  setting  forth  the 
amount  actually  due;  that  de- 
fendant is  a  non*residcnt,  and 
that  plaintiff  has  good  reason  t<> 
believe  he  is  about  to  part  with 
his  property*  fraudulently  before 
judfjment  can  be  obtained,  or 
intends  to  reniovL-  from  the  Stati-, 
or  to  fraudulently  secrete  his 
property,  etc.  No  arrest  is  al- 
civil  actions,  and  no  imprisonment  for  debt  except  in  case 
J  urisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  unless  property  is 
delivered  within  twenty  days  "and  remains  in  the  possession  of  the 
mortgagee.  Unless  the  mortgaged  property  be  delivered  at  the  time 
of  execution  of  the  niort;jage,  or  within  the  twenty  days,  and  unless 
such  mortgage  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  record  for  the  county 
in  which  the  mortgaged  property  shall  be  at  the  time  of  said  execu- 
tion, ttie  mortgage  becomes  ineffectual  and  invalid.  Foreclosure  is 
made  by  bill  in  equity  or  petition  to  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  county  in 
which  the  property  lies. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  judge,  justice  of  the 
peace  or  notary  public,  or  before  the  clerk  of  a  Circuit  Court.  If  exe- 
cuted in  another  State,  or  foreign  countn»',  tht^y  may  be  acknowledged 
the  same  way  ;is  in  Alabama.  Deeds  must  be  in  writing,  sealed  and 
delivered  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  and  must  be  recorded 
within  six  months  after  the  sealing  and  delivery  of  the  instrument.  A 
scroll  is  sufficient  for  a  seal. 

DIVORCE.  Applicants  for  divorce  must  have  resided  two  years 
^v^ithin  the  State.  Absolute  divorces  may  be  granted  only  by  the  Cir- 
cuit Courts.  Adulter\-,  impotency,  bigamy,  extreme  cruelty,  habitual 
intemperance  or  desertion  for  one  year  are  sufficient  causes.  Alimony 
may  be  granted  to  the  wife  by  the  courts,  and  provision  for  a  division 
of  property  when  a  decree  is  granted. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  of  160  acres  of  land,  together  with 
improvements,  in  the  countr\-,  or  a  residence  and  one-half  acre  of 
ground  in  a  village  or  city,  is  exempted  to  the  head  of  a  family.  Also 
personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,000.  Xo  property  is  exempt  from 
sale  for  taxes  or  for  obligations  contracted  for  its  purchase  or  for  the 
erection  of  improvements  thereon.  The  wages  of  every  laborer  who 
is  the  head  of  a  family  are  also  exempt  under  any  process  of  law. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  retain  all  real  or  personal  property  owned 
at  marriage  or  acquired  thereafter,  and  arc  not  liable  for  the  husband's 
debts.  In  order  that  it  shall  be  free  from  his  debts,  the  property 
must  be  inventoried  and  recorded  within  six  months  after  mar- 
riage or  subsequent  acquirement  of  the  property.  The  wife  may 
sell  and  convey  all  real  estate  inherited  by  her  the  same  as  if 
she  were  unmarried^  but  her  husband  must  join  in  all  sales, 
transfers  and  conveyances  of  her  property,  both  real  and  per- 
sonal. She  is  entitled  to  dower  in  a  life  estate  in  one-third  of  all  the 
real  estate  of  which  her  husband  was  seized  and  possessed  at  his 
death  or  at  anytime  during  his  life,  unless  she  has  relinquished  the 
same;  also  an  absolute  one-third  of  his  personalty. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics  and  laborers  have  a  Hen  upon 
a  buil  ling  for  which  they  have  furnislied  labor  and  materials,  and  upon 
the  owner's  interest  in  the  lot  on  which  the  building  stands.  Claims 
must  be  filed  within  six  months  after  the  work  is  done  or  materials 
furnished,  and  suit  be  brought  within  one  year..  Agricultural  laborers 
have  a  lien  on  the  crops  cultivated  by  them  t«)  the  amount  of  their 
wages,  and  laborers  and  contractors  have  a  prior  lien  on  logs,  lumber, 
etc.,  for  their  lahor  in  cutting  or  manufacturing  the  same  into  boards, 
laths  or  shingles.  Machinery  furnished  for  any  mill,  distillery  or 
manufactorj'  obtains  a  lien  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  tenant 
or  contractor. 


WILLS.  Any  person  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  of  sound  mind 
may  dispose  of  real  or  personal  property.  Three  witnesses  are  required. 
Nuncupative  wills  must  be  proved  by  three  witnesses  who  were  pres- 
ent when  it  was  made,  and  such  will  may  be  reduced  to  writing  and 
sworn  to  within  six  days. 

GEORGIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  regulated  by  a  statute  which  i)ermiLi  prefer- 
ences, except  by  special  partnership,  but  every  assignment  made  by 
a  debtor  insolvent  at  the  time, 
either  in  trustor  in  behalf  of  a 
creditor,  is  fraudulent  and  null 
and  void  when  any  trust  or  bene 
fit  is  reserved  to  the  assignor,  or 
anv  person  for  him.  There  is  no 
insolvent  law  and  no  imprison- 
ment for  debt. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue 
bv  plaintiff  filing  bond  in  double 
the  amount  involved,  when  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  is 
about  to  remove  without  the  lim- 
its of  the  county,  absconds,  con- 
ceals himself,  or  resists  legal  arrest,  attempts  to  remove  property  be- 
yond the  State,  or  fraudulently  disposes  of  property,  or  threatens  or 
prepares  so  to  do,  or  creates  a.  fraudulent  lien  thereon.  First  attach- 
ment levied  has  priority.  Garnishment  issues  in  aid  of  attachment  or 
judgment,  but  wages  of  journeymen,  mechanics  and  laborers  are 
exempt  from  garnishment.  Jurisdiction  of  justice  of  the  peace  is 
limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  he  recorded  within  thirty  days  in 
the  county  where  tlie  mortgageor  resides  ;  and  if  the  property'  is  situ- 
ated in  another  county,  it  should  be  recorded  there  also.  Foreclos- 
ure by  affidavit  before  justice,  notary,  or,  if  non-resident,  before 
commissioner  for  the  State. 

DEEDS  must  be  attested  by  two  witnesses,  and  if  not  recorded 
within  one  year  the  deed  loses  priority  over  a  subsequent  deed  re- 
corded within  the  year.  A  deed  must  be  in  writing,  under  seal  (a 
scroll  will  answer),  and  made  for  a  consideration.  Acknowledgments 
within  the  State  may  he  taken  by  a  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record, 
commissioner  of  deeds,  justice  of  the  peac«  or  notary  public.  In 
otlier  States  or  Territories,  by  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Georgia, 
or  judge  of  court  of  record  in  the  State  where  executed,  with  a  certi- 
ficate of  the  clerk  under  the  seal  of  such  court  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  signature  of  such  judge. 

DIVORCE.  Grounds  for  total  divorce  are  as  follows:  Marriage 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  affinity  or  consanguinity;  mental  or 
physical  incapacity  at  the  time  of  marriage ;  force,  menace,  duress  or 
fraud  in  obtaining  it;  adultery,  wilful  desertion  by  either  party  for 
three  years,  cruel  treatment  by,  or  habitual  intoxication  of  eitlier 
p.^rtv,  or  sentence  to  the  penitentiary  for  two  years  or  over  for  any 
offence  involving  moral  turpitude.  No  total  divorce  may  be  granted 
except  by  the  concurrent  verdict  of  two  juries,  rendered  at  different 
times  of  court;  and  when  a  divorce  is  granted,  the  jury  rendering  the 
final  verdict  determines  the  rights  and  disabilities  of  the  parties. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Each  head  of  a  family,  or  guardian,  or  trustee  of 
a  family  of  minor  children,  and  every  aged  or  infirm  person,  or  per- 
son having  the  care  and  support  of  dependent  females  of  any  age, 
who  is  not  the  head  of  a  family,  is  entitled  to  realty  or  personalty,  or 
both,  to  the  value  in  the  aggregate  of  51,600.  Said  property  shall  be 
exempt  from  levy  and  sale  by  virtue  of  any  process  whatever,  under 
the  laws  of  this  State,  except  for  taxes,  purchase-money  of  the  home- 
stead, labor  done  thereon,  or  material  furnished  therefor,  or  for  the 
removal  of  encumbrances. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  retain  as  a  separate  estate  all  property  in 
their  possession  at  the  time  of  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired  and 
arc  not  liable  for  any  debts,  defaults  or  contracts  of  the  husband.    By 


-X 


5o8 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


consent  of  her  husband  advertised  for  four  weeks  she  may  become  a 
free  trader,  in  which  event  she  is  liable  the  same  as  if  unmarried. 
The  wife  may  not  bind  lier  estate  by  any  contract  of  suretyship,  either 
in  behalf  of  her  husband  or  any  other  person.  The  widow  takes 
dower  in  one -third  of  all  the  lands  of  which  her  husband  was  seized 
at  his  death;  and  wife  and  children,  after  the  husband's  death,  are 
entitled  to  one  year's  support  from  his  property,  all  other  claims  yield- 
ing to  this. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics,  not  having  taken  personal 
security,  have  a  prior  Hen  on  tlie  property  built  or  repaired  by  them, 
which  lien  attaches,  without  regard  to  the  title,  in  said  property,  'ihe 
claimant  must  have  substantially  complied  with  his  contract,  must 
have  recorded  his  lien  within  three  months  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the 
county  in  which  the  property  is  situated,  and  must  bring  suit  within 
one  year  after  it  becomes  due.  Those  furnishing  machinery',  or  labor 
for  its  repair,  officers  and  employes  of  steamers  or  other  water  craft, 
millwrights,  and  builders  of  railroads,  have  a  like  lien  if  similarly  en- 
forced. Landlords  have  a  special  lien  for  rent  on  crops,  which  is 
superior  to  the  homestead  exemption  law,  and  to  all  other  Hens 
except  for  taxes. 

WILLS  may  be  made  by  persons  of  either  sex  who  have  arrived 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  Three  witnesses  are  required.  Wills 
are  recorded  in  the  Ordinary's  Court.  Married  women  may  bequeath 
their  separate  estate. 

IDAHO. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  law  exists,  under  which  the  debtor 
is  discharged  upon  making  an  assignment,  as  therein  provided,  except 
in  cases  of  fraud. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  in  actions  upon  contract  for  the  direct 
payment  of  money,  when  the  plaintiff  has  no  Hen  or  security,  or  when 
the  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  etc.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the 
peace  is  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where 
the  debtor  resides;  otherwise  they  are  null  and  void  as  regards  credit- 
ors and  purchasers.  Record  should  also  be  filed  in  the  county  where 
the  goods  may  be.  Affidavit  must  be  made  as  to  good  faith,  and  no 
intention  to  defraud  creditors. 

DEEDS  must  be  acknowledged  the  same  as  in  Dakota;  they  must 
be  in  writing,  signed  and  sealed  (scroll  will  do),  and  no  witnesses  are 
required.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  unknown.  The  husband  must  join 
in  conveying  the  realty  of  the  wife,  who  must  be  examined  privately, 
certifying  that  the  act  is  free  and  voluntary,  without  fear  or  compul- 
sion, or  influence  of  the  husband,  and  that  she  does  not  desire  to  re- 
tract the  execution  of  the  same. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  worth  $5,000  is  exempted  to  a  house- 
holder who  is  head  of  a  family ;  either  husband  or  wife  may  select  the 
homestead.  Personal  property  is  also  exempted  to  the  value  of  $300. 
Exemption  does  not  extend  to  purchase-money  or  to  mortgages  on  the 
property. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  All  property,  both  real  and  personal,  owned 
at  marriage  or  afterwards  acquired,  by  either  wife  or  husband,  re- 
mains a  separate  estate.  All  property  acquired  after  marriage  is  held 
in  common.  Separate  property  of  the  wife  should  be  inventoried  with 
the  county  recorder;  the  husband  has  control  of  it  during  marriage, 
but  cannot  create  a  lien  or  encumbrance  unless  joined  by  the  wife, 
who  is  examined  separately.  If  the  husband  mismanages,  or  commits 
waste,  the  District  Court  may,  on  application  of  wife,  appoint  a  trustee 
to  manage  her  separate  property.  Upon  the  death  of  husband  or  wife 
half  the  common  property  goes  to  survivor;  if  no  direct  descendants, 
all  goes  to  survivor. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  The  improvement  and  development  of 
mines,  claims,  flumes,  bridges  and  ditches  come  under  the  law  of  me- 
chanics' liens.  Claims  must  not  be  less  than  $25.  Original  contractor 
must  file  his  claim  within  sixty  days ;  others  within  thirty*.     The  lien 


expires  after  one  year  unless  suit  is  brought,  and  continues  in  force 
two  years  and  no  longer.  Mechanics  or  artisans  have  a  Hen  on  arti- 
cles left  with  them  to  repair  or  alter,  and  may  sell  them  within  two 
months  unless  charges  are  paid,  provided  the  sale  be  advertised  for 
three  weeks. 

WILLS.  At  twenty-one  years  of  age  testator  may  dispose  of  realty, 
and  at  eighteen  of  personal  property;  t^vo  witnesses  are  required. 
Married  women  may  dispose  of  their  separate  estate,  both  real  and  ■ 
personal.  Husband  must  leave  wife  one-half  of  common  property. 
The  will  must  first  be  recorded  in  the  Probate  Court,  afterwards  in  all 
counties  where  any  realty  is  conveyed  by  the  will. 

ILLINOIS. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  made  without  preference,  and  all  debts  must 
be  paid/ri7  rati.     While  no  provision  is  made  for  the  discharge  of  the 

debtor,  yet  all  proceedings  may 
beuiscontinued  with  the  assent  of 
the  debtor  and  a  majority  of  the 
creditors  in  number  and  amount. 
The  County  Court  has  jurisdic- 
tion in  all  cases  of  assignment 
for  benefit  of  creditors.  Assignee 
must  file  bond,  inventory  and 
valuation,  and  send  notice  to 
creditors,  who  must  present  their 
claims  under  oath  within  three 
months.  Claims  not  so  presented 
do  not  share  in  dividends  until 
after  the  payment  of  all  claims 
properly  presented  and  allowed. 
Assignee  is  required  to  make  legal  division  among  creditors  at  the 
first  term  of  court  after  the  three  months  allowed,  and  to  render  final 
account  within  one  year.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  by  plaintiff  giving  bond  with  approved 
security,  in  double  the  amount  of  the  claim.  Plaintiff  must  also  make 
affidavit  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  facts:  That  the  debtor  is 
non-resident,  conceals  himself,  resists  process  being  ser\'ed  on  liim, 
has  departed  from  the  State  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  the  intention  of 
removing  his  effects ;  or  has,  within  two  j'ears  preceding,  fraudulently 
disposed  of  his  property,  or  a  pan  thereof,  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay 
creditors;  or  where  the  debt  sued  on  \vas  fraudulently  contracted. 
Writs  may  issue  from  courts  of  record  on  claims  exceeding  $20,  from 
justices*  courts  not  exceeding  $200,  and  in  county  courts  claims  may 
not  exceed  $[,000.  The  wages  of  any  person  who  is  head  of  a  family 
are  exempt  from  garnishment  to  the  amount  of  $50.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $200. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  should  be  properly  acknowledged  and 
recorded,  although  as  between  the  parties  themselves  this  is  not  neces- 
sary. Property  must  be  fully  described  so  it  may  be  identified.  They 
are  invalid  as  to  third  parties  if  given  for  longer  than  two  years,  or  if 
the  property  mortgaged  is  allowed  to  remain  iiyjossession  of  the  mort- 
gageor,  unless  expressly  provided  for  in  the  mortgage,  A  mortgage 
given  on  a  stock  of  goods  is  fraudulent  as  to  third  parties,  if  the  mort- 
gageor  be  allowed  to  remain  in  possession  of  the  goods. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  a  master  in  chancen.',  notary 
public.  United  States  commissioner,  circuit  or  county  clerk,  justice 
of  the  peace,  any  court  of  record  having  a  seal,  or  any  judge,  clerk  or 
justice  of  any  such  court.  Outside  of  the  State  and  in  the  United 
States,  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  the  State,  Territory  or  District 
where  made.  The  officer  mus.t  he  authenticated  by  the  certificate  of 
the  county  clerk  or  clerk  of  record  onder  his  official  seal.  If  before 
a  justice  of  the  peace,  it  must  be  certified  by  the  proper  clerk,  under 
the  seal  of  his  office,  that  the  person  before  whom  the  acknowledg- 
ment was  made  w.as  a  justice  of  the  peace  at  the  time  of  making  the 
same.  No  deed  will  waive  homestead  right,  unless  expressly  stated, 
both  in  the  deed  and  certificate  of  acknowledgment.  A  scroll  answers 
for  a  seal,  and  no  witnesses  are  required. 


Al 


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SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


509 


DIVORCE  may  be  granted,  where  complainant  has  been  a  resident 
of  the  State  for  one  year,  for  inipotency,  bigamy,  adultery,  desertion 
or  drunkenness  for  two  years,  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  other  by 
poison  or  other  means  showing  malice,  extreme  cruelty,  conviction  of 
felony  or  other  infamous  crime.  If  no  defence  is  interposed,  decree 
may  be  granted  on  testimony  of  complainant  alone  ;  but  examination  of 
witnesses  must  be  had  In  open  court,  and  the  judge  is  required  to  be 
satisfied  that  all  proper  means  have  been  taken  to  notify  defendant. 
When  decree  is  granted  the  court  may  restore  the  wife's  maiden  name. 
During  pendency  of  suit  the  court  may  require  the  husband  to  pay 
such  sum  as  may  enable  the  wife  to  maintain  or  defend  the  suit,  and 
alimony,  when  declared  just  and  equitable. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  valued  at  $1,000  is  exempted  to  every 
householder  who  has  a  family  ;  such  exemption  not  covering  liabilities 
for  purchase -money  or  improvement  of  the  homestead.  After  the  death 
of  a  householder  his  family  are  entitled  to  the  exemption  so  long  as 
the  survivor  occupies  it,  or  until  the  youngest  child  is  twenty-one  years 
of  age.  There  arc  also  exempted  to  every  person  wearing  apparel, 
school  hooks,  family  pictures  and  family  Bible,  and  $100  worth  of 
other  property  selected  by  the  debtor.  In  addition  to  this,  $300  worth 
may  be  selected  by  the  debtor  if  a  head  of  a  family  ;  but  such  selection 
cannot  be  made  from  any  money  or  wages  due;  no  exemption  is 
allowed  when  the  debt  is  for  the  wages  of  laborer  or  servant;  $50 
of  wages  is  exempt  to  every  head  of  a  family  if  residing  with  the 
same. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  own  in  their  own  right  realty  and  per- 
sonalty, may  sue  and  be  sued,  contract  and  incur  liabilities,  the  same 
as  if  unmarried;  but  they  may  not  enter  into  or  carry  on  any  partner- 
ship business  without  consent  of  the  husband,  unless  abandoned  by 
him  or  he  is  incapable  of  giving  assent.  Beyond  the  necessaries,  the 
husband  is  not  liable  for  debts  of  the  wife,  except  in  cases  where  he 
would  be  jointly  liable  if  the  marriage  did  not  exist.  The  estate  of 
both  is  liable  for  famijy  expenses,  but  the  wife's  separate  earnings  are 
her  own.  A  surviving  wife  or  husband  takes  one-third  of  all  '>e 
realty  of  the  deceased,  unless  relinquished  in  due  form.  The  husoand 
and  wife  are -put  upon  the  same  footing  as  to  dower,  and  the  estate 
of  curtesy  is  abolished. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  who  shall,  as  principal  con- 
tractor, by  contract,  express  or  implied,  with  the  owner  of  any  lot 
or  piece  of  land,  furnish  labor,  material  or  services,  in  building, 
altering,  repairing  or  ornamenting  any  house  or  building  on  said 
lot,  shall  have  a  lien  upon  the  lot  or  building  for  the  amount  due 
him  for  such  labor,  material  or  services;  provided,  that  the  owner 
shall  only  be  liable  to  the  extent  of  his  interest  therein  ;  and  every  sub- 
contractor, mechanic,  workman  or  other  person  who  sh.all,  in  pursu- 
ance of  the  original  contract,  perform  any  laborer  furnish  any  ma- 
terials for  the  purposes  above  mentioned,  sliall  have  a  lien  as  in  the 
case  of  principal  contractors,  the  aggregate  of  such  liens  not  to  exceed 
the  price  stipulated  in  the  original  contract,  unless  it  shall  appear  to 
the  court  that  the  owner  and  principal  contractor  designed  to  defraud 
sub-contractors  by  fixing  an  unreasonably  low  price  in  the  contract. 
VVlien  the  contract  is  expressed,  if  the  time  stipulated  for  its  comple- 
tion is  beyond  three  years  from  its  commencement,  or  if  the  date  of 
payment  is  more  than  one  year  from  its  completion,  there  shall  be  no 
lien.  If  the  contract  is  implied,  no  lien  shall  be  had  unless  the  con- 
triict  be  completed  within  one  year  from  its  commencement. 

WILL'S.  All  males  twenty-one,  and  all  females  eighteen  years  of 
age,  may  dispose  of  real  and  personal  property.  Two  witnesses  are 
necessary.  Wills  are  filed  in  the  Probate  Court,  and  originals  remain 
there. 

INDIANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  By  filing  with  the  recorder  of  the  county  in 
wliich  assignor  resides,  wittiin  ten  days  after  iL'i  execution,  an  indenture 
duly  ^igned  and  acknowledged,  setting  forth  a  full  description  of  all 
his  realty  and  accompanied  bv  a  schedule  of  all  his  per>;onaltv,  to 
which  assignor  makes  oath,  any  debtor  in  embarrassed  circumstances 


may  make  a  general  assignment 
of  all  property  in  trust  for  the 
benefit  of  all  bona  fide  creditors. 
Trustee  makes  oath  and  files 
bond  in  Circuit  Court,  also  copv 
of  assignment,  within  fifteen  d;ivs 
after  execution  of  indenture.  If 
the  trustee  named  fails  to  ;ict,  the 
court  may  appoint  a  substitute 
upon  petition.  Trustee's  com- 
pensation is  fixed  by  the  court, 
and  dividends  are  declared  pro- 
rata on  all  claims  allowed  by 
trustee  or  the  court.  No  pro- 
vision  for  discharge  of  debtor  from  his  liabilities. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  against  the  property  of  non-restdents 
or  foreign  corporations,  and  against  all  who  have  disposed  of,  or  are 
about  to  dispose  of  their  property  to  defraud,  hinder  or  delay  credit- 
ors. Plaintiff  must  give  bond  to  answer  damages  if  proceedings  are 
unjust  or  oppressive.  An  affidavit  is  also  required,  which  may  be 
made  by  the  creditor  or  his  attorney.  All  creditors  who  file  under  the 
original  attachment,  before  final  judgment,  share  pro  rata  in  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  attached  property.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace 
is  limited  to  $Joo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  not  valid  as  to  third  parties  unless 
recorded  within  ten  days;  a  mortgage  nf  perishable  articles  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  a  mortgage 
on  a  stock  of  goods,  the  grantor  having  a  right  to  sell,  is  void  ;  any 
mortgage  is  void  if  unregistered  and  the  chattels  left  with  the 
grantor;  so  also  is  a  recorded  mortgage  if  the  goods  are  left  unreason- 
ably long  with  the  grantor,  after  defaiilt  is  made  in  payment. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing,  and  acknowledged  and  recorded 
within  forty-five  days  from  their  execution  ;  seals  are  abolished  rnd 
witnesses  are  not  necessary;  dower  and  curtesy  are  unknown  ;  hus- 
band and  wife  must  join  in  conveying  the  separate  estate  of  either. 
Acknowledgments  within  the  State  may  be  taken  before  a  judge  or 
clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace,  auditor,  recorder,  no- 
tary, or  mayor  of  a  city  ;  in  other  States  and  Territories  before  similar 
officers  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Indiana. 

DIVORCE.  Petitioners  for  divorce  must  be  bona  fide  residents  of 
the  State  for  two  years,  and  of  the  county  at  the  time  of.  and  for  at 
least  six  months  prior  to  filing  the  petition;  the  oath  of  two  resident 
freeholders  being  required  to  this  fact.  Decrees  may  issue  by  the 
Superior  or  Circuit  Court  for  the  following  causes:  Impotency  at 
marri.age;  adultery  (where  connivance  or  collusion  is  not  proven); 
habitual  cruelty  or  habitual  drunkenness  by  either  party ;  abandon- 
ment for  two  years;  failure  by  the  husband  to  provide  for  the  family 
for  a  period  of  two  years,  and  conviction  of  either  party  of  an  infa- 
mous crime  at  any  time  subsequent  to  marriage. 

EXEMPTIONS.  There  is  no  homestead  exemption;  any  resident 
householder  has  exempted  real  or  personal  property,  or  both,  to  the 
amount  t»f  $600  on  any  debt  founded  on  contract  since  May  31st,  1S79, 
On  debts  founded  on  contracts  made  previous  to  that  date,  exemption 
is  $300.  Exemption  does  not,  in  any  event,  affect  liens  for  labor, 
purchase -money  or  taxes. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  retain  all  realty  and  personalty  owned  by 
them  !it  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired,  and  are  not  liable  for  the 
husband's  debts.  The  husband  is  liable  fur  debts  of  the  wife  con- 
tracted before  marriage  only  to  the  extent  of  the  personal  property  he 
may  receive  from  or  through  her,  or  derive  from  sale  or  rent  of  her 
lands.  She  may  sell  personal  property,  but  she  may  not  conveyor 
encumber  her  real  estate  unless  the  husband  joins.  Suits  against  her 
separate  estate  should  be  brought  in  the  nanjc  of  both.  A  widow 
takes  one-third  of  her  deceased  husband's  real  estate  in  fee  simple, 
free  from  all  demands  of  creditors,  where  the  estate  does  not  ex- 
ceed $10,000;  where  the  estate  is  over  f  10,000  and  under  |^o,ooo,  she 
takes  one-fourth;  and  one-fifth  if  it  exceeds  |jo,ooo.  She  also  takes 
one-third  of  the  personalty  after  payment  of  debts,  and  in  all  cases 


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SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


,i 


takes  $500,  ^vithout  accounting,  and    may    occupy   the   dwelling    and 
forty  acres  of  land  for  one  year,  rent  free. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Workmen,  contractors,  mechanics  and 
others  who  may  furnish  labor  or  materials  have  a  lien  on  the  land 
and  buildings  for  material  or  labor  furnished  ;  the  statute  also  pro- 
vides a  lien  on  all  boats,  for  work  or  repairs,  or  wages  earned.  Em- 
ployes of  corporations  have  a  lien  on  the  property  and  earnings  for 
all  labor  done,  which  takes  precedence  of  all  other  claims.  Con- 
tractors have  a  lien  on  railroads  where  they  are  not  m  operation  ; 
commission  merchants  on  goods  left  for  storage,  artisans  on  articles 
left  for  repair,  and  landlords  on  crops  raised  on  leased  lands.  Notice 
must  be  filed  within  sixty  days  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  and 
suit  must  be  brought  within  one  year. 

WILLS.  All  persons  twenty-one  years  of  age  may  bequeath  both 
real  and  personal  property.  Record  must  be  made  in  the  office  of  the 
county  clerk  where  probated.  Two  witnesses  are  required.  Nuncu- 
pative wills  may  not  exceed  5100.  Married  women  may  dispose  of 
their  separate  estate. 

IOWA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  are  allowed,  regulated  by 
statute.  A  debtor  may  make  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  all  credit- 
ors, with  inventory  and  schedule 
of  debts.  Claims  must  be  filed 
with  the  assignee  "within  three 
months  after  publication  of  as- 
signment. Dividends  are  made 
pro  rata  after  State  and  mu- 
nicipal taxes  have  been  paid  in 
full.  An  assignment  does  not 
discharge  the  debtor  from  all  lia- 
bilities. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  in  Illinois. 
Upon  plaintiff  giving  bond  for 
penalty  and  making  affidavit  that 
defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  has  disposed  of  or  is  about  to  remove  his  prop- 
erty, intends  to  permanently  remove  from  the  State,  has  absconded  or 
concealed  his  property,  a  writ  of  attachment  may  issue.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $100;  by  consent  of  parties,  1300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded 
the  same  as  deeds  and  nthcr  conveyances.  The  mortgaged  property 
is  left  in  possession  of  the  mortgagee  unless  otherwise  provided. 
Sales  under  foreclosure  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
sheriff  sales,  and  foreclosure  may  be  made  by  sheriff  without  action  of 
court. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing,  signed  and  acknowledged;  no  seal  or 
scroll  is  necessary  ;  no  witnesses  are  required.  Acknowledgments  in 
the  State  may  be  made  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record, 
county  auditor  or  his  deputy,  each  notary  or  justice  of  the  peace  in 
his  own  county.  Out  of  the  State,  before  some  court  of  record,  notarj' 
public  or  justice  of  the  peace,  or  a  commissioner  for  the  State  of 
Iowa. 

DIVORCE  may  be  granted  by  the  District  or  Circuit  Court  of  the 
county  in  which  plaintiff  resides.  Plaintiff  must  declare  under  oath 
that  he  or  she  has  resided  in  the  State  for  one  year  next  preceding 
the  filing  of  the  petition,  unless  defendant  is  resident,  and  received 
personal  ser\'ice  of  the  writ.  A  decree  may  issue  against  the  hus- 
band for  adultery,  wilful  desertion  for  two  years,  conviction  of  felony 
subsequent  to  marriage,  habitual  drunkenness  and  continued  ill-treat- 
ment. The  husband  may  obtain  a  decree  for  like  causes,  and  also 
when  the  wife  at  the  time  of  marriage  was  pregnant  by  another. 
Bigamy  or  impotency  at  the  time  of  marriage  is  also  a  sufficient  cause 
to  annul. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  in  country  of  40  acres,  or  in  town 
or  city  of  one-half   acre,  with  improvements  and  buildings  to  the 


aggregate  value  of  $500,  is  exempted  to  the  head  of  every  family.  If 
less  than  $500  in  value,  it  may  be  increased  to  that  amount.  It  is  not 
exemjited  from  execution  for  the  purchase-money  thereof,  or  for  debts 
contracted  prior  to  its  acquirement.  Upon  the  death  of  either  hus- 
band or  wife  the  homestead  passes  to  the  survivor.  Professional  men 
are  allowed  their  libraries,  instruments,  etc.,  and  a  team  and  wagon; 
printers  retain  their  presses  and  type  to  the  value  of  $1,200.  The  head 
of  a  family  may  claim  wearing  apparel,  tools,  a  gun,  his  library  and 
furniture  to  the  extent  of  $200  in  value.  The  personal  earnings  of  the 
debtor  for  ninety  days  preceding  the  execution,  certain  stock,  with 
food  for  them  for  six  months,  a  pew  in  church  and  a  lot  in  a  burying 
ground  are  also  exempt.  Non-residents  and  unmarried  persons,  not 
being  heads  of  f.amilies,  can  only  claim  their  ordinary  wearing  ap- 
parel and  trunk  necessary  to  carrj'  the  same,  to  the  value  of  $75. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  own  in  their  own  right  real  and  per- 
sonal propertv  acquired  by  descent,  gift  or  purchase,  may  sell,  convey 
and  devise  the  same,  may  sue  and  be  sued,  make  contracts  and  buy 
goods  in  th^r  own  name.  Wife  or  husband  are  not  liable  for  the 
debts  of  the  other  before  marriage,  or  for  sep.irate  debts  incurred 
afterwards.  The  wife's  earnings  are  her  own,  and  her  note  is  good 
against  her  own  estate.  Women  attain  majority  at  eighteen,  or  ear- 
lier upon  marriage;  a  female  of  fourteen  may  marry.  The  surviving 
wife  or  husband  is  entitled  to  one-third  of  the  real  estate  of  the  de- 
ceased, free  from  all  claims  of  creditors.  If  they  leave  no  children, 
survivor  takes  one-half,  parents  the  other  half. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics  and  workmen  have  alien  upon 
buildings  and  improvements,  and  the  ground  upon  which  they  are  sit- 
uated, for  work  done  or  materials  furnished.  Railways  are  liable-for 
construction  and  improvements.  The  taking  of  collateral  security 
invalidates  a  lien.  The  lien  must  be  filed  by  principal  contractor 
within  ninety  days;  by  sub-contractor  and  others,  within  thirty  days- 
.Suit  must  be  brought  within  two  years  after  filing  statement.  Liens 
have  priority  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  filed,  and  are  assignable; 
and  when  for  labor  alone,  they  are  exempt  from  execution. 

WILLS.  Testators  must  be  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Two  wit- 
nesses are  required.  Nuncupative  wills  cannot  exceed  $300  worth  of 
property,  and  must  be  sworn  to  bv  at  least  two  disinterested  witnesses. 
Foreign  wills  must  be  probated  in  the  State. 

KANSAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be  for  the  benefit  of  all  creditors  alike,  and 
do  not  discharge  the  debtor.  Creditors  whose  claims  .imount  to  more 
than  ten  dollars  are  notified  by 
the  clerk  of  the  District  Court, 
and  a  meeting  is  held  to  choose 
an  assignee.  Unless  a  majority 
of  the  creditors  are  present  the 
appointment  rests  with  the  court. 
Those  who  fail  to  appear  are  pre- 
cluded. One  month  is  given 
assignee  to  pay  out  funds  in  his 
hands  after  allowance  of  de- 
mands. The  property  must  be 
appraised,  and  assignee  is  in  all 
respects  subject  to  order  of  the 
court,  and  his  accounts  are 
passed  upon  by  a  commissioner 
before  his  discharge.  An  assignment  must  be  executed  and  recorded 
the  same  as  any  conveyance  of  real  estate.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  substaptially  the  same  as  in  Illinois.  They 
mav  be  had  against  the  property  of  non-resident  debtors,  or  in  cases 
of  fraud  or  attempt  to  remove  or  secrete  property.  Monev  or  prop- 
erty due  or  belonging  to  defendant  may  be  reached  by  garnishment. 
Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  need  not  be  acknowledged;  copy  of 
mortgage  deposited  with  register  of  deeds  in  county  where  mortgayeor 
lives.    Mortgage  of  perishable  articles  left  in  the  hands  of  mortgageor 


/ 


Al 


with  right  to  use  them,  or  of  a  stock  of  goods  left  in  the  hands  of 
the  morlgageor  with  privilege  to  svll,  :ire  void  as  to  creditors  of  the 
mortgageor  unless  they  are  duly  notificcl. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing;  neither  seals,  scrolls  nor  witnesses  are 
required.  Acknowledgments  in  the  State  must  be  before  a  court  hav- 
ing a  seal,  a  judge,  justice  or  clerk  thereof;  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
notary  public,  county  clerk  or  register  of  deeds,  or  m;iyor  or  clerk  of 
a  city ;  outside  the  State,  before  a  c<»urt  of  record,  or  clerk  or  ofTicer 
holding  the  stal  thereof,  a  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  or  com  • 
missioncr  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Iowa;  if  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace  they  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  his  ofhcial 
character,  to  which  the  seal  of  some  court  shall  be  affixed.  No  sepa- 
rate acknowledgment  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  wife,  but  she 
should  join  the  husband  in  conveying,  whether  the  property  is  her 
separate  estate  or  not. 

DIVORCE.  To  obtain  a  decree  of  divorce,  plaintiff  must  have  re- 
sided in  the  State  one  year,  and  must  bring  suit  in  the  county  of  resi- 
dence. Decrees  are  granted  in  the  Circuit  Court  tm  the  following 
grounds:  Adultery,  impotency,  fraudulent  contract,  extreme  cruelty, 
habitual  drunkenness,  gross  neglect,  abandonment  for  one  year  or 
conviction  of  felony. 

EXEMPTIONS.  An  independent  fortune  is  exempted  in  this  State. 
A  homestead  of  i6o  acres  of  farming  land,  or  of  one  acre  within  an  in  ■ 
corporated  town  or  city,  with  buildings  and  improvements  thereon, 
with  no  limit  to  value.  The  head  of  every  family  is  allowed  personal 
properly  as  follows:  The  family  library,  school  books  and  family 
Bible  ;  family  pictures  and  musical  instruments  in  use  ;  pew  in  church 
and  lot  in  burial  ground  ;  all  wearing  apparel  of  the  family ,  beds, bed- 
steads and  bedding,  one  cooking  stove  and  appendages  and  all  other 
cooking  utensils,  and  all  other  stoves  and  appendages  necessary  for 
the  use  of  the  debtor  and  his  family;  one  sewing-machine,  spinning- 
wheel  and  all  other  implements  of  industry,  and  all  other  houseUold 
furniture  not  herein  enumerated,  not  exceeding  $500  in  value;  two 
cows,  ten  hogs,  one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one  horse  or  mule,  or  in  lieu  of 
one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one  horse  or  mule,  a  span  of  mules  or  horses ; 
twenty  sheep  and  their  wool ;  food  for  the  support  of  the  stock  for  one 
vear;  one  wagon,  two  plows,  drag  and  other  farming  utensils  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  $300;  grain,  meat,  vegetables,  groceries,  fuel,  etc., 
for  the  family  for  one  year;  the  tools  and  implements  of  any  me- 
chanic, miner  or  other  workman,  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 
his  busin;:ss,  together  with  stock  in  trade  not  exceeding  $400  in  value; 
library,  instruments  and  office  furniture  of  any  professional  man. 
Residents,  not  the  head  of  a  family,  have  tools,  implements  and  stock 
in  trade  up  to  $400.  No  personal  propertj*  is  exempt  for  the  wages  of 
any  clerk,  mechanic,  laborer  or  servant.  A  lien  on  the  homestead  may 
be  created  by  husband  and  wife  joining  in  the  mortgage. 

MARRIED  ^VOMEN  have  the  same  property  rights  as  men,  and 
may  make  contracts,  carry  on  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  and  seller 
convey  real  estate  precisely  as  their  husbands  ;  their  earnings  or  profits 
:'.re  their  own.  A  note  or  endorsement  made  by  a  married  woman  will 
hind  her  property  the  same  as  if  unmarried.  Homestead  is  absolute 
properly  <»f  widow  and  cliildren,  and  neither  wife  nor  husband  mav 
bequeath  more  than  half  their  property  without  written  consent  of  ihe 
other.  If  either  die  intestate  and  without  children,  the  entire  property 
goes  to  the  survivor. 

MECHANICS*  LIENS.  Mechanics,  workmen  and  others  perform- 
ing labor,  or  furnishing  materials  for  the  construction  or  repair  of  any 
building,  have  a  lien  on  the  building  and  the  wholt  tract  of  land. 
Original  contractor  must  file  his  claim  in  the  office  of  the  Circuit  Co\irt 
within  four  months;  sub-contractors  and  others,  within  two  months. 
Suit  must  be  brought  within  one  year.  Artisans  or  mechanics  may 
hold  articles  of  construction  or  repair,  and  if  charges  are  not  paid 
within  three  months  they  may  sell  the  same. 

WILLS  are  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Probate  Court;  if  made  in 
other  Slates  they  must  be  probated  in  the  county  where  the  property 
lies.  The  testator  must  be  twenty-two  years  of  age,  and  two  witnesses 
are  required. 


KENTUCKY. 

ASSIGNMENTS  arc  regulated  by  statute.  Any  preference  may 
be  set  aside  in  six  months.     Trustee  must  give  bond,  and  settle  his 

account  in  two  years.  A  general 
assigtimentforthe  equal  benefit  of 
all  creditors  may  be  made,  and  all 
claims  must  be  proven.  There  is 
no  provision  for  the  discharg^e  of 
an  insolvent  debtor  unless  debts 
are  paid  in  full.  Xo  insolvent  law. 
ATTACHMENT  issues  where 
defendant  is  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  has  been 
absent  from  the  State,  evades 
sL-rvice,  conceals,  attempts  to  re- 
move, disposes  of  or  conveys 
property  with  intent  to  defraud 
or  delay  creditors.  Plaintiff 
must  give  bond  in  double  the  amount  of  his  claim,  with  security. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  duly  acknowledged  and  re- 
corded, and,  except  as  to  creditors  having  actual  notice,  take  effect 
only  from  the  time  they  are  recorded  in  the  county  clerk's  office. 
The  mortgaged  property  may  remain  in  possession  of  the  mortgageor, 
and  may  be  redeemed  within  five  years. 

DEEDS  executed  in  this  State  by  others  than  married  women  are 
acknowledged  before  the  clerk  of  a  County  Court,  or  may  be  proved 
by  two  subscribing  witnesses,  or  by  one  who  also  proves  the  attesta- 
tion of  the  other,  or  by  proof  of  two  witnesses  that  the  subscribing 
witnesses  are  both  dead  or  out  of  the  State,  or  one  so  absent  and  the 
other  dead,  and  like  proof  of  the  signature  of  one  witness  and  th& 
grantor.  The  deed  of  a  married  woman  must  be  acknowledged  before 
a  clerk  of  the  County  Court,  who  shall  explain  to  her  the  contents  and 
effect  of  the  deed  separately  and  apart  from  her  husband  ;  if  she 
freely  and  volu:itarily  acknowledge  the  same,  and  is  willing  for  it 
to  be  recorded,  he  shall  certify  the  same.  Deeds  made  by  residents  of 
Kentucky  must  be  recorded  within  sixty  days  from  the  date  thereof; 
four  months  is  allowed  to  non-residents,  and  if  living  out  of  the 
United  States,  twelve  months.  The  record  dates  from  the  time  when 
the  clerk's  fee  is  paid.  No  seal  or  scroll  need  be  used,  and  no  wit- 
nesses are  required. 

DIVORCE.  Before  a  petition  can  be  presented  for  a  decree  of 
divorce,  one  year's  continuous  residence  in  the  State  is  required. 
Jury  trials  are  not  permitted,  and  decrees  are  granted  by  courts  having 
equitable  jurisdiction.  An  alisolute  divorce  maybe  granted  to  the 
party  not  in  fault  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  impolencv,  etc.,  separa- 
tion for  five  years,  condemnation  for  felony  subsequent  to  the  mar- 
riage, force,  duress  or  fraud  in  obtaining  the  marriage,  or  uniting-  with 
any  religious  society  which  requires  n  renunciation  of  the  marriage 
contract.  Habitual  neglect  or  maltreatment  on  the  part  of  the  hus- 
band, or  where  the  husba-^d  is  a  confirmed  drunkard,  may  give  the 
wife  a  divorce  ;  and  where  the  wife  is  proven  unch.aste,  or  pregnant  by 
another  man  at  the  time  of  marriage,  the  husband  is  entitled  to 
divorce.  The  p.irties  are  free  to  marry  again,  and  their  personal 
property  is  restored. 

EXEMPTIONS.  To  ^<7»rrt  yf,^<r  housekeepers  with  a  family  are  ex- 
em])ted  from  execution  and  attachment  for  debt:  A  homestead  to  the 
value  of  $1,000;  two  work  beasts, or  one  work  beast  and  one  yoke  of 
oxen;  two  cows  and  calves ;  one  wagon  or  cart;  two  plows  and  gear; 
five  head  of  sheep;  provisions  for  family  and  provender  for  stock  for 
ore  year;  the  tools  and  stock  of  a  mechanic  who  is  a  housekeeper  and 
has  a  family,  not  exceeding  $200  in  value;  libraries  or  instruments  of 
professional  men,  which  may  vary  in  value  from  one  to  seven  hundred 
dollars;  the  wages  of  a  laboring  man  to  the  amount  of  fifty  dollars, 
except  for  house  rent  and  necessaries, 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  hold  real  or  personal  property  .as  a  sep- 
arate estate  free  from  the  control  of  the  husband  or  liability  for  his 
debts.     By  petition  to  the  Circuit  Court,  in   which  the  husb.ind  must 


_\ 


V 


512 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


join,  she  may  acquire  the  rig-ht  to  transact  business  in  her  own  name. 
Unless  dower  be  barred,  forfeited  or  relinquished,  she  takes  one-third 
:>£  the  real  estate  and  one-half  of  the  personal  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics,  laborers  and  workmen,  under 
the  tjeneral  hiw,  have  a  lien  for  labor  performed  or  materials  furnished 
upon  the  improvements  and  interest  of  tlie  smployer  in  the  land. 
Sub-contractors  and  workmen  have  a  lien  by  giving  the  owner  written 
notice  oi  their  claim,  and  that  they  look  to  the  land  and  improvements 
for  compensation.  Claims  must  be  filed  within  sixty  days.  Suit  must 
be  brought  within  six  months  after  filing  the  account, 

WILLS.  Any  person  twenty-one  years  of  age  may  make  a  will. 
^tie  will  must  oe  proveo  xn  me  County  Court  of  the  county  where  tes- 
tator resided.  If  the  will  was  written  by  the  testator  himself,  only 
one  witness  is  necessar>' ;  if  written  by  any  other  person,  two  witnesses 
are  required.     Married  women  may  dispose  of  their  separate  estate. 

LOUISIANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  may  be  made  without  re- 
p;ird  to  thu  insolvent  law.     Under  the  State  laws  an  insolvent  debtor 

may  make  surrender  of  property 
to  creditors,  or  an  involuntary 
surrender  may  be  forced  by  any 
creditor  "who  issues  an  execution 
which  is  returned  unsatisfied. 
Surrender  vests  all  property  in 
creditors,  and  stops  all  legal  pro- 
ceedings against  the  debto:-;  the 
latter  must  file  S'"orn  schedules 
of  assets  "na  liabilities.  The 
deb*/:!  may  oeuischtii'^ed  by  con- 
sent of  a  majority  of  creditors  in 
number  and  amount,  unless 
guilty  of  fraud  or  preference,  in 
which  case  he  is  deprived  of  the 
benefit  of  the  insolvent  laws,  and  is  liable  to  imprisonment. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  on  application  of  creditor,  under  oath, 
when  the  debtor  is  about  to  leave  the  State  permanently,  without 
there  being  a  possibility  of  obtaining  judgment  against  him  previous 
to  his  departure;  wliun  the  debtor  resides  out  of  the  State;  when  he 
conceals  himself  to  avoid  service  of  suit;  when  he  has  or  is  about  to 
mortgage,  assign  or  dispose  (  f  his  property  with  intent  to  defraud  his 
creditors  or  give  an  unfair  preference  to  some  of  them  ;  and  when  he 
has  converted,  or  is  ab:ut  to  convert,  his  property  into  money  or  evi- 
dence of  debt  with  intent  to  place  it  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors. 
Defendant  must  give  liond  equal  to  the  amount  of  his  claim,  with  at 
least  one  solvent  surely.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is 
limited  to  $ioo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  unknown  to  the  laws  of  Louisiana, 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged,  within  the  State,  before  a  no- 
tary public,  parish  recorder  or  his  deputy,  in  the  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses. In  other  States,  before  a  commissioner  of  Louisiana,  or  in 
conformity  to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  acknowledged.  The  hus- 
b:ind  must  join  the  wife  in  conveying  her  real  estate,  and  authorize 
her;  in  disposing  of  his  own  real  estate,  the  wife  must  be  examined 
separately  and  renounce  all  her  rights. 

DIVORCE.  Sentence  of  either  party  to  imprisonment  in  the  peni- 
tentiary is  suffittient  ground  for  divorce.  A  decree  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  either  party  for  adultery,  habitual  intemperance  or  cruel 
treatment  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  living  togother  insupportable. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  of  i6o  acres  of  land,  with  buildings 
and  ini[irovemenls  thereon,  is  exempted  to  the  head  of  a  family,  if 
owned  and  occupied  as  a  residence,  together  with  personal  property, 
the  whole  not  to  exceed  $2,000;  all  wearing  apparel,  implements, 
stock,  etc.,  with  provisions  and  supplies  necessary  for  the  plantation 
for  one  year.  If  the  wife  own  separate  property  in  her  own  right  to 
the  value  o£  $2,000,  there  is  no  exemption. 


MARRIED  WOMEN  mayhold  and  control  both  real  and  personal 
DroDerty  owned  at  time  of  marriage;  al!  property  or  revenues  of  sep- 
arate property  acquireo  oy  eitner  nusoana  or  wife  alter  marriage  is 
held  in  common,  and  :c  divided  equally  between  them  at  dissolution 
of  the  marriage  either  by  death  or  divorce.  The  wife  may  carry  on  a 
sc;).irate  business,  but  her  husband  will  be  bound  by  lier  contracts,  so 
long  as  the  community  of  property  exists;  she  cannot  sue  without  the 
concurrence  of  her  husband,  and  she  cannot  bind  herself  or  her  prop- 
erty for  his  debts.     There  is  no  right  of  dower  to  the  wife. 

MECHANICS*  LIENS  are  known  as  "privileges;"  these  are 
allowed  to  architects,  contractors,  workmen  and  furnishers  of  mate- 
rial. For  all  work  exceedine^  in  value  five  hundred  ooiiars,  the  agree- 
ment must  be  reduced  to  writing  and  registered  with  the  recorder  of 
mortgages.  To  be  of  effect  against  third  parties,  all  privileges  and 
Hens  must  be  recorded  in  the  parish  where  the  property  is  situated. 

WILLS  of  four  kinds  are  recognized:  nuncupative  by  public  act; 
nuncupative  by  private  act;  mystic  or  sealed  wills,  and  olographic 
wills.  The  first  must  be  dictated  by  testator  to  a  notary  public  and 
read  in  the  presence  of  three  resident  or  five  non-resident  witnesses, 
and  must  be  signed  by  the  testator  and  w^itnesses.  The  second  must 
be  written  in  the  presence  of  five  resident  or  seven  non-resident  wit- 
nesses, read  to  them  and  signed  by  the  testator  and  the  witnesses,  or  at 
least  two  of  them.  In  the  country  three  resident  or  five  non-resident 
witnesses  will  suffice,  if  -/.ore  cannot  be  obtained.  The  third  form, 
or  mystic  will,  is  first  signed  by  the  testator,  then  enclosed  in  an  envel- 
ope and  se^leo  up.  The  testator  then  declares  in  the  presence  of  a 
notary  and  seven  witnesses  that  that  paper  contains  his  will,  signed 
by  himself,  the  notary  endorses  the  act  of  superscription  on  the  will 
or  envelope,  and  that  act  is  signed  by  the  notary,  the  testator  and  the 
witnesses.  Olographic  testaments  are  written  entirely  by  the  testator 
himself,  and  dated  and  signed  by  him.  No  attestation  or  other  form 
!::73'^u:red.  The  following  cannot  act  as  witnesses:  Women  of  any 
age ;  males  under  sixteen  ;  the  aear,  aumo,  olir.d  or  '.T.zz.v.t ;  those  de- 
barred by  the  criminal  law  from  exercising  civil  functions ;  those  who 
stand  as  heirs  or  legatees  under  the  \vin,  except  in  case  of  inystic X^S" 
taments. 

MAINE. 

AN  ASSIGNMENT  without  preferences  may  be  made  for  the 
benefit  of  creditors,  who  have  three  months  thereafter  to  become  par- 
ties. All  property,  except  what 
is  lawfully  exempt,  of  the  insol- 
vent debtor  is  transferred  by  such 
assignment  and  may  not  be  at- 
tached for  six  months  after  first 
publication.  Only  creditors  who 
are  parties  to  an  assignment  are 
benefited.  By  the  insolvent  law 
187S-79,  where  his  debts  exceed 
$300.  a  voluntary  petition  maybe 
filed  by  the  debtor.  For  involun- 
tary proceedings,  at  least  two 
creditors,  owning  one-fourth  of 
the  debts,  should  act.  Assign- 
ees, approved  by  the  court,  may 
set  aside  an  assignment  made  within  four  months  of  the  filing  of 
insolvency  petition.  They  dispose  of  the  property  and  divide  the 
assets.  The  insolvent  debtor  is  then  discharged.  Preferences  or 
fraudulent  conveyances  are  void.  Proof,  brought  within  two  years, 
of  fraud,  may  annul  the  discharge.  For  debts  of  less  than  three 
hundred  dollars  the  debtor  makes  a  general  disclosure  and  is  dis- 
charged. 

ATTACHMENTS.  All  property  not  exempt  by  law  is  liable 
to  attachment  for  debt;  neither  affidavit  nor  security  being  re- 
quisite, unless  the  creditor  is  a  non-resident.  By  consent  of  par- 
ties or  by  appraisement,  attached  perishable  property  may  be  sold  at 
once,  and  the  proceeds  held  by  the  officer.  Upon  affidavit  of  creditor 
of  his  belief  that  the  debtor  is  going  to  leave  the  State  and  take  away 
more  property  than  is  necessary  for  his  present  support,  and  that  his 


:B5E5H5aEH5HS55aS25S5S5SSHSS52,Q 


-7\ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


5'3 


claim  is  for  over  ten  dolars,  the  debtor  may  be  arrested.  Debtors 
under  arrest  may  make  complete  disclosure  and  be  discharged.  Any 
person  owinij  an  insolvent  debtor  may  be  held  as  trustee;  but  claims 
for  wages  under  twenty  dollars  cannot  be  garnishecd  except  in  ca.se 
of  debt  incurred  for  necessaries.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace, 

$[00. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  for  over  $30  must  be  recorded  where 

the  mortgageor  resides,  or  possession  of  property  pass  to  mortgagee. 
Mortgageor  may  redeem  within  sixty  days  after  notice  of  foreclosure. 

DEEDS.  All  deeds  must  be  under  seal.  "Within  the  State  ac- 
knowledgments are  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  a  notary 
public;  in  other  States,  before  a  magistrate,  justice  of  the  peace,  no- 
tary public  or  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State;  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, before  a  notary  public  or  United  States  minister  or  consul.  One 
grantor  may  make  the  acknowledgment.  The  wife  joins  to  relinquish 
dower. 

DIVORCE.  The  Supreme  Judicial  Court  grants  divorce  for  impo- 
tency,  udultery,  or  for  three  years'  wilful  desertion.  Alimony  may  he 
allowed  and  dower  if  the  husband  be  to  blame. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  $500,  or  any  lot  purchased  from  State 
as  a  homestead;  $50  furniture,  $150  library,  $300  team,  $50  poultry, 
Jioo  sewing  machine,  $10  lumber;  cow  and  heifer,  ten  sheep  and 
lambs,  plow,  wagon,  mowing  machine,  a  two-ton  boat,  the  flax,  r:iw 
and  manufactured,  from  one  acre  of  ground,  wearing  apparel,  pro- 
visions, fuel,  seed  grain,  provender  for  stock,  and  tools.  After  the 
debtor's  death,  his  family  has  the  benefit  of  the  exemptions. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  real  and  personal 
property,  acquired  in  any  way  except  from  the  husband,  the  same  as  if 
single.  She  may  make  contracts,  sue  and  be  sued  and  do  business 
in  her  own  name;  and  her  property  may  be  taken  to  satisfy  judgments 
against  her.  Her  property  is  liable  only  for  her  own  debts.  She 
joins  husband  in  a  deed  selling  his  property  to  relinquish  dower.  He 
joins  with  her  in  selling  hers  only  when  such  property  comes  from 
him.  A  wife,  being  abandoned  by  her  husband,  may  be  allowed  to 
take  and  use  his  personal  property.  Dower,  life  estate  in  one-third 
of  all  husband's  real  property  owned  during  coverture;  one-half  if  no 
children.     He  has  same  interest  in  deceased  wife's  estate, 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  on  buildings  holds  good  and  may  be  en- 
forced by  attachment  within  ninety  days.  Statement  must  be  filed 
within  thirty  days  after  work  is  done  or  material  furnished.  Lien 
against  vessels  four  days  after  launching. 

WILLS.  Three  disinterested  witnesses.  Testator  must  be  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  and  of  sound  mind.  Nuncupative  wills  must  be 
reduced  to  ^vriting  within  six  days.  Wills  devising  real  estate  must 
be  recorded  the  same  as  deeds. 

MARYLAND. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Eitiicr  on  his  own  application,  or  that  of  two  or 
more  creditors  wlmse  cl.iims  exceed  $^50,  a  debtor  is  decided  to  be  in- 
solvent. Except  on  proof  of 
fraud  or  preference,  he  is  dis- 
charged by  surrender  of  his  prop- 
erty. Claims  of  non-resident 
creditors  are  not  affected,  unless 
filed  in  the  proceedings.  Assign- 
ments without  preferences  or  pro- 
visions for  release  of  debtor  are 
allowed. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  be  oh 
tained   by  simple   afrula\it  wlieii 

L^^-}^flY'LAH5>^^  3     defendant  is  a  non-resident,   or 

K  has  absconded;  and  by  afli davit 
^sasssasasasasasESESBSBsesasa  with  security  in  double  amount 
of  claim,  where  plaintiff  believes  defendant  is  about  absconding,  or 
has  disposed  of,  or  intends  to  dispose  of  or  conceal  his  proi-crty  to 
defraud  his  creditors.  Attachments  reach  debtor's  property  whether 
in  his  own  hands  or  in  those  of  others.    Wages  for  less  than  $100  not 


yet  due  cannot  be  attached.  No  imprisonment  for  debt.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace,  ?ioo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  have  seal,  be  acknowledged  and 
recorded  within  twenty  days.  Before  recording  affidavit  must  be 
made  that  the  consideration  is  true  and  bona  fide.  To  foreclose, 
mortgagee  gives  bond  and  twenty  days'  notice  before  sale.  Court 
must  confirm  sale. 

DEEDS  must  be  sealed  and  have  at  least  one  witness.  Acknowl- 
edgments within  the  State  are  taken  by  any  court  of  record,  or  justice 
of  the  peace  who  is  certified  to  under  seal  of  a  court  of  record.  In 
other  States,  by  a  notary  public,  c<mrt  of  record  or  commissioner  of 
deeds  for  Maryland.  In  foreign  countries,  by  United  States  minister 
or  consul  or  notary  public  under  seal.  Wife  joins  husband  to  release 
dower.  No  separate  examination.  Deeds  must  be  recorded  within 
six  months  from  date  of  execution. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute,  for  adultery,  three  years'  abandonment,  or 
antenuptial  misconduct  of  wife.  Partial,  for  cruelty,  abandonment 
and  desertion.    Alimony  and  restoration  of  wife's  property. 

EXEMPTIONS,  Besides  wearing  apparel,  books,  and  tools  used 
for  earning  a  living,  there  is  exempt  other  properly  to  the  value  of 
$100.     No  homestead. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  Property  acquired  by  a  married  woman  is 
her  own,  controlled  bv  herself,  and  is  free  from  her  husband's  debts. 
She  conveys  bv  joint  deed  with  the  husband,  but  devises  and  be- 
queaths the  same  as  if  single.  She  may  be  sued  with  her  husband  on 
joint  contracts  made  by  them,  and  the  property  of  both  is  equally 
liable.    Dower  one-third,  if  they  have  children;  one-half,  if  none. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  is  to  one-fourth  of  the  value.  Lien  lasts 
four  yc'.rs  on  stationary  and  two  years  on  floating  property.  In 
Calvert,  Charles,  Kent  and  St.  Mary's  counties  there  are  no  liens  on 
stationary  property.  Notice  must  be  given  to  owner  within  sixty 
days  and  claim  filed  within  six  months. 

WILLS.  Age  twentv-one  for  males,  eighteen  for  females.  Three 
witnesses.     No  witness  needed  for  wills  granting  personal  i^rtiperty, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  all  creditors  is 
good  against  an  attaching  creditor,  hut  maybe  voided  by  an  assignee 

in  insolvency.    One  creditor  may  

file  petition  for  bankruptcy  pro- 
ceedings. Disch.arge,  barring  tn  ^^  JV's,^  ^  f^ 
fraud  or  preference,  is  granted 
upon  payment  of  fifty  per  cent, 
or  bv  consent  of  majority  in  mmi- 
ber  and  value  of  creditors.  At- 
tachments less  than  four  months 
old  are  dissolved  by  insolvency 
proceedinj^s. 

ATTACHMENTS.  All  unex- 
ernpted  property  is  liable  to  at- 
tachment, hut  real  estate  may  not 
be  attached  in  suits  for  less  than 
^jo.  Bond  with  good  security 
being  furnished  by  the  debtor,  the  attachment  is  dissolved.  The 
debtor  may  be  arrested  and  held  to  bail  on  sworn  testimony  that  he  is 
about  leaving  the  State,  and  that  he  hius  property  which  he  is  reserv- 
ing from  the  payment  of  his  debts.  A  debtor  against  whom  a  judgment 
has  been  obtained  may  be  sworn  as  to  the  amount  of  his  prop- 
erty, and  if  he  refuse  to  surrender  it,  he  maybe  arrested.  He  may 
then  apply  for  relief  by  taking  the  poor  debtor's  oath.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace,  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  fifteen  days. 
Foreclosure  requires  three  weeks'  notice. 

DEEDS  require  to  be  under  seal.  No  witness  is  needed.  Ac- 
knowledgment of  one  grantor  is  sufficient.  Wife  joins  to  bar  dower. 
No  separate  examination.  Acknowledgments  are  taken  by  justices  of 
the  peace  or  notaries  public.    In  other  States,  by  justices  of  the  peace. 


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SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


notaries  public,  magistrates  or  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Massachu- 
setts. In  foreign  countries,  by  United  States  Consuls.  A  certificate 
of  his  official  character  should  accompany  the  acknowledgment 
taken  by  any  officer  other  than  the  commissioner  of  deeds. 

DIVORCE.  Unfaithfulness,  incapacity',  three  years*  desertion,  cru- 
elty, drunkenness,  neglect  to  provide,  sentence  to  five  years'  impris- 
onment and  joining  a  sect  which  disavows  marriage,  are  grounds 
for  absolute  divorce.  Alimony  is  allowed,  and.  where  the  husband  is 
at  fault  the  wife's  personal  property  is  restored. 

EXEMPTION.  Homestead,  fSoo  (must  be  recorded  as  such)  ;  fur- 
niture, ?30o;  sewing  machine,  $ioo;  library,  $50;  tools  and  imple- 
ment=;,$ioo;  stock  in  trade,  $100;  boats  and  outfit,  $100;  one  cow; 
one  hog  and  six  sheep,  and  wages  under  $20. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  man- 
aged by  herself,  and  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may 
make  contracts,  sue  and  be  sued  and  do  business  in  her  own  name, 
provided  a  certificate  is  filed  by  her  or  her  husband  in  the  oflice  of  the 
town  clerk.  Contracts  and  conveyances  between  husband  and  wife 
are  not  allowed.  Her  conveyances  of  real  estate  are  subject  to  hus- 
band's tenancy  bv  curtesy.  A  wife  cannot  make  a  will  affecting  her 
husband's  right  to  one-half  of  the  personal  property  and  his  tenancy 
by  curtesy  in  her  leal  estate,  without  his  written  consent.  Dower  as 
by  common  law. 

MECHANICS*  LIEN  covers  building  and  the  lot  on  which  it  stands. 
A  lien  for  material  not  ordered  by  the  owner  will  be  defeated  un- 
less he  has  been  served  with  written  notice  when  furnished.  Claims 
must  be  filed  within  thirty  days,  and  suit  begun  in  ninety.  Bond  with 
security  to  pay  the  claim  dissolves  the  lien.  Timely  notice  in  writing 
from  the  owner  to  sub-contractors  or  journeymen  that  he  will  not  be 
responsible,  will  bar  a  lien  for  their  claims. 

■WILLS.  Testator  must  be  of  full  age  and  sound  mind.  Three  wit- 
nesses. Bequest  to  subscribing  witness  is  void.  AVill  of  a  married 
woman,  unless  by  consent  of  husband,  is  subject  to  his  rights  by 
curtesy.     Probate  within  thirty  days  after  death  becomes  known, 

MICHIGAN. 

ASSIGNMENTS  may  be  made  either  with  or  without  preferences, 
providing   no   intent   to    defraud   is   evident.     By   insolvent  law   the 

debtor,  with  consent  of  two- 
thirds  of  his  creditors,  surrenders 
his  property  and  is  discharged, 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident  or 
foreign  corporation.  Also  when 
he  is  about  to  remove  himself  or 
his  property  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud. Garnishment  whenever 
requisite.  Wages, lessthan  twen- 
ty-five dollars,  due  the  head  of  a 
family,  are  free  from  garnish- 
ment. Jurisdiction  of  justicesof 
c.'^sasasasasesESESHsssESHSESHsssssa^d    the  peace,  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded.  Each  mortgage 
must  contain  provisions  for  its  own  foreclosure.  Mortgagee  must  file 
affidavit  every  year  for  continuance, 

DEEDS  must  have  t\vo  witnesses.  Acknowledgment  before  judge 
of  court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  When  a  mar- 
ried woman  joins  her  husband  in  a  deed,  her  acknowledgment  is 
taken  separately.    Record  in  county  where  land  is  located. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  for  incapacity  at  time 
of  marriage,  adultery,  two  years'  continuous  desertion,  drunkenness 
or  three  years' sentence  to  imprisonment.  A  life  sentence  dissolves 
the  marriage  without  any  proceedings  in  court.  Divorce  from  bed 
and  board  for  cruelty  and  neglect  to  provide.  Separation  of  property, 
dower  and  alimony  as  per  statute. 


EXEMPTIONS.  Forty  acres  of  land,  with  improvements,  in  the 
country,  or  house  and  lot  worth  $1,500  in  town  ;  furniture,  $250;  library, 
$150;  two  cows,  five  hogs,  ten  sheep,  team,  tools,  provisions  and  fuel. 
No  exemptions  from  execution  for  purchase-money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  own  and  control  property  the  same  as  if 
single.  A  wife  may  do  business  in  her  own  name  and  make  contracts, 
even  with  her  husband.  Her  separate  property  is  liable  for  wrongs 
committed  by  her.  Widow  has  dower,  but  there  is  for  the  surviving 
husband  no  right  of  tenancy  by  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Copy  of  contract  or  statement  of  agree- 
ment must  be  filed.  Lien  holds  for  six  months,  within  which  time 
suit  must  be  begun. 

■WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one.  Two  witnesses.  Witnesses 
mav  not  be  beneficiaries.  Record  in  counties  where  lands  lie.  Nun- 
cupative wills  for  more  than  .f3oo  not  allowed. 

MINNESOTA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Inventory  of  property  xxwxzt  be  filed  within  ten 
days  after  making  an  assignment.  Order  of  payments:  First,  debts 
due  the  United  States,  or  the 
State  of  Minnesota,  in  full;  sec- 
ond, wages  for  labor  and  ser- 
vice within  tlirce  months  preced- 
ing the  assignment,  in  full  if 
there  be  sufficient,  other\yise 
prorata:  third,  all  other  debts. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  issued 
on  plaintiff  giving  bond  in  double 
amount,  and  making  affidavit 
that  he  believes  defendant  is  a 
non-resident,  has  absconded  or 
is  about  to  abscond,  that  he  has 
removed  or  is  about  to  remove 
his  property;  that  he  conceals  himself  to  avoid  summons;  that  he  has 
fraudulently  contracted  the  debt,  or  fraudulently  evades  payment.  No 
arrest  for  debt.     Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded 
where  morlgageor  resides,  and  also  where  the  property  is.  They  hold 
good  for  two  years  without  renewal.  If  no  special  terms  in  the  in- 
strument, there  must  be  three  weeks'  notice  to  foreclose, 

DEEDS  require  t\vo  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  are  taken, 
within  the  State,  by  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public,  register  of 
deeds,  court  commissioner,  county  auditor  or  judge  or  clerk  of  court  of 
record.  Outside  of  the  State,  by  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace, 
judge  of  court  of  record  or  commisioner  for  this  State,  Wife  joins  to 
release  dower,  but  need  not  be  questioned  separately, 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  divorce  for  unfaithfulness,  incapacity,  three 
years'  abandonment,  one  year's  drunkenness,  cruel  treatment  or  sen- 
tence to  State's  prison.  Limited  divorce  for  abuse,  desertion  or  fail- 
ure to  support.  Plaintiff,  except  where  breach  of  faith  occurred  in  the 
State,  must  have  been  one  year  a  resident.  The  court  may  order  ali  ■ 
mony  and  custody  of  children,  and  the  wife  regains  possession  of 
her  real  estate,  unless  decree  has  been  obtained  on  account  of  her  had 
conduct. 

EXEMPTIONS,  Eighty  acres  with  improvements,  in  country,  or 
lot  with  dwelling  on  it,  in  town.  Household  property, $500;  wagon, 
plows  and  farming  implements,  $300;  three  cows,  ten  hogs,  twenty 
sheep,  yoke  of  cattle  and  a  horse,  or,  instead,  a  pair  of  horses;  one 
year's  provisions,  fuel,  feed  for  stock  and  seed  grain.  A  miner's  or 
mechanic's  tools  and  stock  in  trade  to  $400;  the  library  and  instru- 
ments of  a  professional  man.  Wages  under  $50  of  a  laboring  mr.n, 
earned  within  the  last  ninety  days,  and  where  the  debtor  is  publisher 
of  a  newspaper,  his  complete  outfit  to  value  of  $2,000,  and  stock  $400. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  property  in  her 
own  name.  She  may  make  contracts,  and  her  property  is  liable  only 
for  her  own  debts.    She  cannot  sell  or  convey  real  estate,  further  than 


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SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND     1  liRRITORIES. 


S'S 


■ZSSSSS3SSSBS3SSS5S3SZ- 


a  mortgage  for  purchase-money  or  a  three  years*  lease,  without  her 
husband  joining  her.  Contracts  between  husband  and  wife  are  void. 
The  sur\'iving  husband  or  wife  keeps  the  homestead  for  life,  and  is 
entitled  to  one-third  of  all  the  lands  possessed  by  the  deceased  after 
all  del>ts  liavc    been    paid. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Account  must  have  been  filed  within  one 
year,  and  lien  holds  good  for  two  years.  Sub-contractors  and  jour- 
neymen claiming  a  lien  by  service  of  the  papers  on  the  owner  will 
hive  the  amount  of  their  claims  retained  from  what  is  due  the  con- 
tractor. There  is  also  a  lien  for  work  done  on  personal  property, 
which  may  be  sold  after  three  months  if  charges  be  not  paid. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  for  men,  eighteen  for  women. 
Two  witnesses. 


MISSISSIPPI. 

ASSIGNMENTS,  even  with  preferences,  but  without  reservations 
for  ilic   debtor's   benefit,  may   be    made.      Intent  to    defraud,    being 

evident,  will  void  any  assign- 
ment. No  insolvent  law,  and  no 
provision  for  discharge  of  debtor. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  after 
plaintiff  furnishes  bond  and 
m:ikes  affidavit  that  the  debtor  is 
a  non-resident  or  has  absconded 
or  is  about  to  abscond,  has  con- 
cealed himself  or  his  property,  or 
in  any  manner, by  conveyance  or 
otherwise,  put  his  property  be- 
vond  reach  of  his  creditors,  so  as 
fraudulently  to  avoid  payment  of 
his  dclits.  Resident  and  non-res- 
ident creditor^  have  equal  rights.  The  first  attachment  has  priority 
over  subsequent  ones.    No  artist  or  imprisonment  for  debt. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  the  property  must 
be  taken  into  the  possessiun  of  the  mortgagee.  Foreclosure  and  sale 
must  be  provided  for  in  the  mortgage. 

DEEDS.  Two  witnesses  arc  needed  if  not  acknowledged ;  other- 
wise one.  Acknowledgments  may  be  made  before  judges  of  any  of 
the  United  States  Courts,  judges  of  the  Supreme  or  Superior  Courts 
of  any  of  the  States  or  Territories,  justices  of  the  peace,  notaries 
public,  or  before  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this 
State.  In  case  of  a  justice  or  notary,  his  official  character  must  be 
certified  to  under  seal  of  some  court  of  record.  A  married  woman 
joins  her  husband  in  a  conveyance  to  release  dower,  and,  in  making 
her  acknowledgment,  must  he  questioned  separate  and  apart  from 
him. 

DIVORCE.  After  one  year's  residence  in  the  State,  divorce  may  he 
obtaint-d  for  impoten(?y,  adultery,  bigamy,  cruelty,  two  years'  aban- 
donment or  imprisonment  in  the  penitentiary.  Alimony  is  allowed 
wlien  the  wife  is  the  injured  party,  and  the  court  awards  the  custody 
of  minor  children. 

EXEMPTIONS.  To  househnlding  head  of  family,  160  acres  of 
land  and  improvements  m  country,  or  house  and  lot  in  town  cither  to 
value  of  $2,000.  Tools  and  farming  implements  necessary  for  two 
male  laborers ;  library  and  instruments  of  professional  man  to  value 
of  $250  ;  two  horses  or  mules  or  a  yoke  of  o-tcn.  two  cows  and  calves, 
five  hogs,  five  sheep  ;  wagon,  $103;  personal  property,  $250 ;  one  sew- 
ing machine  ;  provisions  and  provender ;  wages  of  a  laborer,  $100. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  property  acquired 
in  any  manner,  and  the  revenues  therefrom,  for  her  own  use  and  free 
from  control  or  liability  of  her  husband.  .She  may  convey  and  en- 
cumber the  same  as  if  single,  but  husband  joins  in  c<mveyance.  She 
may  devise  and  bequeath.  Deed  from  husband  to  wife  is  void  as  to 
creditors   at  time  of  making  it.    A  wife  may  not  encumber  her  estate 


by  mortgage  or  otherwise  for  her  husband's  debts  ;  she  may  do  busi- 
ness on  her  own  account  the  same  as  if  single,  and  is  then  liable  for 
her  contracts,  housekeeping  and  family  expenses.  She  joins  her 
husband  in  conveyance  of  homestead,  but  not  in  that  of  his  other 
property.    Dower  in  property  of  which  the  husband  dies  seized, 

MECHANICS*  LIENS  must  be  enforced  by  suit  within  six 
months.  Liens  reach  land,  buildings  and  fixed  machinery,  Iwats  and 
vessels.  Bona  fide  purchasers  cannot  suffer  unless  they  have  been 
served  with  notice. 

WILLS.  Testator  must  b?  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Three  wit- 
nesses, i 

MISSOURI. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences.  Inventorv*  of  assets  must 
be  filed  within  tiftccn  days.  Assignee  gives  three  months'  notice  of  a 
day  fixed  f<jr  hearing  all  claims. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  conceals 
or  absents  himself,  makes  away 
with  or  attempts  to  place  his 
property  out  of  reach  to  defraud 
his  creditors,  or  has  fraudulently 
contracted  the  debt,  or  where  the 
action  is  for  damages  arising  from 
misconduct  ;or  where  debtor  fails 
to  pay  for  goods  that  were  to  be 
paid  for  on  delivery.  Garnishee 
process  when  there  is  occasion. 
No  arrest  for  debt.     Justices  of  the  peace  limited  t"  $150. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Possession  of  property  must  pass  into 
hands  of  mortgagee,  or  else  the  mortgage  must  be  recorded.  Fore- 
closure, if  for  less  than  $100,  requires  sixty  days'  notice.  If  for  larger 
amount,  a  judgment  in  court  is  necessary. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  arc  made  before  judge  or  clerk  of  a 
court  having  a  seal,  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  In  other 
States,  before  commissioner  of  Missouri,  or  court  with  seal,  or  notary 
public.  Wife  joins  in  deed  and  must  be  examined  separately.  Rec- 
ord in  county  where  land  is  located. 

DIVORCE.  Grounds:  Impotency  .at  time  of  marriage,  unfaithful- 
ness, bigamy,  conviction  of  crime,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  and  one 
year's  desertion.  Petitioner  must  have  been  one  year  a  resident  of  the 
State.    Trial  without  jur^'. 

EXEMPTIONS.  To  head  of  family  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  in 
the  countrv  to  the  value  of  $1,500,  a  lot  (thirty  rods)  in  small  town  to 
same  value,  or  lot  (eighteen  rods)  in  citv  having  40,000  inhabitants,  to 
value  of  $3,000.     Personal  property,  $300.    One  month's  wages. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  controls  her  own  prop- 
erty, unti  liolds  it  through  a  trustee  free  from  liabilitv  for  her  husband's 
debts.  She  may  make  contracts,  sign  notes  and  do  business  in  her 
own  name.  She  may  make  a  will.  She  joins  her  husband  in  his  con- 
veyances to  release  dower.  Her  dower  is  onc-lhird  for  life  of  all 
lands  owned  by  husband. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  have  priority  over  all  other  encumbrances 
that  may  be  placed  on  property  after  the  work  has  begun.  Claims  of 
original  contractors  must  be  filed  within  six  months.  Those  of  jour- 
neymen and  laborers  in  thirty  days,  Ol  other  persons  in  four  months. 
Action  within  ninety  days  of  claims  being  filed. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age  to  devise  real  estate,  twenty-one  for  male, 
eighteen  for  female;  to  dispose  of  personal  property,  eighteen,  eitlier 
sex.  Two  witnesses.  Must  be  recorded  thirty  days  after  probate. 
Copy  of  will  must  be  recorded  in  each  county  where  devised  lands 
mav  be  situated. 


i^ 


-^ 


5i6 


SPECIAi,    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


MONTANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  insolvent  or  assignment  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  allowed  in  suits  on  contracts  for  nayment  of 
money.  Plaintiff  gives  bond  in  double  amount.  An  a^'.achment  may 
be  had  before  a  debt  is  due,  if  debtor  fraudulently  disposes  of  prop- 
erty to  avoid  payment.     Jurisdiction  of  justices  -A  the  peace  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Possession  of  property  must  pass  to 
mortgagee,  or  the  mortgage  must  be  recorded,  and  must  explictly 
state  that  possession  is  to  be  retained  by  mortgageor.  Holds  good  for 
one  year,  during  which  any  one  selling  said  mortgaged  goods  forfeits 
double  the  value  to  the  purchaser^  is  guilty  of  misdemeanor,  and  is 
liable  to  fine  of  from  $50  to  J500. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of 
court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace,  mayor  of  a  city,  or  a  register  of 
deeds.  Officer  laking  acknowledgment  must  affix  his  official  seal.  A 
wife  must  be  questioned  separately. 

EXEMPTIONS.  House  and  a  quarter  acre  lot  in  town,  or  a  farm 
of  eighty  acres,  neither  to  exceed  $2,500  in  value.  Personal  property 
to  the  value  of  $1,400.  No  exemptions  are  good  against  a  mortgage, 
a  mechanics'  lien  or  a  claim  for  purchase -money. 

MARRIED  "WOMEN.  A  list  of  a  married  woman's  property  filed 
and  recorded  saves  it  from  bj^ing  liable  for  the  husband's  debts,  ex- 
cept necessaries  for  herself  and  children  under  eighteen.  A  married 
woman  may  become  a  sole  trader  by  recording  her  intention.  If  she 
invests  more  than  $10,000  in  business  she  must  make  oath  that  the 
surplus  did  not  come  from  her  husband.-  The  husband  is  not  liable 
for  debts  contracted  by  her  in  business.  She  is  also  responsible  for 
the  maintenance  of  her  children.  A  surviving  husband  or  wife  takes 
one-half  of  deceased's  property,  if  no  children ;  one-third  if  there  are. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  of  an  original  contractor  must  be 
filed  within  ninety  days;  that  of  a  sub-contractor  within  thirty  days. 
All  liens  filed  within  thirty  days  of  the  filing  of  the  first  one  share 
alike.  Sub-contractor's  suit  must  begin  within  ninety  days.  That 
of  original  contractors  in  one  year. 

WILLS,  Testator's  age  for  either  sex,  eighteen  years.  Two  wit- 
nesses 

NEBRASKA. 

ASSIGNMENTS,  Preferences,  except  for  amounts  under  $100  that 
may  be  due  for  labor,  are  not  allowed.     Nor  is  an  assignment  clogged 

with  conditions  for  release  of 
debtor  of  any  value.  Assignee 
files  sworn  schedule  within  thirty 
days  and  gives  bond  in  double 
amount.  Recording  within  the 
thirty  days  is  a  positive  feature 
in  the  validity  of  an  assigpnment. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  When  de- 

fendant  is  a  non-resident,  affida- 
vit and  bond  in  double  amount 
must  be  furnished.  Attachments 
are  allowed  when  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  or  foreign  corpor- 
ation, removes  or  conceals  his  property,  or  absconds,  or  when  the 
claim  has  already  been  allowed  by  a  decree  in  court.  On  appearance 
of  fraud  the  debtor  may  be  attached  in  person.  Garnishmentin  aid. 
No  insolvent  law.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  (mortgagee  renewing 
annuallv)  and  holds  good  for  five  years.  Foreclosure,  twenty  days* 
notice  and  public  sale.  If  provided  for  in  the  instrument,  no  court 
proceedings  arc  needed  for  foreclosure. 

DEEDS  must  have  one  witness.  Acknowledgments  within  the  State 
arc  taken  by  judges,  clerks  of  courts,  justices  of  the  peace  or  notaries 
public.  In  other  States,  by  commissioners  of  deeds  for  Nebraska  or 
by  the  legally  authorized  local  officers.    In  foreign  countries,  by  no- 


:?^SS3SSSaB3SES5S3SaSSS3S3S3S3S; 


'-aries  public  or  United  States  ministers  or  consuls.  To  bar  dower  or 
curtesy  a  wife  or  husband  must  join  in  deed.  No  separate  examin- 
ation required. 

DIVORCE.  Unless  the  marriage  took  place  in  the  State,  and  the 
plaintiff  has  since  continuously  resided  therein,  a  residence  in  the 
county  of  six  months  next  preceding  the  application  is  necessary. 
Divorce  is  granted  on  the  grounds  of  impotency  at  the  time  of  mar- 
riage, adulterv,  two  years*  desertion,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  three 
years'  sentence  to  imprisonment,  or  failure  on  the  part  of  husband  to 
support  wife.  The  court  may  order  alin.ony,  and  where  a  decree  is 
granted  on  account  of  the  husbandV.  bad  conduct  the  wife  takes 
dower. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Dwelling  and  160  acres  of  land  in  country,  or  two 
adjoining  lots  in  town,  value  $2,000.  If  he  has  no  real  property,  the 
debtor  may  retain  personal  property  to  value  $500.  Clothing,  furni- 
ture, provisions,  animals,  tools  and  other  things  as  per  statute,  and 
sixty  days'  wages  of  laborer,  Exemptions  are  not  good  against 
mechanics'  lien,  mortgage  or  purchase-money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  her  separate  prop- 
erty free  from  the  disposal  of  her  husband  and  from  liability  for  his 
debts.  She  may  bargain,  sell,  make  contracts,  do  business,  sue  and 
be  sued,  all  so  far  as  her  se])arate  estate  may  warrant ;  but  she  cannot 
become  surety  for  another,  not  even  being  allowed  to  bind  herself  for 
her  husband's  debts.  Property  coming  to  the  wife  from  the  husband 
is  not  privileged  as  her  separate  property.  Dower,  use  for  life  of 
one-third  of  real  estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  A  sworn  itemized  account  must  be  filed 
within  four  months  of  the  performance  of  work  or  the  furnishing  of 
material.     Lien  holds  two  years. 

WILLS.  Two  witnesses. 

NEVADA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Insolvent  law  provides  for  discharge  of  the 
debtor  without  any  certain  percentage  or  consent  being  requisite. 
Discharge  is  only  from  debts 
entered  on  the  filed  schedule. 
Assignments,  to  be  valid,  must 
comply  with  the  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  In  an  ac 
tion  on  a  contract  for  the  pay- 
ment of  money  not  secured  by 
mortgages  or  lien  on  property 
within  the  State,  an  attachment 
may  be  issued,  plaintiff  making 
affidavit  and  giving  bond.  Also 
when  defendantis  a  non-resident. 
A  fraudulent  or  absconding 
debtor  may  be  arrested,  plaintiff 
giving  at  least  $500  security. 
Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  With  the  exception  of  a  mortgag-e  on 
growing  crops,  no  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  unless  possession  passes 
to  mortgagee. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  within  the  State  before  a 
iudge  or  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  no- 
tary public.  In  other  States,  by  judge  or  clerk  of  court  having  a  seal, 
a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public  or  commissioner  for  the  State. 
Acknowledgments  taken  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  must  be  accompa- 
nied by  sealed  certificate  from  court  of  record  declaring  his  official 
character.  Wife  joins  husband  in  a  deed  and  is  separately  examined. 
Signature  and  deed,  not  having  been  acknowledged,  maybe  approved 
by  competent  evidence. 

DIVORCE.  Plaintiff  must  Iiave  resided  six  months  in  the  county. 
Grounds  of  divorce  are  physical  incompetency  at  time  of  marriage, 
adulterv,  (»ne  year's  desertion,  drunkenness,  cruelt\',  conviction  of 
crime  and  failure  on  part  of  husband  to  support. 

EXEMPTIONS,  Homestead,  $5,000;  tools,  implements  and  other 
personal  property*,  as  per  statute  ;  miner's  cabin,  $500. 


-H 


/ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIKS. 


517 


MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  separate  property  of  a  married  woman 
which  is  controlled  by  herself  is  such  as  she  niuy  have  owned  before 
inarriase  or  acquired  afterwards  by  gfift,  devise  or  descent.  All  prop- 
erty acquired  otherwise,  by  either  husband  or  wife,  is  common  property, 
and  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  husbaiul.  On  the  death  of  the 
husband  the  widow  receives  one-half  of  the  common  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  exceed  $i5,  must  be  recorded 
wiiliin  sixty  days,  and  suit  must  be  begun  williin  six  months.  A  sub- 
contractor must  file  within  thirty  days.  Railroads,  canals,  mines, 
tunnels,  ditches  and  buildings  subject  to  lien. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  eighteen  years.  Two  witnesses.  A  mar- 
ried woman  disposes  of  her  separate  estate,  and,  with  the  consent  of 
her  husband,  of  her  interest  in  the  common  property.  A  child  whose 
name  nas  been  unintentionally  omitted  in  the  provisions  of  a  will 
takes  a  share  the  same  as  if  a  parent  had  died  intestate. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Without  preferences.  Assignee  files  schedule 
within  ten  da\s.  Claims  must  be  proved  up  within  six  months.  Dis- 
senting creditors  must  give  no- 
tice inside  of  thirty  days  after  the 
assi;^nnient.  They  receive  no 
benefit,  but  continue  their  claims 
and  hold  any  liens  they  may  have 
obtained.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  taken 
out  on  original  writ,  and  are  a 
lien  for  thirty  days  after  judg- 
ment, during  which  time  execu- 
tion iiuKst  be  levied.  Mechanics* 
lieu  h;is  jirecedence  over  attach- 
ments. Trustee  process  to  attach 
de'  tors' money  or  other  property. 
Wages, to  $20,  exempt.  On  plain- 
tiff's oath,  the  debt  being  over  f  i.v33»  debtor  may  be  arrested  if  he  has 
concealed  his  property  or  is  about  to  leave  the  State  to  avoid  payment. 
Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  i>eace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Mortgagee  mu-t  take  immediate  pos- 
session, or  mortgage  mu  t  be  recorded  with  the  affidavits  of  both  the 
mortgageor  and  mortgagee  that  it  is  /'ona  Jhi^  and  for  a  real  debt, 
h'oreclosed  after  thirty  days  from  breach  of  condition,  and  sale  lield 
ufter  fi>ur  days'  notice.  Mortgageor  has  a  right  to  redeem  until  sale. 
DEEDS.  Every  conveyance  of  real  estate  requires  a  seal,  and  must 
have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  may  be  taken  by  notaries 
public,  justices  of  the  peace  or  commissioner  of  deeds.  Wife  joins  to 
release  dower.     No  separate  examination. 

DIVORCES  are  granted  by  the  Supreme  Court  for  physical  incom- 
petency, adultery,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  three  years'  desertion,  one 
year's  sentence  to  prison  or  adherence  to  a  religious  sect  that  con- 
demns marriage. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $500;  $100  furniture;  $100  tools;  $200 
b  loks  ;  $5iX)  fuel  and  provisions;  sewing  machine,  cook  stove,  bedding 
and  clothing,  one  hog,  six  sheep,  one  yoke  of  oxen  or  one  hoise,  and 
four  tons  of  hay. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  property  owned 
before  marriage  or  acquired  afterwards,  except  what  may  come 
from  the  husband,  for  her  own  use.  She  may  sell,  convey  and 
encumber,  devise  and  bequeath,  do  lousiness,  give  notes,  sue  and  be 
sued.  Her  contracts  are  binding,  excepting  that  there  can  be  no  con- 
tracts or  conveyances  between  hvisband  and  wife,  nor  can  the  wife 
become  security  for  her  husband.     Wife  is  entitled  to  dower. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  take  precedence  of  ail  attachments,  and 
hold  (Ml  stationary  property  for  ninety  days ;  on  lumber,  logs  and  bark 
for  sixty  days,  and  on  vessels  for  four  days. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one.  Three  witnesses.  Nuncu- 
pative wills  must  be  reduced  to  writing  within  six  days.  Probate 
within  six  months. 


NEW  JERSEY. 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preference-^  are  void.  Sworn  inventory  must 
accompany  assignment.  An  itisolvent  debtor  is  discharged  on  sur- 
render of  all  his  property.  Wages  Gjsi 
due  for  service  or  labor  to  the 
amount  of  $300  have  precedence 
over  other  claims. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  absconds 
or  assigns  or  conceals  his  prop- 
erty to  defraud  his  creditors.  If 
fraud  be  evident,  the  defendant 
may  be  arrested.  Limit  of  juris- 
diction of  justices  of  the  peace, 
$100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  either  be  recorded  or  the  property 
must  pass  into  possession  of  mortgagee.  To  continue  claim  mort- 
gagee must  renew  record  thirty  days  before  the  expiration  of  one 
year.     Foreclosure  by  suit  in  court.     No  redemption. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal,  and  have  one  witness.  The  word 
"heirs"  must  appear  in  an  instrument  to  convey  in  fee  simple.  Ac- 
knowledgments are  taken  by  the  chancellor  or  justice  of  the  Superior 
Court,  master  in  chancer}',  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  or 
connnissioner  of  deeds.  In  other  States,  by  commissioners  of  deeds 
for  this  State  or  by  legally  authorized  local  officers.  Husband  and 
wife  join  in  a  deed  conveying  the  estate  of  either,  he  to  give  his  con- 
sent, she  to  release  dower. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  for  adultery, bigamy  or  three  years'  abandon- 
ment. Partial  for  cruelty.  Applicant  must  reside  in  the  State,  unless 
the  marriage  or  the  alleged  misconduct  occurred  here. 

EXEMPTIONS.   Homestead  $1,500,  and  $200  household  properly. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  owned  before  marriage,  and 
such  as  she  lu.iy  acquire  afterwards  by  gift,  descent  or  bequest,  is  the 
sole  property  of  a  married  woman  and  is  not  liable  for  the  husband's 
debts.  She  may  make  contracts,  but  cannot  sell  or  encumber  her  real 
estate  without  consent  of  husband.  She  cannot  endorse  notes  o,-  be- 
come security.  She  joins  husband  in  his  conveyances  and  mortgages. 
Dower  and  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claims  must  be  filed  and  suit  brought 
within  one  year.  On  a  structure  erected  by  contract  which  has  been 
filed  and  recorded  only  the  contractor  may  claim  a  lien. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years.  Two  witnesses.  Wit- 
ness cannot  be  a  beneficiary.  A  married  woman  making  a  will  can- 
not impair  her  husband's  rights  by  curtesy.  , 

NEW  MEXICO. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  assignment  or  insolvent  laws. 

ATTACHMENTS  when  defendant  is  non-resident,  absconds,  con- 
ceals property  or  shows  intent  to  defraud.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Growing  crop  is  tlie  only  sort  of  per- 
sonal property  tint  may  nut  be  mortgaged.  Possession  of  property 
must  pass  into  hands  of  mortgagee,  or  the  mortgage  must  be  re- 
corded. Mortgage  holds  for  one  year.  For  continuance,  mortgagee 
must  file  renewal  thirty  days  before  each  year  expires. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of  a 
court  <»f  record,  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  ma\  or  of  a  city  or 
register  of  deeds.  A  married  woman's  separate  property  is  conveved 
by  deed  signed  by  both  husband  and  wife.  Her  acknowledgment 
mu  t  be  taken  apart,  and  she  must  be  questioned  as  to  her  freedom  of 
action  in  the  transfer. 

EXEMPTIONS.   Homestead,  $100;   %\o   furniture;    ?2o  tools;    $25 

pro\  isions. 


V- 


s. 


"^ 


Si8 


^ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  separate  property  of  a  married  woman 
is  what  she  owned  previous  to  marriage,  or  what  she  may  inherit. 
All  that  she  acquires  afterwards,  and  the  revenues  of  her  separate 
estate,  go  into  the  common  property.  The  husband  h.as  control  and 
management  of  her  separate  estate  and  the  commun  property.  There 
is  no  dower,  but  on  decease  of  a  husband  the  wife's  private  property 
is  first  deducted  ;  then  she  receives  one-half  of  the  common  property, 
after  all  debts  are  paid.  If  there  be  no  children  she  has  a  right  to  all 
the  common  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Must  file  claim  within  sixty  days,  and 
bring  suit  within  one  year.  A  lien  may  be  had  on  movables  repaired 
by  mechanics.  Landlords  may  have  lien  on  property  of  tenants,  and 
inn-keepers  on  the  baggage  of  their  guests, 

WILLS.  Testators'  age,  fourteen  for  males,  twelve  for  females. 
\Vritten  wills  require  three  witnesses  ;  verbal  wills  five.  Probate  judge 
may  disapprove  of  a  will,  but  appeal  can  be  carried  to  District  Court. 

NEW  YORK. 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  are  allowed.  A  debtor  who 
has  been  imprisoned  on  an  execution  for  a  sum  less  than   $500,  on 

making  an  assignment  of  his 
property,  barring  fraud,  may  be 
discharged  immediately  ;  and  for 
a  larger  sum,  after  three  months* 
imprisonment.  Consent  of  two- 
thirds  of  creditors  may  hasten 
discharge. 

ATTACHMENTS.  When  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident  or  has 
absconded,  conceals  himself  or 
is  about  to  place  his  property  be- 
yond reach  to  defraud  creditors, 
or  in  an  action  for  damages,  at- 
tachments may  be  issued.  An 
unsatisfied  execution  being  re- 
turned after  a  judgment,  the  defendant  or  any  other  persons  may  be 
examined  as  to  property  of  debtor  in  their  hands,  and  be  forced  to  use 
what  is  not  exempted  towards  payment  of  the  debtor.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace,  $^oo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  property  must 
change  hands.  Good  for  only  one  year  unless  record  be  renewed-. 
Foreclosure,  unless  by  terms  of  mortgage,  by  seizure  and  sale  after 
three  days'  notice. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal.  Within  the  State,  acknowledgments 
are  made  before  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  surrogate,  judge 
of  court  of  record,  recorder  or  commissioner  of  deeds.  In  any  other 
State,  before  commissioner  for  this  State,  judge  of  United  States 
Court,  judge  of  Supreme,  Circuit  or  Superior  Court,  or  the  mayor  of  a 
city,  or  before  any  legally  authorized  officer, 

DIVORCE.  Only  for  adultery  will  an  absolute  divorce  be  granted. 
Partial  divorce  is  ordered  for  cruelty,  desertion  and  neglect.  Mar- 
riages are  annulled  for  fraud  or  force,  idiocy,  lunacy  or  impotency  at 
the  time  of  m;trriage,  or  for  bigamy. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000;  $250  furniture,  tools,  team  and 
other  personal  property;  sixty  days'  wages. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  have  real  and  personal  property,  buv 
and  sell  and  do  business  in  their  own  names.  A  married  woman  is 
liable  for  debts  contracted  in  her  own  trade  or  business,  or  when  an 
agreement  or  contract  has  been  made  for  the  benefit  of  her  separate 
property,  when,  by  the  terms  of  such  instrument,  her  separate  prop- 
erty is  to  be  charged  with  the  liability.     Dower. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Time  for  filing  notice  varies  indifferent 
counties  from  thirt\'  days  to  three  months.  Suit  must  be  brought  with- 
in one  year. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age  to  dispose  of  real  estate,  twenty-one  years; 
of  personal  property,  eighteen  for  males,  sixteen  for  females.  Two 
witnesses.    The  address  of  a  witness  acompanies  his  signature. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  are  allowed.  An  insolvent 
debtor,  by  filing  petition  and  assigning  his  property  to  trustee  for 
benefit  of  all  creditors,  is  dis- 
charged. But  property  that  he 
may  afterwards  acquire  is  liable 
for  the  same  old  debts.  If  con- 
cealment or  fraud  is  proved  the 
debtor  may  be  imprisoned  until 
he  discloses  all  his  property. 

ATTACHMENTS.    Thecred- 

itor  must  give  bond  and  security 
for  costs  and  damages,  and  must 
file  affidavits.  An  attachment  is 
issued  against  the  property  of  a 
debtor  who  is  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  who  has  left 


[iB5P_^BS?5E5ESHSasaS2SaSES252SaS2SaE5) 


the  State  or  conceals  himself  to  avoid  summons,  or  has  removed  or  is 
about  to  dispose  of  his  property  to  defraud  his  creditors.  Personal 
service  of  summons  or  publication  within  thirty  davs  after  obtaining 
order  for  attachment  is  required.  Publication  must  be  continued  four 
weeks.    Justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  $200. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  ;  may  only  be  for 
property  to  value  of  $j00.  Foreclosure  by  seizure  and  sale  after 
twenty  days'  public  notice. 

DEEDS  must  have  one  or  more  witnesses.  Acknowledgments 
within  the  State  are  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public 
or  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record.  In  other  States,  before  a  clerk 
of  court  of  record  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  North  Carolina. 
In  foreign  countries,  before  a  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  a  city,  or 
before  a  United  States  consular  officer.  Wife  joins  husband  to  bar 
dower  and  must  make  her  acknowledgment  separate  and  apart. 

DIVORCE.  Only  for  impotency  or  adultery  can  absolute  divorce  be 
obtained.  Partial  divorce  is  granted  for  cruelty-,  desertion  or  drunk- 
enness. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  to  value  of  $1,000,  and  personal 
property  worth  $500.  No  exemption  is  good  against  taxes,  purchase- 
money  or  mechanics'  liens. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman's  separate  property  is 
not  liable  fttr  her  husband's  debts.  She  may  devise  and  bequeath, 
but  must  have  husband's  consent  to  convey.  Unless  she  be  a  free 
trader,  she  can  make  no  contract  other  than  for  personal  or  family 
necessities  or  for  payment  of  ante-nuptial  debts,  without  the  consent 
of  her  husband.  She  becomes  a  free  trader,  the  husband  assenting, 
by  filing  her  intention.  Common  law  dower  and  one  year's  subsist- 
ence out  of  husband's  personal  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  holds  building  and  lot.  Notice  in  thirty  days  ; 
suit  in  ninety  days.  Alien  for  making  or  mending  may  be  had  on 
movables.  Farm  laborers  or  persons  making  advances  for  raising 
crop  may  have  a  lien. 

WILLS  require  two  witnesses,  not  beneficiaries.  If  an  unwit- 
nessed will  be  offered  for  probate  it  must  be  satisfactorily  proved  by 
three  witnesses  to  be  wholly  in  testator's  handwriting. 

OHIO. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences,  except  wages  to  amount 
of  $100  and  individual  taxes,  are  allowed.  Assignment  is  filed  in  ten 
days,  and  schedule  in  thirtv.  Creditors  must  bring  in  their  claims 
within  six  months.  First  dividends  in  eight  months.  Debtor  is 
always  liable. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  issued  when  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or 
a  foreign  corporation,  has  absconded  or  has  removed  or  concealed 
his  property,  or  in  any  other  manner  placed  it  or  attempted  to  place 
it  beyond  reach  to  defraud  his  creditors.  Plaintiff  giving  bond  with 
surety  to  cover  damages,  and  making  affidavit  of  fraud,  the  defend- 


ki. 


V 


/ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


519 


ant  will  be  arrested.  Garnishee 
except  foruninatured  notes.  Ju- 
risdiction of  justices  of  the  peace 

$300- 

CHATTEL     MORTGAGES 

must  be  recorded;  g-ood  for  only 
twelve  months  unless  renewed  by 
again  recording-  within  thirty 
days  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year.  Same  for  each  succeeding 
year. 

DEEDS  mustbe  acknowledged 
in  presence  of  two  witnesses, 
before  some  officer  in  the  State 
who  is  authorized  to  take  depositions.  In  other  States  or  countries, 
deeds  may  be  executed  and  acknowledged  in  accordance  with  the 
local  laws.    Wife  joins  husband  in  a  deed,  and  is  questioned  apart. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  unfaithfulness,  bigamy,  incapacity, 
cruelty,  drunkenness,  deception,  three  years' neglect  and  abandon- 
ment, or  imprisonment  in  a  penitentiary.  Alimony  may  be  granted  ; 
and  if  the  decree  is  obtained  on  account  of  the  husband's  ill  conduct, 
the  wife  has  her  separate  property  and  her  maiden  name  restored. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  is  exempt  to  value  of  $1,000;  if  ap- 
praised  to  a  higher  value  a  partition  is  made,  or  an  appropriate  rental 
is  charged.  Clothing  and  necessary  furniture  are  exempted;  tools 
and  farming  implements  to  value  $100;  $50  worth,  of  provisions  and 
three  months'  wages  ;  one  horse  or  yoke  of  cattle,  harness  and  wagon  ; 
one  cow,  t^vo  hogs,  six  sheep,  and  sixty  days'  provender,  or  instead,  $65 
in  household  property.  Aprofessional  man's  books,  $ioo.  When  res- 
ident debtor,  being  head  of  a  familv,  has  no  homestead,  he  may  retain 
personal  property  to  value  of  $500,  besides  other  exempted  property. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  not 
liable  for  her  husband's  debts ;  beyond  a  three  years*  lease,  or  a  con- 
tract for  the  improvement  of  her  real  estate,  she  cannot  sell  or  encum- 
ber it  without  the  consent  of  her  husband.  If  a  married  woman 
engages  in  trade,  her  separate  property  is  liable  for  the  debts  she 
may  then  contract,  and  she  may  sue  and  be  sued  the  same  as  if  sin- 
gle. A  deserted  wife  must  procure  an  order  from  court,  by  which 
she  shall  have  all  property  rights  as  ^  /epne  sole.  Dower  in  all  real 
estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Within  four  months  after  the  perform- 
ance of  labor  or  furnishing  of  material,  .1  detailed  statement  of  the 
claim  must  be  sworn  to  and  recorded,  to  procure  a  mechanic's  Hen. 
The  lien  holds  a  building  and  the  ground  on  which  it  stands,  or  a 
bridge  or  any  kind  of  water  craft.  A  lien  is  good  for  one  year,  or 
until  the  lawsuit  begun  within  the  year  is  finally  settled. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  t\venty-one  years  for  men,  eighteen  for 
women.  Two  witnesses.  Unless  the  will  had  been  made  at  least  one 
year  before  the  death  of  testator,  a  bequest  for  religious,  benevo- 
lent, educational  or  charitable  purpose  would  be  void  against  the 
claims  of  children. 

OREGON. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  A  general  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  must  be  without  preferences.     It  dissolves  all  attachments 

on  which  judgments  have  been 
rendered.  Creditors  must  receive 
notice  to  present  their  claims,  or 
iheir  objections  to  claim.  Debts 
to  become  due  will  be  taken  into 
account,  as  well  as  those  already 
due.  Payments  are  pro  rain. 
The  debtor  is  still  liable.  No 
insolvent  law,  but  an  imprisoned 
debtor  is  discharged  after  ten 
days  by  complying  with  pre- 
scribed conditions.  He  cannot 
be  again  arrested  for  the  same 
debt. 


ATTACHMENTS.  Defendant  being  a  nun  resident  or  a  foreign  cor- 
poration, or  where  the  action  is  on  a  contract  for  the  payment  of 
money  which  was  not  secured  by  mortgage  or  other\vise,  or  if  so  se- 
cured, where  such  security  has  been  vitiated  by  defendant,  an  attach- 
ment may  be  issued.  The  plaintiff  gives  bond  in  double  amount. 
Where  the  debt  was  fraudulently  contracted,  or  property  has  been 
removed  with  intent  to  defraud,  or  where  personal  property  is  un- 
justly withheld,  or  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  he  maybe  ar- 
rested.   Limit  of  justices  of  the  peace,  ?250. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE  must  be  recorded  at  once,  and  is  good 
for  only  one  year,  unless  renewed  by  mortgagee  making  and  record- 
ing affidavit  within  the  thirty  days  before  the  end  of  the  year  that  the 
debt  is  still  due.    Renewal  each  year  in  the  same  way. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgment  may  be  taken 
before  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State  or  before  any  duly 
authorized  officer  in  any  State  or  Territori,*,  providing  that  the  legal 
status  of  the  officer  taking  the  acknowledgment  and  the  compliance 
of  the  deed  with  the  laws  of  such  State  or  Territory  are  properlv  cer- 
tified to  under  seal  by  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  in  the  county  o» 
district  where  such  officer  has  performed  such  service.  Marrwd 
women  examined  separately. 

DIVORCE.  Plaintiff  must  have  been  a  resident  for  one  year  before 
bringing  suit.  Grounds  are  impotency,  adulten,-,  two  years' drunken- 
ness, three  years'  abandonment,  cruelty,  conviction  of  felony.  Plain- 
tiff gaining  the  suit  has  a  right  to  one -third  of  the  real  estate  belonging 
to  defendant;  and  if  a  successful  plaintiff  be  the  wife,  she  mav  have  a 
maintenance  awarded  her. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Musical  instruments,  books  and  pictures,  $75; 
household  effects,  $300;  clothing,  $100,  and  clothing  to  each  member 
of  the  family,  $50;  team,  tools,  instruments,  library  or  whatever  is 
needed  in  the  trade  or  profession  of  debtor,  .?40o;  ten  sheep,  t^vo  cows, 
five  hogs,  three  months*  provisions  and  six  months'  provender.  No 
exemption  is  good  against  a  claim  for  purchase-money.  No  home- 
stead. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  her  property  free 
from  the  control  or  debts  of  her  husband.  She  may  make  contracts, 
buy  and  sell,  and  give  notes,  and  her  own  property  will  be  liable. 
The  husband  joins  in  her  conveyances.  She  may  make  a  will,  but  it 
must  not  interfere  with  her  husband's  rights  of  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claims  must  be  filed  within  three  months. 
Suit  begun  witliin  one  year.  Sub-contractors  and  workmen,  to  obtain 
a  Hen,  must  serve  written  notice  on  the  owner  before  payments  be- 
come due.  Payments  to  contractors  before  they  are  due  arc  no 
offset  against  lien  of  sub-contractors  and  workmen. 

WILLS.  Age,  twenty-one  to  dispose  of  real  est.ate,  eighteen  for 
personal  property.  Two  witnesses.  Children  unprovided  for  in  a 
will  share  as  if  the  parent  had  died  intestate. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be  without  preferences.  Sometimes,  a 
debtor  prefers  a  creditor  by  confessing  judgment,  or  making  a  specific 
assignment  of  certain  property. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  where 

debtor  removes,  conceals  or  dis- 
poses of  his  property,  or  is  about 
to  do  so,  to  defraud  his  creditors, 
or  has  fraudulently  contracted 
the  debt.  Also  when  debtor  is  a 
non-resident.  On  proof  of  fraud 
a  defendant  may  be  arrested,  and 
he  will  be  imprisoned  unless  he 
pays  or  gives  security.  Justices 
of  the  peace  limited  to  ?jjoo. 

CHATTEL     MORTGAGES 
cannot  be  for  less  than  $500,  and  must  be  recorded.     Must  be  renewed 
within  thirty  days  of  expiration  of  the  year,and  the  same  for  each 


520 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


A 


succeeding  year,  to  maintain  mortgag-ee's  right.  Thirty  days'  notice, 
or  four  weeks'  publication  before  sale  by  public  auction. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  may  be  taken  by  the  mayor  of  a  city 
or  incorporated  town,  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  commissioner  for 
this  State,  or  by  any  officer  appointed  by  the  laws  of  the  State  where 
taken,  providing  such  officer  be  certified  to  under  seal  by  the  clerk  of 
a  court  of    record.     Wife  joins  to  bar  dower;  examination  separate. 

DIVORCE.  Plaintiff  must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  State  for  one 
vear  next  preceding  the  apjilication.  Grounds:  deception  or  force  in 
procuring  the  marriage,  impotency,  adultery,  bigamy,  cruelty  and  t\vo 
years'  abandonment,  and  two  years'  sentence  to  imprisonment.  Di- 
vorce will  not  be  granted  on  the  ground  of  adultery  if  proved  to  have 
been  condoned.  Even  after  a  divorce,  defendant  is  not  allowed  to 
marry  a  co-respondent.  A  wife  may  obtain  partial  divorce  and  ali- 
mony for  ill  treatment, 

EXEMPTIONS.  Clothing,  books,  sewing-machine  and  $300  worth 
of  other  property.     Right  may  be  waived.     No  homestead. 

MARRIED  'WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  held 
as  her  separate  estatu,  but  is  chargeable  for  family  necessaries  ordered 
by  her.  A  wife  cannot  make  a  contract  or  conveyance  without  her 
hus*  ind  joining  her.  By  obtaining  leave  from  the  court  b.he  may 
have  the  benefit  of  her  own  earnings.  She  may  make  a  will,  saving 
the  husband's  right  by  curtesy.  She  may  deposit  money  in  bank  and 
write  checks  against  it  in  her  own  name.  Dower,  one-third  of  all 
real  estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  takes  precedence  of  every  other  lien  or  en- 
cumbrance. Claims  must  be  filed  within  six  months,  and  liens  hold 
good  for  five  years.  There  may  also  be  a  lien  held  for  wages  up  to 
the  amount  of  $200  by  the  employes  on  any  manufactory,  mine  or 
similar  establishment. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years.  Two  witnesses  are 
required,  but  they  need  not  attach  their  signatures.  A  husband  can- 
not serve  as  witness  to  wife's  will. 

RHODE   ISLAND. 


ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences 
the  discharge  of  the  debtor. 


allowed.     No  provision  for 


ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
debtor  is  a  non-resident  or  a  for- 
eign corporation,  has  absconded 
or  fraudulently  contracted  the 
debt,  or  retains  property  and  re- 
fuses to  pay.  Garnishment  for 
personal  property  of  debtor  in 
other  ])eople's  hands.  Jurisdic- 
tion of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL      MORTGAGES 

must  be  recorded,  or  the  mortga- 
gee must  take  possession.  Fore- 
closure by  seizure  and  sale. 

DEEDS  require  a  seal.  Ac- 
knowledgments may  be  taken  by  a  senator,  judge,  justice  of  the 
peace,  notary  public  or  town  clerk.  In  other  States,  by  the  author- 
ized officers  in  such  States,  or  by  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Rhode 
Island.  The  wife  joins  in  deed  to  release  dower;  only  tlie  husband 
need  make  the  acknowledgment. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  impotency,  adultery,  cruelty,  drunken- 
ness, neglect  to  support,  five  years'  abandonment,  conviction  of  mur- 
der or  arson,  presumption  of  death  from  long  absence,  or  for  defect 
in  marriage  rendering  it  void.  Divorces  may  only  be  decreed  by  Su- 
preme Court.  Alimony  may  be  ordered,  and  restoration  of  wife's  sep- 
arate property. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Furniture  and  supplies  for  family,  $.^00;  tools, 
$200;  library-,  $300;  wages,  $10;  clothing;  one  cow  and  one  hog;  debts 
secured  by  negotiable  paper.     No  homestead. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman's  property  is  held  by 
truslces    tor  her  separate  use  free    from     her    husband's    debts.     She 


;E5a53EHS35Z5=SS< 


c.mnot  make  contracts  or  do  business.  She  may  make  a  will  subject 
to  husband's  right  by  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  filed  and  suit  begun  within 
four  months. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years  for  disposal  of  real 
estate  ;  eighteen  for  personal  property.    Two  witnesses. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  assignment  maybe  made, and  one  or  more 
agents  appointtd  by  the  creditors  to  act  with  the  assignees. 
Creditors  who  do  not  take  part 
in  the  proceedings,  or  accept  div- 
idends, retain  their  claims  against 
the  debtor.  An  imprisoned  debt- 
or may  be  discharged  on  making 
an  assignment  of  all  his  prop- 
erty. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  issued 
where  debtor  is  a  non-resident  or 
a  foreign  corporation,  or  has  ab- 
sconded or  concealed  himself,  or 
has  removed  or  is  about  to  re- 
move his  property,  or  has  se- 
creted or  disposed  of  or  assigned 
his  property,  or  is  about  to  do 
so,  with  fraudulent  intent.  Garnishment  in  aid.  Jurisdiction  of  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  sixty  days. 
Foreclosure  by  seizure  and  sale. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal,  and  have  two  witnesses,  and  be 
recorded  within  thirty-three  days  in  county  where  the  land  lies.  In- 
side the  State,  acknowledgments  are  made  only  before  notaries 
public  and  trial  justices.  In  other  States,  before  commissioners  of 
deeds  for  this  State.    Wife  joins  to  bar  dower.    Separate  examination. 

EXEMPTIONS,  Homestead,  $1,000;  this  right  cannot  be  waived. 
Furniture,  wagons,  live  stock  and  tools,  to  value  of  $500.  Homestead 
exemption  cannot  hold  against  an  execution  for  the  purchase-money^ 
a  lien  for  improvements  or  for  taxes.  Any  person  not  the  head  of  a 
family  may  have  one-third  of  his  annual  earnings  exempted, 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  cannot 
be  seized  for  her  husband's  debts.  A  married  woman  can  bequeath, 
devise  and  encumber  her  separate  property.  She  can  buy  in  her  own 
name  and  have  convevances  made  to  her,  and  make  contracts,  the 
same  as  if  she  were  single,  A  gift  from  husband  to  wife  is  not  good 
against  a  creditor's  claim.     Dower  rights, 

MECHANICS'  LIENS,  Account  must  be  filed  in  ninety  days  and 
suit  begun  in  six  months.     The  owner,  by  giving  timely  notice  that  he 
will  not  be  responsible   for  the  contractor's  debts,  may  avoid  the   im- 
position of  a  lien  by  sub-contractors  and  journeymen. 
WILLS.  Three  witnesses. 


TENNESSEE, 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  allowed, 
charged  from  liis  liabilities.     No  insolvet.t  law, 

ATTACHMENTS  are  issued 
when  debtor  is  a  non-resident,  or 
is  about  to  remove  h-msclf  or  his 
property  from  the  State,  or  con- 
ceals himself  or  his  property,  or 
absconds,  or  has  fraudulently 
disposed  of  his  property,  or  dies 
out  of  the  State.  Garnishee  pro- 
cess will  reach  debts  due  the  de- 
fendant, and  that  are  to  become 
due,  as  \vell  as  property  of  de- 
fendant in  other  people's  hands. 
Noimprisonmentfor  debt.  Juris- 
diction of  justices,  $500. 


The  debtor  is  not  dis- 


K- 


-&  V 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


S2I 


CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  registered.  Foreclosure  by 
proceedings  in  court  unless  the  instrument  contains  power  of  sale. 

DEEDS  require  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  within  the 
State  are  made  before  judge  or  clerk  of  a  Countv  Court  or  a  notary 
public.  In  other  States,  before  any  court  of  record  or  clerk  thereof, 
notary  public  or  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State.  Wife  need  not 
join  in  deeds  conveying  in  fee  simple,  but  must  join  in  trust  deed. 
Separate  examination. 

DIVORCE.  The  applicant  must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  State 
for  two  years  next  preceding  the  petition.  Grounds:  physical  inca- 
pacity at  time  of  marriage,  bigamy,  adultery,  two  years*  abandon- 
ment, conviction  of  crime,  imprisonment  in  penitentiary,  drunkenness, 
ante-nuptial  immorality  of  wife,  attempt  of  either  party  upon  the  life 
of  the  other.  Limited  divorce  may  be  granted  for  cruelty,  desertion 
or  failure  to  provide. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Only  the  head  of  a  family  can  have  the  benefit  of 
exemptions;  $i,ikxj  homestead  and  a  viiriety  of  personal  property 
designated  by  statute,  prominent  items  being  horses,  mules,  oxen, 
cows,  calves,  wagon,  tools,  lumber,  grain,  provisions,  beds,  bedding, 
furniture  and  $30  wages. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  has  her  separate  prop- 
erty free  frt)m  tlie  husband's  control  and  from  liability  for  his  debLs. 
She  may  encumber,  convey  cjr  devise  her  sep.irate  property  without 
being  joined  by  hr.r  hushnnd  in  the  deed.  Widow  has  dower  in  one- 
third  of  husb;ind's  real  estate,  and  a  child's  share  in  his  personalty. 
The  husband  dying  intestate,  leaving  no  heirs,  the  wife  inherits  all  his 
property. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  lies  on  buildings  and  fixed  machinery,  and 
the  ground'on  which  they  are  erected;  also  on  water  craft.  Land- 
lords have  lien  on  crops,  growing  and  garnered,  for  advances  of  sup- 
plies and  clothing,  and  for  their  rent. 

WILLS.  Two  witnesses.  If  for  only  personal  property,  witnesses 
need  not  subscribe  their  names.  The  handwriting  of  an  unattested 
will  may  be  proved  by  three  witnesses.  Nuncupative  wills  have  no 
force  for  amounts  over  $250. 

TEXAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  debtor  making  an  assignment  must 
have  it  rccordeil,  accompanied  by  a  sworn  inventory  of  debts,  assets, 

creditors,  collaterals  held  by  them 
and  all  evidences  of  debts  to  or 
iigiiinst  debtor,  with  complete 
statement  of  his  estate,  with  val- 
ues. The  assignment  may  be 
made  for  the  benefit  of  assenting 
creditors  only;  and  accepting  a 
/;■(?  rata  will  be  equivalent  to 
discharge  of  debtor  from  liabil- 
ity. A  creditor  believing  debtor 
has  concealed  his  property  may 
have  him  summoned  and  exam- 
ined under  oath.  Any  fraudulent 
action  on  jiart  of  debtor  is  feltiny. 

ATTACHMENTS.  The  plaintiff  making  affidavit  and  giving  bond 
in  double  amount,  an  attachment  is  issued  where  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  or  a  foreign  corporation,  is  about  to  remove  from  the 
State,  or  secretes  himself  to  avoid  summons,  conceals  his  property  or 
is  about  to  conceal  it,  or  is  about  to  remove  it  from  the  State,  or  from 
the  county,  has  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  dispose  of  it, 
is  about  turning  his  property  into  money,  so  that  it  cannot  be  reached, 
or  has  obtained  property  by  deception.  Intent  to  defraud  is  surmised 
in  any  of  the  allegations.     Limit  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $ioo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  the  property  must 
change  hands  at  once.  Foreclosed  by  suit ;  sheriff's  sale  sixty  days' 
notice. 


DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  anywhere  within  the  United  States  are 
made  before  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  having  a  seal,  a  notary 
public  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State.  Where  a  deed  is 
not  acknowledged  it  must  be  proved  by  two  witnesses.  Married 
women,  separate  examination. 

DIVORCE.  Applicant  must  be  really  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  and 
a  resident  of  the  county  for  six  months  previous  to  filing  petition; 
grounds,  adultery,  three  years'  desertion,  unendurable  cruelty. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Two  hundred  acres  of  land  with  improvements  in 
the  country,  or  city  property  to  value  at  time  of  being  designated  as 
homestead  (regardless  of  the  value  of  after  improvements)  of  $5,000. 
Furniture,  farming  implements,  tools,  books,  five  cows  and  calves, 
*wo  yoke  of  cattle,  two  horses  and  wagon,  a  caniage  or  buggy, 
twenty  hogs,  twenty  slieep,  provisions,  provender  and  ni.iny  other 
articles.  The  exemption  of  the  homestead  is  not  good  against  taxes, 
purchase-money  or  mechanics'  lien  ;  but  in  this  last  case  the  contract 
must  have  been  signed  by  both  husband  and  wife.  On  the  death  of  a 
husband,  the  widow  and  children  may  have  one  year's  support  out  of 
the  estate,  and  if  the  property  be  not  in  such  shape  as  to  be  exempted  by 
law,  enough  may  be  sold  to  raise  an  allowance  for  homestead  to  value 
of  $5,000  and  other  property  $500.  Any  person  not  the  head  of  a  fam- 
ily  may  have  exempted  clothing,  books,  horse,  bridle  and  saddle. 

MARRIED  ^VOMEN.  The  property  owned  by  husband  or  wife 
before  marriage,  and  what  either  may  acquire  aftenvards,  by  gift, 
devise  or  descent,  is  community  property.  The  husband  controls  the 
common  property  and  the  wife's  separate  estate.  The  common  prop- 
erty is  liable  for  the  debts  of  either,  and  the  husband  may  dispose  of 
it.  At  the  death  of  either  the  survivor  takes  one-half  and  the  children 
the  other  half  of  the  cominon  property.  The  husband  joins  wife  in 
conveyance  of  her  separate  property.  She  joins  him  in  conveyance 
of  homestead.  A  married  woman  cannot  do  business  in  her  own 
name,  but  she  may  become  security  for  her  husband  by  nujrtgaging 
her  separate  estate. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  must  be  on  a  written  contract  and  recorded 
within  six  montlis.  Sub-contractors  and  journeymen  may  furni.'^h  the 
owner  with  their  accounts,  and  he  must  retain  the  amount  of  their 
claims.    Landlords  have  Hen  for  rent  and  for  supplies  advanced. 


WILLS.  Age,  twenty-one  years. 
vills  can  devise  real  estate. 


Two    witnesses.     Onlv  written 


itatutes.     Mortgagee     must    take 


UTAH. 


ASSIGNMENTS.  Common  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  Plaintiff  holding  no  securiry  gives  bond  and 
takes  out  a-i  attachment  where  there  is  an  appearance  of  the  debtor's 
probable  failure  to  pay  the  debt. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Xo 

immediate  p(jssession. 

DEEDS  must  have  one  witness.  Acknowledgments  before  notarv 
public,  justice  of  the  peace,  mayor  of  a  city  or  judge  or  clerk  of  court 
of  record.    A  married  woman  conveys  the  same  as  if  single- 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000;  personal  property  to  head 
of  the  family,  $700.  and  to  each  member  ?J50.  Not  good  against  pur- 
chase-money^  mechanics'  lien  or  a  mortgage. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman's  separate  property  is 
held,  managed,  controlli-d  and  disposed  of  by  herself.  A  wife  niav 
carry  on  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  give  notes  and  make  contracts  the 

same  as  if  single. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Cluim  must  be  filed  within  three  months ; 
suit  brought  within  one  year.  Sub-contractors  and  journe_\  men  must 
serve  the  owner  with  timely  written  notice. 

Married 


WILLS.  Testator's  age, eighteen  years.     Two  witnesses 
women  make  wills  the  same  as  if  single. 


^- 


522 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


VERMONT. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be  without  preferences.  Insolvent  hiw  by 
which  involuntary  proceedings  maybe  entered  by  one  creditor  having 

claim  to  $250.  If  assets  pay  thirty 
per  cent  of  debts,  or  if  majority 
of  creditors  consent,  the  debtor 
is  discharged. 

ATTACHMENTS  on  mesne 
process.  Trustee  process  for 
property  in  hands  of  third  per- 
sons. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES. 
All  property,  except  fixed  ni.t 
chinery,  must  be  taken  into  the 
possession  of  the  nfortgagec. 
Foreclosed  by  bill  in  equity. 
Court  orders  sale. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal 
and  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  mas- 
ter in  chancery,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  No  separate 
examination  for  married  v/omen. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  adultery,  cruelty,  three  years' abandon- 
ment, three  years'  imprisonment  in  penitentiary  or  seven  years' ab- 
sence without  being  heard  of.  The  wife  may  obtain  divorce  where 
the  husband,  being  able,  fails  to  support. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $500;  growing  crop,  clothing,  furni- 
ture, sewing-machine,  tools,  one  cow,  ten  sheep,  one  hog,  three  hives 
of  bees,  poultry,  one  yoke  of  oxen  or  two  horses,  fuel,  provisions  and 
provender;  also  the  instruments  and  library  of  a  professional  man, 
$200. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  held 
separate,  and  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  In  conveyance  of 
the  wife's  real  estate,  the  husband  must  join  in  deed.  A  married 
woman  may  make  a  will.  Widow  has  dower  in  one-third  the  real 
estate  of  which  the  husband  died  seized. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  On  buildings  suit  must  be  brought  within 
three  months  ;  on  vessels  in  eight  months. 
WILLS.  Three  witnesses. 


VIRGINIA. 


The  debtor  is 


PSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS3SSS3S3SSSSBSSSSSS3p 

f  g     agamst  ; 

m  /4^  ^1       ^t^  S     :iboutto 


ASSIGNMENTS  may  be  made   with    preferences 
still  liable.    No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS   are    issued 
Ljainst  a  non-resident  debtor  or 
ndant  who  is  removing  or 
/fe'*''        f¥J        *X|^  in    'ibotJt  to  remove  his  property  out 

of  the  State  pendente  iite^  or  a 
tenant  removing  his  property  be- 
fore the  rent  becomes  due,  or  a 
debtor  taking  his  property  out  of 
the  State  before  a  debt  is  due. 
Garnishment  will  reach  debts  due 
the  defendant.  Plaintiff  must 
give  bond  and  file  affidavit.  Also, 
an  arrest  will  be  made  on  plain- 
tiff's affidavit  that  he  believes  de- 
fendant is  about  to  abscond. 
The  defend-int  will  then  have  to  give  a  hail-bond  or  be  imprisoned. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  notary,  justice,  com- 
tiiissioner  in  chancery,  or  before  the  judge  or  clerk  of  any  county  or 
corporation  court.  In  other  States,  before  any  court  or  clerk  of  a 
court,  or  justice,  or  notary,  or  commissioner  in  chancery,  or  commis- 
sioner of  deeds  for  Virginia.  Record  must  be  made  within  sixty  days. 
Wife  joins  to  bar  dower.  Separate  examination.  The  acknowledg- 
ment of  a  married  woman  must  be  made  before  two  justices  of  th<5 
peace,  or  before  an  officer  h.aving  a  seal. 


DIVORCE.  Grounds  :  impotency,  adultery,  sentence  to  penitentiary, 
guilt  of  either  of  infamous  crime  before  marriage,  the  other  being  ig- 
norant, notorious  immorality  of  wife  before  marriage,  five  years' 
abandonment.  Partial  divorce  for  crueUy  or  desertion.  Alimony  and 
maintenance  of  children  are  decreed,  and  the  care  of  the  children  is 
given  to  either  parly  at  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

EXEMPTIONS.  The  head  of  a  family  who  is  a  householder  has  a 
homestead  exemption  to  value  of  ?.:,ooo,  which  may  be  in  real  or  per- 
sonal property,  both  or  either.  Also  clothing,  ^ewing-machine,  fur- 
niture and  animals  ;  books,  ?ioo;  tools,  $100.  The  value  of  the  exemp- 
tions outside  of  the  homestead  is  varied  according  to  the  number  in 
family,  and  ranges  from  $50  to  S500. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  the  property  owned 
by  her  previous  to  marriage,  and  what  she  may  afterwards  acquire,  as 
sole  trader,  free  from  the  control  of  her  husband,  and  from  liability 
for  his  debts.  She  may  make  a  will  subject  to  husband's  rights  by 
curtesy.     Common  law  dower. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  filed  within  thirty  days; 
suit  brought  within  six  months.  Sub-contractors  and  journeymen 
must  notify  owner  within  ten  days. 

WILLS.  Age,  over  twenty-one  to  dispose  of  realty  ;  eighteen,  per- 
sonalty.    Two  witnesses. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  made  by  deed,  acknowledged  and  recorded 
as  are  all  such  instruments.  If  real  estate  is  assigned,  the  wife  must 
join  in  the  deed.  Therebeing  no 
insolvent  law,  an  assignment 
does  not  cancel  the  liability  of 
the  debtor.  A  defendant  under 
:trrcst  for  debt,  on  making  a  con- 
veyance of  his  property. will  be 
discharged  from  such  arrest. 

ATTACHMENTS.  The  cred- 
itor first  making  affidavi:,  attach- 
ments are  issued,  where  debtor 
is  a  non-resident,  or  is  about 
leaving  the  State,  or  conceals 
himself  to  avoid  summons,  is  re- 
moving his  property  out  of  the 
State,  or  is  in  any  manner  trying  to  put  it  out  of  reach  to  defraud  his 
creditors.  Bond  ;ind  security  being  furnished  by  creditor,  the  sheriff 
takes  complete  possession  of  the  attached  property.  Garnishment  on 
third  parties.  No  imprisonment  for  debt.  But  defendant  may  be 
arrested  if  about  removing  himself  or  his  property  with  intent  to 
defraud. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Common  law.     Form,  deed  of  trust. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  notary  public,  re- 
corder, or  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  in  United  States,  or 
before  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  West  Virginia.  A  married  woman 
must  be  examined  separate  and  apart  from  her  husband. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  mental  or  physical  defect  at  time  of  mar- 
riage, unfaithfulness,  three  years*  abandonment,  sentence  to  peni- 
tentiary, conviction  of  crime  before  marriage,  or  notorious  immorality 
of  either  before  marri.age,  the  other  party  being  ignorant.  Partial 
divorce  may  be  obtained  for  cruelty  or  desertion.  Alimony  and  cus- 
tody of  children  is  decreed  by  the  court. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000,  where  the  property  has  been 
granted  or  devised  for  the  purpose,  to  the  head  of  a  family,  or  where 
he  has  devoted  such  property  to  that  purpose  by  having  it  so  recorded. 
Also  personal  property  to  value  of  $.;qo.     Tools  to  mechanic,  $50. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman,  however 
acquired,  except  from  the  husband,  is  held  for  her  sole  and  separate 
use.     Husband  must  join  in  conveyances  of  real  estate.     Dower. 

MECHANCS'  LIENS.  Must  file  claim  within  thirty  days  and  bring 
^uit  within  six  months. 

W^ILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years.     Two  witnesses. 


-/ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


523 


WASHINGTON. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Unless  fraud  or  preference  is  evident,  the  insolv* 
eiit  law  allows  the  discharge  of  debtor  whose  assets  equal  thirty-three 
per  cent  of  debts.     Wages  to  amount  of  $100  are  preferred  claims. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  where  debtor  is  non-resident  or  a  foreign 
corporation,  absconds,  removes  his  properly  or  attempts  to  place  it 
out  of  reach  of  his  creditors.  Plaintiff  gives  bond.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE  must  be  accompanied  by  the  afiidavit 
of  bolh  parties  tliat  it  is  (^(j/xa^t/f-,  and  made  with  no  fraudulent  de- 
sign. When  for  exempted  property,  wife  must  join.  A  chattel  mort- 
gage must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  the  same  as  a  deed  of  con- 
veyance. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  arc  taken  by 
notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  judge  or  clerk  of  court  of  record, 
mayor  of  a  city  or  register  of  deeds.  In  any  other  State  or  Territory, 
according  to  the  laws  of  such  State  or  Territory,  For  conveyance  of 
separate  real  estate  i>f  a  wife,  she  must  be  joined  in  the  deed  by  her 
husband,  and  she  must  be  questioned  apart  from  him.  No  dower  or 
curtesy  rights. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  ('"'ist  be  actually  occupied)  to  the 
value  of  $1,000;  clotliing,  books,  bedding  and  household  goods,  to 
value  of  $1,500;  one  small  boat,  to  value  of  $50;  two  cows,  five  hogs, 
bees,  poultry,  fuel  .and  provisions.  To  a  farmer,  two  horses,  or  two 
yoke  of  oxen,  and  farming  implements  to  value  of  $200.  To  profes- 
sional man,  library  worth  fjOo,  office  furniture  and  fuel.  To  lighter- 
man, his  boats,  to  value  of  $250.    To  drayman,  his  team. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  owned  before  marriage  by 
liu^band  or  wife,  and  all  acquired  afterwards  by  gift,  devise  or  descent, 
to  either,  is  sep  irate  property.  All  otherwise  acquired  is  common 
property,  subject  to  control  of  the  husband.  He  also  controls  the 
s  parale  property  of  the  wife  'lut  cannot  sell  or  convey  it  without  her 
joining  in  the  deed.  To  savt  .tie  separate  i)roperly  of  the  wife  from 
attachment  for  husband's  debts,  there  must  be  an  inventory  of  it  on 
re  cor  J. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Notice  must  he  filed  within  sixty  days,  and 
suit  begun  in  four  months.  Every  kind  of  structure,  and  the  land 
thereunder,  is  covered  by  lien.  There  may  also  be  a  lien  on  logs, 
timber  and  lumber  for  work;  and  by  the  owner  of  land  where  such 
timber  is  cut.  Farm  laborers  have  lien  on  crops,  but  where  crop  is 
raised  on  shares,  the  landlord's  portion  cannot  be  touched. 

'WILLS.  Age,  twentj'-one  for  men,  eighteen  for  women.  Two  wit- 
nesses. -  ' 

WISCONSIN. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  law,  whereby  debtor  may  file  peti- 
tion, list  of  assets  and  liabilities  with  his  affidavit,  and  make  an  assign- 
ment for  the  benefit  of  all  credit- 
ors. After  publication  a  jury 
trial  may  be  exacted  by  the  cred- 
itors. If  the  decision  is  in  favnr 
of  the  debtor,  the  assignment  is 
decreed,  and  debtor  is  discharged 
from  all  his  debts.  Proof  of 
fra\idulent  practice  on  part  of 
debtor  would  void  the  discharge. 
ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
the  delit  is  nver  fifty  dollars  in 
amount,  on  affidavit  being  made 
and  bond  given  that  the  defend- 
ant has  gone  away  or  concealed 
himself,  is  a  non-resident  or  for- 
eign corporation,  or  is  about  removing  his  property.  On  affidavit  and 
bcmd  of  creditor,  defendant  may  be  arrested  if  he  is  about  to  leave 
the  Stale,  or  conceals  property.    Garnishment  in  aid. 


CHATTEL    MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or    possession  of 

property  pass  into  hands  of  mortgagee.    Foreclosure  by  seizure  and 
sale. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  are  made 
before  notaries  public,  justices  of  the  pence,  judges  and  clerks  of 
courts,  commissioners  of  deeds  ;  and  in  other  States,  according  to  the 
laws  of  such  States,  A  married  woman  must  join  in  a  deed  to  bar 
dower. 

DIVORCE.  Unless  the  parties  had  been  married  and  since  remained 
in  the  State,  the  applicant  must  have  been  for  one  year  a  resident  be- 
fore filing  petition.  Absolute  divorce  is  granted  for  impolcncy,  adul- 
tery, one  year's  abandonment,  five  years'  separation,  three  years' 
sentence  to  penitentiary,  cruelty  and  drunkenness.  Partial  divorce 
for  desertion,  cruelty,  drunkenness  or  failure  to  provide.  The  court 
may  dccret-  alimony,  and  the  wife  regain  her  separate  property. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Forty  acres  in  the  country,  or  one-quarter  of  an 
acre  in  town,  with  the  dwelling  thereon.  Clothing,  household  furni- 
ture, $200;  books,  two  cows,  ten  hogs,  ten  sheep,  one  horse  and  yoke 
of  cattle,  or  a  pair  of  horses  and  mules,  farming  tools,  one  year's  pro- 
visions and  provender.  To  a  mechanic,  tool^,  $200;  professional  man, 
his  library,  $:oo  ;  a  publisher  or  printer,  his  outfit  to  $1,500.  To  any 
head  t.f  a  family,  sixty  days'  earnings.  No  exemption  good  against 
a  mechanic's  lien  or  claim  for  purchase-money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  has  all  properly  rights 
the  same  as  if  single.  She  may  buy  and  sell,  lend  and  borrow,  make 
conveyances,  and  have  real  estate  conveyed  to  her,  and  all  such  busi- 
ness may  be  transacted  between  her  and  her  husband  as  between 
strangers.  She  may  sue  alone,  but  in  being  sued  she  must  be  joined 
to  husband.  Dower,  life  interest  in  one-third  of  all  husband's  realty 
held  during  the  marriage.     Husband  has  wife's  realty  for  life. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.  Must  file  petition  in  six  months  and  bring 
suit  in  one  year.  Sub-contractors  and  journeymen  must  notify  owner 
within  thirty  days  of  the  furnishing  of  material  or  labor. 

WILLS.  Two  witnesses. 

WYOMING. 

ASSIGNMENTS,  Must  be  without  preferences,  without  reserv- 
ations f  r  benefit  of  assignor  and  without  provisions  forcing  creditor 
into  a  compromise  or  release  of  his  claims.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  Plaintiff  must  m.ake  affidavit  and  give  securilv 
before  :iii  :iU;ic!nnenl  is  issued,  A  non-resident  or  absconding  debtor, 
or  one  who  conrcals  his  property  to  avoid  payment,  is  liable  to  the 
jjrocess.    J  urisdiclion  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  or  the  properly  must 
pass   into  possession   of  nmrtgagee.     Sale  without  consent  of    mort 
gaj^ed  property  by  the  mortgageor  is  a  felony  and   maybe  punished 
l>y  imprisonment  in  the  penitentiary  for  a  term  less  than  ten  years. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  may  be 
taken  before  justices  of  the  peace,  notaries  public,  judges  and  clerks  of 
courts  of  record,  registers  of  deeds  and  mayors  of  cities.  In  the 
States  and  other  Territories,  before  commissioners  of  deeds  for 
Wyoming  or  l^efore  officers  authorized  by  the  laws  of  such  States  or 
Territories.  Married  women  join  in  conveying  common  property. 
Separate  property  they  convey  alone. 

EXEMPTIONS.  House  and  lot  in  town  or  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  of  land  in  the  country,  either  to  value  of  $i ,500.  Tools,  team 
and  stock  in  trade  of  mechanic,  miner  or  other  person,  $300.  Benefit 
of  exemption  can  only  be  claimed  by  a  bona  fide  resident  householder, 

A  MARRIED  WOMAN  may  carry  on  business,  make  contracts, 
keep  her  own  earnings,  hold  property,  real  or  perscmal,  receive  the 
rents  in  her  own  name,  sue  and  be  sued,  make  a  will,  free  from  anv 
control  or  interference  of  her  husband,  the  same  as  if  she  were  single. 
lUr  property  is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband.  Women  in 
this  Territory  have  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  office. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  filed  within  sixty  days,  and 
suit  begun  within  one  year. 

WILLS.  No  statutes.    Common  law. 


\ 


524 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


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SUCCESS 


'^U 


Is  THERE    ONE    WHOM    DIFFICULTIES 

A)       ■      DtSHEARTEN  — WHO      BENDS      TO      THE 

Iv  \    STORM?       He      will      do      LITTLE.       IS 

V    THERE      ONE      WHO      WILL      CONQUER? 

I     That  kind  of  a  man  NEVER  fails. 


FAILURE, 


John    Hunter.       I 


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> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 


J'r-^HILE  it  is  impossible,  in  a  world  made 
:I\,U  up  of  widely  differing  individuals,  to 
-.  „  |ly  P  formulate  a  set  of  rules  by  which  each 
I  c^5^  could  be  shown  the  surest  and  swiftest 
way  to  secure  success  in  life,  still  it  is  possible 
to  call  attention  to  certain  qualities  of  mind 
and  character  whose  possession  has  come  to 
be  universally  looked  upon  as  essential  to  those 
who  may  aspire  to  struggle  into  the  front  rank 
of  the  world's  workers.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
would  be  as  difficult  to  define  the  common 
expression  "success  in  life"  as  it  would  be  to 
lay  down  a  royal  road  which  leads  to  it.  Given 
a  hundred  defi  litions,  from  as  many  men,  each 
treating  the  subject  from  his  own  standpoint, 
and  no  two  of  them  would  be  found  alike;  and 
the  opinion  of  each  of  these,  as  time  passed 
along  with  its  inevitable  ups  and  downs,  would 
be  found  to  vary  considerably.  Flushed  with 
recent  success,  the  speculator  to-day  would 
see  in  the  possession  of  millions  and  in  the 
control  of  vast  interests  the  only  proper  goal 
for  a  man  of  his  great  genius  ;  tamed  a  few 
days  later  by  unexpected  reverses,  and  he  sees 
in  some  conservative  enterprise  the  fittest 
sphere  of  his  future  usefulness.  Perhaps,  then, 
without  attempting  the  impossible,  in  a  defi- 
nition of  success  in  life  which  will  fit  all  who 
are  seeking  it,  it  will  do  to  look  upon  it  as  the 


accomplishment  of  the  laudable  life-purpose  of 
a  man  of  natural  or  cultivated  parts,  who  has 
found  an  object  in  life  worth  living  and  working 
for,  and  has  worked  honestly  and  perseveringly 
to  attain  it.  As  a  rule,  the  larger  the  endow- 
ment of  those  faculties  which  go  to  build  up 
success  in  life,  the  higher  the  aim  which  accom- 
panies them;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
man  is  the  most  cultivable  of  all  God's  crea- 
tures, and  that  by  careful  and  intelligent  study 
of  the  qualities  which  have  enabled  others  to 
shine,  one  may  acquire  them  and  employ  them 
in  building  up  similar  accomplishments.  This 
being  so,  it  does  not  lie  in  the  power  of  the 
young  man  who  feels  that  he  possesses  only  a 
moderate  share  of  intelligence,  force  and  abil- 
ity, to  decide,  on  this  account,  that  he  is  not 
called  upon  to  make  fight  for  one  of  the  front 
places  in  the  life  of  his  generation.  The  most 
brilliant  lives  have  often  been  those  of  men  of 
ordinary  gifts,  who,  exerting  to  the  utmost  such 
power  as  has  been  given  them,  have  accom- 
plished more  than  hundreds  of  men  who  were 
much  more  bountifully  supplied  with  mental 
qualifications.  If  any  man  look  among  the 
circle  of  his  acquaintances  he  will  be  surprised 
to  see  how  few  have  made  the  voyage  of  life 
successfully,  and  sorrow  cannot  but  arise  when 
he  considers  the  impotent  conclusions  to  which 


/ 


-M 


\ 


CAUSl?S    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


5 -'5 


young  men  of  brilliant  parts  frequently  come. 
Every  day  witnesses  the  triumph  of  patient  and 
studious  mediocrity,  and  men  of  great  intellect 
are  constantly  being  forced  to  acknowledge, 
with  surprise,  the  success  of  persons  whose 
abilities,  in  comparison  with  tlieir  own,  have 
been  deemed  inconsiderable.  These  men 
know  precisely  the  scope  of  their  faculties,  and 
never  wander  beyond  them.  They  wait  pa- 
tiently for  opportunities  which  are  of  the  kind 
they  can  improve,  and  they  never  let  one  pass 
unimproved.  Being  unnoticed,  they  excite  so 
much  the  less  opposition,  and  at  last  they  sur- 
prise the  world  by  the  attainment  of  an  object 
which  others  deemed  as  far  away  from  their 
ambition  as  it  seemed  beyond  their  reach. 


How  to  Avoid  Failure. 

It  is  a  common  thing,  willi  both  llie  brilliant  and  tlie 
mediocre,  when  the  reward  of  their  exertions  and  the  result 
of  their  plans  seem  unsatisfactory,  to  blame  the  ever-ready 
scapegoat,  bad  luck,  as  the  cause  of  the  untoward  outcome. 
One  of  the  most  healthful  and  profitable  exercises  which  a 
young  man  who  has  just  experienced  failure  of  any  kind  cin 
perform,  will  be  to  analyze  the  whole  transaction  with  merci- 
less candor,  finding  out  just  what  proportion  of  the  disaster 
is  due  to  his  own  fault  and  what  is  due  to  fortuitous  circuu- 
stances,  and  then  make  a  cold-blooded  comparison.  If  this 
were  more  generally  done  than  it  is,  there  would  l)e  far  fewer 
believers  in,  or  rather  blamers  of,  luck  as  a  business  marplot 
than  are  at  present  to  be  found.  To  come  down  to  the  facts 
in  the  case,  without  going  so  far  as  to  dispute  the  existence 
of  such  a  thing  as  chance,  in  almost  all  cases  of  failure  the 
cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  man,  and  the  reason  it  is  not  found 
there  is  because  that  is  the  last  place  in  which  the  man  hunts 
f.ir  it.  "Untoward  accidents,"  "fate,"  "destiny,"  "ill- 
fortune,"  "evil  star,"  "chance,"  "luck,"  or  some  other 
synonym  of  the  scapegoat,  suggests  itself  to  the  victim  of  ill- 
success,  and  he  consoles  himself  with  charging  upon  it  his 
failure.     He  has  the  poets  on  his  side,  too.     Does  not  Shak- 

spere  say  : 

"  There's  a  divinity  lh;it  shapes  oiir  ends, 
Ilougli-hew  them  how  we  will." 
And  Byron  : 

"  Nfen  are  the  sport  of  circumstances,  when 
The  circumstances  seem  the  sport  of  men.*' 
And,  after  all  has  been  said,  it  were  better,  perhaps,  that 
the  young  business  man  place  some  little,  very  little,  credence 
in  luck's  existence,  just  enough,  in  fact,  to  cause  him  to  so 
organize  upon  solid  and  substantial  foundation  each  of  his 
enterprises,  and  to  so  honestly  and  pcrscvcringly  conduct 
them,  that  the  smallest  possible  loop-hole  will  be  left  for  ill- 
luck  to  make  its  appearance. 


Choosing  an  Occupation 


Is   seldom  an    easy    mailer.     In   some  tew   cases,   a   young 
man  feels  the    possession  of  such  an  unmistakable  bias  to 
some  peculiar  profession  that  neither  he  nor  his  friends  have 
any  hesitancy  in  deciding  upon  his  future.     In  most  cases, 
however,  there  is  no  particular  preference,  and  a  wise  decis- 
ion is  not   reached    before   many   considerations   have  been 
carefully  weighed.     In  far  too  many  cases  wrong  considera- 
tions are  given  attention,   and  a  decision  is  reached  whose 
ultimate  result  is  a  life  failure  which,  had  the  profession  been 
selected  with  greater  wisdom,  would  not  have  happened.     A 
socially  ambitious  father  and  molher  check  their  young  son's 
honest  ambition  to  become  a  mechanic,  send  him  to  college, 
and  make  a  briefless  barrister  out  of  the  material  which  could 
have    been    moulded   into   an   honest    and    eflicient    artisan. 
Many  a   boy   whose   soul    yearned    for   the  higher   walks  of 
intellectual  culture,  to  share  in  which  he  had  been  endowed, 
has  been    doomed    by    injudicious  parents,   who   despised 
colleges,   to   dull    life   at   a   dry-goods  counter  or  counting- 
room  desk.     Parents  are  not  by  any  means  infallible  judges 
upon  this  point,  and  every  young  man  about  to  start  out  in 
search  of  success  in   life    should  study  himself  carefully  in 
order  to  discover  his  aptitudes.     The  natural   bent  may  be 
hard  to  find,  but  the  discovery  will  well  repay  the  search. 
Historical   biography    teems   with    the   lives    of  men   whose 
peculiar  aptitude  was   early    displayed    to   the  advantage  of 
themselves   and    the   world.       Napoleon,    a   school    boy    at 
Brienne,   led    the  mimic  armies  of  his  youthful  associates; 
Nelson  had  conceived  the  idea  of  future  greatness  as  a  sailor 
before  he  entered  the  navyj   Pascal  contributed  to  the  mathe- 
matical literature  of  his  age  before  he  was  seventeen;   Pope 
acknowledged  that 

"  While  yet  ii  child  and  still  a  fool  of  fame, 
I  lisped  m  numbers,  for  the  numbers  came  ;  " 

Dryden  illustrated  the  growth  of   natural  aptitude  when  he 

wrote : 

"  What  the  child  admired 
The  youth  endeavored,  and  the  man  acquired  ; " 

Michael  Angelo  stayed  away  from  school  to  draw  pictures  ; 
Murillo  covered  his  text-books  with  them;  West,  at  seven, 
plundered  the  cal'-s  tail  of  hair  with  which  to  make  pencils; 
Calhoun,  a  student,  held  his  own  in  debate  with  the  college 
president — and  so  on,  until  the  examples  of  the  theory  of 
natural  aptitude  become  too  numerous  for  recapitulation. 

Taking  for  granted  that  one  has  discovered,  or  believes 
that  he  has  discovered,  his  bent,  he  must  beware  of  the  danger 
which  lies  in  fickleness  of  purpose,  which  may,  shortly  after 
the  weariness  of  work  begins  to  be  felt,  lead  him  to  suppose 
that  he  has  chosen  unwisely,  and  that  some  other  field  of  use- 
fulness would  be  more  suitable  to  his  temper  and  parts.  It 
is  the  practical  repetition  of  the  old  story  of  the  traveller  in 
the  express  train  sighing  for  the  quiet  pleasure  of  the  farmer, 
whose  broad  fields  are  flying  past,  while  the  farmer  looks 
longingly  at  the  train  as  it  dashes  by,  and  dreams  of  the  enjoy- 
able excitements  of  a  life  of  endless  bustle,  slir  and  energy. 
Whatever   the   calling,    there   will   be    toil  and   trial  for  its 


^ 


"7 


526 


CAUSES  OF  SUCCESS  AND  FAILURE. 


follower,  and  these  come  from  him  rather  than  from  the  occu- 
pation, which  might  be  changed  a  dozen  times  in  the  vain 
hope  of  escaping  from  them.  Having  deliberately  selected  a 
profession,  stick  to  it.  The  longer  you  remain  in  it,  the  more 
expert  you  become  and  the  easier  becomes  the  work  and  the 
larger  the  pay.  It  is  only  the  early  days  which  bring  weari- 
ness and  pain.  These  conquered  by  perseverance,  the  rest 
is  easy,  and  the  success  in  conquering-  the  first  pleadings  of 
the  siren  fickleness  of  purpose,  who  is  of  closer  kin  to  laziness 
than  one  might  think,  lays  the  corner-stone  of  success  in  life. 

Excelsior! 

Having  chosen  his  occupation,  the  young  man  of  proper 
ambition  will  not  be  long  in  selectingfor  himself  an  honorable 
position  in  it,  to  be  filled  as  soon  as  he  has  shown  himself 
worthy  and  able.  What  men  have  accomplished  shows  that 
hardly  any  ambitious  longing  can  be  considered  as  unwise 
on  the  part  of  those  who  are  willing  to  undertake  all  work 
and  suffer  all  want  in  the  struggle. 

The  extremest  poverty  has  been  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
men  devoted  to  the  duty  of  self-culture.  Professor  Alexander 
Murray,  the  linguist,  learned  to  write  by  scribbling  his  letters 
on  an  old  wool-card  with  the  end  of  a  burnt  heather-stem. 
The  only  book  which  his  father,  who  was  a  poor  shepherd, 
possessed,  was  a  penny  Shorter  Catechism;  but  that,  being 
thought  too  valuable  for  common  use,  was  carefully  preserved 
in  a  cupboard  for  the  Sunday  catechizings.  Professor  Moor, 
when  a  young  man,  being  too  poor  to  purchase  Newton's 
"  Principia,"  borrowed  the  book,  and  copied  the  whole  of  it 
with  his  own  hand.  Many  poor  students,  while  laboring 
daily  for  their  living,  have  only  been  able  to  snatch  an  atom 
of  knowledge  here  and  there  at  intervals,  as  birds  do  their 
food  in  winter  time  wlien  the  fields  are  covered  with  snow. 
They  have  struggled  on,  and  faith  and  hope  have  come  to 
them.  A  well  known  author  and  publisher,  William  Cham- 
bers, of  Edinburgh,  speaking  before  an  as'^emblage  of  young 
men  in  that  city,  thus  briefly  described  to  them  his  humble 
beginnings  for  their  encouragement:  "I  stand  before  you," 
he  said,  "a  self-educated  man.  My  education  is  that  which 
is  supplied  at  the  humble  parish-schools  of  Scotland;  and  it 
was  only  when  I  went  to  Edinburgh,  a  poor  boy,  that  I 
devoted  my  evenings,  after  the  labors  of  the  day,  to  the 
cultivation  of  that  intellect  whicli  the  Almighty  has  given  me. 
From  seven  or  eight  in  the  morning  till  nine  or  ten  at  night 
was  I  at  my  business  as  a  bookseller's  apprentice,  and  it 
was  only  during  hours  after  these,  stolen  from  sleep,  that  I 
could  devote  myself  to  study.  I  did  not  read  novels;  my 
attention  was  devoted  to  physical  science  and  other  useful 
matters.  I  also  taught  myself  French.  I  look  back  to  those 
times  with  great  pleasure,  and  am  almost  sorry  I  have  not  to 
go  through  the  same  experience  again ;  fur  I  reaped  more 
pleasure  when  I  liad  not  a  sixpence  in  my  pocket,  studying  in 
a  garret  in  Edinburgh,  than  I  now  find  when  sitting  amid  all 
the  elegancies  and  comforts  of  a  parlor." 

William  Cobbett  learned  English  grammar  when  he  was  a 
private  soldier  on  the  pay  of  sixpence  a  day. 


These  are  men  who  have  selected  an  aim  in  life  and  have 
attained  it  through  sticking  to  it.  Concentration  of  purpose 
carried  them  through.  The  "Admirable  Crichtons "  are 
scarce  geniuses,  and  no  young  man  need  be  ashamed,  in 
these  days  of  special  accomplishment,  of  having  decided  to 
follow  a  single  pursuit  in  life — to  become  a  man  of  one  idea — 
provided  it  is  a  good  one.  Almost  all  the  great  men  in  war, 
literature,  science,  diplomacy,  business,  the  professions,  have 
been  men  of  "one  idea,"  not  because  they  were  incapable  of 
harboring  more  than  one,  but  because,  having  selected  some 
one  object  as  worthy  of  attainment,  they  gave  themselves  up 
to  it  solely.  If  was  often  long  of  coming,  but  it  came  at  last. 
Adam  Smith  gave  ten  years  to  his  "Wealth  of  Nations; " 
Edward  Gibbon,  twenty  to  the  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire;"  Bishop  Butler,  twenty  to  his  famous 
"Analogy;"  Kant,  fifty  years  to  his  metaphysical  re- 
searches ;  Dr.  Johnson,  seven  years  to  his  Dictionary.  These 
men  sought  one  prize  and  gained  it.  As  many  years  have 
been  spent  by  thousands  of  men  of  equal  ability,  who  sought 
each  a  number  of  prizes  and  gained  none. 

A  Sound  Body 

Is  another  of  the  essentials  of  success  in  life  which  are  largely 
attainable  by  those  who  lack  their  possession.  Mental  as 
well  as  physical  accomplishment  depends  largely  upon  the 
condition  of  the  worker's  digestion,  and  the  thorough  aeration 
of  his  blood.  This  can  only  be  obtained  with  healthy  exercise, 
which  can  only  be  taken  by  those  whost  muscles  and  nerves 
and  wind  are  in  good  condition.  "Walk  twelve  miles  before 
speaking  and  you'll  never  break  down,"  says  Sidney  Smith 
to  an  English  Parliamentary  debater.  A  strong  intellect 
cannot  well  work  with  a  weak  body  as  its  case.  Energy 
without  talent  will  accomplish  more  than  talent  without 
energy.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  woodman's  axe  avails  noth- 
ing until  the  sinewy  arm  thi-ows  it,  stroke  upon  stroke,  against 
the  monarchs  of  the  forest.  Take  the  great  men  of  the 
century,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  combined  intellectual 
force  with  physical  vigor.  In  England,  Brougham;  Lynd- 
hurst.  Peel,  Bright,  Gladstone,  Palmerston ;  in  America, 
Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  Lin- 
coln— all  these  were  men  capable  of  strong  muscular  exertion 
and  of  standing  a  prolonged  physical  as  well  as  mental  strain. 
It  is  told  of  Lord  Brougham  that  he  once  worked  six  days  on 
a  stretch  without  sleep,  slept  from  Saturday  night  to  Monday 
morning,  and  began  work  again  thoroughly  refreshed.  These 
men  are  the  conservers  as  well  as  the  possessors  of  physical 
force,  and  the  young  man  who  seeks  to  retain  the  "sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body  "  will  remember  that  it  is  not  so  much 
in  the  cultivation  of  additional  body  strength  as  in  the 
economy  of  what  he  already  possesses  that  the  art  of  physical 
culture  is  best  applied.  The  idea  used  to  be  that  mus- 
cularity and  rowdyism  were  natural  associates,  but  people 
found  out  that  it  is  possible  for  a  young  man  to  be  a  good 
rower,  or  boxer  even,  and  still  be  a  worthy  Christian  and 
admirable  member  of  society,  and  even  that  it  was  difficult 
for  him  to  be  tl)ese  unless  with  the  employment  of  manly 


\ 


y 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


5-7 


exercises  he  brought  his  physical  condition  up  to  the  healthy 
standard.  This  is  merely  a  recurrence  to  the  old  belief  of  the 
Greeks,  who  reverenced  the  muscular  body  as  one  of  the 
noble  parts  of  man,  and  made  gymnastics  and  calisthenics  a 
regular  school  exercise.  Without  good  health  and  a  sound 
body,  moderate  success  in  life  may  be  painfully  possible; 
with  it  a  place  in  the  front  rank  may  be  attained  with  far 
greater  ease  than  otherwise. 

Self-Reliance. 

.\mong  all  the  mental  qualifications  which  help  on  to 
success  in  life,  there  is  none  which  is  of  more  importance 
than  self-reliance.  If  you  want  a  thing  well  done,  do  it 
yourself,  says  the  old  saw,  and  hence  comes  it  that  those  who 
rely  most  upon  themselves  for  the  accomplishment  of  any 
aim  are  the  ones  wlio  do  the  best  work.  "Heaven  helps 
those  who  help  themelves  '*  is  a  well-tried  maxim,  emliody- 
ing  in  small  compass  the  results  of  vast  human  experience. 
The  spirit  of  self-help  is  the  root  of  all  genuine  growth  in 
the  individual;  and,  exhibited  in  the  lives  of  many,  it  consti- 
tutes the  true  source  of  national  vigor  and  strength.  Help 
from  without  is  often  enfeebling  in  its  effects,  but  help  from 
within  invariably  invigorates.  Whatever  is  done  for  men  or 
classes,  to  a  certain  extent  takes  away  the  stimulus  and  neces- 
sity of  doing  for  themselves;  and  where  men  are  subjected 
to  over-guidance  and  over-government,  the  inevitable  tendency 
is  to  render  them  comparatively  helpless. 

It  is  energetic  individualism  which  produces  the  most 
powerful  effect  upon  the  life  and  actions  of  others,  and  really 
constitutes  the  best  practical  education.  The  determination 
to  be  one's  own  helper  is  the  secret  of  this  individual  develop- 
ment and  strength.  No  greater  misfortune  could  befall  an 
ambitious  and  able  young  man  than  a  legacy.  A  story  is  told 
of  a  critic  who,  after  reviewing  the  promising  work  of  a  young 
artist,  praised  it,  but  added:  "It  is  a  pity  that  he  can  never 
make  a  great  painter."  "And  why  not?"  rejoined  his  com- 
panion. "  Because  he  has  ten  thousand  pounds  a  year,"  was 
the  sententious  response.  When  John  C.  Calhoun  was  ridi- 
culed by  his  fellow-students  at  Yale  for  his  intense  application 
to  study,  he  raised  a  louder  laugh  against  himself  by  replying, 
"  I  am  forced  to  make  the  most  of  my  time  that  I  may  acquit 
myself  creditably  when  in  Congress,"  and  then,  when  the 
laugh  was  over,  adding,  "  I  assure  you,  if  I  were  not  satisfied 
of  my  ability  to  reach  Congress  in  three  years.  I  would  at 
once  leave  college."  Here  was  self-reliance  and  self-help. 
Calhoun  knew  the  diflicullies  that  lay  between  him  and  the 
goal  of  his  ambition,  and,  while  the  other  students  were 
laughing  at  him,  he  was  helping  himself  to  overcome  them. 
"The  man  who  dares  to  think  for  himself  and  act  independ- 
ently, does  a  service  to  his  race,"  says  one  of  the  brightest 
modern  thinkers,  and  daily  experience  shows  that  it  is  ener- 
getic individualism  which  produces  the  most  powerful  effects 
upon  tl>e  life  and  action  of  others,  and  really  constitutes  the 
best  practical  education.  Schools,  academies  and  colleges 
give  but  the  merest  beginnings  of  culture  in  comparison  with 
it.     Far  more  influential  is  the  life-education  daily  given  in 


our  homes,  in  the  streets,  behind  counters,  in  workshops, 
at  the  loom  and  the  plough,  in  counting-houses  and  manu- 
factories, and  in  the  busy  haunts  of  men.  This  is  that 
finishing  instruction  as  members  of  society  which  Schiller 
designated  "the  education  of  the  human  race,"  consisting  in 
action,  conduct,  self-culture,  self-control — all  that  tends  to 
discipline  a  man  truly,  and  fit  him  for  the  proper  performance 
of  the  duties  and  business  of  life — a  kind  of  education  not  to 
be  learned  from  books,  or  acquired  by  any  amount  of  mere 
literary  training.  With  his  usual  weight, of  words,  Bacon 
observes  that  "studies  teach  not  their  own  use;  but  that  is  a 
wisdom  without  them  and  above  them  won  by  observation  " — 
a  remark  that  holds  true  of  actual  life  as  well  as  of  the  culti- 
vation of  theintellect  itself.  For  all  experience  serves  to  illus- 
trate and  enforce  the  lesson  that  a  man  perfects  himself  by 
work  more  than  by  reading — that  it  is  life  rather  than  litera- 
ture, action  rather  than  study,  and  character  rather  than 
biography,  which  tend  perpetually  to  renovate  mankind. 

Attention  to  Detail 

Is  a  matter  which  constitutes  much  more  than  half  of  the  battle 
in  many  spheres  of  usefulness,  and,  the  more  intellectual 
the  task,  the  greater  the  necessity,  very  frequently,  of  careful 
and  constant  devotion  to  the  little  things  whicli  help  to  form 
it.  Sedulous  attention  and  painstaking  industry  always  mark 
the  true  worker.  The  greatest  men  are  not  those  who  "de- 
spise the  day  of  small  things,"  but  those  who  improve  them 
the  most  carefully.  Michael  Angelo  was  one  day  explaining 
to  a  visitor  at  his  studio  what  he  had  been  doing  at  a  statue 
since  his  previous  visit.  "I  have  retouched  this  pari — 
polished  that — softened  this  feature — brought  out  that  mus- 
cle— given  some  expression  to  this  lip,  and  more  energy  to 
that  limb."  "But  these  are  trifles,"  remarked  the  visitor. 
"It  may  be  so,"  replied  the  sculptor,  "but  recollect  that 
trifles  make  perfection,  and  perfection  is  no  trifle."  .So  it  was 
said  of  Nicolas  Poussin,  the  painter,  that  the  rule  of  his  con- 
duct was,  that  "whatever  was  worth  doing  at  all  was  worth 
doing  well;"  and  when  asked,  late  in  life,  by  his  friend 
Vigneul  de  Marville,  by  what  means  he  had  gained  so  high  a 
reputation  among  the  painters  of  Italy,  Poussin  emphatically 
answered,  "  Because  I  have  neglected  nothing."  On  the  first 
publication  of  Wellington's  dispatches,  one  of  his  friends 
said  to  him,  on  reading  the  records  of  his  Indian  campaigns: 
"  It  seems  to  me,  Duke,  that  your  chief  business  in  India  was 
to  procure  rice  and  bullocks."  "And  so  it  was."  replied 
Wellington,  "for,  if  I  had  rice  and  bullocks,  I  had  men;  and 
if  I  had  men,  I  knew  I  could  beat  the  enemy."  All  men  who 
have  accomplished  success  in  life  have  been  conspicuous  for 
minute  attention  to  details  as  well  as  for  general  scope  and 
vigor.  The  great  Napoleon  was  a  wonderful  example  of  this. 
His  correspondence  shows  him  arranging  for  supplies  of 
saddles,  directing  where  cattle  could  be  purchased,  advising 
the  procurement  of  shoes  for  the  infantry,  and  making  sugges- 
tions as  to  various  minor  details,  and  complaining  because  of 
discovered  carelessness  in  the  reports  upon  matters  of  detail 
supplied  by  others.     Lord  Brougham,  alluding  to  this  quality. 


/ 


■o  V 


N 


52t 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


said:  'The  captain  who  convcynl  Napoleon  to  Elba  ex- 
pressed to  me  his  astonishment  at  his  precise  and,  as  it  were, 
familiar  knowledge  of  all  the  minute  details  connected  with 
the  ship." 

In  the  face  of  these  examples,  no  one  should  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  details  are  beneath  one's  notice,  or  that  one  is 
less  brilliant  in  the  great  things  of  life  because  he  pays  atten- 
tion to  the  little  things.  Of  General  Thomas  it  is  said  that 
he  was  careful  in  all  the  details  of  a  battle,  but,  once  in  the 
fight,  was  as  "furiousand  impetuous  as  Jackson."  Attention 
to  details  makes  a  business  man,  or  any  other  kind  of  man, 
"sure  that  he  is  right,"  and  then,  of  course,  it  only  remains 
for  him  to  "  go  ahead." 

Perseverance 

Is  the  ever  ready  and  kindly  ally  of  those  who  are  seeking 
success  and  feel  that  they  do  not  possess  the  ability  to  attain 
it  so  quickly  as  others.  The  greatest  results  in  life  are  usually 
attained  by  simple  means  and  the  exercise  of  ordinary  quali- 
ties. The  road  of  human  welfare  lies  along  the  old  highway 
of  steadfast  well-doing;  an  1  they  who  are  the  most  per- 
sistent, and  work  in  the  truest  spirit,  will  usually  be  the  most 
successful.  Buffon's  definition  of  genius,  "It  is  patience," 
may  be  exaggerated,  but  it  hardly  seems  so  when  the  accom- 
plishments of  patience  are  considered.  Fortune  has  often 
been  blamed  for  her  blindness  ;  but  Fortune  is  not  so  blind  as 
men  are.  Those  who  look  into  practical  life  will  find  that 
Fortune  is  usually  on  the  side  of  the  industrious,  as  the  winds 
and  waves  are  on  the  side  of  the  best  navigators.  In  the  pur- 
suit of  even  the  highest  branches  of  human  inquiry,  the  com- 
moner qualities  are  found'lhe  most  useful — such  as  common 
sense,  attention,  application  and  perseverance.  Genius  may 
not  be  necessary,  though  even  genius  of  the  highest  sort  does 
not  disdain  the  use  of  these  ordinary  qualities.  The  very 
greatest  men  have  been  among  the  least  believers  in  the 
power  of  genius,  and  as  worldly-wise  and  persevering  as 
successful  men  of  the  commoner  sort. 

The  extraordinary  results  effected  by  dint  of  sheer  industry 
and  perseverance  have  led  many  distinguished  men  to  doubt 
whether  the  gift  of  genius  be  so  exceptional  an  endowment  as 
it  is  usually  supposed  to  be.  Thus  Voltaire  held  that  it  is 
only  a  very  slight  line  of  separation  that  divides  the  man  of 
genius  from  the  man  of  ordinary  mould.  Beccaria  was  even 
of  opinion  that  all  men  might  be  poets  and  orators,  and  Rey- 
nolds that  they  might  be  painters  and  sculptors.  If  this  were 
really  so,  that  stolid  Englishman  might  not  have  been  so  very 
far  wrong,  after  all,  who,  on  Canova's  death,  inquired  of  his 
brother  whether  it  was  "his  intention  to  carry  on  the 
business!"  Locke,  Helvetius  and  Diderot  believed  that  all 
men  have  an  equal  aptitude  for  genius,  and  that  what  some 
are  able  to  effect,  under  the  laws  which  regulate  the  opera- 
lions  of  the  intellect,  must  also  be  within  the  reach  of  others 
who,  under  like  circumstances,  apply  themselves  to  like  pur- 
suits. But,  while  admitting  to  the  fullest  extent  the  wonder- 
ful achievements  of  labor,  and  recognizing  the  fact  that  men  of 
the  most  distinguished  genius  have  invariably  been  found  the 


most  indefatigable  workers,  it  mu^t  nevertheless  be  sufficiently 
obvious  that,  without  the  original  endowment  of  heart  and 
brain,  no  amount  of  labor,  however  well  applied,  could  have 
produced  a  Shakspere,  a  Newton,  a  Beethoven  or  a  Michael 
.\ngclo. 

The  world's  history  is  full  of  the  triumphs  of  those  who 
have  had  to  fight  from  beginning  to  end  for  recognition. 
Carey,  the  great  missionary,  began  life  as  a  shoemaker;  the 
chemist  Vanquelin  was  the  son  of  a  peasant;  Richard  Cnb- 
den  was  the  son  of  a  small  farmer;  Cook,  the  navigator,  and 
Burns,  the  poet,  were  day-laborers;  Ben  Jonson  was  a  brick- 
layer; David  Livingstone,  the  traveller-missionary,  was  a 
weaver;  Sturgeon,  the  electrician,  and  Bloomfield,  the  poet, 
were  shoemakers;  Andrew  Johnson,  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  a  tailor.  At  the  plow,  on  the  bench,  or  at 
the  loom,  these  men  dreamed  of  their  future  greatness,  and 
persevered  in  their  endeavors  to  accomplish  it,  and  did  so  at 
last.  Literature  has  provided  several  examples  of  single- 
handed  triumph  over  difficulties  by  the  persevering.  Lord 
Brougham,  working  for  over  sixty  years  at  law,  literature, 
politics  and  science,  and  achieving  distinction  in  all,  was 
advised  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith  to  confine  himself  to  only  the 
transaction  of  so  much  business  as  three  strong  men  could 
get  through. 

Another  hard-working  man  of  the  same  class  was  Lord 
Lytton.  Few  writers  did  more,  or  achieved  higher  distinction 
in  various  walks — as  a  novelist,  poet,  dramatist,  historian, 
essayist,  orator  and  politician.  lie  worked  his  way  step  by 
step,  disdainful  of  ease,  and  animated  throughout  by  the 
ardent  desire  to  excel.  On  the  score  of  mere  industry  there 
are  few  living  English  writers  who  have  written  so  much,  and 
none  that  have  produced  so  much  of  high  quality.  Like 
Byron,  his  first  effort  was  poetical  ("  Weeds  and  Wild  Flow- 
ers") and  a  failure.  His  second  was  a  novel  ("  Falkland  "), 
and  it  proved  a  failure  too.  A  man  of  weaker  nerve  would 
have  dropped  authorship;  but  Bulwer  had  pluck  and  per- 
severance ;  and  he  worked  on,  determined  to  succeed.  He 
was  incessantly  industrious,  read  extensively,  and  from  failure 
went  courageously  onward  to  success.  "Pelham"  followed 
"Falkland"  within  a  year,  and  the  remainder  of  Lord 
Lytton's  life  was  a  succession  of  triumphs. 

The  late  Premier  of  England,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  afiords  a 
similar  instance  of  the  power  of  industry  and  application  in 
working  out  an  eminent  public  career.  His  first  achieve- 
ments were,  like  Bulwer's,  in  literature';  and  he  reached 
success  only  through  a  succession  of  failures.  His  "Won- 
drous Tale  of  Alroy"  and  "Revolutionary  Epic"  were 
laughed  at,  and  regarded  as  indications  of  literary  lunacy. 
But  he  worked  on  in  other  directions,  and  his  "  Coningsby," 
"Sybil"  and  "  Tancred  "  proved  the  sterling  stuff  of  which 
he  was  made.  As  an  orator,  too,  his  first  appearance  in  the 
House  of  Commons  was  a  failure.  It  was  spoken  of  as 
"more  screaming  than  an  Adelphi  farce."  Though  com- 
posed in  a  grand  and  ambitious  strain,  every  sentence  was 
hailed  with  "loud  laughter."  "Hamlet"  played  as  a  com- 
edy were  nothing  to   it.     But  he  concluded  with  a  sentence 


K- 


CAUSr.S    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


529 


which  embodied  a  prophecy.  Writhing  under  the  laughter 
with  which  his  studied  eloquence  h-J  bjcn  received,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  I  have  begun  several  times  many  things,  and  have 
succeeded  in  them  at  last.  I  will  sit  down  now,  but  the  time 
will  come  when  you  will  hear  me."  The  time  did  come; 
and  how  Disraeli  succeeded  in  at  length  commanding  the 
attention  of  the  first  assembly  of  gentlemen  in  the  world 
affords  a  striking  illustration  of  what  energy  and  determina- 
tion will  do ;  for  Disraeli  earned  his  position  by  dint  of 
patient  industry.  He  did  not,  as  many  young  men  do,  hav- 
ing once  failed,  retire  dejected,  to  mope  and  whine  in  a  comer, 
but  diligently  set  himself  to  work.  He  carefully  unlearned 
his  faults,  studied  the  character  of  his  audience,  practiced 
sedulously  the  art  of  speech,  and  industriously  filled  his  mind 
with  the  elements  of  parliamentary  knowledge.  He  worked 
patiently  for  success;  and  it  came,  but  slowly;  then  the 
House  laughed  with  him  instead  of  at  him.  The  recollection 
of  his  early  failure  was  effaced,  and  by  general  consent  he 
was  at  length  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  finished  and 
effective  of  parliamentary  speakers,  and  finally  became  the 
favored  Prime  Minister  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Decision  of  Ctiaracter 

Is  one  of  the  greatest  of  God's  gifts  to  man,  and,  as  every 
man  has  the  germ  of  this  quality,  it  can  be  cultivated  to  great 
advantage.  It  outstrips  even  talent  and  genius  in  the  race  f.ir 
success  in  life.  Thousands  and  thousands  of  brilliant  men 
have  failed  for  the  want  of  courage,  faith  and  decision,  perish- 
ing in  the  sight  of  less  gifted  but  more  adventurous  competi- 
tors. As  Sidney  Smith  says,  "  We  must  not  stand  shivering 
on  the  brink  and  thinking  of  the  cold  and  the  danger,  but 
jump  in  and  scramble  through  as  well  as  we  can." 
The  old  poem  says  : 

"  He  eitlier  feurs  liis  fate  to(»  uiucti. 
Or  Ills  deserts  are  small, 
That  d.ires  not  put  it  to  the  touch, 
To  yain  or  lose  it  all." 

Decision  of  character  enables  one  to  do  the  right  thing  at 
the  right  time.      Every  one  knows  that 

'*  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men 
Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune ;  " 

but  not  every  one  has  the  ability  to  tell  the  time  of  flood,  and 
many,  after  telling  it,  have  losi  its  advantages  through  lack 
of  nerve  to  embark  upon  it  before  the  ebb  came,  and  the 
opportunity  was  lost.  In  the  smoke  and  din  of  battle,  it  was 
the  genius  of  Napoleon  which  enabled  him  to  see  where  one 
or  two  bold  and  rapid  movements  would  secure  the  advantage  ; 
l)Ut  it  was  his  decision  of  character  which  enabled  him  to 
profit  to  the  full  by  the  discovery.  To  be  decisive  on  im- 
jiortant  occasions,  one  must  keep  cool.  The  Duke  of 
Wellington's  calmness  never  forsook  him,  even  in  the  most 
trying  emergencies.  At  sea,  one  terrible  night,  the  captain 
of  the  vessel  rushed  to  the  Duke,  who  was  preparing  for  bed, 
and  announced  that  the  vessel  would  soon  sink.  "Then  I 
shall  not  take  off  my  boots,"  the  imperturbable  hero  of  Water- 


loo responded  as  ho  jiaused  in  his  preparations  for  sleep. 
There  is  need  for  this  coolness  of  manner  and  decision  of 
action  in  all  lines  of  business.  The  surgeon,  brought  face  to 
face  with  a  sudden  complication  in  the  case  beneath  his  knife; 
the  lawyer,  surprised  by  the  springing  of  the  trap  which  his 
wily  opponent  had  prepared  for  him  ;  the  merchant,  apprised 
of  a  turn  in  his  enterprises  that  threatens  immediate  disaster — 
all  are  called  upon  to  exercise  this  quality,  and  in  thousands 
of  cases  the  dullest  man  in  a  company  has  obtained  the  prize 
simply  because  he  grasped  it  while  others  were  revolving  in 
their  minds  what  they  had  better  do  in  order  to  secure  it. 

Other  Causes  of  Success  and  Failure. 

.'\ttention,  application,  accuracy,  method,  punctuality  and 
dispatch  are  the  principal  qualities  required  for  the  efficient 
conduct  of  business  of  any  sort.  These,  at  first  sight,  may 
appear  to  be  small  matters  ;  and  yet  they  are  of  essential  im- 
portance to  human  happiness,  well-being  and  usefulness. 
They  are  little  things,  it  is  true;  but  human  life  is  made  up 
of  comparative  trifles.  It  is  the  repetition  of  little  acts  which 
constitutes  not  only  the  sum  of  human  character,  but  which 
determines  the  character  of  nations;  and  where  men  or 
nations  have  broken  down,  it  will  almost  invariably  be  found 
that  neglect  of  little  things  was  the  rock  on  which  they  split. 
Every  human  being  has  duties  to  be  performed,  and,  there- 
fore, has  need  of  cultivating  the  capacity  for  doing  them — 
whether  the  sphere  of  action  be  the  management  of  a  house- 
hold, the  cont'  'Ct  of  a  trade  or  profession,  or  the  government 
of  a  nation. 

It  is  the  result  of  every-day  experience  that  steady  attention 
to  matters  of  detail  lies  at  the  root  of  human  progress;  and 
that  diligence,  above  all,  is  the  mother  of  good  luck. 
Accuracy  is  also  of  much  importance,  and  an  invariable  mark 
of  good  training  in  a  man — accuracy  in  observation,  accuracy 
in  speech,  accuracy  in  the  transaction  of  aflairs.  What  is 
done  in  business  must  be  well  done;  for  it  is  better  to  accom- 
plish perfectly  a  small  amount  of  work  than  to  half-do  ten 
times  as  much.  A  wise  man  used  to  say,  "  Stay  a  little,  that 
we  may  make  an  end  the  sooner." 

Too  little  attention,  however,  is  paid  to  this  highly  impor- 
tant quality  of  accuracy.  As  a  man  eminent  in  practical 
science  lately  observed  to  us,  "It  is  astonishing  how  few 
people  I  have  met  with  in  the  course  of  my  experience  who 
cm  i/i/i>u  a  fact  accurately."  Yet  in  business  affairs,  it  is 
the  manner  in  which  even  small  matters  are  transacted  that 
often  decides  men  for  or  against  you.  With  virtue,  capacity 
anil  good  conduct  in  other  respects,  the  person  who  is  hab- 
itually inaccurate  cannot  be  trusted  ;  his  work  has  to  be  gone 
over  again;  and  he  thus  causes  an  infinity  of  annoyance, 
vexation  and  trouble. 

Method  is  essential,  and  enables  a  larger  amount  of  work 
to  be  accomplished  satisfactorily.  "  Method,"  said  the 
Rev.  Richard  Cecil,  "is  like  packing  things  in  a  box  ;  a  good 
packer  will  get  in  half  as  much  again  as  a  bad  one."  Cecil's 
dispatch  of  business  was  extraordinary,  his  maxim  being, 
"  The  shortest  way  to  do  many  things  is  to  do  only  one  thing 


/ 


1^- 


53° 


CAUSES  OF  SUCCESS  AND  FAILURE. 


Vv 


"Tf 


at  once;"   and  he  ^ever  left  a  thing  undone  with  a  view  of 
recurring  to  it  at  a  period  of  more  leisure. 

A  French  Minister,  who  was  alike  remarkable  for  his 
dispatch  of  business  and  his  constant  attendance  at  places  of 
amusement,  being  asked  how  he  contrived  to  combine  both 
objects,  replied,  **  Simply  by  never  postponing  till  to-morrow 
what  should  be  done  to-day."  Lord  Brougham  has  said  that 
a  certain  English  statesman  reversed  the  process,  and  that  his 
maxim  was  never  to  transact  to-day  what  could  be  postponed 
till  to-morrow.  Unhappily,  such  is  the  practice  of  many 
besides  that  Minister,  already  almost  forgotten  ;  the  practice 
is  that  of  the  indolent  and  the  unsuccessful.  Such  men, 
too,  are  apt  to  rely  upon  agents,  who  are  not  always  to 
be  relied  upon.  Important  affairs  must  be  attended  to  in 
person.  "If  you  wantyour  business  done,"  says  the  proverb, 
"go  and  do  it;  if  you  don't  want  it  done,  send  some  one 
else." 

An  indolent  country  gentleman  had  a  freehold  estate  pro- 
ducing about  five  hundred  a  year.  Becoming  involved  in 
debt,  he  sold  half  the  estate,  and  let  the  remainder  to  an  in- 
dustrious farmer  for  twenty  years.  About  the  end  of  the 
term  the  farmer  called  to  pay  his  rent,  and  asked  the  owner 
whether  he  would  sell  the  farm.  "  Will  you  buy  it?"  asked 
the  owner  surprised.  "Yes,  if  we  can  agree  about  the  price." 
"That  is  exceedingly  strange,"  observed  the  gentleman; 
"pray,  tell  me  how  it  happens  that,  while  I  could  not  live 
upon  twice  as  much  land  for  which  I  paid  no  rent,  you  are 
regularly  paying  me  two  hundred  a  year  for  your  farm,  and 
are  able,  in  a  few  years,  to  purchase  it?"  "  I  he  reason  is 
plain,"  was  the  reply;  "you  sat  still  and  said  Go ;  I  got  up 
and  said  Come :  you  lay  in  your  bed  and  enjoyed  your  estate; 
I  rose  in  the  morning  and  minded  my  business." 

Men  of  business  are  accustomed  to  quote  the  maxim  that 
time  is  money  ;  but  it  is  more  :  the  proper  improvement  of  it 
is  self-culture,  self-improvement  and  growth  of  character. 
An  hour  wasted  daily  on  trilles  or  in  indolence  would,  if 
devoted  to  self-improvement,  make  an  ignorant  man  wise  in  a 
few  years,  and,  employed  in  good  works,  would  make  his  life 
fruitful  and  death  a  harvest  of  worthy  deeds.  Fifteen  minutes 
a  day  devoted  to  self-improvement  will  be  felt  at  the  end  of 
the  year  Good  thoughts  and  carefully  gathered  experience 
take  up  no  room,  and  may  be  carried  about  as  our  com- 
panions everywhere,  without  cost  or  encumbrance.  An 
economical  use  of  time  is  the  true  mode  of  securing  leisure  ; 
it  enables  us  to  get  through  business  and  carry  it  forward, 
instead  of  being  driven  by  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mis- 
calculation of  time  involves  us  in  perpetual  hurry,  confusion 
and  difficulties  ;  and  life  becomes  a  mere  shuffle  of  expedients, 
usually  followed  by  disaster.  Nelson  once  said,  "I  owe  all 
my  success  in  life  to  having  been  always  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
before  my  time." 


Some  take  no  thought  of  the  value  of  money  until  they  have 
come  to  an  end  of  it,  and  many  do  the  same  with  their  time. 
The  hours  are  allowed  to  flow  by  unemployed,  and  then, 
when  life  is  fast  waning,  they  bethink  themselves  of  the  duty 
of  making  a  wiser  use  of  it.  But  the  habit  of  listlessness 
and  idleness  may  already  have  become  confirmed,  and  they 
are  unable  to  break  the  bonds  with  which  they  have  permitted 
themselves  to  become  bound.  Lost  wealth  may  be  replaced 
by  industry,  lost  knowledge  by  study,  lost  health  by  temper- 
ance or  medicine,  but  lost  time  is  gone  forever. 

A  proper  consideration  of  the  value  of  time  will  also  inspire 
habits  of  punctuality.  "Punctuality,"  said  Louis  XIV.,  "is 
the  politeness  of  kings."  It  is  also  the  duty  of  gentlemen, 
and  the  necessity  of  men  of  business.  Nothing  begets  con- 
fidence in  a  man  sooner  than  the  practice  of  this  virtue,  and 
nothing  shakes  confidence  sooner  than  the  want  of  it. 
He  who  holds  to  his  appointment  and  does  not  keep  you 
waiting  for  him,  shows  that  he  has  regard  for  your  time  as 
well  as  for  his  own.  Thus,  punctuality  is  one  of  the  modes  by 
which  we  testify  our  personal  respect  for  those  whom  we  are 
called  upon  to  meet  in  the  business  of  life.  It  is  also  con- 
scientiousness, in  a  measure;  for  an  appointment  is  a  con- 
tract, express  or  implied,  and  he  who  does  not  keep  it  breaks 
faith,  as  well  as  dishonestly  uses  other  people's  time,  and 
thus  inevitably  loses  character.  We  naturally  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  person  who  is  careless  about  time  is  care- 
less about  business,  and  that  he  is  not  the  one  to  be  trusted 
with  the  transaction  of  matters  of  importance.  When  Wash- 
ington's secretary  excused  himself  for  the  lateness  of  his 
attendance,  and  laid  the  blame  upon  his  watch,  his  master 
quietly  said,  "  Then  you  must  get  another  watch  or  I  another 
secretary." 

Napoleon  was  a  thorough  man  of  business.  Though  he  had 
an  immense  love  for  details,  he  had  also  a  vivid  power  of 
imagination,  which  enabled  him  to  look  along  extended  lines 
of  action,  and  deal  with  those  details  on  a  large  scale  with 
judgment  and  rapidity.  He  possessed  such  knowledge  of 
character  as  enabled  him  to  select,  almost  unerringly,  the  best 
agents  for  the  execution  of  his  designs.  But  he  trusted  as 
little  as  possible  to  agents  in  matters  of  great  moment,  on 
which  important  results  depended. 

Like  Napoleon,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was  a  first-rate 
man  of  business  ;  and  it  is  not  perhaps  saying  too  much  to 
aver  that  it  was  in  no  small  degree  because  of  his  possession 
of  a  business  faculty  amounting  to  genius  that  the  Duke  never 
lost  a  battle.  His  magnificent  business  qualities  were  every- 
where felt;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  by  the  care  with 
which  he  provided  for  every  contingency,  and  the  personal 
attention  which  he  gave  to  every  detail,  he  laid  the  foundations 
of  his  great  success. 


'xV 


VL 


\ 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


531 


'■^^  THE  'S'^^^r^ 


STUDY  OF  Character 


-^- 


-IN    ITS- 


--€«- 


^  RELATION  TO  BUSINESS  SUCCESS.  ^ 


AS    TAUGHT    BY   PHRENOLOGY   AND    PHYSIOGNOMY. 


\^^^HE  science  of  Phrenology  is  based  on  the 
'^V  j«\S  theory  that  the  faculties  of  the  mind  are 
■'■'■  J_|_7  shown  on  the  surface  of  the  human  skull. 
'^  It  points  out  those  connections  and  rela- 
tions which  exist  between  the 
conditions  and  developments 
of  the  />rain  and  the  mani- 
festations of  the  mini/,  dis- 
covering each  from  an  obser- 
vation  of  the  other. 


THE  ORIGIN 


-S.OF : 


gHI^BNOLOGY. 


Franz  Joseph  Gal!,  born    at    Tie 
fenbrunn,  in  Baden,  March  9,  1758, 

was  the  first  to  mark  the  separate  functions  of  the  human 
mind  and  trace  the  Ujcation  of  the  respective  organs  in  the 
human  brain.  After  studying  the  natural  sciences  at  Strasburg, 
he  graduated  as  a  physician  at  Vienna  in  17S5,  practicing  there 
for  many  years.  As  a  boy  he  had  observed  that  among  his 
schoolmates  good  memories  were  invariably  indicated  by  large 


^'  • 

-t^ 

-A 

^^^"^^^^ 

i 

^^^m 

m  '^^m 

ik  <  ^               "'f&^r 

■ji^.>  ar^^^^Bf 

'^9 

^W 

•1^^ 

FRANZ    JOSEPH    GALL. 

rr*' 

eyes,  and  from  this  he  conceived  the  idea  that  individual  char- 
acteristics could  be  determined  by  external  signs.  The  result 
of  long-continued  observation  in  schools,  prisons,  lunatic  asy- 
lums and  other  places  was  the  conviction  that  the  brain,  and 
not  the  heart,  was  the  seat  of  all  mental  manifestations.  After 
twenty  years  of  study  he  decided 
the  location  of  some  twenty  distinct 
mental  organs  and  satisfied  himself 
that  their  degree  of  activity  could  be 
determined  from  the  shape  of  the 
skull.  In  1791  he  published  "Medi- 
cal and  Philosophical  Researches 
on  Nature  and  Art,"  and  in  1796 
he  began  lecturing  in  Vienna  on  his 
novel  theories,  creating  a  marked 
sensation.  In  1802  his  lectures 
were  prohibited  by  the  Austrian 
government  as  dangerous  to  religion, 
but  in  company  with  Johann  Caspar 
Spurzheim,  he  made  considerable 
headway  in  Central  and  Northern 
Europe.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled,  "  The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System 
and  of  the  Brain." 


MEASURtMENT  OF  THE  HEAD. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  size  of  the  head,  and  af  the  brain,  the  differ- 
cnt  portions  of  which  arc  called  organs,  and  classified  according  to  their  par- 


532 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


/ 


l-c^l_i-  faact.uns,  constitutes  the  principal  phrenological  condition  by  which 
character  is  iletermined.  Most  great  men  have  had  great  heads.  Webster's 
head  measured  a  little  more  than  24  inches,  and  Clay's  considerably  over  33. 
Xapoleon's  reached  nearly  24.  Hamilton's  hat  passed  over  the  ears  of  a 
man  whose  head  measured  233/^.  Burke's  head  was  very  large;  so  was 
Jefferson's,  while  Franklin's  hat  passed  over  the  ears  of  a  24-inch  head. 
Small  and  average  heads  often  astonish  us  by  their  brilliancy  and  learning, 
and  perhaps  eloquence,  yet  fail  in  that  commanding  greatness  which  im- 
presses and  sways. 

The  general  rule  laid  down  for  head-measurement  of  adults  is  as  follows  : 
The  smallest  size  compatible  with  fair  talents,  20^  ;  moderate,  20^^  to 
215^  ;  average,  2iJ^  to  22  ;  full,  22  to  22}^  ;  large,  22^  to  23^  ;  very  large, 
above  233':i.  Female  heads  ^  to  ^  below  these  averages;  but  as  some 
heads  are  round,  others  long,  some  low  and  others  high,  these  measure- 
ments cannot  be  depended  upon  to  carry  any 
accurate  idea  of  the  actual  quantity  of  brain. 

In  judging  of  the  manifestations  of 
the  mind,  the  activity  of  the  brain  is 
a  consideration  quite  as  important  as 
its  size.     WTiile  size  gives 
power     or     momentum    of 
intellect  and  feeling,  activi 
ty  imparts  quickness, 
intensity,   willingness 
and  even    a    restless 
desire   to   act,  which 
go     far    to     produce 
efficiency    of    mind, 
with     accompanying 
eSbrt     and      action. 
Under  the   heads  of 
size,  given  below,  the 
effects  of  the  different 
degrees    of     activity 
are  presented. 

Very  Large.  One 

having   a    very  large 

head,    with     activity 

az'crage      or      full, 

on  great  occasions,  or 

when  his  powers  are 

thoroughly      roused, 

will  be  truly  great ,  but 

ordinarily     will     sel- 
dom manifest  any  remarkable 

amount  of  mind  pr  feeling,  and 

perhaps  pass  through  life  with 

the  credit  of  being  a  person 

of  good  natural  abilities  and  judgment, 

yet  nothing  more.  With  activity  ^r^d/, 
strength,  and  the  intellectual  organs  the  same,  will 
be  a  natural  genius,   endowed  with  very  superior 
powers  of  mind  and  vigor  of  intellect ;   and  even 

though  deprived  of  the  advantages  of  education,  his  natural  talents  will  sur- 
mount all  obstacles.  With  activity  zwry great,  and  the  organs  of  practical 
intellect  and  of  the  propelling  powers  large  or  very  large,  will  possess  the  first 
order  of  natural  abilities,  manifest  a  clearness  and  force  of  intellect  that  will 
astonish  the  world,  and  a  power  of  feeling  that  will  carrj-  all  before  him,  and, 
with  proper  cultivation,  enable  him  to  become  a  bright  star  in  the  firmament 
of  intellectual  greatness;  his  mental  enjoyments  will  be  most  exquisite,  and 
his  sufferings  equally  excruciating. 

Large.  One  having  a  large-sized  brain,  with  activity  averagf,  will 
/(ojjcjj  considerable  energy  of  intellect  and  feeling,  yet  seldom  manifest  it 
unless  it  is  brought  out  by  some  powerful  stimulus.  With  activity  /ull,  will 
be  endowed  with  an  uncommon  amount  of  the  mental  power,  and  be  capable 
of  doing  a  great  deal,  yet  require  considerable  to  awaken  him  to  that  vigor- 
ous effort  of  mind  of  which  he  is  capable.  If  the  perceptive  faculties  are 
strong  or  vcr>'  strong,  and  his  natural  powers  put  in  vigorous  requisition,  he 


will  manifest  a  vigor  and  energy  of  intellect  and  feeling  quite  above  medioc- 
rity. With  activity  ^r^rt/ or  very  great,  will  exercise  a  commanding  influ- 
ence over  those  minds  with  which  he  comes  in  contact ;  when  he  enjoys,  will 
enjoy  intensely,  and  when  he  suffers,  suffer  equally  so  ;  be  susceptible  of 
strong  excitement,  and  with  the  organs  of  the  propelling  powers  and  of 
practical  intellect  large  or  very  large,  will  possess  all  the  mental  capabilities 
for  conducting  a  large  business,  for  rising  to  eminence,  if  not  to  pre- 
eminence, and  discover  great  force  of  character  and  power  of  intellect  and 
feeling.  With  activity  moderate , -when  powerfully  excited,  will  evince  con- 
siderable energy  of  intellect  and  feeling,  yet  be  too  indolent  and  too  sluggish 
to  do  much  ;  4ack  clearness  and  force  of  idea  and  intensity  of  feeling;  un- 
less literally  driven  to  it,  will  not  be  likely  to  be  much  or  do  much,  and  yet 
actually  Possess  more  vigor  of  mind  and  energy  of  feeling  than  he  will  mani- 
*"est.     With  activity  small,  will  border  on  idiocy. 

Full.  One  having  a  full-sized  brain,  with  activity  great  or  very  great, 
with  the  organs  of  practical  intellect  and  of  the 
propelling  powers  large  or  verj' large,  although 
he  will  not  -possess  greatfiess  of  intel- 
lect, nor  a  deep,  strong  mind,  will  be 
very  clever;  have  consider- 
talent,  and  that  so  dis- 
ted  that  it  will  show  to 
more  than  it  really  is ; 
is  capable  of  being 
a  good  scholar,  doing 
a  fine  business,  and 
with  advantages  and 
application,  of  dis- 
tinguishing himself 
somewhat,  yet  he  is 
inadequate  to  a  great 
undertaking,  can  not 
sway  an  extensive  in- 
fluence, nor  be  really 
great.  With  activi- 
ty /«//  or  average, 
will  do  only  tolera- 
bly well,  and  mani- 
fest only  a  common 
share  of  talents.  With 
activity  moderate  or 
small,  will  neither 
be  nor  do  much 
worthy  of  notice. 
Average.  One  hav- 
ing an  average-sized  brain, 
with  activity  only  average^ 
will  discover  only  an  ordinary 
amount  of  intellect ;  be  inade- 
quate to  an  important  undertaking, 
yet,  in  a  small  sphere,  or  one  that 
requires  only  a  mechanical  routine 
of  business,  may  do  well.  With  activity 
great  or  very  great,  and  the  organs  of  the 
propelling  powers  and  of  practical  intellect 
large  or  very  large,  is  capable  of  doing  a  fair  business  and  may  pass  for  a 
man  of  some  talent.  With  moderate  or  small  activity,  will  hardly  have 
common  sense. 

Moderate.  One  with  a  head  of  only  moderate  size,  combined  with 
great  or  Z'ery  great  activity,  and  the  organs  of  the  propelling  powers  and 
of  practical  intellect,  large,  will  possess  a  tolerable  share  of  intellect.  With 
others  to  plan  for  and  direct  him,  will  execute  to  advantage,  yet  be  un- 
able to  do  much  alone.  Will  have  a  very  active  mind,  and  be  quick  of 
perception,  yet,  after  all,  lack  momentum  both  of  mind  and  character. 
With  activity  only  average  ox  fair,  will  have  but  a  moderate  amouyit  of 
intellect.     With  activity  moderate  or  small,  will  be  an  idiot. 

Small  or  Very  Small.  One  with  a  very  small  head,  no  matter  what 
may  be  the  activity  of  his  mind,  will  be  incapable  of  intellectual  effort, 
ol  comprehending  even  easy  subjects,  or  of  experiencing  much  pain  or 
pleasure  ;  in  short,  will  be  a  natural  fool. 


-N 


\ 


TH1-.    STUDY    OF    CHARACTER. 


533 


>        f  'Tv\t  Two  Paths  \ 


f'     WHAT  WILL  THE 


fr  WV  W^  WT^  V"»"»  W  W  W  IF  TT 


BOY  BECOME? 


^^\\ 


IDLENESS. 


DISSIPATION. 


THE  illustrations  on  this  page  are  intended  to 
show  the  effects  of  training  and  circumstances 
and  different  modes  of  life  upon  the  human 
countenance.  Although  the  inheritance  at  birth 
'^'''  of  a  sound  constitution,  well-balanced  mental 
organization  and  favorable  temperament  are  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  shaping  character,  yet  the  possessor  of  all 
these  natural  endowments  may  so  pursue  the  path  of  life 
that  the  close  will  find  him  a  miserable  wretch,  to  go 
from  beggary  and  vice  to  an  unhonored  grave.  On  the 
contrary,  education  and  moral  training  can  atone  for  the 
lack  of  natural  advantages,  and  make  of  a  less  favored 
child  a  useful  and  honored  citizen.  The  human  face  has 
in  it  something  expressive  of  that  which  enters  into 
and  constitutes  the  character  of  a  man,  and  on  it  are 
written,  by  an  unseen  hand,  but  in  indelible  lines  which 
all  may  read,  the  records  of  life's  history. 

Who  can  divine,  on  looking  at  the  head  and  face  of  the 
child  represented  above,  what  that  young  intelligence  will 
become  in  the  future  of  his  life  ?  Look  at  the  eye,  nose 
and  mouth  of  the  boy  at  school,  and  you  will  not  fail  to 
perceive,  from  the  very  contour  of  the  countenance,  that 
his  destiny  depends  on  the  influences  by  which  he  may  be 
surrounded. 

In  the  one  instance  you  see  him  choosing  his  profes- 
sion and  contemplating  a  settlement  in  life,  wedding 
himself  to  a  virtuous,  loving  and  devoted  woman,  and  in 
course  of  time  becoming  surrounded  by  a  loving  family  ; 
in  the  other  you  see  the  man  emerging  from  the  scenes  of 
brutal  intoxication  to  plunge  into  deeper,  darker  vices, 
until  life  becomes  a  burden,  and  he  goes  down  to  the 
grave  unlamented  and  unwept.  How  different  this  from 
the  career  of  the  man  whose  happiest  days  are  spent  in 
the  bosom  of  his  loving  family,  and  who  grows  old  amid 
the  most  genial  influences,  honored,  revered,  beloved; 
who  goes  down  to  his  last  resting-place  amid  the  prayers 
and  tears  of  those  he  loved,  cheered  by  the  hope  of  a 
happy  reunion  in  a  world  where  life  is  perfect  and  joy 
complete. 


;:;:> 


> 

r-6 


INDL'STHV  AND   STUDY. 


HONORABLE  SUCCESS. 


HONORED  ACE. 


s — 


HRENOLOGISTS  do  not  claim  that  the  system  in 
which  they  believe  is  perfect,  but  that  they  have 
demonstrated  the  following  facts  beyond  question: 
jl  1:^  jl  That  the  brain  is  the  organ  through  which  the  mind 
^C  manifests  itself,  and  that  each  faculty  of  the  mind 
has  a  separate  and  distinct  organ  in  the  brain ;  that  the 
organs  relating  to  each  other  are  grouped  together  in  the 
brain ;  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  power  of  the  brain 
may  be  estimated  by  its  size  ;  that  the  manifestations  of 
brain  are  affected  by  the 
bodily  conditions  ;  that  every 
faculty  of  the  mind  is  devised 
for  a  good  purpose,  and  that 
every  faculty  may  be  enlarged 
and  cultivated  by  exercise,  or 
may  be  lessened  by  neglect. 
While  differences  of  opinion 
may  exist  as  to  the  right 
which  Phrenology  has  to  be 
considered  one  of  the  exact 
sciences,  all  mankind  tacitly 
acknowledges  the  fact  that 
the  face  is  a  reliable  reflex  of 
themindand  character.  Upon  meeting  a  stranger  we  instinct- 
ively scan  his  face  to  learn  whether  we  will  like  or  dislike 
him.  Our  judgment  is  instantaneous,  the  impression  being 
favorable  or  unfavorable.  To  what  instinct  or  fact  do  we 
ascribe  this?  We  of  course  judge  by  the  expression  of  the 
face — in  other  words,  by  the  p/iysiognomy.  This  unfailing 
index  tells  whether  he  is  intellectual 
or  dull,  kind  or  brutish,  strong  or 
weak  of  mind. 

Beyond  and  outside  of  all  physical 
characteristics,  it  is  claimed  that  the 
mental  peculiarities  of  the  individual 
can  be  seen  and  known  in  the  tone 
Dj  ^v    of  the  voice,  the  rapidity  of  speech, 

'~-^  ''    —J   the  sprightliness  of  motion,  the  grasp 

of  the  hand,  etc. 

The  five  faces  given  above,  in 
Figure  i,  illustrate  the  various  grades 
of  intelligence. 

The  face  at  the  left  is  easily  recog- 
nized as  one  of  intellectual  vigor. 
The  one  to  the  right,  with  its  thick  lips  and  retreating  chin 
and  forehead,  bears  all  the  evidence  of  intellectual  feeble- 
ness. The  intervening  faces  represent  the  gradations  from 
a  high  to  a  low  state  of  intelligence,  and  our  opinion  as 
to  the  relative    intellectuality  of  these    five  faces   is  instan- 


FIG.  1.   THE  GRADES  OF  INTELLIGENCE. 


taneously  formed  by  the  shape  of  the  head,    the  nose,   the 
chin  and  the  lips. 

In  the  next  illustrations  are  contrasted  a  pair  of  faces  whose 
features  and  expression  exemplify  boldly  the  theory  of 
physiognomy.  Figure  2,  with  its  straight,  darting,  frank 
eye,  its  intellectual  Grecian  nose,  forehead  which  bears  the 
stamp  of  strong  perceptive  faculty,  firm  closed  lips  and  res- 
olute chin,  at  once  impresses  the  beholder  with  the  presence 
of  a  person  of  strong  and  clearly  defined  characteristics,  which 

have  been  improved  by  culti- 
vation. Figure  3,  on  the  other 
hand,  bears  all  the  evidences 
of  vulgarity  and  ignorance, 
untempered  by  culture's 
softening  influences.  The 
smoothly  rounded  and  re- 
treating brow,  the  small  and 
sunken  eye,  the  coarse,  mis- 
shapen nose,  thick  and  sen- 
suous lips,  and  weak,  reced- 
ing chin,  indicate  at  a  glance 
a  nature  which  is  strong  only 
in    vulgar   and    vicious    pro- 


FIG.  3. 


pensities,  and   lacking   almost   entirely    the  intellectual  and 
moral  power  to  restrain  them. 


-ra-= 


THE  TEMPERAMENTS. 


>£^ 


One  of  the  arguments  frequently  used  against  the  claim  that 
mental  ability  can  be  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  brain  is  the  fact  that 
men  with  small  heads  often  accom- 
plish more  than  those  who  have  heads 
and  bodies  of  much  greater  size. 

The  reply  of  phrenologists  to  this 
is  that  there  are  four  temperaments, 
viz. :  the  Lymphatic,  the  Sanguine, 
the  Bilious  and  the  Nervous ;  and 
that  every  person  possesses  more  or 
less  of  these  in  his  physical  consti- 
tution. 

The  Lymphatic. 

The    Lymphatic    temperament    is  fig.  2. 

indicated  by  the  predominance  of  stomach,  which  makes 
roundness  of  form,  softness  of  flesh,  a  weak  pulse  and  a 
languid  condition  of  the  system.  With  such  the  hair  is  light, 
complexion  pale,  eyes  blue  and  dull. 


t 


THE    STUDY    OF    CHARACTER. 


535 


Tlie  Sanguine. 

The  Sanguine  temperament  largely  depends  upon  a  pre- 
ponderance of  the  arterial  system.  He  who  possesses  it  will 
have  light  hair  and  blue  eyes,  will  be 
fairly  rounded  in  muscle,  will  be  ardent, 
active  and  enthusiastic. 

The  Bilious. 

With  the  Bilious  temperament  the  liver 
is  taken  as  the  basis.  This  is  indicated  by 
black  eyes  and  hair,  a  dark  and  tawny  skin, 
solid  and  spare  flesh,  angular  form,  great  1; 
energy  and  activity,  and,  if  coupled  with 
superior  mental  development,  large  power. 

Tlie  Xervous. 

The  Nervous  temperament  rests  upon 

a   preponderance    of  the  nervous  system. 

Those   possessing   it  are   known  by  their 

delicacy  of  health,  thin  and  angular  fea- 
tures, light,  thin  hair,  rapid 
movements  and  mental  ac- 
tivity. 

COMBINATION  OF 
TEMPERAMENTS. 
Fortunately  these  temper- 
aments are  generally  found 
blended  more  or  less  with 
each  other,  and  out  of  the 
combination  phrenologists 
designate  another  class  of 
temperaments  called  the 
Motive,  the  Vital  and  the 
Mental. 


digestive  and  assimilating  organs,  abundance  of  blood  and 
animal  spirits.  The  form  is  plump  and  limbs  rounded  and 
tapering,  the  complexion  light  or  florid,  with  an  inclination 
to  take  on  flesh  as  age  advances.  This 
temperament  is  a  combination  of  the 
Sanguine  and  the  Lymphatic,  as  set  forth 
by  Combe  and  other  writers ;  but  as  the 
digestive  and  assimilating  organs,  which 
constitute  the  Lymphatic  temperament, 
together  with  the  respiratory  and  circu- 
latory systems,  which  constitute  the  .San- 
guine temperament,  are  really  vital  organs, 
their  combination  into  one,  under  the  name 
of  Vital  temperament,  is  both  convenient 
and  philosophical. 

Tliv  Mental. 

The  Mental  temperament  depends  on 
the  development  of  the  brain  and  nervous 
system,  and  is  indicated  by  -if^inijiLiiditsiiviitsijiiiiiiiii^^ 
mental  activity,  light  frame, 
thin  skin,  fine  hair,  delicate 
features,  and  large  brain  as 
compared  with  the  body.  3 
It  imparts  sensitiveness  and 
vivacity  to  the  mind,  a  dis- 
position to  think,  study,  or 
follow  some  light  and  deli- 
cate business. 

The  structures  which,  in 
excess  or  great  predomi- 
nance, determine  these  tem- 
peraments,   exist    in    each 


Tlie  Motive. 

The  Motive  temperament,  cor- 
responding to  the  Bilious,  has  a 
strong,  bony  system,  an  abund- 
ance of  muscle,  dark,  wiry  hair, 
dark  eyes,  rough,  prominent  fea- 
tures, dark  complexion  and  great 
executive  force.  The  Motive 
temperament,  in  its  influence  on 
mental  manifestation,  is  favorable 
to  dignity,  sternness,  determi- 
nation, power  of  will  and  desire 
to  govern  and  control  others. 
It   gives   slowness    of    passion, 


desire  for  heavy  labor  or  large    fl 


business,  and  a  liability  to  mias- 
matic diseases. 

The  Vital. 

The  Vital  temperament  is 
evinced  by  large  lungs,  a  power- 
ful circulatory  system,  and  large 


individual.  In  one  person  one 
temperament  may  predominate; 
in  the  next,  another.  They  can 
be  modified  by  proper  training. 
When  combined,  they  give  har- 
mony of  character  and  excellent 
health. 

The  Brain. 

There  are  still  other  condi- 
tions upon  which  the  phrenolo- 
gist rests  his  case,  without  which 
he  admits  the  mental  power  of 
the  individual  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. It  is  claimed,  for  in- 
stance, that  a  loose  and  flabby 
flesh  reveals  a  soft  and  spongy 
brain,  and  that  a  close-knit 
frame  and  firm  flesh  show  in- 
tellectual power.  Then,  again, 
the  slate  of  the  health  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  In 
perfect  health  the  brain  is  strong. 


_N 


1^ 


536 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


S\^=V' 


• — '>-i-^ — °(^^<l)^a° — #^-< 


-rz3-B 


^p-l-   COMPARATIVE  *  PHYSIOGNOMY. 


:^df 


■Mgji.®" — #^-<- 


FACIAL  RESEMBLANCES  BETWEEN    MEN   AND  ANIMALS. 


— r  v=r''  AN  is  distinguish- 
ed from  tile  lower 
animals    by    liis 
- — i.;i  V.    reasoning  powers 

-'<r-f;;fP-y^~"  and  spiritual  sen- 
timents. The  more  these  are 
developed  and  refined,  the 
greater  his  superiority  over  the 
rest  of  creation.  But  there  are 
many  things  which  man  has  in 
common  with  the  inferior  crea- 
tures. Both  have  the  senses  of 
sight,  hearing,  taste,  smell  and 
touch;  in  both  has  been  im- 
planted love  of  life  and  the  in- 
stinct of  self-preservation.  Afi'ection  and  anger,  cau- 
tion, secretiveness,  acquisitiveness,  combativeness  and 
destructiveness,  in  great  or  small  degree,  are  manifested 
in  animals  as  in  men.  The  fox  is  known  for  his 
cunning.  It  does  not  surprise  us,  therefore,  when  we 
see  in  the  face  of  a  wily,  crafty  man,  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  wiliest  of  animals.  In  the  illustrations 
the  artist  has  depicted  some  striking  resemblances, 
showing  how  those  qualities  and  instincts  which  man 
has  in  common  with  the  lower  animals  are  often 
plainly  stamped  on  the  human  face. 

"  What  a  goose  I  "  is  an  expression  we  often  hear, 
and  no  one  will  doubt  that  the  young  man  depicted 
in  the  first  of  the  comparative  illustrations  is  just  the 
kind  that  will  l)e  easily  "plucked"  if  he  go"gab- 
bline"  about. 


The  lion  is  noted  for  his  strength  and  consciousness  of  power. 
He  is  ferocious  and  bloodthirsty,  but  also  capable  of  generosity 
and  magnanimity.  Disdaining  cunning  devices,  he  leaps  upon 
his  prey  with  terrible  and  resistless  impetuosity.  These  charac- 
teristics are  apparent  in  the  face  of  his  human  counterpart,  in 
which,  though  gentleness  and  amiability  may  be  lacking,  there 
are  certainly  depicted  nobility  and  consciousness  of  power. 
Such  a  man,  though  he  may  crush  the  strong,  will  spare  the 
.  weak  and  defenseless,  and,  though  he  may  take  counsel  of  his 
sagacity,  will  never  descend  to  low  cunning. 

When  we  call  one  "  a  great  bear,"  we  hardly  mean  to  pay 
him  a  compliment.  It  may  be  inferred  that  he  is  somewhat 
rough,  coarse  and  uncouth — hardly  a  gentleman — but  he  may 
have  his  good  qualities  and  be  a  useful  member  of  society. 
One  may  be  bearish  and  yet  not  unbearable.  The  ancients 
seem  to  have  had  considerable  respect  for  the  bear,  at  least  in 

the    feminine  gender,  for  we 

have  from  the  Latin  the    not 

uncommon    name   of    Ursula, 
meaning  a  she-bear. 

We  have  all  seen  people 
that  may  with  great  propriety 
be  called  "  hoggish,"  though  a 
resemblance  as  strong  as  that 
depicted  in  the  illustration  is 
but  seldom  met  with.  The 
characteristics  of  the  hog  are 
selfishness,  filthiness,  acc^uisi- 
tiveness,  and,  in  a  low  sense, 
?«quisitiveness.  The  hoggish 
man  is  greedy,  makes  a  god  of 


V- 


t^ 


THE  STUUV  Of  CHARACTER. 


537 


"Tf 


his  belly,  and,  however  well  supplied  his  table  may  be,  he  has 
only  enough  for  himself.  Selfishness,  however,  is  natural  and 
inherited  by  most  men,  while  kindness  and  generosity  are  more 


often  the  result  of  culture. 
Were  children  not  taught  to 
be  generous,  to  divide,  there 
would  be  far  more  selfishness 
in  the  world  than  there  is. 

We  read  in  one  of  Shak- 
spere's  comedies  of  a  certain 
character  who  k>udly  lamented 
that  no  reporter  was  present  to 
write  him  down  an  ass*.  In 
our  day  the  reporter  is  gen- 
erally at  hand,  and  men  who 
"  make  donkeys  of  them- 
selves"   are    often    "written  

down"   in  that   way   without 

even  being  consulted  in  the  matter.  There  is  little  harm 
done,  of  course,  for  if  left  alone  they  are  sure  to  make  the 
record  themselves.  Mulishness  or  obstinacy  ha.s  ruined  many 
a  man,  and  when  there  is  little  culture  and  much  ignorance, 
we  may  look  for  conceit,  prejudice  and  stupidity. 

The  dog  will  take  on  something  of  the  spirit  of  his  master, 
will  even  come  to  slightly  resemble  him  by  constant  associa- 
tion. Hogarth  was  always  painted  with  his  dog,  and  it  has 
been  said  that  ultimately  he  came  to  resemble  the  animal, 
although  it  is  mure  than  probable  that  the  latter,  by  remain- 
ing almost  constantly  in  the  presence  of  his  master,  and  en- 
deavoring in  a  doggish  way  to  understand  his  thoughts, 
words  and  expressions,  had  really  come,  in  a  limited  manner. 
Id  resemble  the  great  humorous  artist.  We  cannot  believe  that 
the  man  was  lost  in  the  dog,  but  it  is  not  entirely  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  tlie  dog  had  taken  on  something  of  the 
man. 

The  ancient  physiognomists  laid  great  stress  upon  the  real  or 


fancied  resemblances  existing  between  men  and  animals,  but 
their  speculations  are  of  no  real  value.  Moilern  writings  on  the 
subject  aic  also  mainly  fanciful,  and  calculated  to  amuse  rather 
than  to  instruct.  We  shall  claim  no  more  for  this  chapter,  but 
shall  be  satisfied  if  the  reader  has  been  pleasantly  enter- 
tained, the  organ  of  mirthfulness  developed,  and  the  upward 
curving  lines  at  the  comer  of  the  mouth  improved.  How- 
ever, while  admitting  that  Comparative  Physiognomy  is  still 
in  a  rudimentary  state,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  must 
be  some  foundation  in  truth  for  the  common  belief  that 
animal  resemblances  may  be  traced  among  men  and  women, 
and  that  they  have  some  value,  little  or  great,  as  signs  of 
character. 

A    COMPARISON. 

As  the  face  of  a  watch  presents  to  the  eye  signs  of  the 
movements  going  on  within,   and   ceases   to  tell  the  hour 
whenever  those   movements   cease,   so   the   "  human    face 
divine"  is  an  index  of  internal  emotions  and  loses  all  power 
to  change  its  exoression  as  soon  as  the  vital  jjowers  are  with- 
drawn.     Behind    the   face  of 
the  watch  is  the  machinery  — 
which  is  the  watch.     Behind 
the  human  countenance  are  the 
comjilicaled      apparatuses     of 
bones,   muscles    and     nerves, 
which    form    the   human    ma- 
chiner)' ;      and      behind      this 
human     machinery    there     is 
what  the  watch  has  not  —  the 
soul,  the  mind — the  controlling 
intelligence    which     precedes 
the  living  organism  to  which 
it  gives  rational  activity. 


A 

A 

*j|Sbv5^S^ 

^^ 

y^^Sj 

>uHf 

^Mj^^^'/T        -, 

-^^r^^v 

.^J^^L 

'^JK 

flK^vUlilJi^ 

te^^j^A 

^^JK^ajH 

f...^HK'«^- , 

^llw^^A 

W^m 

^p 

tK^^^^^^ 

mf 

^^^^^^v 

^^^  j: 

(^#9^1^^ 

|k9^ 

J|raTfl|3k~  ->c^. 

'^ifcm^^SN?^ 

^5t>'Tl 

jj^^^^^ 

|M|^ 

^^^SBr^N 

WmM^ 

"^ 

miS9^ 

%l?  . 

^^^ti^^S/B^-L^' 

\ 

\w "  '  'iri^* 

NJO 

■■^  '   '  r~^ 

■iy 

'Wa''jjr^ 

^' 

/./    ^ 

^^ywp 

/    .^ 

• 

DONKEY. 

— ? 

/• 


*  *'  O  that  he  were  here  to  write  im; 
Nothing: 


<iown  an  assl  " — Much  Ado  A&oui 


'*  The  active  and  jilastic  principle  is  the  soul — the  true  man — 
of  which  the  body  is  but  the  external  expression  and  instru- 
ment." 


\ 


\ 


53i 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER, 


-A 


A  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  ORGANS  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

^m^ — 


:^T  is  only  by  a  careful  study  of  all  the  organs  in  combination 
™*'  that  one  may  come  to  understand  the  various  mental  char- 
acteristics as  shown  by  Phrenology.  The  accompanying 
diagrams  give  the  exact  location  of  the  organs,  and  through 
^^  the  kindness  of  Messrs.  Fowler  &  Wells  we  are  enabled  to 
give  on  the  following  pages  a  brief  description  of  them,  accom- 
panied by  an  explanation 
of  their  influence  on  the 
character  as  determined 
by  their  size. 

1.*  Amativeness. 

Reciprocal  attachment 
and  love  of  the  sexes. 
Very  large,  experiences 
a  power  and  activity  of 
sexual  love  almost  un- 
controllable. Large,  is 
an  ardent  admirer  and 
tender  lover  of  the  other 
sex  ;  feels  strong  sexual 
impulses,  desire  to  marry, 
etc.  Full,  feels  much 
love  and  tenderness  for 
the  opposite  sex;  yet, 
with  activity  great,  has 
excitability  rather  than 
power.  Average,  loves 
the  other  sex,  and  enjoys 
their  society  well.  Mod- 
erate, is  rather  deficient 
in  sexual  love,  attentions 
to  the  opposite  sex,  etc. 
Small,  feels  little  sexual 
or  connubial  love,  or 
desire  to  marry.  Very 
small,  seldom  or  never 
experiences  this  feeling. 

2.  Philoprogeni- 

tiveness. 
Parental     attachment ; 
love   of  one's   offspring. 

'very  large,  is  passionately  fond  of  all  children;  a  general 
favorite  with  them ;  idolizes  his  own  children ;  is  lialjle  to  over- 
indulge them.  Large,  feels  strong,  tender  parental  love ;  is 
devotedly  attached,  and  very  kind  to  his  own  if  not  all  children 


Full,  is  tender,  but  not  indulgent;  fond  of  his  own  children, 
yet  not  partial  to  others.  Average,  loves  his  own  children, 
yet  not  fondly;  dislikes  those  of  others.  Moderate,  loves  his 
own  children  some,  yet  bears  little  from  them.  Small,  feels 
little  interest  in  even  his  own  children.  Very  small,  has  no 
parental  love ;  hates  all  children. 

3.  Adhesiveness. 

Friendship;  social  feel- 
ing; love  of  society.  Very 
large,  loves  friends  with 
indescribable  tenderness 
and  strength  of  feeling ; 
willsacrificealmostevery- 
thing  upon  the  altar  of 
friendship.  Large,  is 
eminently  social;  an  ar- 
dent, sincere  friend  ;  en- 
joys friendly  society  ex- 
tremely ;  forms  strong  if 
not  hasty  attachments. 
Full,  is  highly  social, 
yet  not  remarkably  warm- 
hearted. Average,  is 
quite  friendly,  yet  will 
not  sacrifice  much  for 
friends.  Moderate,  loves 
friends  some,  yet  self 
more ;  quits  friends  often. 
Small,  is  unsocial,  cold- 
hearted;  likes  and  is  liked 
by  few  or  none.  Very 
small,  is  a  stranger  to 
friendly  social  feeling. 


THE   PHRENOLOGICAL  ORGANS  SYMBOLICALLY   ILLl'SiKATED. 


kL 


A.  Conjugality. 

Monogamy,  union   for 
life,  first  love,  the  pairing 
instinct.   Very  large,  se- 
lects some  one  of  the  op- 
posite  sex    as    the    sole 
object  of  love;    concen- 
trates the  whole  soul  on 
the  single  one  beloved,  magnifying  excellences  and  overlooking 
faults;  lonpsto  be  always  with  that  one;  is  exclusive,  and  requires 
a  like  exclusiveness;  is  true  and  faithful  in  wedlock,  if  married 
in  spirit.      Large,    seeks  one,  and  but  one,  sexual  mate,  and 
*  The  numbers  refer  to  Fig.  5. 


The  above  chart  shows  the  location  of  the  phrenological  organs,  and  in  the  field  of 
each  organ  its  character  is  symbolically  illustrated.  Thus  Fir/nness  is  indicated  by  the 
st-ibility  of  the  pyramid  and  the  obstinacy  of  the  mule,  or  the  man  who  is  contending 
with  him  :  Veneration,  by  tlic  attitude  of  prayer,  and  the  courtesy  of  the  boy  toward 
old  age  ;  Benevolence ,  by  the  Good  Samaritan  ;  Cautiousness,  by  the  frightened  hen  that 
fears  detriment  to  her  chicks ;  Secretiveness ,  by  the  fo.\  ;  Acquisitiveness,  by  the  miser, 
etc.   These  symbols  are  intended  to  make  vivid  the  impression  and  thus  help  the  memory. 


=slV 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


539 


-7 


feels  perfectly  satisfied  in  the  society  of  that  one.  Full,  can  love 
cordially,  yet  is  capable  of  changing  the  object.  Average, 
is  disposed  to  love  but  one  for  life,  yet,  with  secretiveness  and 
approbativeness  large,  and  conscientiousness  only  full,  is  capa- 
bk-  of  coquetry.  Moderate,  is  somewhat  disposed  to  love 
only  one,  yet  allows  stronger  faculties  to  interrupt  that  love. 
Small,  has  but  little  conjugal  love  and  seeks  the  promiscuous 
society  and  alil'ection  of  the  opposite  se.\,  rather  than  a  single 
partner  for  life.     Very  small,  manifests  none  of  this  faculty. 

4.  Inhabitiveness. 
Love  of  home  as  such ;  attach;nent  to  the  place  where  one 
has  lived;  unwillingness  to  change  it;  patriotism.  Very  large, 
regards  home  as  the  dearest,  sweetest  spot  on  earth;  feels 
homesick  when  away;  dislikes  changing  residences;  is  pre- 
eminently patriotic ;  thinks  of  his  native  place  with  intense  in- 
terest. Large,  soon  becomes  strongly  attached  to  the  place  in 
which  he  lives;  loves  home  and  country  dearly;  leaves  them 
reluctantly;  is  unhappy  without  a  home  of  his  own.  Full, 
loves  home  well,  yet  does  not  grieve  much  on  leaving  it. 
Average,  forms  some,  though  not  strong,  local  attachments. 
Moderate,  has  some,  but  not  great,  regard  for  home  as  such. 
Small  or  very  small,  makes  any  place  home. 

5.  Concentrativeness. 

Unity  and  continuity  of  thought  and  feeling;  power  of  entire 
and  concentrated  application  to  one  thing.  Very  large,  places 
his  mind  upon  subjects  .slowly;  cannot  leave  them  unfinished, 
nor  attend  to  more  than  one  thing  at  once ;  is  very  tedious;  has 
great  application,  yet  lacks  intensity  and  point.  Large,  is 
able  and  inclined  to  apply  his  mind  to  one,  and  but  one,  subject 
for  the  lime  being,  till  it  is  finished ;  changes  his  mental  opera- 
tions with  difficulty;  is  often  proli.x.  Full,  is  disposed  to 
attend  to  but  one  thing  at  once,  yet  can  turn  rapidly  from  thing 
to  thing;  is  neither  disconnected  nor  prolix.  Average,  pos- 
sesses this  power  to  some,  though  to  no  great,  extent.  Moder- 
ate, loves  and  indulges  variety  and  change  of  thought,  feeling, 
occupation,  etc.;  is  not  confused  by  theni ;  rather  lacks  applica- 
tion ;  has  intensity,  but  not  unity,  of  the  mental  action.  Small, 
craves  novelty  and  variety ;  has  little  application ;  thinks  and 
feels  intensely,  yet  not  long  on  anything;  jumps  rapidly  from 
premise  to  conclusion  ;  fails  to  connect  and  carry  out  his  ideas. 
Very   small,  is  satisfied  only  with   constant  succession. 

E.  Vitativeness. 
Love  of  existence  as  such  ;  dread  of  annihilation.  Very 
large,  however  wretched,  shrinks  from  and  shudders  at  the 
thought  of  dying  and  being  dead  ;  feels  that  he  cannot  give  up 
existence.  Large,  loves  and  clings  tenaciously  to  existence 
for  its  own  sake ;  craves  immortality  and  dreads  annihilation, 
even  though  miserable.  Full,  desires  life,  but  not  eagerly, 
from  love  of  it  and  of  pleasure.  Average,  is  attached  to  life 
and  fears  death,  yet  not  a  great  deal.  Moderate,  loves  life, 
yet  is  not  very  anxious  about  living.  Small  or  very  small, 
heeds  not  life  or  death,  existence  or  annihilation. 

6.  Combativeness. 
Feeling  of  resistance,  defence,  opposition,  boldness,  willing- 
ness to  encounter,  courage,  resentment,  spirit.    Very  large,  is 


powerful  in  opposition,  prone  to  dispute,  attack,  etc.;  contrary ; 
has  violent  temper,  governs  it  with  ditliculty.  Large,  is  res- 
olute and  courageous,  spirited  and  efficient  as  an  opponent, 
quick  and  intrepid  in  resistance,  loves  debate,  boldly  meets,  if 
he  does  not  court,  opposition.  Full,  seldom  either  courts  or 
shrinks  from  opposition  ;  when  roused,  is  quite  energetic;  may 
be  quick-tempered,  yet  is  not  contentious.  Average,  is  pacific, 
but  when  driven  to  it,  defends  his  rights  boldly.  Moderate, 
avoids  collision ;  is  rather  pacific  and  inefficient.  Small,  has 
feeble  resistance,  temper,  force,  etc.;  is  cowardly.  Very 
small,  withstands  nothing;  is  chicken-hearted,  an  arrant 
cow.ird. 

1.  Destructiveness- 
Executiveness,  indignation,  force,  severity,  sternness ;  a 
destroying,  pain-causing  disposition.  Very  large,  when  pro- 
voked, is  vindictive,  cruel,  disposed  to  hurt,  take  revenge,  etc.; 
bitter  and  implacable  as  an  enemy ;  very  forcible.  Large,  when 
excited,  feels  deep-toned  indignation  ;  is  forcible,  and  disposed 
to  subdue  or  destroy  the  cause  of  his  displeasure.  Full,  can, 
but  is  loth  to,  cause  or  witness  pain  or  death  ;  has  sufficient 
severity,  yet  requires  considerable  to  call  it  out.  Average,  has 
not  really  deficient,  yet  none  too  much,  indignation.  Moderate, 
is  mild,  not  severe  or  destructive  enough ;  when  angry,  lacks 
power;  can  hardly  cause  or  witness  pain  or  death.  Small, 
would  hardly  hurt  one  if  he  could,  or  could  if  he  wuuld  ; 
has  so  feeble  anger  that  it  is  derided  more  than  feared. 
Very  small,  is  unable  to  cause,  witness  or  endure  pain  or 
death. 

8.  -AJimentiveness. 
Appetite  for  sustenance ;  cause  of  hunger.  Very  large, 
sets  too  much  by  the  indulgence  of  his  palate ;  eats  with  the 
keenest  appetite ;  perhaps  "  makes  a  god  of  his  belly."  Large, 
has  an  excellent  appetite,  a  hearty  relish  for  food,  drink,  etc. ; 
enjoys  them  much;  is  a  good  liver;  not  dainty.  Full,  has 
a  good  appetite,  yet  can  govern  it;  is  not  greedy.  Average, 
enjoys  food  well,  but  not  very  well;  hence  is  particular. 
Moderate,  has  not  a  good,  nor  very  poor,  but  rather. poor, 
appetite.  Small  or  very  small,  is  dainty,  mincing,  particu- 
lar about  food  •  eats  with  little  relish. 

O.  Acqtiisitiveness. 

Lxive  of  acquiring  and  possessing  property  as  such  ;  desire  to 
save,  lay  up,  etc. ;  innate  feeling  of  mine  and  thine,  of  a  right 
to  possess  and  dispose  of  things.  Very  large,  makes  money 
his  idol ;  grudges  it ;  is  tempted  to  get  it  dishonestly ;  penurious, 
sordid,  covetous,  etc.  Large,  has  a  strong  desire  to  acquire 
property  ;  is  frugal,  saving  of  money,  close  and  particular  in  his 
dealings,  devoted  to  money-making,  trading,  etc.;  generally 
gets  the  value  of  his  money.  Full,  values  property,  both  for 
itself  and  what  it  procures,  yet  is  not  penurious  ;  is  industrious 
and  saving,  yet  supplies  his  wants.  Average,  loves  money, 
but  not  greatly  ;  can  make  it,  but  spends  freely.  Moderate, 
finds  it  more  diflicult  to  keep  than  to  make  money ;  desires  it 
more  to  supply  wants  than  to  l.iy  up;  is  hardly  saving  enough. 
Small,  will  spend  money  injudiciously ;  lays  up  little ;  disre- 
gards the  prices  of  things.  Very  small,  cannot  be  taught  the 
value  or  use  of  money. 


vl 


540 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


10.  Secretiveness. 

Desire  and  ability  to  secrete,  conceal,  etc.  Very  large, 
seldom  appears  what  he  is,  or  says  what  he  means ;  often  equiv- 
ocates and  deceives;  is  mysterious,  dark,  cunning,  artful,  given 
to  double-dealing,  eye-service,  etc.  Large,  seldom  discloses 
his  plans,  opinions,  etc. ;  is  hard  to  be  found  out ;  reserved  ; 
non-committal.  Full,  can  keep  to  himself  what  he  wishes  to, 
yet  is  not  cunning.  Average,  is  not  artful  nor  very  frank ;  is 
generally  open  ;  can  conceal.  Moderate,  is  quite  candid  and 
open-hearted;  loves  truth;  dislikes  concealment,  underhand 
measures,  etc. ;  seldom  employs  them.  Small,  speaks  out 
just  what  he  thinks;  acts  as  he  feels;  does  not  wish  to  learn  or 
tell  the  secrets  of  others,  yet  freely  tells  his  own  ;  is  too  plain- 
spoken  and  candid.     Very  small,  has  a  transparent  heart. 

11.  Cautiousness. 

Carefulness;  provision  against  danger.  Very  large,  hesi- 
tates too  much;  suffers  greatly  from  groundless  fears;  is  timid, 
easily /rightened,  etc.  Large,  is  always  watchful ;  on  the  look- 
out ;  careful,  anxious,  solicitous ;  provident  against  real  and 
imaginary  danger,  etc.  Full,  has  prudence  and  forethought, 
yet  not  too  much.  Average,  has  some  caution,  yet  hardly 
enough  for  success.  Moderate,  is  rather  imprudent,  hence 
unlucky ;  liable  to  misfortunes  caused  by  carelessness ;  plans 
too  imperfectly  for  action.  Small,  acts  impromptu  ;  disregards 
consequences ;  fears  nothing ;  is  imprudent,  luckless,  often  in 
hot  water.     Very  small,  is  destitute  of  fear  and  forethought. 

12.  Approbativeness. 

Sense  of  honor ;  regard  for  character ;  ambition  ;  love  of 
popularity,  fame,  distinction,  etc.  Very  large,  regards  his 
honor  and  character  as  the  apple  of  his  eye ;  is  even  morbidly 
sensitive  to  praise  and  censure;  over-fond  of  show,  fashion, 
prai,->e,  style,  etc.;  extremely  polite,  ceremonious,  etc.  Large, 
sets  everything  by  character,  honor,  etc.;  is  keenly  alive  to  the 
frowns  and  smiles  of  public  opinion,  praise,  etc.;  tries  to  show 
off  to  good  advantage ;  is  affable,  ambitious,  apt  to  praise  himself 
Full,  desires  and  seeks  popularity  and  feels  censure,  yet  will 
neither  deny  nor  trouble  himself  to  secure  or  avoid  either. 
Average,  enjoys  approbation,  yet  will  not  sicnfice  much  to 
obtain  it.  Moderate,  feels  reproach  some,  yet  is  little  affected 
by  popularity  or  unpopularity  ;  may  gather  the  flowers  of  applause 
that  are  strewed  in  his  path,  yet  will  not  deviate  from  it  to  col- 
lect them.  Small,  cares  little  for  popular  frowns  or  favors ;  feels 
little  shame;  disregards  and  despises  fashion>,  etiquette,  etc.;  is 
not  polite.     Very  small,  cares  nothing  for  popular  favor. 

13.  Self-Esteem. 
.Self-respect ;  high-toned,  manly  feeling;  innate  love  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  independence,  etc. ;  pride  of  character.  Very 
large,  has  unbounded  self-confidence;  endures  no  restraint; 
takes  no  advice  ;  is  rather  haughty,  imperious,  etc.  Large,  is 
high-minded,  independent,  self-confident,  dignified,  his  own 
master;  aspires  to  be  and  do  something  worthy  of  himself; 
assumes  responsibilities  ;  does  few  little  things.  Full,  has  much 
self-respect;  pride  of  character;  independence.  Average, 
respects  himself,  yet  is  not  haughty.  Moderate,  has  some  self- 
respect  and  manly  feeling,  yet  too  little  to  give  ease,  dignity. 


weight  of  character,  etc. ;  is  too  trifling.  Small,  lets  himself 
down;  says  and  does  trifling  things  ;  associates  with  inferiors; 
is  not  looked  up  to  ;  lacks  independence.  Very  small,  is  ser- 
vile, low-minded,  destitute  of  self-respect. 

14.  Firmness. 
Decision,  stability,  fixedness  of  character,  etc.  Very  large, 
is  wilful,  and  so  tenacious  and  unchangeable  of  opinion,  pur- 
pose, etc.,  that  he  seldom  gives  up  anything.  Large,  may  be 
fully  relied  on ;  is  set  in  his  own  way ;  hard  to  be  convinced  or 
changed  at  all ;  holds  on  long  and  hard.  Full,  has  persever- 
ance enough  for  ordinary  occasions,  yet  too  little  for  great 
enterprises;  is  neither  fickle  nor  stubborn.  Average,  has  some 
decision,  yet  too  little  for  general  success.  Moderate,  gives  over 
too  soon ;  changes  too  often  and  too  easily  ;  thus  fails  to  effect 
what  greater  firmness  would  do.  Small  or  very  small,  lacks 
perseverance ;  is  too  changeable  to  be  relied  upon. 
15.  Conscientiousness. 
Innate  feeling  of  duty,  accountability, justice,  right,  etc.;  moral 
principle ;  love  of  truth.  Very  large,  is  scrupulously  exact  in 
matters  of  right ;  perfectly  honest  in  motive  ;  always  condemn- 
ing self  and  repenting ;  makes  duty  everything,  expediency 
nothing.  Large,  is  honest ;  faithful ;  upright  at  heart ;  moral 
in  feeling ;  grateful ;  penitent ;  means  well ;  consults  duty 
before  expediency;  loves,  and  means  to  .speak,  the  truth;  cannot 
tolerate  wrong.  Full,  strives  to  do  right,  yet  sometimes  yields 
to  temptation ;  resists  besetting  sins,  but  may  be  overcome,  and 
then  feels  remorse.  Average,  has  right  intentions,  but  their 
influence  is  hmited.  Moderate,  has  considerable  regard  for 
duty  in  feeling,  but  less  in  practice;  justifies  himself;  is  not  very 
penitent,  grateful  or  forgiving;  often  temporizes  with  principle; 
sometimes  lets  interest  rule  duty.  Small,  has  few  conscientious 
scruples;  little  regard  for  moral  principle,  justice,  duty,  etc. 
Very  small,  does  not  feel  the  claims  of  duty  or  justice. 

16.  Hope. 

Anticipation ;  expectation  of  future  happiness,  success,  etc. 
Very  large,  has  unbounded  hope-s;  builds  castles  in  the  air. 
Large,  expects,  attempts  and  promises  a  great  deal ;  is  gener- 
ally sanguine,  cheerful,  etc. ;  rises  above  present  troubles ; 
though  disappointed,  hopes  on  still ;  views  the  brightest  side  of 
prospects.  Full,  is  quite  sanguine,  yet  realizes  about  what  he 
expects.  Average,  has  some,  but  reasonable,  hopes  ;  is  seldom 
elated.  Moderate,  expects  and  attempts  too  little;  succeeds 
beyond  his  hopes ;  is  prone  to  despond ;  looks  on  the  darker  side. 
Small,  is  low-spirited ;  easily  discouraged ;  fears  the  worst ; 
sees  many  lions  in  his  way ;  magnifies  evils ;  lacks  enterprise. 
Very  small,  expects  nothing  good  ;  has  no  hope  of  the  future. 

17.  Spirituality. 
Belief  in  the  supernatural ;  credulity.  Very  large,  is 
very  superstitious  ;  regards  most  things  with  wonder.  Large, 
believes  and  delights  in  the  supernatural,  in  dreams,  ghosts,  etc. ; 
thinks  many  natural  things  supernatural.  Full,  is  open  to 
conviction  ;  rather  credulous  ;  believes  in  divine  providences, 
forewarnings,  the  wonderful,  etc.  Average,  believes  some, 
but  not  much,  in  wonders,  forewarnings,  etc.  Moderate,  be- 
lieves but  little  that  cannot  be  accounted  for  yet  is  open  to 

N| 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


541 


conviction ;  is  incredulous,  but  listens  to  evidence.  Small, 
is  convinced  only  with  difficulty ;  believes  nothing  till  he  sees 
facts,  or  why  and  wherefore,  not  even  revelation  farther  than  a 
reason  is  rendered;  is  prone  to  reject  new  things  without  exam- 
ination.     Very  small,  believes  little  else  than  his  senses. 

18.  Veneration. 

The  feeling  of  worship  for  a  .Sviprenie  Being ;  respect  for 
religion  and  things  sacred,  and  for  superiors.  Very  large, 
is  eminent,  if  not  pre-eminent,  for  piety,  heart-felt  devotion, 
religious  fervor,  seriousness,  love  of  divine  things,  etc.  Large, 
loves  to  adore  and  worship  God,  especially  through  his  works ; 
treats  equals  with  respect  and  superiors  with  deference.  Full, 
is  capable  of  much  religious  fervor  and  devotion,  yet  is  not 
habitually  serious ;  generally  treats  his  fellow-men  civilly. 
Average,  may  feel  religious  worship,  yet  little  respect  for  men. 
Moderate,  disregards  religious  creeds,  forms  of  worship,  etc. ; 
places  religion  in  other  things  ;  is  not  serious  nor  respectful. 
Small,  feels  little  religious  worship,  reverence,  respect,  etc. 
Very  small,  seldom  if  ever  adores  God. 

19.  Benevolence. 

Desire  to  see  and  make  sentient  beings  happy ;  kindness. 
Very  large,  does  all  the  good  in  his  power;  gladly  sacrifices 
self  upon  the  altar  of  pure  benevolence ;  scatters  happiness 
wherever  he  goes;  is  one  of  the  kindest-hearted  of  persons. 
Large,  is  kind,  obliging;  glad  to  serve  others,  even  to  his 
injury  ;  feels  lively  sympathy  for  distress ;  does  good  to  all. 
Full,  has  a  fair  share  of  sympathetic  feeling,  and  some,  though 
not  great,  willingness  to  sacrifice  for  others.  Average,  has 
kind  fellow-feeling  without  much  active  benevolence.  Moder- 
ate, has  some  benevolent  feeling,  yet  too  little  to  prompt  to 
much  self-denial ;  does  good  only  when  he  can  without  cost. 
Small,  feels  little  kindness  or  sympathy ;  is  almost  deaf  to  the 
cries  of  distress ;  hard-hearted,  selfish,  etc.  Very  small,  is 
destitute  of  all  humanity  and  sympathy. 

20.  Constructiveness. 

Mechanical  dexterity  and  ingenuity ;  desire  and  ability  to  use 
tools,  build,  invent,  employ  machinery,  etc.  Very  large,  is  a 
mechanic  of  the  first  order;  a  true  genius.  Large,  shows  great 
natural  dexterity  in  using  tools,  executing  mechanical  opera- 
tions, working  machinery,  etc.;  loves  them.  Full,  has  fair 
mechanical  ingenuity,  yet  no  great  natural  talent  or  desire  to 
make  things;  with  practice  will  do  well;  without  it,  little. 
Average,  has  some,  yet  not  great,  relish  for  and  tact  in  using 
tools.  .Moderate,  with  much  practice,  may  use  tools  quite 
well,  yet  dislikes  mechanical  operations;  owes  more  to  art  than 
nature.  Small,  hates,  and  is  awkward  and  bungling  in,  using 
tools,  etc.     Very  small,  has  no  mechanical  skill  or  desire. 

21.  Ideality. 

Imagination ;  taste ;  fancy  ;  love  of  perfection ;  poetry,  polite 
literature,  oratory,  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  art,  etc.  Very 
large,  often  gives  rein  to  his  erratic  imagination;  experiences 
revellings  of  fancy,  ecstasy,  rapture  of  feeling,  enthusiasm. 
Large,  has  a  lively  imagination  ;  great  love  of  poetry,  elo- 
quence, fiction,  good  .style,  the  beauties  of  nature  and  art. 
Full,  has  refinement  of  feeling,   expression,  etc.,  without  sickly 


delicacy;  some  love  of  poetry,  yet  not  a  vivid  imagination. 
Average,  has  some  taste,  though  not  enough  to  influence  him 
much.  Moderate,  has  some,  but  not  much  imagination  ;  is 
rather  plain  in  expression,  manners,  feeling,  etc. ;  dislikes 
poetry,  finery,  etc.  Small,  or  very  small,  lacks  taste,  niceness, 
refinement,  delicacy  of  feeling,  etc. 

B.  Sublimity. 

Conception  of  grandeur;  sublime  emotions  excite<l  by  con- 
templating the  vast,  magnificent  or  splendid  in  nature  or  art. 
Very  large,  is  a  passionate  admirer  of  the  wild  and  romantic; 
feels  the  sublimest  emotions  while  contemplating  the  grand  or 
awful  in  nature.  Large,  admires  and  enjoys  scenery,  a 
vast  prospect,  etc.,  exceedingly;  hence,  enjoys  travelling.  Full, 
enjoys  magnificent  scenes  well,  yet  not  remarkably  so.  Aver- 
age, sometimes,  but  not  to  a  great  degree,  experiences  this 
feeling.  Moderate,  has  some,  though  not  at  all  vivid,  emo- 
tions of  this  kind.  Small  or  very  small,  discovers  little  to 
awaken  this  feeling. 

22.  Imitation. 

Disposition  and  ability  to  take  pattern,  imitate.  Very  large, 
can  mimic,  act  out  and  copy  almost  anything ;  describe,  relate 
anecdotes,  etc.,  to  the  very  life;  has  a  theatrical  taste  and  talent; 
seldom  speaks  without  gesturing.  Large,  has  a  great  propen- 
sity and  ability  to  copy,  take  pattern  from  others,  do  what  he 
sees  done,  etc. ;  needs  but  one  showing ;  gesticulates  much ; 
describes  and  .icts  out  well.  Full,  with  effort,  copies  some,  but 
not  well;  cannot  mimic.  Average,  copies  some,  yet  too  little 
to  deserve  or  excite  notice  Moderate,  cannot  mimic  at  all; 
can  copy,  draw,  take  pattern,  etc.,  only  with  difficulty  ;  describes, 
relates  anecdotes,  etc.,  poorly.  Small,  dislikes  and  fails  to  copy, 
draw,  do  after  others,  etc.  Very  small,  has  little  ability  to 
imitate  or  copy  anything. 

23.  MLrthfulness. 

Intuitive  perception  of  the  absurd  and  ridiculous ;  a  joking, 
fun-making,  ridiculing  disposition  and  ability.  Very  large,  is 
quick  and  apt  at  turning  everything  into  ridicule,  throws  off 
constant  sallies  of  wit ;  is  too  facetious,  jocose,  etc.  Large, 
has  a  quick,  keen  perception  of  the  ludicrous  ;  makes  a  great 
amount  of  fun  ;  too  much  for  his  own  good ;  is  quick  at  repartee ; 
smiles  often;  laughs  heartily  at  jokes.  Full,  lias  much  mirth- 
ful feeling;  makes  and  relishes  jokes  well.  Average,  perceives 
jokes,  and  relishes  fun,  but  cannot  make  much.  Moderate, 
has  some  witty  ideas,  yet  lacks  quickness  in  conceiving,  and  tact 
in  expressing  them ;  is  generally  quite  sober.  Small,  makes 
little  fun  ;  is  slow  to  perceive,  and  still  slower  to  turn  jokes; 
seldom  laughs ;  thinks  it  wrong  to  do  so.  Very  small,  has 
few  if  any  wilty  ideas  or  conceptions. 

24.  Individuality. 
Observing  and  individualizing  power  and  desire ;  curiosity  to 
see  and  know;  disposition  to  specify,  personify.  Very  large, 
has  an  ins.atiable  desire  to  see  and  know  eveni'thing  ;  extraor- 
dinary observing  powers ;  is  eager  to  witness  every  passing  event. 
Large,  has  a  great  desire  to  know,  investigate,  examine,  ex- 
perience, etc. ;  is  a  great  observer  of  men  and  things ;  quick  of 
perception;  sees  what  is  transpiring,  what  should  be  done,  etc. 


\^ 


IV 


542 


~7\ 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


Full,  has  fair  observing  powers,  and  desire  to  see  things. 
Average,  has  some,  yet  no  great,  curiosity  and  desire  to  see 
things.  Moderate,  is  rather  deficient,  yet  not  palpably  so,  in 
observing  power  and  desire;  not  sufficiently  specific.  Small, 
is  slow  to  see  things;  attends  little  to  particulars.  Very  small, 
sees  scarcely  anything ;  regards  things  in  the  gross. 

25.  Form. 

Cognizance  and  recollection  of  shape  or  configuration.  Very 
large,  never  forgets  the  countenance,  form,  etc.,  of  persons  and 
things  seen ;  easily  learns  to  read  and  spell  correctly  ;  reads  and 
sees  things  at  a  great  distance;  has  excellent  eyesight.  Large, 
notices,  and  for  a  long  time  remembers,  the  faces,  countenances, 
forms,  looks,  etc.,  of  persons,  beasts,  things,  etc.,  once  seen  ; 
knows  by  sight  many  whom  he  may  be  unable  to  name.  Full, 
recognizes  persons,  countenances,  etc.,  well.  Average,  recol- 
lects forms,  faces,  etc.,  quite  well,  but  not  very  well.  Moder- 
ate, must  see  persons  several  times  before  he  can  recollect 
them  ;  sometimes  doubts  whether  he  has  seen  certain  persons. 
Small  or  very  small,  has 
a  miserable  memory  of  per- 
sons, looks,  shapes,  etc. ; 
fails  to  recognize  even  those 
he  sees  often. 

26.  Size. 

Cognizance  and  knowl- 
edge of  relative  magnitude, 
bulk,  etc.  Very  large, 
detects  disproportion,  and 
judges  of  size,  with  won- 
derful accuracy,  by  intui- 
tion, and  as  well  without 
as  with  instruments;  cannot 
endure  inaccuracy.  Large, 
has  an  e.xcellent  eye  for 
measuring  proportion,  size, 
height,  angles,  perpendic- 
ulars, etc. ;  quickly  detects  disproportions  in  them.  Full, 
can  measure  ordinary  and  familiar  distances  well,  yet  shows  no 
remarkable  natural  talent  in  it.  Average,  measures  bulk  with 
tolerable,  though  not  great,  accuracy.  Moderate,  is  rather  de- 
ficient in  measuring  by  the  eye  ;  with  practice,  may  do  tolerably 
'  well  in  short,  but  fails  in  long,  distances.  Small,  judges  of 
relative  size,  etc.,  very  inaccurately.  Very  small,  can  hardly 
(li.stinguish  mountains  from  molehills. 

27.  ■Weight. 

Intuitive  perception  and  application  of  the  principles  of  spe- 
cific gravity,  projectile  forces,  momentum,  balancing,  resistance. 
Very  large,  has  this  power  to  a  wonderful  extent.  Large,  can 
walk  on  a  high  or  narrow  place ;  hold  a  steady  hand,  throw  a 
stone  or  ball,  and  shoot,  straight;  ride  a  fractious  horse,  etc., 
very  well.  Full,  keeps  his  centre  of  gravity  well,  but  ventures 
little.  Average,  balances  himself  tolerably  well  in  ordinary 
cases,  yet  has  no  great  natural  talent  in  this  respect.  Moderate, 
maintains  his  centre  of  gravity,  etc.,  rather  poorly 
very  small,  is  unlike  one  with  Weight  large. 


FIG.    5.      THE  PHRENOLOGICAL  ORGANS,    AS   NUMBERED   AND    DESCRIBED, 


Small  or 


28.  Color. 

Perception  and  recollection  of  colors,  hues,  tints,  etc.  Very 
large,  resembles  one  with  Color  large,  but  excels  him.  Large, 
has  taste  and  talent  for  comparing,  arranging,  mingling,  apply- 
ing and  recollecting  colors ;  is  delighted  with  paintings.  Full, 
with  practice,  compares  and  judges  of  colors  well ;  without  it, 
does  not  excel.  Average,  can  discern  and  recollect  colors,  yet 
seldom  notices  them.  Moderate,  aided  by  practice,  can  discern 
and  compare  colors,  yet  owes  less  to  nature  than  art ;  seldom 
notices  colors  unless  obliged  to,  and  then  soon  forgets  them. 
Small,  seldom  observes  the  color  of  one's  hair,  eyes,  dress,  etc.; 
cannot  describe  persons  by  what  they  wear,  or  compare  colors 
apart ;  hardly  distinguishes  primary  colors  by  candlelight.  Very 
small,  can  tell  white  from  black,  but  do  little  more. 

29.  Order. 

System ;  physical  arrangement ;  a  place  for  things.  Very 
large,  is  very  precise  and  particular  to  have  every  little  tiling 
in  its  place  ;  literally  tomiented  by  disorder ;  is  fastidious.  Large, 

has  a  place  for  things,  and 
things  in  their  places ;  can 
find,  even  in  the  dark, 
what  he  alone  uses ;  is  sys- 
tematic ;  annoyed  by  dis- 
order. Full,  likes  order ; 
takes  much  pains  to  keep 
things  arranged.  Average, 
appreciates  order,  yet  not 
enough  to  keep  it.  Mod- 
erate, likes  but  does  not 
keep  order;  allows  con- 
fusion. Small  or  very 
small,  is  nearly  destitute 
of  order. 

30.  Calculation. 

Intuitive  perception  of 
the  relations  of  numbers; 
ability  to  reckon  figures  in  the  head;  numerical  computation. 
Very  large,  has  an  intuitive  faculty  of  reckoning  even  compli- 
cated sums  of  figures  in  his  head ;  delights  in  it.  Large;  can 
add,  subtract,  divide,  etc.,  in  his  head,  with  facility  and  correct- 
ness ;  become  a  rapid,  correct  accountant ;  delights  and  excels  in 
arithmetic.  Full,  aided  by  rules  and  practice  may  excel  in 
reckoning  figures,  and  do  well  in  his  head,  but  not  without 
them.  Average,  by  practice  and  rules  may  reckon  figures 
quite  well.  Moderate,  does  sums  in  his  head  rather 
slowly  and  inaccurately.  Small,  is  dull  and  incorrect  in  add- 
ing, dividing,  etc.;  dislikes  it.     Very  small,  can  hardly  count. 

31.  Locality. 
Cognizance  and  recollection  of  relative  position,  looks  and 
geography  of  places,  etc.;  desire  to  travel,  see  the  world,  etc. 
Very  large,  never  forgets  the  looks,  location  or  geography  of 
anyplace,  or  even  thing,  he  has  ever  seen;  is  even  passion- 
ately fond  of  travelling,  scenery,  geography,  etc.  Large,  rec- 
ollects distinctly  the  looks  of  places  where  he  saw  things,  etc.; 
seldom  loses  himself,  even  in  the  dark  ;   has  a   strong  desire  to 


/ 


_\J 


V 


/■ 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


543 


travel,  see  places,  etc.  Full,  remembers  places  well,  yet  is  lia- 
ble to  lose  himself  in  a  city  or  forest ;  ordinarily  shows  no  defi- 
ciency; seldom  loses  himself.  Average,  has  a  fair,  though  not 
excellent,  recollection  of  places.  Moderate,  recollects  places 
rather  poorly  ;  sometimes  gets  lost.  Small  or  very  small,  sel- 
dom observes  where  lie  goes,  or  finds  his  way  back. 

32.  Eventuality. 
Recollection  of  actions,  phenomena,  occurrences,  what  has 
taken  place,  circumstantial  and  historical  facts.  Very  large, 
never  forgets  any  occurrence,  even  though  it  is  trifling ;  has  a 
craving  thirst  for  information  and  experiment ;  literally  devours 
books,  newspapers,  etc.;  commands  an  astonishing  amount  of 
information.  Large,  has  a  clear  and  retentive  memory  of  his- 
torical facts,  general  news,  what  he  has  seen,  heard,  read,  etc., 
even  in  detail.  Full,  recollects  leading  events,  and  interesting 
particulars,  and  has  a  good  memory  of  occurrences,  yet  forgets 
less  important  details.  Average,  has  neither  a  good  nor  bad 
memory  of  occurrences,  etc.  Moderate,  recollects  generals, 
not  details;  is  rather  forgetful.  Small,  has  a  treacherous,  con- 
fused memory.     Very  small,  forgets  almost  everything. 

33.  Time. 

Cognizance  and  recollection  of  succession,  the  lapse  of  time, 
dates,  how  long  ago  things  occuned,  etc.  Very  large,  remem- 
bers with  wonderful  accuracy  tlie  time  of  occurrences ;  is  punc- 
tual ;  tells  the  time  of  day,  etc.,  by  intuition.  Large,  tells  dates, 
appointments,  ages,  time  of  day,  etc.,  well.  Full,  recollects 
about,  but  not  precisely,  when  things  occurred.  Average, 
notices  and  remembers  dates,  times,  etc.,  some,  but  not  well. 
Moderate,  has  rather  a  poor  idea  of  dates,  the  time  when,  etc. 
Small,  can  seldom  tell  when  things  took  place ;  forgets  dates. 
Very  small,  is  liable  to  forget  even  his  age. 

34.  Tune. 

Tone;  sense  of  melody  and  musical  harmony;  ability  to  learn 
tunes  and  detect  chord  and  discord  by  ear ;  propensity  to  sing. 
Very  large,  learns  tunes  by  hearing  them  sung  once  or 
twice;  is  literally  enchanted  by  good  music;  shows  intuitive 
skill,  and  spends  much  time  in  making  it ;  sings  from  the  heart, 
and  with  melting  pathos.  Large,  easily  catches  tunes ;  learns 
to  sing  and  play  on  instruments  by  rote  ;  delights  in  singing ; 
has  a  correct  musical  ear.  Full,  can  learn  tunes  by  ear  well, 
yet  needs  help  from  notes.  Average,  likes  music ;  with  prac- 
tice, may  perform  tolerably  well.  Moderate,  aided  by  notes 
and  practice,  may  sing,  yet  it  will  be  mechanically  ;  lacks  that 
soul  and  feeling  which  reaches  the  heart.  Small,  learns  to 
sing  or  play  tunes  either  by  note  or  rote  with  great  difticulty; 
sings  mechanically,  and  without  emotion  or  effect.  Very  small, 
can  hardly  discern  one  tune  or  note  from  another. 
35.    LangTiage. 

Power  of  expressing  ideas,  feelings,  etc.,  by  means  of  words; 
ability  to  talk.  Very  large,  h.as,  by  nature,  astonishing  com- 
mand of  words,  copiousness  and  eloquence  of  expression,  and 
verbal  memory ;  ([uotcs  with  ease ;  is  an  incessant  talker ;  has 
too  many  words.  Large,  is  a  free,  easy,  ready,  fluent  talker  and 
speaker ;  uses  good  language ;  commits  easily ;  seldom  hesi- 
tates for  words.      Full,  commands  a  fair  share  of  words,  yet 


uses  famihar  expressions;  is  neither  fluent  nor  the  reverse;  when 
excited,  expresses  himself  freely,  yet  not  copiously.  Average, 
can  communicate  his  ideas  tolerably  well,  yet  finds  some  didi- 
culty ;  uses  common  words  ;  can  write  better  than  speak.  Mod- 
erate, often  hesitates  for  words ;  employs  too  few ;  may  write 
well,  and  be  a  critical  linguist,  but  cannot  be  an  easy,  fluent 
speaker.  Small,  employs  few  words,  and  those  commonplace  ; 
in  speaking,  hesitates  much  ;  is  barren  in  expression  ;  commits 
slowly.       Very  small,  can  hardly  remember  or  use  words. 

36.  Causality. 
Cognizance  of  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect ;  ability  to 
apply  them,  or  to  adapt  means  to  ends ;  power  of  reasoning, 
etc.  Very  large,  is  endowed  with  a  deep,  strong,  original, 
comprehensive  mind,  powerful  reasoning  faculties,  great  vigor 
and  energy  of  thought,  first-rate  judgment,  and  a  gigantic  intel- 
lect. Large,  plans  well;  can  think  clearly  and  closely;  is 
always  enquiring  into  the  why  and  the  wherefore,  tlie  causes  and 
explanation  of  things;  always  gives  and  requires  the  reason;  has 
by  nature  excellent  judgment,  good  ideas,  a  strong  mind,  etc. 
Full,  adapts  means  to  ends  well ;  has  an  active  desire  to  ascer- 
tain causes,  yet  not  a  deep,  original,  cause-discovering  and  ap- 
plying mind.  Average,  has  some,  but  not  great,  ability  to  plan 
and  reason.  Moderate,  is  rather  slow  of  comprehension  ;  defi- 
cient in  adapting  means  to  ends;  has  not  good  ide.as  or  judg- 
ment. Small,  has  a  weak,  imbecile  mind;  cannot  contrive  or 
think.     Very  small,  little  idea  of  causation;  is  a  natural  fool. 

37.  Comparison. 

Perception  of  analogies,  resemblances,  differences  ;  ability  to 
compare,  illustrate,  criticise,  classify,  generalize,  etc.  Very 
large,  is  endowed  with  an  extraordinai^  amount  of  critical 
acumen,  analytical,  comparing  and  illustrating  power.  Large, 
has  a  happy  talent  for  comp.aring,  illustrating,  criticising,  argu- 
ing from  similar  cases,  discriminating  between  what  is  and  is 
not  analogous  or  in  point,  classifying  phenomena,  and  thereby 
ascertaining  their  laws,  etc.  Full,  illustrates,  discriminates,  etc., 
well,  but  not  remarkably  so.  Average,  perceives  striking  anal- 
ogies ;  illustrates  tolerably  well.  Moderate,  may  discern 
obvious  similarities,  yet  riverlooks  others.  Small  or  very 
small,  is  almost  destitute  of  this  power. 

C.  HLiman  Nature. 

Discernment  of  character  and  perception  of  motive.  Large 
or  very  large,  perceives,  as  if  by  intuition,  the  character  and 
motives  of  men  from  their  physiognomy,  conversation,  etc. ;  is 
suspicious,  and  seldom  deceived ;  naturally  understands  human 
nature.  Moderate  or  small,  seldom  suspects  others ;  is  easily 
imposed  upon,  learns  human  nature  slowly ;  does  not  know  well 
how  to  t.ake  men. 

D.  Suavity. 

Ability  to  render  oneself  agreeable ;  pleasantness.  Large 
or  very  large,  readily  wins  confidence  and  aflfcction,  even  of 
enemies ;  can  say  and  do  hard  things  without  creating  difliculty  ; 
obtain  favors;  get  along  well;  so  say  and  do  things  that  they 
take.  Average  or  full,  neither  excels  nor  is  deficient  in  this 
respect.  Moderate  or  small,  is  deficient  in  the  power  de- 
scribed ;  says  pleasant  things  unpleasantly,  and  does  not  succeed 
in  winning  people's  good  graces. 


\L 


-M 


,>• 


544 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


88030 


^%N^ 


®D£r  ®nc  %ni)reb  ©Ijousanb  Important  K£f£r£nc£s,  arrangfi)  iit  Alpljabftical  ®vhn,  mxb 
SUustratciJ  witlj  ©rtgmal  Diagrams  on  tijf  Hem  |.llan  of  (!i)bicct-Si;£aclimg. 


IRUE  statistics  are  the  record  of  in- 
dustrial history.  He  who  cannot 
read  what  is  written  between  their 
Hnes,  or  interwoven  in  their  col- 
umns, may  rest  content  with  the 
narrative  of  wars  and  dynasties,  or  of  political 
changes,  and  may  imagine  that  he  knows  the 
true  history  of  events.  But  can  he  tell  how  the 
people  lived  and  moved — how  wars  and  dynas- 
ties have  been  sustained  ?  If  he  cannot,  let  him 
study  what  figures  can  teach  to  any  one  who 
knows  how  to  master  them — the  industrial  his- 
tory of  free  nations.  The  battle  is  not  to  the 
heaviest  battalions,  but  to  the  people  who  can 
sustain  the  battalions  longest.  It  is  the  com- 
missary-general who  wins,  for  without  him  the 
master  of  the  ordnance  would  be  powerless. 
In  the  battle  of  life  it  is  the  same.  If  there  were 
no  prophecy  of  the  future  in  the  statistics  of  the 
past  and  present  there  would  be  no  meaning  to 
the  computations,  and  the  disclosures  of  the 
census  would  be  without  value. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  the  Popular  Edu- 
cator to  advance  new  theories  in  political 
economy,  or  to  discuss  theories  already  put 
forth,  but  it  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  editor 


to  present  in  small  compass,  in  compact,  acces- 
sible and  attractive  form,  a  vast  amount  of  valu- 
able information,  gathered  from  the  most  reli- 
able sources.  The  wealth  and  resources  of 
States  and  Nations,  population,  religion,  com- 
merce, labor  and  capital,  and  all  important  sub- 
jects of  discussion,  are  treated  fully  in  their 
proper  place,  while  subjects  of  minor  import- 
ance, though  often  of  equal  interest,  have  not 
been  neglected.  In  short,  the  object  of  the  fol- 
lowing Dictionary  of  Facts  and  Figures  is  to 
afford  ready  reference  on  subjects  of  statistical 
interest. 

ACQUISITION  OF  TERRITORY.— The  increase  in  area  of 
the  United  States,  by  w.ir  and  treaty,  is  shown  in  the  annexed 
table  : 


When. 

How. 

Whence. 

What. 

Sq.  Miles. 

1776) 
'783; 

IS03 

1819 

1845  

By  war 

By  treaty 

By  treaty... 
By  union. . . 
By  treaty. .  . 

England 

France  

Spain 

Mexico 

England   .. . 

Mexico 

Mexico 

Rus.sia 

f  The  thirteen  origi-  ) 
\      nal  States  a / 

82D,68o 

899.579 

06,900 

318,000 

308,052 

522,955 

45,535 

577,390 

3,559.°9i 

1846 

1846) 

'848/ 

1853 

1867 

Oregon   

f  California  &  New  1 

\      Mexicoif J 

Gadsden  Purchasey. . 

By  treaty'.. . 
By  treaty. .. 

a  Estimated  cost  of  War  of  Independence,  5i6S,ooo,coo. 
b  Purchased  for  $15,000,000.     c  Cost  ^3,000,000. 
(/  Debt  of  Texas  on  admission  into  the  Union,  $7,500,000. 
e  Estimated  cost  of  th^  Mexican  War,  $15,000,000. 
_/"Cost  ^10,000,000.    g  Cost  57,200,000. 


V- 


^. 


\ 


"Tt 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURKS. 


545 


AGE. — A  man's  working  life  is  divided  into  four  decades  : 
20  to  30,  bronze  ;  30  to  40,  silver ;  40  to  50,  gold ;  5010  60,  iron. 
Intellect  and  judgment  are  strongest  between  40  and  50.  The 
percentages  of  population  to  age  in  various  countries  are  shown 
thus: 


Country. 


United  Statc5  . 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

France  

Germany 

Italy 

.\ustria 

Greece  

Spain 

Brazil 

Belgium  .. .    . . 

Holland 

Dernuark 

Sweden 

Norway 


Percentage  of  Population. 


Under 
20  Years. 


50 
46 
46 
46 

36 
43 
44 
43 
48 
4= 
46 
40 
43 
42 
43 
43 


From 

30  to  60 


45 
47 
45 
43 
52 
49 
49 
50 
47 
52 
45 
50 
49 
50 
49 
48 


Over  60. 


Average  age 

of  all  tivlnfj 

Years. 


=4-9 
27.1 

27.4 
28.6 
32.2 
28.0 
27.6 
27-7 
25-5 
27.2 

»7-3 
29.7 

28.3 
28.4 
28.0 
28.0 


The  Americans  are  the  youngest,  ihe  French  the  oldest. 

AIR. — In  its  pure  state  air  is  composed  thus:  Nitrogen,  77  ; 
oxygen,  21 ;  other  components,  2;  total,  Itxj. 

The  percentage  0/ oxygen  varies  as  follows  :  Sea-shore,  2 1 .00 ; 
confined  houses,  20.75;  "ii"es,  20.50;  when  candles  go  out, 
1S.50. 

The  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  ranges  thus :  In  country,  .03  ; 
in  town,  .04;  in  hospitals,  .05  ;  in  fogs,  .07;  in  crowded  Lines, 
13 ;  in  theaters,  30. 

Each  adult  inhales  a  gallon  of  air  per  minute,  and  consumes 
d«ily  30  oz.  of  oxygen.  For  the  conversion  of  this  oxygen  a 
certain  amount  of  food  is  required — say  13  oz.  of  carbon  for  a 
male,  and  11  oz.  for  a  female,  equivalent  to  3  lbs.  bread  and  2^^ 
lbs.  respectively. 

ALCOHOL. — The  degrees  in  wines  and  liquors  are :  Beer, 
4.0 ;  porter,  4.5  ;  ale,  7.4;  cider,  8.6;  perry,  8.8;  elder,  9.3  ; 
Moselle,  9.6;  Tokay,  10.2;  Rhine,  II.O;  Orange,  11. 2;  Bor- 
deaux, 11. 5;  hock,  ll.6;'gooseberry,  11.8;  champagne,  12.2  ; 
claret,  13.3;  Burgundy,  13.6;  Malaga,  17.3;  Lisbon.  18.5; 
Canary,  1S.8;  sherry,  19.0 ;  Vermouth,  19.0 ;  Cape,  I9.2 ; 
Malmsey,  19.7;  Marsala,  20.2;  Madeira,  21.0;  port,  23.2; 
curacoa,  27.0;  aniseed,  33.0 ;  Maraschino,  34.0;  Chartreuse, 
43.0;  gin,  51.6;  brandy,  53.4;  rum,  53.7;  Irish  whisky,  53.9  ; 
Scotch,  54.3. 

Spirits  are  said  to  be  "proof"  when  they  contain  57  per  cent. 
The  maximum  amount  of  alcohol,  says  Parkes,  that  a  man  can 
take  daily  without  injury  to  his  health  is  that  contained  in  2  oz. 
brandy,  !+'  pt.  of  sherry,  '2  pt.  of  claret,  or  I  pt.  of  beer. 

ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS.— A  table  of  the  comparative  con- 
sumption of  alcoholic  liquors  was  Compiled  by  the  London 
Times  in  1885,  with  some  interesting  results.  The  average 
yearly  consumption  per  head  is  given  in  liters  (a  liter  is  a  little 

less  than  a  quart) : 

Spirits. 

Liters. 

Canada 3.08 

Norway 3. 90 

United  States 4.79 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 5*37 


Wine. 
Liters. 

Beer. 
Liters. 

0.29 
1.00 
2.64 
2.09 

8.51 
■  5.30 
31.30 

143-9= 

5.76 

7,28 

8.08 


Austriu-Hungiiry 

France 

Russia 

Sweden  5.,^ 

German  Zollverciti 8.60 

Belgium '. 9.20 

Switzerland 15.30 

Netherlands O.o? 

Denmark jg  .00 


22.40 

119.20 

Unknown. 

0.36 

6.00 

3-70 

55. 00 

2.57 

1. 00 


28.42 
21.10 

4.65 

II. GO 
65.00 
169.20 
37-50 
27.00 

33-33 


Belgium,  it  seems,  contains  the  greatest  number  of  beer- 
drinkers,  with  Great  Britain  second  in  this  list,  and  Germany, 
contrary  to  common  opinion,  only  third.  France  drinks  the 
mo.st  wine,  and  Switzerland  comes  next,  while  the  amount  ac- 
credited to  the  United  States,  though  comparatively  small,  yet 
exceeds  that  of  Great  Britain.  Canada  is  the  most  moderate 
drinker  of  all. 

ANIMALS. 


Rabbit  . 
Dog.... 
Sllecp  . . 

Lion  . . . 


WeiKht 
(lbs). 


Years 
of  Life. 
5 


70 
160 


Weight 

(""•)• 
Cow 750 

Ox 900 

Horse f,ooo 

Camel i  ,200 

Elephant 6,oco 


Years 
of  Life. 
25 
25 
27 
40 

XOO 


AQUEDUCTS. — Among  modern  works  the  most  famous  are: 

Length.    Million  gal's 
Miles.  daily.  Cost. 

Crolon  (New  Vork) 41  88  $9,000,000 

1^1^''"'' 47  40  11,500,000 

.Marseilles.... 51  60  2,250,000 

(jla-^Kow 34  50  7,775,000 

W  ashnigton j6  90  

Rome,  in  the  time  of  the  Cassars,  had  nine  aqueducts,  measur- 
ing 249  miles  in  the  aggregate,  and  with  a  daily  capacity  of 
320,000,000  gallons,  or  200  g.illons  per  inhabitant.  The  great 
aqueduct  of  Peru,  built  by  the  Incas,  was  360  miles  long. 

ARMY. — Proportions. — According  to  Napoleon  the  propor- 
tions of  an  army  should  be  70  per  cent  infantry,  17  per  cent 
cavalry,  and  13  per  cent  between  artillery',  engineers  and  train. 

Death  rate. — In  active  service  the  death  late  among  officers 
is  heavier  than  among  the  rank  and  file.  The  Duke  of  V/el- 
lington's  army  roll  from  l8n  to  1814  showed  the  following 
percentage  : 

„  „    ,  Officers.  Men.  ' 

Kdled   14.5 

Wounded 81.0 

Died  of  Disease 13.0 

Able-bodieil. — The  percentage  of  men  capable  of  bearing 
arms  in  various  countries  is  as  follows  :  England,  23;  Scotland, 
22;  Ireland,  22;  France,  27;  Austria,  25;  Germany,  24; 
Italy,  25  ;  Belgium,  25  ;  Holland,  25  ;  Spain,  26  ;  Denmark, 
25  ;  Sweden,  25;  Norway,  24;  United  States,  23;  Greece,  23. 

.See  diagrain  Military  and  Naval  Strength,  p.ige  335. 

ARTILLERY. — .Vt  the  close  of  the  Franco. German  war  the 
Germans  took  from  the  French  7,234  pieces  of  cannon,  includ- 
'"g  3.4S5  field  pieces  and  3,300  fortress  guns.  At  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  the  British  artillery  fired  9,467  rounds,  or  one  for 
every  Frenchman  killed.     See  Ordnance. 

AUTHORS. — Goldsmith  received  S300  for  the  "  Vicar  of 
Wakefield;"  Moore,  515,500  for  "  Lalla  Rookh ;  "  Victor 
Hugo,  Sl2,ooo  for  "  Hernani ;  "  Chateaubriand,  Juo,ooo  for 
his  works;  Lamartine,  S  16,000  for  "Travels  in  Palestine;" 
Disraeli,  $50,000  for  "  Endymion  ;  "  .Vnthony  Trallope,  $315,- 
000  for  forty-five  novels;  Lingard,  {21,500  for  his  "  History  of 
England." 


10.2 
49.0 
38.0 


/ 


-a\ 


Receipts  at]d  Expendilares  Ui][M  Stales  Goverfiniefit. 

Year  ending  June  30,  1884. 


rxT 


^^-     ueaigned  and  Engraued  expreasly  /or  Peale'a  Popular  Educator. 


546 


->3PabliG  Debts  of  VariGas  GQontries.e^- 


~A 


PER 
CAPITA. 


FOREIGN. 


(IN  DOLLARS.) 

iS8a 


UNITED    STATES. 


S"7-74 


France, 


54.683.840,000 


SJ28E;iT-4:;E 


Russia, 


4,314,607,590 


109.04 


Great  Britain, 


3,814,500,000 


H 


7=-38 


Italy, 


52,042,000,000 


37-56 


United  Slates, '  1,884,171,728 


153-34 


Spain. 


1,826,613,043 


44.65  Austria-Hungary,   1.1185424,276 


29^86        Qe^^;^^^,/i^%^ii'^ 


2.98 


51  50 


gS3S« 


33-50 


89.14 


4033 


India,  765,673,425 

Turkey,      -  532,186,170 

Eg>'Pt.     -  529.383.IS0 

Australa-sia,  449.551,245 

Portugal,    -  430.879.399 


94<'. 


64.26 


Brazil, 
Xetherlands, 
Belgium,  - 
Japan, 
41.17     Paraguay, 
83.27     Peru,     - 
I     45-77     Canada,    - 
15.43     Mexico, 
21,24     Roumania. 


409,866,550 
376,523.380 
341.917,662 
311,294,347 
251,000,000 
241,650,000 
199.861,537 
144.953.785 
125,727,822 


"^   23.77     Argentine  Rep.,  107,681,639 


34.91  Greece, 

32.35  Chili,    - 

37.72  Venezuela, 

13.72  Sweden, 
.14  China, 

107.07  Uruguay, 

23.52  Denmark, 

13.67     Nonvay, 

12.73  Servia.    - 

n  6.76     Colombia, 

n  14.42     Bolivia, 
^  16.01     Ecuador.    - 
Q    2.16     Switzerland,  - 


97,231.480 
85,762.664 
67.309.990 
63.373.292 
51,100,000 
47.861,042 
43.331.657 
27,384,000 
20,248.090 


Colorado, 
Iowa, 

Nebraska,     - 
Oregon,     - 
Kentucky,    - 
Nevada, 
Delaware,    - 
Michigan, 
Kansas, 
Florida. 
Rhode  Island 
New  Jersey, 
Wisconsin,  - 


233.688 

-  245,435 
449,267 

-  458,888 
480,394 

-  527,000 
715,000 

-  900,150 

1,181,975 
1,276,500 

1,622,500 

1,796,300 

2,250,000 

Mississippi,      -         2,685,867 

New  Hampshire,     3,387,357 

California,       -        3,396,500 

Connecticut         -     4,080,600 

Minnesota,      -    ■    4,343,251 

Texas,  -      -    4,491.100 

Indiana,    -       -     4,876,608 

Ohio,      -       -        4,901,665      I 

Arkansas,        -     5,072,492 

South  Carolina,  6,642,322 

Maine,        -         8,403,557       j? 

New  York,      -     9,109 

Alabama,    -     9,164,600 

Georgia,  -   -  9,624,135 

Mary'I.and,  -  11,257,561 


r.70 


2.37 


9.76 


3-9* 


6.SS 


s-ss 


,2.81 


2.46 


1-53 


6.32 


6.67 


12.34^ 


.055  [ 


1.79 


7.26 


_6,a4:- 


12.04 


Louisiana. 


Sin.i2r,.493 


17.15 


Missouri.    - 


16,309,000 


7.61 


Pennsylvania, 


21.105,802 


492 


TcniK.--^!' 


:£..t42,S50 


17.20 


3ES-J-'    -"  North  Carblina,^ 


.2f,3B»s3a»^ 


Virginia, 


3 1 .652.358 


20.92 


Massachusetts. 


32,511.681 


18.23 


lJ 


~^^    Designed  and  Engraved  expressly  for  Peale's  Popular  Educator. 


547 


K 


548 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


BALLOONS. — The  most  remarkable  ascents  on  record: 


Date. 

Aeronaut. 

Place  of  Ascent. 

Height. 
Yards. 

Distance. 
Miles. 

1783 

1S04 

Montgolfier 

Gay  Liissac 

Holland 

2,000 
7,700 

12,000 

Paris 

1S36 

^359 

1862 

500 
1,150 

Wise 

Wolverhampton 

During  the  siege  of  Pai-is — September,  1870,  to  February, 
1S71 — there  were  64  balloons  sent  up,  containing  91  passengers, 
354  pigeons,  and  3,000,000  letters  (weighing  9  tons). 

Mr.  Glaisher  states  that  in  3,500  balloon  ascents  only  15 
deaths  have  occurred,  that  is,  about  four  per  thousand. 

BANKING. — The  capital  employed  in  banking  in  the  prin- 
cipal countries  is  as  follows:  Great  Britain,  $4,020,000,000 ; 
United  States,  ^2,655,000,000;  Germany,  $1,425,000,000; 
France,  $1,025,000,000;  Austria,  $830,000,000  ;  Russia,  $775,- 
000,000;  Italy,  $455,000,000;  Australia,  $425,000,000;  Can- 
ada, $175,000,000. 

On  September  I,  1SS4,  there  were  2,582  national  banks  in  the 
United  States,  with  a  capital  of  $518,605,725,  and  a  surplus  of 
$147,721,475.  The  dividends  for  six  months  aggregated  $20,- 
171,668,  and  total  net  earnings  for  same  time,  $24,368,019. 

Since  1840  the  banking  of  the  world  has  increased  about 
eleven-fold,  that  is,  three  times  as  fast  as  commerce,  or  thirty 
limes  faster  tlian  population. 

height   of  barometer   varies  ac- 


Barometer. 


Degree  of 
Latitude. 

45 
50 
60 
67         .. 


BAROMETER.— The   mean 
cording  to  latitude  as  follows: 
Degree  of 
Latitude. 

10  29.98 

20         30.06 

30         30-" 

40         30.02 

It  varies  according  to  elevation  as  follows 

Feet  Mean 

above  Sea.  Baromete 

Sea  level....             o  30.0*:) 

Rome 151  2976 

Milan 420  29.45 

Moscow 984  28.82 

Geneva 1,221  28.54 

Munich 1 ,765  27-95 

Mr.    Glaisher's    barometer 


Barometer. 

30.00 
29.81 
29.80 
29.67 


Mean 
Barometer. 

27.72 

24-45 
,23.07 

22.52 

21.42 

20.75 


Feet 
above  Sea. 
Madrid ....  1,995 
St.  Remy ..  5,265 
St.  Goihard  6,808 
Mexico  ....  7,471 
Bogota  ....  8,731 
Quito 9,541 

.    his    various   balloon   ascents 

marked  as  follows :     At  a  height  of  i  mile,  24.7  in.;  2  miles, 

20.3  in. ;  3  miles,  16.7  in. ;  4  miles,  13.7  ;  5  miles,  1 1.3. 

BARRENNESS. — One  woman  in  20,  one  man  in  30 — about 
4  per  cent.  It  is  found  that  one  marriage  in  20  is  barren — 5 
per  cent.  Among  the  nobility  of  Great  Britain,  21  per  cent 
have  no  children,  owing  partly  to  intermarriage  of  cousins,  no 
less  than  \]A  per  cent  being  married  to  cousins. 

BATTLES. — The  numbers  placed  hors-de-combat  are  not  rel- 
atively so  large  as  formerly,  as  the  table  below  will  show  : 

Men  Engaged.         Hors-de-combat.  Ratio. 

Thrasymene 65,000 

Canna: 146,000 

Bannockburii 135,000 

Agincourt 62,000 

Crc>:y   117,000 

Marengo 58,000 

Austcrlitz       170,000 

Borodino 250,000 

Waterloo   145,000 

Alma 103,000 

Sadowa 402,000 

,  Gravelotte 320,000 

Gettysburg 140,000 

See  also  diagram,  page  335. 


17,000 

27  per  cent 

52,000 

34 

38,000 

28 

11,400 

18 

31,200 

27 

13.000 

23iboo 

22 
'3 

78,000 

3' 

'     , 

51,000 

35 

8,400 

8 

33.000 

8 

48,500 

'5 

8,000 

5 

BAYS. — Length  in  miles  (approximate) :  Hudson's,  about 
1,200;  Baffin's,  about  600 ;  Chesapeake,  about  250. 

BEER. — See  Alcoholic  Liquors.  See  also  diagram,  Beer 
Production. 

BEES. — The  largest  bee-owner  in  the  world  in  18S4  was 
Mr.  Harbison,  of  California,  who  had  6,000  hives,  producing 
200,000  lbs.  honey  yearly,  worth  $40,000.  There  are  in  the 
United  States  7o»ooo  bee-growers,  but  the  average  which  they 
get  from  their  hives  is  only  22  lbs.,  whereas  the  average  in 
England  is  50  lbs.,  and  some  hives  have  given  as  high  as  120 
lbs.  A  hive  consists  of  about  5,000  bees,  and  will  multiply 
ten-fold  in  five  years.  Bees  eat  20  lbs.  of  honey  in  making  a 
pound  of  wax. 

BELLS. — The  largest  bells  are  the  following,  and  their 
weight  is  given  in  tons:  Moscow,  202;  Burmah,  117;  Pekin, 
53;  Novgorod,  31;  Notre  Dame,  18;  Rouen,  iS;  Olmutz, 
iS;  Vienna,  18;  St.  Paul's,  16;  Westminster,  14;  Montreal, 
12;  Cologne,  II;  Oxford,  8;   St.  Peter's,  8. 

Bell-metal  should  have  77  parts  copper,'and  23  tin. 

BIBLE. — No  fewer  than  1,326  editions  of  the  Bible  were 
published  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  it  was  translated  and  publislied  in  many 
languages  by  tlie  polyglot  press  of  Propaganda  Fide  at  Rome. 
In  the  nineteenth  century  the  English  and  American  societies 
have  printed,  in  the  Protestant  version,  124,000,000  copies  of 
the  Bible  or  of  the  New  Testament,  viz.  :  British,  74,000,000; 
American,  32,000,000 ;  other  societies,  15,000,000  copies. 

The  King  James  version  of  the  Bible  contains  3,566,480 
letters,  773,746  words,  31,173  verses,  1,189  chapters,  and  66 
books.  The  word  and  occurs  46,277  times.  The  word  Lord 
occurs  1,855  times.  The  word  Reverend  occurs  but  once, 
which  is  in  the  gth  verse  of  the  liith  Psalm.  The  middle 
verse  is  the  8th  verse  of  the  118th  Psalm.  The  21st  verse  of 
the  7th  chapter  of  Ezra  contains  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
except  the  letter  J.  The  19th  chapter  of  H  Kings  and  the  37th 
chapter  of  Isaiah  are  alike.  The  longest  verse  is  the  gth  verse 
of  the  Sth  chapter  of  Esther.  The  shortest  verse  is  the  35th 
verse  of  the  nth  chapter  of  St.  John.  There  are  no  words  or 
names  of  more  than  six  syllables. 

BICYCLE. — The  bicycle  stands  fourth  as   regards  tiie   time 

taken  to  cover  a  mile.     The  following  table  gives  the  various 

ways  of  going  a  mile,  and  the  least  time  required  : 

Min.    Sec.  Min.   Sec. 

Locomotive 50  1-4  Running  man 4  16  1-5 

Running  horse i  393-4  Rowing 5  02  3-4 

Trottmghorse 2  09  1-4  Snow-shoes 5  393-4 

bicycle 2  39  Walking 6  23 

Skating 3  00  Swimming 12  42  1-4 

Tricycle 3  032-5 

BIRDS. — A  hawk  flies  150  miles  per  hour;  an  eider  duck, 
go  miles  ;  a  pigeon,  40  miles.     See  Carrier- Pigeons. 

BLIND. — The  number  of  blind  in  the  United  States  in  18S0 
was  48,930,  or  at  the  rate  of  97  per  100,000  population.  The 
ratio  of  sexes  was  55  male  to  45  female. 

BLOOD. — The  human  heart  beats  74  times  a  minute,  sending 
each  time  JO  lb-;,  of  blood  through  the  veins  and  arteries.  Tlie 
system  of  an  adult  averages  28  lbs.  of  blood.  The  elements  of 
human  blood  are  as  follows  : 


V 


r^ 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


549 


-7 


f  Man.    Woman. 

Water 77.8  79.6 

Albumen    6.3  6.4 

Color 14  ■  "•» 

Saline,  e(c 1.9  1.8 

100. o      loo.o 

The  amount  of  iron  in  human  blood  and  that  of  some  animals 

is  as  follows  :  Man,  0.91  oz.   per  owl. ;  ox,  I  oz. ;  pig,  1.06  oz. ; 

frog,  0.75  oz. 

BOOKS. —  The  terms  folio,  i/narto,  octavo,  etc.,  indicate  the 
number  of  leaves  into  which  a  sheet  of  paper  is  folded  in  mak- 
ing a  Iwok,  and  the  number  of  pages  in  each  sheet  is  termed  a 
signature;  and  for  convenience  in  use  the  siijnatures  in  books 
are  numbered  by  figures  jilaced  at  the  bottom  of  the  first  page  of 
the  signature.  A  folio  book  or  paper  is  made  of  sheets  folded 
in  2  leaves;  a  quarto  (or  4to)  of  sheets  folded  into  4  leaves;  an 
octavo,  8  leaves;  duodecimo  (l2mo),  12  leaves;  iSmo,  in  18 
leaves;  a  241/10,  in  24  leaves;  s.j2mo,  in  32  leaves,  etc. 

About  100  new  works  are  published  daily,  or  30,000  i>er 
annum,  without  taking  into  account  new  editions  of  old  books. 
The  annual  average  of  new  books  from  1878  to  iSSo  was  as 
follows:  Great  Britain,  5,771;  France,  7,000;  Germany,  14,- 
560 ;  United  States,  nearly  3,000.  The  number  for  the  United 
States  in  1883  had  risen  to  3,481,  and  in  1S84  over  4,000  new 
works  were  issued. 

In  the  year  690  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  gave  800  acres 
of  land  for  one  volume  of  history.  Later  on  a  pious  farmer  sold 
two  loads  of  hay  on  Cornhill  for  a  copy  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude, 
an  epistle  containing  only  twenty-five  verses.  A  devout  countess 
of  this  same  age  gave  200  sheep  and  a  large  parcel  of  rich  furs 
for  a  volume  of  sermons.  In  the  year  1420,  when  London 
Bridge  was  building,  a  Latin  Bible  cost  St 20,  which  was  more 
than  '%  cost  to  build  two  arches  of  London  Bridge.  A  laboring 
man  only  earned  three  cents  a  day  in  that  time,  and  it  would 
have  taken  the  earnings  of  fifteen  years  for  him  to  have  bought  a 
Bible.  This  will  e.xplain,  in  part,  how  it  was  that  Bibles  were 
chained  up  in  churches. 

A  good,  steady  reader  will  not  be  able  to  read  more  tlian 
thirty  pages  of  an  average  i2mo  book  in  an  hour.  Now  let  us 
suppose  the  case  of  such  a  reader ;  let  him  read  eight  hours  a 
day,  six  days  a  week,  all  the  year  round.  He  will  read  240 
pages  a  day,  1,440  pages  a  week,  making  an  average  of  three 
good-sized  volumes  of  480  pages  a  week,  or  150  volumes  per 
annum.  But  there  are  over  30,000  volumes  published  per 
annum,  so  that  the  publishers  get  ahead  of  this  reader  at  the 
rate  of  over  30,000  books  every  year.  In  the  course  of  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  this  diligent  reader,  if  he  never  fails  a  day,  is  never 
sick,  never  lakes  a  vacation,  will  have  read  only  3,750  volumes. 
Of  course  this  illustration  is  exaggerated.  No  man  could  re.id 
at  this  rate  without  becoming  raving  mad  before  the  end  of  the 
first  year.  These  figures  serve  to  show  that  a  wise  man  must  be 
content  to  leave  a  great  deal  unread.  When  we  hear  men  de- 
scribed as  bookworms,  and  others  boasting  of  being  well  read, 
we  may  well  smile  as  we  think  how  little  the  worm  hxs  been 
able  to  accomplish,  and  how  much  the  well-read  man  has  left 
unread.  The  difiicully  which  this  great  wealth  of  literature  pre- 
sents can  only  be  wisely  met  in  one  way.     We  must  be  content 


to  read  only  a  little^  but  if  our  reading  is  not  to  degenerate  into 
the  merest  idleness,  we  must  be  careful  that  the  little  we  read  is 
worth  the  time  we  give  it.  .\  man  who  will  read  and  master  a 
dozen  good  books  a  year,  will,  in  a  few  years,  be  a  well 
informed,  educated  man  ;  but  the  man  who  rushes  through  a 
great  number  of  books  for  mere  pastime  will  add  about  as  much 
to  his  mental  wealth  as  if  he  had  been  pouring  walei'  through  a 
sieve. 

BRAIN.— The  l.itest  classification  of  races,  according  to 
B.ist'ian  and  other  experts,  shows  weight  of  brain,  in  ounces,  as 
follows:  Scotch,  50.0;  Germans,  49.6;  English,  49.5  ;  French, 
47.9;  Zulus,  47.5;  Chinese,  47.2;  Pawnees,  47.1  ;  Italians, 
46.9;  Hindoo,  45.1;  Gypsy,  44.8;  Bushmen,  44.6;  Esqui- 
maux, 43.9.  Compared  with  size  of  body,  the  brain  of  the 
Esquimaux  is  as  heavy  as  the  .Scotchman's. 

The  measurement  of  that  part  of  the  skull  which  holds  the 
brain  is  stated  in  cubic  inches  thus  :  Anglo-.Saxon,  105  ;  Ger- 
man, 105;  Negro,  96;  Ancient  Egyptian,  93 ;  llotienlot,  58  ; 
Australian  native,  58. 

In  all  races  the  male  brain  is  about  10  per  cent  heavier  than 
the  female.     The  highest  class  of  apes  has  only  16  oz.  of  brain. 

A  man's  brain,  it  is  estimated,  consists  of  300,000,000  nerve 
cells,  of  which  over  3,000  are  disintegrated  and  destroyed  every 
mikiute.  Every  one,  therefore,  h.is  a  new  brain  once  in  sixty 
days.  But  excessive  labor,  or  the  lack  of  sleep,  prevents  the  re- 
pair of  the  tissues,  and  the  brain  gradually  wastes  away.  Diver- 
sity of  occupation,  by  calling  upon  different  portions  of  the  mind 
or  body,  successively  aftords,  in  some  measure,  the  requisite  re- 
pose to  each.  But  in  this  age  of  overwork  there  is  no  safety  ex- 
cept in  that  perfect  rest  which  is  the  only  natural  restorative  of 
exhausted  power.  It  has  been  noticed  by  observant  physicians 
in  their  European  travels  that  the  German  people,  who,  as  a 
rule,  have  no  ambition  and  no  hope  to  rise  above  their  inherited 
station,  are  peculiarly  free  from  nervous  diseases  ;  but  in  Amer- 
ica, where  the  struggle  for  advancement  is  sharp  and  incessant, 
and  there  is  nothing  that  will  stop  an  American  but  death,  the 
period  of  life  is  usually  shortened  five,  ten,  or  twenty  years  by 
the  effects  of  nervous  exhaustion. 

After  the  age  of  50  the  brain  loses  an  ounce  every  ten  years. 
Cuvier's  weighed  64,  Byron's  79,  and  Cromwell's  90  ounces, 
but  the  last  was  diseased.  Post-mortem  examinations  in  France 
give  an  average  of  55  to  60  ounces  for  the  brains  of  the  worst 
class  of  criminals. 

BRIDGES. — The  great  bridges  of  the  world  are  as  follows: 


Location. 

Material. 

Chakactek. 

•  Tot.iI 

Lenytii. 
iFcel.) 

Longest 
Span. 
(Fe«.) 

Brooklyn,  N.Y 

Poughkccpsiu,  N.  Y... 
Omaha    Neb 

Steel.... 
I  ron  .... 

iron 

Iron  - .. . 
Stcci,... 
Iron  .... 
Iron  .... 
Iron  ... 
Iron  . . . . 
Iron  .... 
Iron  .... 
Stone  ..  . 

Suspension 

5.989 
4.595 
2.750 
2,a2o 
1.550 
1, 245 
1,000 

6.538 

■  .595 
525 
250 

".057 
530 
800 
340 

1,339 
459 

ii9° 

X30 

Post  truss 

Suspension 

Segmental  arcli  . 

Suspension 

l^ost  tniss 

Suspension  ..... 

Tubiibr 

Tububr 

Su'^pension 

Elliptical  arch  . . 

St.  I.<ouis,  Mo 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

L'juvcinvorth,  Kas. . . . 
New  Ni;ig.ira,  N.  Y... 
liritanni;i,  Menai  Strait. 
Victoria,  Montreal. Crin 
Fribourg,  Switzerland, 
^  \Vatcrloo,  London, Eni; 

JS^ 


V 


Q 

^ 

^ 

{?, 

^ 

S| 

- 

- 

0 

y 

ilOCDPARATIYE}  iDNSr 

FY  OF  iC 

)P'UL/mc 

)N. 

« 

b 

POPULATION. 

Square  Miles 

STATES '-^TERRITORIES 

INHABTSTOSQ.MILE. 

INHAB'TSTOSQ.MILE. 

COUNTRIES. 

Square  Miles 

POPULATION. 

20,789 

39.159 
40,440 
32,610 
62,266 
135.177 
119.565 
75,116 

143.963 
174.768 
194,327 

269,493 
864,694 
452,402 
1.591.749 
780,773 
996,096 
802,525 
939.946 
648,936 

1.31S.497 
1.131.597 
1,262,505 
618,457 
1,542,180 
1,636,937 

1.399.750 
1,624,615 
2,168,380 

995.577 
332,286 

1.542.359 
1.512,565 

346,991 
1,648,690 
3,077,871 
1,978,301 

146,608 
3,198,062 

934.943 
4,282,891 
5,082,781 

622,700 
1,131,116 
1,783,085 

276,531 
50,155,784 

97.575 

145.310 

112,920 

84,290 

109,740 

147.700 

122,460 

66,880 

82,190 

94.560 

103,645 

54.24° 

155.98° 

76,185 

262,290 

79,205 

81,700 

55.045 

45.420 

29.895 

54.455 

46.340 

51.54° 

24.645 

58,980 

57.430 

48,580 

S5.475 

68,735 

30,170 

9,135 
41,75° 
40,125 

9.005 
40,000 
56,000 

35,91° 
1.960 

40,760 
9,860 

44,985 
47,620 

4.845 
7.455 
8,040 
1,085 
3,602,990 

Wyoming 

0.21 

1.12 

Australian  Colonies 
Canada 

3,115,861 

3,204.381 

827,177 

3,218,166 

91,980 

439,119 
500,740 

248,313 

72.151 

320,638 

8,138,541 
636,203 

741,598 
122,823 

1,152,984 
124,084 
313,560 
280,564 

170,927 
860,322 

72,413 
20,018 

193.171 

18,781 

4,560,107 

50.159 

24,702 

34,595 

14,784 

240,415 

15,908 

204,030 

208,624 

146.568 

114,380 

121,571 
810,542 

12,727 
11,369 

3,490,000 

4,352,080 

2,400,000 

10,108,291 

293.844 
1,784,197 
2,080,000 
1,146,000 

447,000 

2.951.323 

82,330,864 

7,000,000 

9,389,461 

1,806,900 

17,419,980 

2,400,396 

6,370,000 

5,750,000 

4.531.863 

25,036,480 

3,050,000 

1.679.775 

16,333,293 

1,589,650 

400,000,000 

5,^6,000 

2,758,166 

4.348.551 

1.969,454 

37,741.413 

2.831,787 

36,905,788 

45.194.172 

34,338,404 

28,209,620 

35,246,633 

252,541,210 

3,981,887 

S.476,663 

Montana 

0.27 

1-35 

Arizona 

0.35 

r- 

2.90 

Argentine  Republic 
Brazil 

Idaho 

0.38 

i> 

3-14 

Nevada 

0.56 

r 

3-19 

Paraguay 

Dakota  

0.91 

r- 

4.06 

Venezuela 

New  Mexico 

0.97 

1' 

4-15' 

Bolivia 

Washington 

1. 12 

t 

4.6r 

Ecuador 

Utah 

1.75 

t 

6.19 

Uruguay 

Oregon 

1.84               ' 

f 

9.20 

U.  S.  of  Colombia... 

Russian  Empire 

Persia 

Colorado 

1.87 

f 

10.11 

Florida 

4,96 

F           II. 

California 

<< 
5-54 

F               12.66 

Mexico 

Nebraska 

5.93 

r            '^^■T^ 

Norway 

Texas 

6.06              "^ 

V         15-19 

EevDt 

ChiU 

9.8s              ^ 

L          '''^"^ 

Kansas 

12  IQ 

W 

20.31 

Arkansas 

14.57    ^  y 

20.42 

Louisiana 

Sweden 

20.69    ^  1 

26.51 

Maine 

21.70    ^ 

I 

29.10 

Turkey 

Wisconsin 

24.15    p 

1 

1             42-11 

Peru 

Mississippi 

-r 
24.41 

1           ^3-9^ 

Greece 

Alabama 

24.49 

1          ^"'■^^ 

Spain 

West  Virginia 

Georgia 

25.09 

1          84.64 

Servia 

26.15 

95-31 

Chinese  Empire 

Roumania 

Michigan 

28.50 

107.17 

North  Carolina 

Iowa 

28.81 

1               111-65 

Ceylon 

29.28 

125.69 

Portugal 

Missouri 

31-54 

133-21 

Denmark 

South   Carolina 

Vermont 

3299 

1           156.98 

Austria-Hungary.... 
Switzerland 

36.37 

1          177-10 

Tennessee 

36-94 

i        180.88 

France 

Virginia 

37-69 

1 

216.62 

Germany 

New  Hampshire 

Kentucky 

3853 

234.28 

Japan 

41.21 

1    246-63 

Italy 

54. 96 

289.92 

Gr.  Brit,  and  Irel... 
British  India 

Indiana 

55-°9 

3ir-57 

Delaware 

74.80           1 

312.86        1 

Netherlands 

Ohio 

78.46         Bfl 

m 

tU8l-7l 

[Belgium 

94.82        ^^™ 

Pennsylvania 

^H 

Kansa-s,  to  be  as  thickly 

population  of    - 
Texas,  as  France,     - 
California  as  New  York, 
Dakota  as  Massachusetts 
The  whole  U.  S.  as  Beig 

COMPARISONS 

uld  have  a 

17.697,854 
47.443,015 
16,647,775 
32.755,429 
i.735.596,3'2 

New  York 

I^H 

Connecticut 

128.52    ^HHI 

settled  as  Germany,  wo 
ium,      .        -        .        - 

New  Jersey 

15I-7-'    1         '     ' 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

United  States 

221.77 

I 

254.86    i 

( 

13.92                N 

1 

.  e 

k 

u 

i 

'o 

"■            Ue 

signed  and  En 

graved  expreaslij  for  Peale' 

s  Popular  Educa 

5 

5° 

— CJ 

v*" 

^ 


\ 


-A 


^' nuRinsiTiES  nF  the  census. "^^ 

Proportions  of  Native  and  Foreign  Population,  Male  and  Female,  White  and  Black  ;  Centre  of  Population,  etc. 


fO  fr.inie  this  diagnim  rciiuircci  tlie  study  of  h 
dreds  of  pages  of  ccnstis  returns,  and 
a  fine  sense  of  discrimination 
fixing  the  proportions  of  popula- 
tion in  each  Slate.     The  spaci 
each   State    takes  up  in  the 
di.igram  accurately  defines 
its  position  in  regard  to 
the  population.     New 
York  covers  an   inch 
of  space,  and  Texiis, 
which  is  about  five 
times  as  large,  oc- 
cupies    hardly     a 
quarter      of      an 
inch.     Mow  slim 
Delaware.    Colo- 
rado,    Nebraska, 
Nevada,  Ore- 
gon   and     Rhode 
Island     appear ! 
New    York.     Ohio 
and       Pennsylvania 
are     given    generous 
proportions,     as     they 
deserve    and   arc  justly 
entitled  to.     North  Caro- 
lina,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  In 
diana,  Virginia,  Missouri    and 
Tennessee  arc  States  iiolding  re- 
spectably large  populations.      \  sin 
gle  glance   will   suffice  to  sliow    tliat 
number  of  Chinese  resident  in  this  country  and 


residents    of    Nebraska  are    nearly    equal ; 
and    that    the    natives   of    Germany    resi- 
nt   in  the  United  States  are  more 
than  equal  to  the  residents  of  the 
combined  States  of  California. 
Colorado,    Delaware,    Flor- 
ida,    Kansas,    Minnesota, 
Nebr.-iska,  Nevada,  Ore- 
gon and  Rliode  Islantl 
— ten  States  ip  all  out 
of  thirty-eight.      .-\s 
a  quick  method  of 
reference     to    the 
proportions  of  the 
population,   these 
diagrams  are  un- 
excelled.    While 
the  whole  number 
of    foreign  -  born 
persons    living   in 
the    United  States 
in  1880  wiis  6,679.- 
943,  the    number  of 
those  having   one  or 
both    parents   foreign- 
born    ( including    those 
foreign  -  born    tliemselves, 
a-s  above  given),  was  14,95s,- 
996,    or,    in    round    numbers, 
15,000,000.     It    is    within  bounds 
to  say  that  10,000,000  to  12,000,000 
of  the  residents  of  the  United  States  arc 
foreign-born  or  have  both  parents  foreign-born. 


— o-^THE    CENTRE    OF    POPULATION. *-<>■- 

The  centre  of  population  is  defined  as  "the  point  at  which  equilibrium  would  be  reached  were  the  country  taken  as  a  plane 
surface  itself,  without  weight,  but  capalile  of  sustaining  weight,  and  loaded  with  its  inliabitants  in  number  and  position  .as  they  are 
found  at  the  period  under  consideration,  each  individual  being  .assumed  to  lie  of  the  same  gravity  as  every  other,  and  consequently  to 
'  exert  pressure  on  the  pivotal  point  directiv  proportioned  to  his  distance  therefrom."  In  brief  it  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  country.  It  is  located  eight  miles  west-by-south  from  the  heart  of  the  city  of  Cincinnati,  which  places  it  in  Kentucky,  one 
mile  from  the  south  bank  of  the  Ohio  River. 

The  change  of  centre  of  population  each 
ten  yeani  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  the 
following  table.  The  very  rapid  settlement  of 
the  Northwest  of  late  woiilil  indicate  that  the 
line  will  move  conhiderably  northward  in  the 
next  ten  years. 


»,; 


Ceittrt  lif  Pofulalitm, 


Mmt  westward, 
Milts. 


\  1790 — 23  miles  e.  of  Ualtimorc 

I  -  -T — 18  miles  w.  of  Baltimore 41 

1  iiL) — ^40  miles  n.-w.  by  w.  of  Washington...  36 

1B20 — 16  miles  n.  of  Woodstock,  Va.....' 50 

183a — 19  miles  s.-w,  of  Muoretield.W.  Va....  39 

1840 — 16  miles  s.  of  Clarksburg,  W.  Va 55 

1850—23  miles  s.  of  Parkcrsburg,  W.  Va....  65 

i86o — 30  miles  s.  uf  Chillicolhc,  0 81 

1870 — 48  miles  e.-by-n.  of  Cincinnati,  0 42 

1880 —  8  miles  w.-by-s.  of  Cincinnati,  0 58 

Total 467 

Note. — For  the  exact  figures  and  further  detailed  information,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  table  headed  "  Population  of  the  United  States." 


Designi.'d  and  Engraved  expressly  /or  Heale's  Popular  Educator. 


551 


K" 


552 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


~7{ 


The  Brooklyn  Bridge  cost  $15,000,000,  having  taken  13  years 
in  construction,  during  which  20  lives  were  lost.  Width  85 
feet,  height  above  water  135  feet.  Weight  34,000  tons.  There 
are  3,200  tons  wire,  section  580  square  inches,  strength  75  tons 
per  square  inch.  Each  of  the  four  cables  has  5,000  wires  of  ]/% 
inch.  There  are  two  towers,  274  feet  high,  and  1,600  feet  apart. 
The  central  way  is  15  feet  wide,  for  pedestrians;  each  of  the 
railway  lines  has  16  feet  width,  and  each  of  the  ways  for  wagons, 
horses,  etc.,  19  feet;  in  all  85  feet. 

The  Forth  Bridge  (Scotland)  is  to  cost  §7,500,000.  Main 
girder,  5,330  feet;  total  length,  2,700  yards. 

BUILDINGS. — Capacity  of  the  largest  public  buildings  in  the 
world:  Coliseum,  Rome,  87,000;  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  54,000; 
Theater  of  Pompey,  Rome,  40,000;  Cathedral,  Milan,  37,000; 
St.  Paul's,  Rome,  32,000;  St.  Paul's,  London,  31,000;  St. 
Petronia,  Bologna,  26,000 ;  Cathedral,  Florence,  24,300;  Cathe- 
dral, Antwerp,  24,000;  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  23,000;  St. 
Sophia's,  Constantinople,  23,000;  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  21,500; 
Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome,  20,000;  Cathedral,  Pisa,  13,000; 
St.  Stephen's,  Vienna,  12,400;  St.  Dominic's,  Bologna,  12,000; 
St.  Peter's,  Bologna,  11,400;  Cathedral,  Vienna,  11,000;  Gil- 
more's  Garden,  New  York,  8,443;  Mormon  Temple,  Salt  Lake 
City,  S,ooo;  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  7,500;  Spurgeon's  Tabernacle, 
London,  6,000;  Bolshoi  Theater,  St.  Petersburg,  5,000 ;  Taber- 
nacle (Talmage's),  Brooklyn,  5,000;  Music  Hall,  Cincinnati, 
4,824  ;  La  Scala,  Milan,  3,600. 

CALENDAR.— I.  Jewish,  383  days;  the  Jewish  year  5645 
began  on  September  20,  18S4. 

2.  Julius  Cajsar's,  365  days,  B.C.  46,  commenced  in  March. 

3.  Mahometan,  355  days,  A.D.  622 ;  the  Mahometan  year 
1301  began  February  19,  1884. 

4.  Charles  IX.,  A.D.  1564,  commenced  January   i. 

5.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  A.D.  1582;  now  used  except  in 
Russia. 

6.  The  Russian  year  begins  on  January  13  of  our  calendar. 
The  Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in  England  in  1752,  before 
which  date  the  year  began  on  March  25,  wliich  would  now  be 
April  5. 

The  festival  of  Easter,  commemorating  tlic  resurrection  of 
Christ,  used  to  be  observed  on  the  14th  day  of  the  moon,  i.  e., 
near  the  full  moon — the  same  as  the  Jewish  Passover.  But  the 
Council  of  Nice,  A.D.  325,  ordered  Easter  to  be  celebrated  on 
the  Sunday  next  succeeding  the  full  moon,  that  conies  oner 
next  after  the  vernal  equinox — March  21,  thus  making  Easter 
and  the  related  feast  and  fast  days  movable  holidays. 

CAMELS. — A  camel  has  twice  the  carrying  power  of  an  ox; 
with  an  ordinary  load  of  400  lbs.  he  can  travel  12  or  14  days 
without  water,  going  40  miles  a  day.  Camels  are  fit  lo  work  at 
5  years  old,  but  tlieir  strength  begins  to  decline  at  25,  although 
they  live  usually  till  40. 

CANALS. — The  great  canals  of  the  United  States  and  other 
countries  are  given  below,  with  length  in  miles  and  cost  of  con- 
struction : 


A?e. 

Oz.  Exhaled 

16 

16 

28 

■7 

Suez   Kgypt... 

Burgundy 1'  r;"ic&  . . 

North  Sea Holland 


Miles.  Cost. 

92  585,000,000 

.     158  11,000,000 

14  10,150,000 


Bengal India goo  10,000,000 

Chesapeake  &  Ohio Maryland 191  10,000,000 

Dt-'Kiware  &  Hudson N.  Y.  &  Pa io8  9,000,000 

Illinois  &  Michigan Illinois 102  8,600,000 

Erie New  York 363  9,000,000 

Welland Canada 41  7,000,000 

Caledonian Scotland 60  5,700,000 

Central  Division .Pennsylvania    173  5,300,000 

Jame?^  R.  &  Kanawha Virginia 147  5,000,000 

Ohio  &  Erit; , Ohio 307  4,600,000 

Miami Ohio 178  3,700,000 

Morris  &  Essex New  Jersey loi  3,000,000 

Wabash  &  Erie Indiana 469  3,000,000 

The  Suez  Canal  is  26  feet  deep,  and  was  13  years  in  con- 
struction. Steamers  go  through  in  40  hours,  of  which  17  steam- 
ing, and  the  tolls  average  $4,300  per  vessel.  The  saving  to 
comiherce  by  reason  of  this  canal,  after  deducting  fees  paid,  is 
estimated  at  over  §10,000,000  yearly.  The  British  Government 
owns  one-fifth  of  the  shares.  The  canal  shortens  the  distance 
between  England  and  the  East  by  one-third.  The  estimated 
cost  of  the  Panama  Canal  is  3130,000,000.  The  length  will  be 
46  miles,  including  a  tunnel  4  miles  in  length,  TOO  feet  wide 
and  160  feet  high.  When  completed  this  canal  will  save  about 
10,000  miles  of  voyage  between  Europe  and  the  Pacific. 

CARBONIC  ACID.— The  quantity  exhaled  in  24  hours  : 

Age.  Oz.  Exhaled. 

Girl 10  9  Boy 

Boy 10  10  Man , 

Woman ig  12 

The  quantity  varies  according  to  exertion,  namely  :  Sleeping, 

0.6  oz.    per  hour;   walking  2   miles   per  hour,   2.1  ;  walking  3 

miles  per   hour,  3.0;  riding,  4.0;    swimming,   4.4;    treadmill, 

5-5- 

CATTLE. — See  diagram. 

CARRIER-PIGEONS.  — In  1S77  the  newspaper  NationaU 
of  Paris  had  ten  })igeons  which  carried  dispatches  daily  between 
Versailles  and  Paris  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1SS2,  some  pigeons,  in  face  of  a  strong  wind,  made  the 
distance  of  160  miles,  from  Canton  Vaud  to  Paris,  in  6'/<  hours, 
or  25  miles  per  Iiour. 

CHARCOAL. — To  make  a  ton  will  require  wood  as  follows: 
Oak,  4.4  tons;  chestnut,  4.5  ;  beech,  5.1  ;  elm,  5.2;  birch,  5.9; 
pine,  6.0.  For  heating  power  12  lbs.  charcoal  are  equal  to  10 
lbs.  coal  or  13  lbs.  coke. 

CHECKS. — The  checks  paid  in  New  York  and  London  in 
one  month  aggregate  ;? 6, 3 5 0,000, 000,  which  is  greatly  in  excess 
of  the  value  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  coin  in  existence. 

CHEMISTRY. — Below  are  given  the  common  names  of  vari- 
ous chemical  substances: 

Aqua  Fortis Nitric  Acid. 

Aqua  Regia Nitro-Muriatic  Acid. 

Blue  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Copper. 

Cream  of  Tartar Bitartrate  Potassium. 

Calomel Chloride  of  Mercury. 

Chalk Carbonate  Calcium. 

Salt  of  Tartar Carbonate  of  Potassa. 

Caustic  Polassa Hydrate    Potassium. 

Cliloroform Chloride  of  Gormyle. 

Common  Salt Chloride  of  Sodium. 

Copperas,  or  Green  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Iron. 

Corrosive  Sublimate Bi -Chloride  of  Mercury. 

Diamond Pure  Carbon. 

Dry  Alum Sulphate  Alluminum  and  PVstassium. 

Epsom  Salts Siiiphatc  of  Magnesia, 

Eihiops  Mineral Black  Sulphide  of  Mercury. 

Galena Sulphide  of  Lead. 

Glauber's-Salt Sulphate  of  Sodium. 

Gluco-ic Grape  Sugar. 

Iron  Pyrites Bi-Sulphide  Iron. 

Jeweler's  Putty Oxide  of  Tin. 


^r 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


553 


-7\ 


King's  Yellow Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 

Laughing-Gas Protoxide  of  Nitrogen. 

Lime Oxide  of  Calcium. 

Lunar  C^iusiic Nitrate  of  Silver. 

Muriate  of  Lime Chloride  of  Calcium. 

Niter  of  Saltpeter Nitrate  of  Potash. 

Oil  of  Vitriol Sulphuric  Acid. 

Potash Oxide  of  Potassium. 

Realgar Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 

Red  Lead Oxide  of  Lead. 

Rust  of  Iron Oxide  of  Iron. 

S.iImoniac Muriate  of  Ammonia. 

Slacked  Lime Hydnte  Calcium. 

Soda Oxide  of  Sodium. 

Spirits  nf  Hartshorn .*\mmonia. 

Spirit  of  Sail Hydro-Chloric  or  Muriatic  Acid. 

Stucco,  or  Plaster  of  Paris Sulphate  ol  Lime. 

Sugar  of  Lead Acetate  of  Lead. 

Verdigris Bas.ic  Acetate  of  Copper. 

Vermilion Sulphide  of  Mercury, 

Vinegar Aceiic  Acid  (Diluted). 

Volatile  Alkali Ammonia. 

Water. Oxide  of  Hydrogen. 

While  Precipitate Ammoniaicd  Mercurj*. 

White  Vitriol , Sulphate  of  Zinc. 

CHILDBIRTH.— The  average  of  deaths  in  chilcll)irth  for  20 
years  it!  England  and  Wales  has  been  32  per  10,000  births  — 
\yi  per  cent  of  all  mothers,  since  the  average  mother  has  five 
children. 

CHOLERA. — In  the  visitation  of  1866,  the  proportion  of 
deaths  j)er  io,cx>o  inhabitants  in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe 
was  as  follows:  I^ndon,  18;  Dublin,  41 ;  Vienna,  51;  Mar- 
seilles, 64;  Paris,  66;  Berlin,  S3;  Naples,  89;  St.  Petersburg, 
98;  Madrid,  102;  Brussels,  184;  Palermo,  197;  Constantino- 
ple, 73S. 

CHRISTIANITY.— See  diagram  Distribution  of  Christians. 

CLIMATE. — The  mean  annual  temperature  at  a  given  point 
in  each  of  the  forty-nine  States  and  Territories,  and  also  in 
Alaska,  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Place  of  Observation. 

Mean 
annual 
temper- 
ature. 

Placu  of  Observation. 

Mean 
annual 
temper- 
ature. 

Mobile,  Ala 

66° 
55'' 

'^ 
53° 

55^ 

6q° 

58° 

52° 

50° 

51° 

fxP 

•19" 

5' 

56° 

69' 

'■''I 
54'' 
48° 

^r 

42° 

Jackson.  Miss 

64° 

Sitka    Alaska 

55° 

49° 
50° 
46° 
53° 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Cp  Wmfield  Scolt.Nev.. 

Concord,  N.  H 

I'rcnton,  N.  J 

Sania  Fc,  N.  M 

Albany,  N.  V 

Kort  R.indatl,    Dak 

Washington.  D.  C 

Raleigh, N.C 

< 
53° 

53° 

54° 

48° 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Portland,  Ore 

Springfield,  III 

Providence,  R.  I 

Columbia,  S.  C 

58° 
67° 
52° 

57° 

5'. 
52° 
45° 
41° 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Montpclicr  Vt        

Stcilacoom     W    T    

Romney.  W.  V 

Boston,  Mass 

COAL. — Sec  diagram  Annual  Production  of  Coal. 

COFFEE. — T\ac  production  in  1 880  was:  Brazil,  333,000 
tons;  Java,  90,000;  Ceylon,  53,000;  West  Indies,  42,000; 
Africa,- 36,000 ;   Manilla,  etc.,  35,000.      Total,  589,000  tons. 

The  average  annual  consumption  is  as  follows:  United  States, 
165,000  tons;  Germany,  lio.cxjo;  Brazil,  62,000;  France, 
55,(X)0;  Belgium  and  Holland,  50,000;  .Vustri.a,  40,000;  British 


Colonies,  38,000;  Russia,  20,000;  United  Kingdom,  15,000; 
Italy,  14,000. 

The  cofl'ee  fields  of  Brazil  cover  2,000,000  acres,  with  800,- 
000,000  trees — that  is,  400  per  acre,  each  tree  averaging  almost 
1  11).  [ler  annum.,  the  industry  employing  800,000  hands. 

COMMERCE.— The  following  table,  prepared  at  the  Bureau  of 
.Statistics,  Washington,  exhibits  the  steady  increase-of  the  trade 
of  the  United  States  during  the  past  twenty  years.  Nearly  the 
whole  amount  of  merchandi.sc  exported  is  of  home  growth  or 
manufacture,  that  of  foreign  origin  exported  in  l88l  not  exceed- 
ing two  per  cent  of  the  whole  amount.  It  is  noticeable  that  for 
the  first  fourteen  years  the  imports  exceeded  the  exports,  but 
that  during  the  past  six  years  the  balance  of  trade  has  been  in 
favor  of  the  country.  These  figures  represent  the  specie  values 
of  merchandise  only  : 

Year.  Exports.  Imports.  Total. 

186 $219,553,833  528<),3Jo,54J  »5o8.864.375 

1 86  J 190,670,501  189,356,677  380,027,178 

■  S63 203,964.447  243,335,815  447,300,262 

1864 158,837,988  316,447,283  475,285,271 

1S65 166,029,303  238,745,580  404,774,883 

1866 348,859,522  434,8i2,^«6  783,671,588 

1867 294,506,141  395,761,096  690,267,237 

1868 281,952,899  357.436.440  639.389.339 

1869 286,117,697  417.506,379  703,624,076 

1870 392,771,768  435,958,408  828.730,176 

1871 442,820,178  520,223,684  963,043,862 

1872 444,177,586  626,595,077  1,070,772,663 

1873 522,476,922  642,136,210  1,164.616,132 

1874 586,283,040  567,406,342  1,153,689,382 

"875 513.442,711  533.005,436  1.046,448,147 

1876 540,384,671  460,741,190  1,001,125,861 

1877 602,475.220  451,323,126  1,053,798,346 

1878 694,865,766  437.051,532  1,131,917,298 

1879 7>o,439-44i  445.777.775  1,156,217,216 

1880 835,638,658  667,954,746  1.503,593,404 

1881 902,377,346  642,664,628  1,545,041,974 

18S2 750,542,257  724,639.574  1.475.181,831 

1883 823,839,402  723,180,914  1,547,020,316 

1884 740,513,609  667,697,693  1,408,211,302 

See  also  diagram  Commercial  Balance-Sheet. 

CONSUMPTION.— Of  the  total  number  of  deaths  the  percent- 
age traceable  to  cunsumption  in  the  several  States  and  Territories 
isas  follows;  ^Vlabama,  9.6;- Arizona,  6.1  ;  Arkansas,  6.4;  Call 
fornia,  15.6;  Colorado,  8.2 ;  Connecticut,  1 5.1  ;  Dakota,  8.S; 
Delaware,  16.1  ;  District  of  Columbia,  18.9;  Florida,  8.3; 
Georgia,  7.9;  Idaho,  6.8;  Illinois,  10.3;  Indiana,  12.6;  Iowa, 
9.9  j  Kansas,  7.3;  Kentucky,  15.7  ;  Louisiana,  10.4;  Maine, 
19.2;  Maryland,  14.0;  Massachusetts,  15.7  ;  Michigan,  13.2  ; 
Minnesota,  9.3 ;  Mississippi,  8.8 ;  Missouri,  9.8  ;  Montana,  5.6; 
Ncbr.'iska,  8.8 ;  Nevada,  6.3 ;  New  H.^mp.shire,  5.6 ;  New 
Jersey,  89 ;  New  Mexico,  2.4 ;  New  York,  8. 1  ;  North  Caro- 
lina, 9.5;  Ohio,  13.8;  Oregon,  12. i  ;  Pennsylvania,  12.6; 
Rhode  Island,  14.6;  South  Carolina,  9.8;  Tennessee,  14.5; 
Texas,  6.5;  Utah,  2.8;  Vermont,  i6.f;  Virginia,  12.2;  W.ash- 
ington,  13.2;  West  Virgini.i,  13.0;  Wisconsin,"  10.4;  Wyoming, 
2.6.     Average,  12  o. 

COPYING. — Seventy-two  words  make  i  folio,  or  sheet  of 
common  l.iw ;  9  words,  I  folio,  in  chancer.'. 

COTTON. — The  area  under  cotton  in  the  United  .states  is  in- 
creasing xery  rapitlly  : 

Vear.  Acres.  Crop,  Million  lbs, 

1881 , 13,613,000                         3,i6x 

1882 16,590,000                         3,550 

1883 17,452,000                         3,880 

See  diagram  World's  Yearly  Production  of  Cotton  and  To- 
bacco. 


-^ 


[V 


->^THE  RELieiONS  OF  THE  WORLD.-^- 


(FROM   THE   VERY    LATEST   ESTIMATES.) 


PARSEES, 
1,000,000  h 


JEWS, 
7,700,000 


BRAHMINICAL 
HINDOOS, 
120,000,000 


Mohammedans, 
122,400,000 


BUDDHISTS, 
482,600,000 


CHRISTIANS, 
388,350,000 


PAGANS, 
227,000,000 


CHRISTIANS. 


Koman  Catholic,  202,368,000 


Protestant,    108,630,000 


Greek,  70,482,000      / 
Bastern,  {JMS^  6,770,000 


kL 


Designed  an<*  "ingraved  expressly  fo'  "■'.ah'*  Popular  Educator. 


554 


r^ 


•^LISTEIBUTION*=- 

CHRISTIANS 


"7T 


Throughout    the 
World. 


Outer  Ring— Roman  Catholics. 
2d      "     —Protestants. 
3d      "     — Greek  Christians. 
Centre  — 

Eastern  Christians. 


a.  Africa 

Rom.Cath. 
1,106,200, 
Prot.,  719,000. 

b.  Australia 

and  Polynesia. 

Rom,  Calh..  434,000. 

Prot,,  1,000,000 

c.  Archipelago,    Arabia 

and  Persia. 

Rom.  Call).,  1.000,000.    Prot.,  89,000, 


d.    India, 
Ceylon. 

Rom.  Calh., 
1,600,000, 
Prot.,  300,000, 

e,  Switzerland. 

Rom.  Cath.,  1,084.400. 
Prot.,  1,558,000, 

China  and  Japan. 

Rom.  Cath.,  800,000, 


g.  Luxemburg   Rom.  Cath.,  204,000, 


VL- 


Designntl  and  tngraund  txcrss/j  /or  Pealu'a  Popular  Cducator. 


X 


03D 


556 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES 


^ 


^ 


CREMATION. — A  body  weighing  140  lbs.  produces  3  lbs. 
ashes;  time  for  burning,  55  minutes. 

CRISES. — The  most  remarkable  since  the  beginning  of  the 

present  centurj-  have  been  as  follows : 

1S14.  England,  240  banks  suspended. 

1825.  Manchester,  failures  2  millions. 

1831.  Calcutta,  failures  15  millions, 

1837.  United  States,  "  Wild-cat  "  crisis  ;  all  banks  closed. 

1S39.  Bank  of  England  saved  by  Bank  of  France.    Severe  also  in   France, 

where  93  companies  failed  for  6  millions. 

1844.  England.     State  loans  to  merchants.    Bank  of  England  reformed. 

1847.  England,  failures  20  millions  ;   discount  13  per  cent. 

1857.  United  States,  7,200  houses  failed  for  iii  millions. 

i8C)6.  London,  Overend-Gurney  crisis  ;   failures  exceeded  100  millions. 

1869.  Black  Friday  in  New  York  (Wall  street),  Septembe  r  24. 

CURRENCY.— The  Director  of  the  Mint  estimates  the  gold 

and  silver  currency  of  the  United  States: 

June  30,  1879 — Gold,  $286,490,698  ;  silver,  5112,050,985. 
Nov.  I,  1879 — Gold,  §355,681,532;  silver,  $126,009,537. 
Nov.  I,  18S0 — Gold,  §444,012,030;  silver,  $158,271,327. 
Nov.  I,  1881 — Gold,  §469,000,000;  silver,  §181,000,000. 
Oct.  I,  1882 — Gold,  $563,631,456;  silver,  $209,953,335. 
Oct.  1, 1883 — Gold,  ^606,196,515  :  silver,  §240,399,234. 
Oct.  I,  1884 — Gold,  §610,500,000;  silver,  §262,000.000. 

Paper  Money  in  the  United  States. 

The  following  table,  from  the  report  of  the  Comptroller  of  the 

Currency,   sliows,   by  denominations,   the   amount  of    national 

bank  and  legal  tender  notes  outstanding  on  October  31,  1884: 

National  Legal  Ten- 
Denominations.                 Bank  Notes.  der  Notes.  Aggregate. 

Ones $        495,741  §26,763,098  §27,258,839 

Twos 288,468  26,778,738  27,067,206 

Fives 85,309,155  78,054,050  163,363,205 

Tens 111,319.950  69,171,936  180,491,886 

Twenties 79,206,580  56,070,509  135,277,089 

Fifties i2, 221, 850  22,395,195  44,617,045 

One-hundreds 3", 520, 700  33,649,990  66,170,690 

Five-hundreds ?77,5oo  15,186,000  16,063,500 

One-thousands 213,000  19,446,500  '  19,659,500 

Five-thousands 105,000  105,000 

Ten-thousands 60,000  60,000 

Add  for  unredeemed  fragments  of 

national  banknotes 20,749  20,749 

Deduct     for    legal     tender    notes 

destroyed  in  Chicago  fire — i  ,000,000  — i  ,000,000 

Totals §332,473,693        §346,681,016     §679,154,709 

Aggregate  Issues  of  Paper  Money  in  'War  Times. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  amount  /^r  capita  issued  of 
the  Continental  money,  the  French  assignats,  the  Confederate 
currency,   and  the  legal-tender  greenbacks  and  national   bank 

notes  of  the  United  States  : 

Amount  Issued.  Per  head. 

Continental  money §  359,546,825  §119  84 

French  assignats 9,115,600,000  343  98 

Confederate  currency 654,465,963  71  89 

Highest  amount  in 
circulation,  Jan.  '66. 
Greenbacks  and  national  bank  notes 750,820,228  23  87 

CUSTOMS.— See  diagram.  Receipts  and  Expenditure:  U.  S. 

Go'^'crnmcnt. 

DEBT. — See  diagram.  Public  Debts. 

DEAF-MUTES.— The  returns  for  the  Umted  States  from  the 
census  of  iSSo  show  the  number  of  deaf-mutes  to  be  33,880,  or 
678  per  million  of  population.  The  ratio  of  sex  is  56  males  to 
44  females. 

DEATH. — A  man  will  die  from  want  of  air  in  five  minutes,  for 
want  of  sleep,  in  ten  days;  for  want  of  water,  in  a  week;  for 
want  of  food,  at  varying  intervals,  dependent  on  various  circum- 
stances.    See  Fasting. 


According  to  Prof.  Conrad,  the  proportion  of  deaths  to  classes 

is  as  given  below  . 

'  "  "  "        Working. 


Stillborn 

0-  I  year . . 

1-  5  years  . 
5-'5     "      ■ 

15-20     " 

20-30 

3'>-6o 


Affluent. 

28 
118 

95 

48 

35 

86 
247 


Middle. 

53 

240 

192 

49 

24 

63 

204 
J  75 


53 
206 
220 
S8 
21 
64 

222 

.56 


Over  60  years 343 

Total 1  ,coo  1 ,000  1 ,000 

DIAMONDS. — The  six  largest  weigh,  respectively,  as  follows  : 
Kohinoor,  103  carats;  Star  of  Brazil,  125  carats;  Regent  of 
France,  136  carats;  Austrian  Kaiser,  139  carats:  Russian  Cznr, 
193  carats  ;  Rajah  of  Borneo,  367  carats.  The  value  of  the 
above  is  not  regulated  by  size,  nor  easy  to  estimate,  but  none  of 
them  is  worth  less  than  $500,000. 

DIGESTION. — The  time  required  for  digesting  various  kinds 
of  food  is  : 


Hours. 

Rice I 

Eggs,  raw i 

Apples I 

Trout,  boiled 1 

Venison,  broiled i 

Sago,  boiled i 

Milk       "      2 

Bread,  stale 2 

Milk,  raw 2 

Tvirkey,   boiled 2 

Goose,  roast 2 

Lamb,  broiled 2 

Potatoes,  baked 2 

Beans,  boiled 2 

Parsnips,  boiled 2 

Oysters,  raw 2 

Eggs,  boiled 3 


Min. 
o 
30 
30 
30 
35 
45 


15 
25 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
55 


Mutton,  boiled  . 
Beef,  roast  .  . . . 
Bread,  fresh. .. . 
Carrots,  boiled  . 
Turnip-i,  " 
Potatoes- 


Hours. 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


Butter 3 

Cheese 3 

Oysters,  stewed 3 

Eggs,  hard 3 

Pork,  boiled 3 

Fowl,  roast 4 

Beef,  fried 4 

Cabbage 4 

Wild  fowl 4 

Pork,  roast 5 

Veal,  roast 5 


Min. 


15 
15 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 

30 


30 

30 
15 


DISEASES. — The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  deaths 
in  the  States,  from  the  returns  for  1S80.  It  is  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  15  per  cent  of  all  deaths  escaped  the  notice  of  enumer- 
ators, and  that  the  real  death-rate  was  17.8  per  1,000,  instead  of 
15.1,  as  given : 

Cause  of  Death.  Number. 

Whooping-cough   11 ,202 

Scarlet  fever 16,416 

Typhoid  fever 22,905 

Digestive  diseases 34,094 

Diphtheria   381398 

Diarrhcca 65,565 

Nervous  diseases 83,670 

Consumption    9t>55i 

Respiratory  affections 107,904 

Various 285,188 

Total 756,893  i5)t38  100.0 

DRUNKENNESS.— Mulhall  estimates  the  number  of  years  of 
intemperance  required  to  produce  death  as  follows : 

Liquor. 


Per  Million 

Inhabitants. 

Ratio 

224 

1-5 

328 

2.1 

458 

3-1 

682 

4-5 

768 

51 

1,311 

«.7 

1.674 

11. I 

1,831 

12.2 

2,158 

14.4 

5,704 

37.3 

Beer. 

Spirits 17 

Mi.\ed 16 


Class. 

'   Women 14 

Gentlemen 15 

Working  class. ....  iS 

This  shows  that  the  working  class  can  stand  drink  longest, 
and  that  beer  is  the  least  deadly  form  of  intemperance. 

The  value  of  life,  drunk  and  sober,  as  to  expectancy  of  yeai's, 
is  given  thus  : 

Age  Drunk.  Sober. 

20 15      44 

3" '4       36 

40 II       29 

The  number  of  cases  of  insanity  traceable  to  drink  is  shown 
by  the  proportion  of  dipsomaniacs  to  all  insane,  as  follows : 
Italy,  12  per  cent;  France,  21  per  cent;  United  States,  26  per 
cent ;  Scotland,  28  per  cent. 


^ 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACl'S    AND    FIGURES. 


557 


DWARFS.— The  more  notable  human  mites  are  named  be- 
low : 

Height.  D.1IC  of  Place  of 

Name.  (Inches.)  Birth.  Birth. 

Count  BorowI.-iski • 39  1739  Warsaw. 

TomThumb  (Ctui^.  S.  Mraiion) 31  1837  New  York. 

Mrs.  Tom   Thumb 3a  1842  " 

Chti-Mah 25  1S38  China. 

I^uci.i  Zaratc ....     20  1863  Mexico. 

General  Miic 21  1864  New  York. 

EDUCATION.  —  See   diagram   Educational  Statistics.     The 

progre-s  of  education  since  iS3ois  shown  in  the  following  table, 

showing  the  ratio  of  adults  able  to  write  : 

1830.  1850.  1881. 

United  States 80  84  90 

England 55  64  84 

Scotland. 77  83  88 

Ireland 46  55  67 

France 42  57  78 

Germany '.  8t  86  94 

Russia I  2  II 

Austria 28  34  49 

Italy 16  28  41 

Spain  and  Portugal o  18  34 

Switzerland 78  80  88 

Belgium  and  Holland 41  6z  86 

Scandinavia 80  82  87 

See  uIno  tliagram  Eifncatiouai  Statistics. 

ELEVATION  OF  CONTINENTS— The  average  above  sea 
level  is:  Europe,  670  feet ;  Asia,  1,140  feet;  North  America, 
1,150  feet ;  South  America,  l,loo  feet. 

EVICTIONS. — The  total  number  of  famihes  evicted  in  Ire- 
land for  }^-iy  years  is  482,000,  as  below  : 

Net 
Years.  Evicted.     Re-admitted.     Evictions. 

1849-51 263,000  73,000  190.000 

1852-60. 110,000  28,000  82,000 

1861-70 47,000  8,000  39,coo 

1871-S0 41,000  6,000  35»ooo 

i88i-52 21,000  4,000  17,000 

Total f 482,000  119,000  363,000 

The  number  of  persons  actually  evicted  was  over  two  millions 
(say  70,000  per  annum),  about  35  per  cent  of  the  population. 

EXHIBITIONS.— 

Area  Visitors  D.iys 

Date.     I'l.icc.                                  (Acres).  (Millions).  Open.  Receipts. 

1851 — London =i  6.2  141  $2,120,000 

1855 — Pari-i 24  4.5  200  640,000 

1862 — London 23  6.2  171  2,040,000 

1867 — Paris 37  9.3  217  2,100,000 

1873 — Vienna 48  7.3  186  2,030,000 

1876 — Philadelphia 55  10.2  ...              

1878 — Paris 60  16.1  194  4,870,000 

1885 — New  Orleans 200  ....               ...             

The  main  building  of  the  New  Orleans  Exposition  (1S84-5) 
is  the  largest  ever  erected,  being  i  ,378  feet  long  by  905  feet 
wide.  The  building  devoted  to  the  United  States  and  .State  ex- 
hibits has  a  length  of  885  feet  and  a  width  of  565,  while  Horti- 
cultural Hall  is  600  feet  long  and  194  wide  through  its  center. 

EXPENDITURES  U.  S.  Government.— See  diagram. 

FAIRS. — That  of  Xijni-Xovgorod  is  the  greatest  in  the  world, 
the  value  of  goods  sold  being  as  follows:  1841,  $35,000,000; 
1857,  $60,000,000;  1876,  $140,000,000;  th2  attendance  in  the 
last  named  year  including  150,000  merchants  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  In  that  of  Lcipsic  the  annual  average  of  sales  is 
$20,oco,ooo,  comprising  20,000  tons  of  merchandise,  of  which 
two-fifths  is  liooks. 

FAMILIES. — Number  of  families  in  the  United  .States  (census 
of  1880),  9,945,916 ;  average   number  to   a  square  mile,  3.43. 


Number  of  dwellings,  8,955,842 ;  average  to  the  square  mile, 
3.02.  Number  of  acres  to  a  family,  186.62.  Number  of  per- 
sons to  a  lamily,  5.04.     Number  of  persons  to  a  dwelling,  5.60- 


ilh  century, 
France,  10; 


FAMINES. — Walford  mentions  160  since  the 
namely:  England,  57 ;  Ireland,  34;  Scotland,  12 
Germany,  1 1 ;  Italy,  etc.,  36. 

The  worst  in  modern  times  have  been : 
Country.  D.ate.       No   of  Victims 


France  . 
Ireland  . 
India    . . 


1770 
1847 
1866 


48,000 
1,029,000 


Deaths  from  hunger  and  want  were  recorded  as  follows  in 
1S79,  according  to  Mulhall:  Ireland,  3,789;  England,  312; 
London,  loi  ;  France,  260.  The  proportion  per  1,000  deaths 
w.-is,  respectively,  37.6,  0.6,  1.2,  0.3 

FASTING. — In  1684,  four  men  were  taken  alive  out  of  a 
mine  in  England,  after  24  days  without  food.  In  1880,  Dr. 
Tanner,  in  New  York,  lived  on  water  for  40  days,  losing  36  lbs. 
in  weight. 

FARMS.— Number  of  farms  in  the  United  States  in  1880, 
4,008,907;  in  1870,  2,659,985;  in  i860,  2,044,077;  in  1850, 
1,449,073. 

FLAX. — The  average  annual  production  is  as  follows  :  Rus- 
sia, 270,000  tons;  Austria,  53,000;  Germany,  48,000;  Belgium 
and  Holland,  38,000;  France,  37,000;  United  Kingdom,  25,- 
000;  Italy,  23,000;  United  States,  12,000;  Scandinavia,  4,000 
— total,  510,000  tons. 

FOOD. — The  yearly  consumption  of  necessaries,  in  pounds, 
per  inhabitant : 

Sugar. 


United  Slates , 

United  Kingdom 

Fnance 

Germany 

Russia  

Austria : 

Il.ily 

Spain 

Belgium  and  Holland. 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway . 
Average 


Grain, 

Meat. 

Butter. 

392 

120 

16 

330 

105 

■3 

505 

74 

4 

585 

69 

8 

490 

48 

3 

410 

64 

5 

420 

23 

t 

390 

49 

0 

445 

69 

6 

475 

70 

"5 

340 

65 

9 

445 

70 

7 

?i 


7 

14 
7 


Luxuries  are  consumed  as  follows,  per  inhabitant : 


United  States 

United  Kingdom ..  . . . 

France  

Germany    

Russia 

AlLstria 

Italy 

Spain ,  ■ 

Belgium  and  Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway . 
Average  


Ounces. 


Coffee, 


83 
3 

35 

18 

4 

■  75 

76 


Tea, 


Tobacco, 


59 
23 

29 

2'6 

80 

23 

32 

84 
61 
29 
41 


Gallons, 


Wine, 


0.60 
0.44 

20. 12 
2.70 
0.38 
7.50 

17.60 

«3-5o 
0.80 
0.30 
0.20 


Beer. 


7.20 
28.60 
5.10 
19.40 
0,80 
6.50 
0.70 
o.io 

22.  20 
13.60 
5.40 

g.6o 


Spirits. 


1.50 
1.05 
0.90 
'•33 

2.30 
0.80 
0.30 
0.20 
2.60 
4.30 
4.20 
I    10 


i^ 


-^l 


\ 


Komparative  Sbowing  of  Religions  in  the  United  States, 


/ 


u 


United  Evangelical,  144,000 


Meth.  Epis.,  Colored,  74,195 
Anti-Mission  Baptists,  40,n00 


Mormon,  110,379 


Free  "Will  Baptists,  76,7C0 


Church  of  God,  20,224 


[l  TTnitarian  Congregational,  17,960 

^Moravian,  16,112 

n  Free  Methodists,  12,120 

n  Keformed  Episcopal,  10,459 

a  Ref'd  Presbyterian,  6,020 


PEO.  EPISOOPALi 
a^     823,876 


3 


CONGEEGATIONAL 
383,685 


Cumberland  Presbyterians, 
Friends,  67,643 


PEESBYTERIAN, 
573.377 


111,855 


United  Brethren  in  Christ,  \l55,437 


□  Primitive  Methodists,  3,370 
D  Ne'w  Mennonites,  2,990 

n  American  Communities,  2,830 


United 

Presbyterians 

80,236 


Second  Adventists,  63,500 
Universalists,  37,945 

■Wesleyan  Methodists,  17,847  Q 
7th  Day  Adventists,  14,733  J 
Adventists,  11,100  [] 
~^  7th  Day  Baptists,  8,606  Q 
CHRISTIAN,  j  New  Jerusalem,  4,734  | 
,     567,443 


\ 


LUTHERAN, 
684,570 


METHODIST 

EPISCOPAL 

SOUTH, 

828,013 


99,607 


90.000 


[  Evangelical  Association. 
Dunkards. 


1 RA  TAO  /  Reformed  Church  in 
104, /4<d/  United  States. 


Shakers,  2.400  a 

Independent  Methodists,  2,100  n 

Six-Principle  Baptists,  2,075  ° 


Beformed  Church 
in  America, 

78,917 


Presbyterian 
South. 
119,970 


R'OMAN   CATHOLIC, 
6,832,954 


A 


SC 


Designed  and  Engraved  expressly  for  Peale'a  Popular  Educator. 


558 


\ 


-^EidciGatiGnal  Statistics  of  the  cliiited  States  and  other  Gociritrie^.^ 


Percentage  of  school  population  in  daily  attenilance, 
Percentage  of  school  population  enrolled  in  public  schools. 
Average  monthly  pay  of  female  teachers. 
Average  monthly  pay  of  male  teachers. 


Percentage  of  school  popu-    [" 
lation    of 


560 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


These  food  statistics  are  by  Mulhall.  There  are  many  valu- 
able items  of  food  besides  these.  Grain  is  largely  supplemented 
by  potatoes  in  Ireland  and  Germany,  and  by  chestnuts  in  Italy; 
moreover,  this  column  does  not  include  rice,  the  consumption  of 
which  is  rapidly  increasing.  Meat  includes  fowl,  but  neither 
game  nor  fish,  nor  lard,  all  of  which  enter  largely  into  European 
food.  Cheese  is  another  important  item  not  included  above. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Relative  Value  of  Food  (Beef  par). 
Oysters,  22;  milk,  24;  lobsters,  50;   cream,  56;  codfish,  6S ; 
eggs,  72;  turbot,  S4;  mutton,  87;  venison,  89;  veal,  92;  fowl, 
94;  herring,  100;  beef,  100 ;  duck,   104;  salmon,  108;   pork, 
116;  butter,  124;  cheese,  155. 

Percentage  of  Carbon  in  Food, 
Cabbage,  3  ;  beer,  4  ;   carrots,  5 ;  milk,  7 ;   parsnips,  8 ;  fish, 
9;  potatoes,  12;  eggs,   16;  beef,  27;   bread,  27;    cheese,  36; 
peas,  36 ;  rice,  38 ;  corn,  38 ;  biscuit,  42  ;  oatmeal,  42  ;  sugar, 
42;  flour,  46;  bacon,  54;  cocoa,  69;  butter,  79. 

Foot-tons  of  Energy  per  Ounce  of  Food. 
Cabbage,   16;  carrots,  20;  milk,  24;  ale,  30;  potatoes,  38; 
porter,  42;  beef,  55 ;  egg,  57;  ham,  65  ;  bread,  83;  egg  (yolk), 
127;  sugar,  130;  rice,  145;  flour,   148;   arrowroot,   151;  oat- 
meal, 152;  cheese,  168;  butter,  281. 

Loss  of  Meat  in  Cooking. 


100  lbs.  raw  beef        =    67  lbs.  roast 
100    "      "  =  74    "    boiled 

100     "  raw  mutton   =   75    '*     roast 


100  lbs.  raw   fowl        =    80    roast 
100     "  "  =    87    bailed 

100     "   raw   fish  =    94    boiled 


FOREIGN  POPULATION.— See  diagram,  Curiosities  of  the 
Census. 

FORESTS. — The  forests  of  the  world  cover  1,201  millions  of 
acres,  distributed  as  follows :  Russia,  485  millions ;  United 
Slates,  176;  Canada,  174;  Brazil,  135;  Scandinavia,  63; 
Austria,  46 ;  Gran  Chaco,  37 ;  Germany,  33 ;  France,  23  ; 
Italy,  II;  Spain  and  Portugal,  8 ;  Algeria,  6;  United  Kingdom, 
2;  Belgium  and  Holland,  l^.  These  figures  are  from  an 
estimate  made  in  1883.  Since  1S4S  the  French  have  converted 
9"  million  acres  of  waste  land  into  forest,  producing  nearly  $2  an 
acre.  Paris  burns  the  timber  of  50,000  acres  yearly,  requiring 
an  area  of  a  million  acres  of  forest  to  keep  up  the  supply. 
Woodcutters  in  the  United  States  fell  10,000  acres  daily,  or  3 
million  acres  per  annum.  In  1S82  there  were  15,100  saw  mills 
in  the  United  States  and  640  in  Canada. 

FREIGHT. — Capacity  of  a  ten-ton  freight  car: 


Whisky   do  barrels 

Salt 70      " 

Lime 70      " 

Flour 90      " 

Eggs 13010160      " 

Flour 200  sacks. 

Cattle 18  to  20  head. 

Hogs  . 50  to  60      " 

Sheep 80  to  100      " 


Lumber,  green 6,000  feet. 

Lumber,  dry 10,000  feet. 

Barley  300  bushels. 

Wheat 340       " 

Apples 370       " 

Corn 400       '* 

Potatoes 430       " 

Oats 680       " 

Uran 1,000       " 


FRUIT. — The  degrees  of  sugar  in  various  fruits  are  :  Peach, 
1.6;  raspberry,  4.0 ;  strawberry,  5.7 ;  currant,  6.1;  gooseberry, 
7.2;  apple,  7.9;  mulberry,  9.2  ;  pear,  9.4;  cherry,  10.8;  grape, 
14.9. 

FUEL. — Pounds  of  water  evaporated  by  i  lb.  of  fuel  as  fol- 
lows; Straw,  1.9;  wood,  3.1  ;  peat,  3.8;  coke  or  charcoal, 
6.4;   coal,  7.9;    ])etroleum,  14.6. 


V 


GIANTS. 

as  follows : 


-The  most  noted  of  ancient  and  modern  times  are 


Name.  Place. 

Goliath Palestine  . 

Galbara Rome. .. . 

John  Middlcton England.. 

Frederick's  Swede Sweden  .. 

Cujanus Finland  .. 

Gilly Tyrol  .... 

Patrick  Cotter Cork 

Chang  Gow Pekin 


ieigh 

, 

Feet. 

Period. 

II. 0 

H.C 

1063. 

9-9 

CJIau 

dius  Ck 

ar. 

9-3 

A.D 

■578. 

8.4 

7-9 
8.1 

1806. 


Many  of  the  great  men  of  history  have  been  rather  seiall  in 
stature.  Napoleon  was  only  about  5  ft.  4  in.,  Washington  was 
5  ft.  7^  in.  One  of  the  greatest  of  American  statesmen,  Alex- 
ander H.  Stephens,  never  exceeded  115  pounds  weight,  and  in 
his  old  age  his  weight  was  less  than  100  lbs. 

GOLD. — See  diagram,  The  World's  Yearly  Production  of  the 
Precious  Metals. 

GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC. — A  gallon  of  water  or  wine  weighs 
10  lbs.,  and  this  i:  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  following  table  : 


LIQUIDS. 

"Water .    loo 

Sea  water 103 

Dead  Sea 124 

Alcohol      84 

Olive  oil 92 

Turpentine 99 

Wine 100 

Urine    loi 

Cider 102 

Beer    102 

Woman's  milk 102 

Cow's  "    103 

Goat's  "    104 

Porter 104 


Kmerald 277.5 

Crystal 265.3 


Indigo 77 

Gunpowder 93 

Butter 94 

Ice 117 

Clay 120 

Coal 130 


METALS. 

Zinc 

Cast  iron.  . 

Tin    

Bar  iron  . . 

Steel 

Copper  . . . 
Brass     . , , . 

Silver 

Lead 

Mercury  . . 

Gold 

Platina  . . . 


719 

721 

729 

779 

783 

869 

840 

:,05i 

',135 

'.357 

1,926 


Cork 

Cedar  .... 

Beech 

Butter...     . 

Water   

Mahogany . 


Oak.. 
Clay  . 
Coal  . 


TIMBER. 

Cork  24 

Poplar   38 

Fir 55 

Cedar 61 

Pear 66 

Walnut 67 

Cherry 72 

Maple 75 

Apple 79 

Ash 84 

Beech  85 

Mahogany 106 

Oak 117 

Ebony 133 

PRECIOUS    STONES. 

I  Diamond 353.°  I  Garnet    406.3 

'  Topaz 401.1  I  Ruby 428.3 


SUNDRIES. 

Peat   133 

Opium    134 

Honey 145 

Ivory 183 

Brick 200 

Sulphur 203 

"Weight  in  Cubic  Feet 
Lb?,  per 
Cub.  Ft. 


15 
36 
5t 
56 
62 
66 
70 
70 
72 
80 


Brick  . 

Stone 
Granite 


Porcelain 226 

Stone    252 

Marble 270 

Granite    27S 

Chalk 279 

Glass    289 


Lbs,  per 

Cub.  Ft. 

120 


ISO 

166 


Glass 1 72 


Iron  . 
Copper  . 
Silver... 
Lead  . . . 
Gold  ... 


470 
520 
630 
680 
1,155 


GUANO. — The  Peruvian  Government  exported  from  the 
Chinclia  Islands  between  1850  and  1S80  more  than  twelve 
million  tons,  worth  ^550,000,000. 

HAIR. — That  which  is  lightest  in  color  is  also  lightest  in 
weight.  Light  or  blonde  hair  is  generally  the  most  luxuriant, 
and  it  has  been  calculated  that  the  average  number  of  hairs  of 
this  color  on  an  average  person's  head  is  140,000;  while  the 
number  of  brown  hairs  is  110,000,  and  black  only  103,000. 

HEAT. — Ice  melts  at  32°  ;  temperature  of  globe,  50° ;  blood 
heat,  98°;  alcohol  boils,  174°;  water  boils,  212°;  lead  melts; 
594°;  heat  of  common  fire,  1,140°;  brass  melts,  2,233° ;  ^''*^" 
melts,  3,479°. 


^ 


^ 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS   AND    FIGURES. 


561 


HEIGHT  "f  noted  cathedrals,  mnnuments,  buildings  etc. 


Feci. 

Washington  Monument* 555 

Pyramid,  Cheops,  E^ypt 543 

Cathedral,  Cologne 511 

"  Antwerp    476 

"  Sirasburg 474 

Tower,  Utrecht 464 

Steeple,  St.  Stephen's,  Vicin.a  .  46J 

Pyr.imid,  Khafrns,  Egypt 456 

St.  Martin's  Church,  Bavaria. .   436 
Chimney,  Port  Dundas,  Glas- 
gow  454 

St.  Poicr's,  Rome 448 

Notre  Dame,  Amiens 42^ 

Salisbury  Spire,  England 406 

Cathedral,  Vlurcnce j8  • 

"  Cremona 372 

*'  Freiburg 367 

St.  Paul's,  London 365 

Cathedral,  Seville 360 

Pyran\id,  Sakkarah,  E^ypt....  356 

Calhcdnil,  Milan 335 

Notre  iJame,  Munich 348 

347 
340 
337 
3^8 
3^8 


Invalided,  Pa 

Paili.imciit  House,  Liiidun. , 

Cathc  in»I,  Maedcburg 

Si.  PalrickS.  New  York  .... 
Si.  Mark's,  Venice 


Feet. 

Calhcdral,  Bologna 371 

'*  Norwich,   England.  309 

"  ChichcTttcr,    "  300 

"  Lincoln,  "  300 

Capitol,  Washington 3» 

St.  James'  Cathedral,  Toroulo.  316 
Trinity  Church,  New  York....  383 

Cathedral,  Mexico 3&o 

Montreal a8o 

Campanile  Tower,  Florence  , . .  376 

Column,  Delhi 360 

Cathedral,  Dantzic 350 

Porcelain  Tower,  Nankin '.'48 

Custom-house,  St.  Louis 240 

Canterbury  Tower,  England. . .  335 

Notre  D.ime,  Paris 332 

Chicago  Ll>>.irdof  Trade 330 

St.  Patrick's,  Dublin 336 

Calhednd,  Glxsgow 335 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 330 

Notre  Dame,  Montreal 230 

Cathedral,  Lima 330 

"  Rheims 230 

'*  Garden  City,  L.  I.     2i() 

Sis.  Peter  and  Paul,  Phila... 
Washington,  Mon.,  B.allo  ... 
Vendomc  "       Paris  . . . 


310 
310 
'S3 


•  It  is  proposed  to  erect  an  i.-on  tower  1,000  feet  high,  to  be  completed  in 
iSSg,  for  the  Paris  Exposition. 

HOLIDAYS. — The  legal  holitlays  in  tlic  United  States  are  as 
follows  : 

AV  •  Yfar'sDay — Jan.  i. — In  all  States  and  Territories,  except  Arkan- 
s.as,  Delaware,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  M.tine,  M.'issachusetts,  New  Hamp- 
shire, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island. 

Anniversary  ofthi:  Battle  0/ New  Orleans — Jan.  8. — In  Louisiana. 

Lincoln's  Birthit.ty — Feb.  12. — In  Louisiana. 

IVashingion' s  Birthday—Viih.  22 — In  all  States  and  Territories  except 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Maine,  Mis- 
souri, North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Texas,  Oregon  and  Tennessee. 

Sitrajte  Tuestiay — Alarch  I — In  Louisiana,  .and  cities  of  Mobile,  Montgom- 
ery and  Selnia,  Ala 

Anniversary  0/  Texan  Independence — March  2 — In  Texxs. 

Firemen  s  Annri>ersary — March  4 — In  Louisiana. 

Good  Fritiity — April  15 — In  Florida,  Louisiana,  Minnesota  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Mentorial  Day — April  26 — In  Georgia. 

Battle  c/ San  yacinto — April  21 — In  Texas. 

Decoration  /'nv— May  30 — In  Colorado,  Maine,  Vermont,  Connecticut, 
Michigan,  Now  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Rhode  Island,  New  'Ifork,  Penn- 
sylvania and  District  of  Columbia. 

Fourth  0/ July~\n  all  States  and  Territories. 

General  Klec  ion  Day — Cn-'nerally  on  Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in 
November — In  California.  Maine,  Missouri^  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ore- 
gon. South  Carolina  and  Wisconsin. 

Thanksffi^'in^^  Day — Usually  Inst  Thursday  in  November — and  Fast  days 
whenever  appointed  by  the  President — arc  legal  holidays  in  all  States  and 
Territories. 

Christmas  Day — In  all  the  Slates  and  Territories. 

HOPS. — -\vera5jc  annual  crop,  in  tons:  England,  26,000; 
(leniiany.  ig.ooo;   United  .States,  5, (X)0;  France,  4,500. 

HORSE-POWER. — One  horse-power  will  raise  10  tons  per 
ininiiic  a  lieiylit  of  12  inches,  working  8  hours  a  day.  This  is 
about  5,000  foot-tons  daily,  or  12  times  a  man's  work. 

The  horsL'-power  of  Niagara  is  3  '-4  million  noniinnl,  eijual  to 
10  million  horses  efi'ectivc. 

ICE. — Good  clear  ice  two  inches  thick  will  bear  men  to  walk 
on;  four  inches  thick  will  bear  horses  and  riders;  six  inches 
thick  will  bear  horses  and  teams  with  moderate  loads. 

ILLEGITIMACY. — The  percentage  of  illegitimate  births  for 
v.irious  countries,  as  stated  by  Mulhall,  is  as  follows;  Austria, 
12.9;  Denmark,  11.2;  .Sweden,  10.2;  Scotland,  8.9;  Norway, 
8.05;  Germany,  8.04;  France,  7.02;  Belgiuin,  7.0;  Uniteil 
States,  7.0;  Italy,  6.8;  Spain  and  Portugal,  5.5;  Canada,  5.0 ; 
Switzerland,  4.6;  Holland,  3.5;  Russia,  3.1;  Ireland,  2.3; 
Greece,  1.6. 


ILLITERACY.— See  Education. 

IMMIGRATION. — The  arrivals  in  the  United  States  since  1820 
are  as  follows  in  even  thousands: 

1820-30 143,000  I  i87i-«o 2,731,000 

1831-40 609,000  1881 <i«9,ooo 

1841-S0 1,706,000  1882 789,a« 

1851-60 2,598,000  i88j fm."°° 

1861-7:' 3,493,000  I  1884 518,000 

The  grand  tolal  for  sixty-four  years  is  12,719,000.  Of  the 
arrivals  in  1S83  there  were:  Germans,  192,000;  English,  100,- 
200;  Canadians.,  65,100;  Irish, 64,400;  Scandinavians,  52,200; 
Italians,  32,500;  Various,  92,700— Total,  599,100. 

INDIANS. — I"  l88o  the  number  of  Indians  in  the  United 
States  w.ts  as  follows.  The  greater  p.irt  are  now  gathered  in 
the  Indian  Territory  upon  reservations  assigned  them  by  the 
Government:  Choctaws,  l6,(XK);  Cherokees,  17,000;  Musk- 
ogees,  13,000;  Seminoles,  2,500  ;  Chickasaws,  6,000;  Osages, 
4,000;  Peoria,  170;  Ottawas,  175;  .Sacs  and  Foxes,  700 ;  Qua- 
paws,  236.  Of  the  .Vpaches  in  .\rizona  and  New  Mexico  llicre 
are  14,349,  and  of  a  collection  of  tribes  in  Oregon,  about  837. 
There  is  also  a  small  remnant  of  the  Oneida  tribe  in  Wisconsin. 
The  annual  report  of  the  U.  S.  Indian  Commissioner  for  1880 
shows  a  total  Intlian  population  in  the  United  States,  exclusive 
of  ALaska,  of  255,938,  all  of  whom,  except  about  18,000,  are 
under  control  of  the  GovcrnnKnt. 


Indians  in  Canada. 


Locality. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Manitoba,  etc 


Property. 

^^1,968,000 

363,000 


Average 
per  Head. 
;£i23 
33 


Population. 

16,000 

II  ,000 

75,400  

INDIA    RUBBER. — This  is  mostly  obtained   from  the  Serin- 

gueros  of  llic  .\niazon,  who  sell   it  for  about   12  cents  a  pound 

to  tlie  merchants  of  Para,  but  its  value  on  reaching  England  or 

the   United  .States  is  over  50  cents  a  pound.     The  number  of 

tons  imported  into  Great  Britain  and  tlie  United  States  has  been 

as  follows : 

1S60.  1S70.  1880. 

UniledStates i.6io  4.316  7.5=9 

Great  Britain 2,150  7.606  8,479 

The  be-st  rubber  forests  in  Brazil  will  ultimately  be  exhausted, 
owing  to  the  reckless  mode  followed  by  the  Seringueros  or  tap- 
jiers.  The  ordinary  product  of  a  tapper's  work  is  from  10  to 
16  lbs.  ilaily.  There  are  120  india-rubber  m,-inufacturers  in  the 
United  States,  employing  15,000  operatives,  who  produce  2S0,- 
000  tons  of  goods,  valued  at  $260,000,000,  per  annum. 

INDUSTRIES. — See  diagram.  The  World's  Industries. 

INSANITY.— It  is  estim.nled  that  the  number  of  insane  per- 
sons in  the  United  Stales  is  168,900;  in  Germany,  108,100; 
in  France,  93,900;  in  England,  81,600;  in  Russia,  80,000: 
Italy,  44,100;  Austria,  35,000;  Ireland,  19,500;  Scandinavia, 
18,100;  Spain  and  Portugal,  13,000;  Scotland,  11,600;  Bel- 
gium and  Holland,  10,400;  Canada,  7,300 ;  Australia,  4,900; 
Switzerland,  3,100. 

Causes  of  Insanity. — Hereditary,  24  percent;  drink,  14  per 
cent;  business,  1 2  per  cent;  loss  of  friemls,  'i  percent;  sick- 
ness, 10  per  cent ;  Various,  29  per  cent. 

The  above  result  is  the  mediinn  average  arrived  at  on  com- 
paring the  returns  for  the  United  States,  England,  I'rance  and 
Denmark. 


/ 


^ 


^ 

-^ 


Aggregate  Annual   Industries  of  the  World,  in  Millions  of  Dollars. 


THE  WORLD 


EUROPE 


9,200 


#5F§E  WGRUa'S  G0fflffiERGrjILi   BHliflRGE-SREEl.#- 


In  the  following  diagrams  are  shown  the  annual  imports  and  exports  per  inhabitant  of  (he  principal  nations.  The 
figures  indicate  quarter  dollars.  The  quarter  dollar  has  been  adopted  as  the  unit  so  as  to  bring  the  comparison  within  the  com- 
pass of  a  circle  of  360  degrees.  Example. — The  figures  representing  the  United  States  in  the  diagram  of  imports  will  be  found 
on  the  line  representing  the  57th  degree,  and  indicate  that  the  United  States  import  yearly  merchandise  to  the  value  of  57 
quarter  dollars,  or  514.25,  for  every  inhabitant.  The  e.sports,  on  the  other  hand,  amount  to  S16.25  per  inhabitant. 
IMPORTS  EXPORTS 


■^     Designed  and  Bngraved  expressly  for  Peate's  Popular  Educator. 


562 


-^  shipping,  Steao]  Power,  Agriculture,  battle,  and  War  Expenditure.  2^ 


-c>o^x>- 


SHIPPING.     Showing  carrj'ing  power  in  millions  of  tons. 


if  /  r 


20,4 


1  \  8.9  %  \  2.1         <. 


lAL 


NAk  NAtd  x4^  \i^  ^-^    >U: 

N'""c5ij|i  iMli.iu  b|ijiii,li  S»cJj5li  KusM.in  Dutch 

STEAM  POWER.     In  millions  horsepower.     (Including  stationary  and  locomotive  engines.) 

7.1J 


©0j6  0.5  0.5 

©  ©  ® 

^      "■'■  ■'  I       I.         ■    III  i;^  nil, my  France  Russia  Austria  Del^iiiini  Tialy  Sp.iin 

AGRICULTURE.     Annual  value  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  products  in  millions  of  dollars. 


'(^(3  t««o 


L".  SmIcs  Ku^iia  Germany  France 

CATTLE.     Showing  the  number  in  millions. 


380     290 

O    O 

Austria         U.  Kingdom         luly  Spain     Australia  Canada 


Germany 


18, 


France  United  Kiniido; 


It.ily 


ARMY  AND   NAVY  EXPENDITURE.     Showing  the  cost  per  inhabitant  per  annum. 


$4,25 


I  ^^00         )    I        $3,2:/"    ^     I     t2,60     )•   Ij.^ZjsJ' 


Germany 


I   •$2.00    )  t   $^'°0   )  Ql£5^  t  $1,76  >  a,  $a.76  >  t  $1.60  > 


$1,00 


Inly 


Portugal  U.  States 


Deaigned  and  Engraved  expressly  for  Pgate'a  Popular  Educator. 


563 


\ 


564 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


^ 


"^ 


Age. 
5- 


INTERNAL  REVENUE.— See  diagram,  page  546. 

IRON. — See  diagram  Pi^  Iroi!,  page    570. 

LABOR. — Dr.    Farr  estimates   the  value   of  an  agricultural 

laborer  to  the  commonwealth  as  follows  ; 

Age.  Value.  Age.  Value. 

30 i5i.2oS  55 $69° 

35 1,140  60 485 

40 1,060  65 230 

45 965  70 <= 

50 840 

At  the  age  of  75  he  is  a  loss  of  $125,  and  the  loss  rises  to 
$205  at  80.  This  is  only  true  of  agricultural  laborers,  since  in- 
tellectual workers  are  often  of  much  value  after  70  years  of  age, 
which  balances  the  account. 

LAKES. — The  length  and  width  of  the  principal  lakes  of  the 
world,  in  miles,  is  as  follows: 


Value. 

$280 

585 

15 960 

20 1,170 

25 1,230 


Length.  Width. 

Superior 380 120 

Baikal 360 

Michigan 33° 

Great  Sl.ive 300 

Huron 250 

Winnipeg 240. 

Erie 270 

Athabasca 200 

Ontario 180. 

Maracaybo 150 


e.1 


Length.  Width, 

Great  Bear 150 40 

Ladoga ■ 125   75 

Champlain 123 12 

Nicaragua i2„ 40 

Lake  of  the  Woods .. .  70 25 

Geneva 50 10 

Constance 45 10 

Cayuga 36 4 

George 36 3 


LAND  GRANTS.— From  the  year  iSootill  iSSi,  the  United 
States  Government  ceded  192,000,000  acres  of  public  lands  to 
railways,  77,000,000  to  schools,  62,000,000  to  military,  and 
30,000,000  for  other  purposes,  besides  248,000  acres  in  sales  to 
settlers,  this  last  item  including  67,000,000  granted  in  homestead 
lots. 

LANGUAGES. —  The  English  language  is  spoken  by  100,- 
000,000  people;  French,  48,000,000;  German,  69,000,000; 
Italian,  30,000,000;  Spanish,  4 1 ,000,000 ;  Portuguese,  13,000,- 
000  ;   Russian,  67,000,000. 

LEPROSY. —  There  were  2,180  lepers  in  Norway  in  18S3, 
according  to  Mulhall.  The  numbers  in  Spain  and  Italy  are 
considerable.  In  the  Sandwich  Islands  the  disease  is  so  preva- 
lent tliat  the  island  of  Molokai  is  set  apart  for  lepers,  who  are 
under  the  direction  of  a  French  Jesuit  priest.  In  the  Seychelles 
Islands  leprosy  is  also  coinmon. 

LIFE. — American  life-average  for  professions  (Boston) :  Store- 
keepers, 41.8  years  ;  teamsters,  43.6  years>;  laborers,  44.6  years ; 
seamen,  46.1  years;  mechanics,  47.3  years;  merchants,  48.4 
years;  lawyers,  52.6  years;  farmers,  64.2  years.  Sei  Expcct- 
ancv  Table. 

LONGEVITY. —  The  average  of  human  life  is  33  years.  One 
child  out  of  every  four  dies  before  the  age  of  7  years,  and  only 
one-half  of  the  world's  population  reach  the  age  of  17.  One 
out  of  io,ooo  reaches  100  years.  The  average  number  of 
births  per  day  is  about  120,000,  exceeding  the  deaths  by  about 
1 5  iier  minute.  There  have  been  many  alleged  cases  of  longevity 
in  all  ages,  but  only  a  few  are  authentic. 

MARRIAGE. — A  woman's  chances  of  marriage  at  various 
ages. — This  curiously  constructed  exhibit  by  Mr.  Finlayson,  a 
European  statistician,  is  drawn  up  from  the  registered  cases  of 
1,000  married  women,  taken  without  selection.  Of  the  1,000 
tabulateil  there  were  married  : 


Marriages. 


lOI 

219 
230 
165 

60 


ars  of  Age. 

Marriages. 

14  to  15 

41 

i6"i7 

18 

18  "  19 

15 

26  "  27 


Years  of  Age. 
28  to  29 
30  "  31 
32  "  33 
34  "  35 
36  "  37 
38  "  39 


METALS. — Few  people  have  any  idea  of  the  value  of  pre- 
cious metals  other  than  gold,  silver  and  copper,  which  are  com- 
monly supposed  to  be  the  most  precious  of  all.  There  are 
many  metals  more  valuable  and  infinitely  rarer.  The  following 
table  gives  the  names  and  prices  of  all  the  known  metals  of 
pecuniary  worth : 

Price  per 
Av.  pound. 

Vanadium ^10,000  00 

Rubidium 9.070  00 

Zirconium 7,200  oc 

Lithium    7,00000 

Glucium 5*400  90 

Calcium 4.500  00 

Strontium , .  4,200  05 

Terbium 4,080  00 

Vitrium 4,080  00 

Erbium 3,400  00 

Cerium 3i4oo  00 

Didymium 3,200  00 

Indium 3,200  00 

Ruthenium 2,400  00 

Rhodium 2,300  00 

Niobium 2,300  00 

Barium 1,800  00 

Palladium 1,400  00 

0--inium 1,300  00 

Indium i,ogo  00 

Uranium 900  00 

Titanium 689  00 

Chromium 500  00 


Gold 

Molybdenum  . 

Thallium 

Platinum 

Manganese  . . . 
Tungstein  . . . , 
Magnesium. . . 
Potassium  . . , 
Aluminum. . . , 

Silver 

Cobalt 

Sodium 

Nickel  ..      .. 

Cadmium 

Bismuth    

Mercury 

Arsenic 

Tin , 

Copper , 

Antimony  . . ., 

Zinc 

Lead 


Price  per 

Av.  pound. 

330  00 

225  00 

225  00 

1 50  00 

130  00 

115  00 

64  00 

64  00 

32  00 

20  00 

16  00 

8  00 

5  00 

4  00 

2  50 

95 

50 

25 


16 
II 
o3 


As  Conductors. 


Gold 

Platinum 
Silver  .  . . . 
Copper. . . 


Heat.     Electricity. 


97 
90 


94 

16 

74 

100 


Iron  . 
Zinc  . 
Tin  . . 
Lead 


Heat 
37 
36 
30 
18 


Electricity. 
16 
29 
15 


Tenacity. 

A  wire,  0.S4  of  a  line  in  diameter,    will  sustain   weights  as 
follows : 


Lead 28  lbs. 

Tin 3S    " 

Zinc 110    " 

Gold 150    " 


Silver    iS7lbs, 

Platinum 274    " 

Copper 302    ' ' 

Iron    549    " 


Fluid  Density. 


Zinc  , 
Iron  . 
Tin  . , 


, 6  48  I  Copper 8.22 

, 6.88     Silver g.51 

7-03  I  Lead 10.37 

MILITARY  AND   NAVAL   STRENGTH.— See  diagram,  page 

336. 

MILK. — The  component  parts  of  milk  are  as  follows  : 


Woman  . 
Cow  . . . . 

.^55 

Goat 

Ewe    . . . . 


Water. 

Fat. 

Caseinc. 

Sugar. 

Total. 

^ii 

2-5 
4.0 

3-4 

4.8 
2.8 

loo.o 
loo.o 

85.6 

I.I 
3-3 
4-2 

1.9 

4.0 
4-5 

6.1 
5.9 
5  7 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 

MONEY. — The  amount  of  money  in  circulation  in  the  princi- 
pal nations  of  the  world  is  as  follows,  p.-iper  money  being  in- 
cluded as  well  as  gold  and  silver:  France,  ^2, 005, 000,000 ; 
United  States,  $1,510,000,000;  India,  §960,000,000;  United 
Kingdom,  $925,000,000;  Russia,  $760,000,000;  Germany, 
$750,000,000;  Italy,  $525,000,000  ;  South  America,  $465 ,000,- 
000;  Austria,  $+10,000,000;  Spain,  $265,000,000;  Japan, 
$255,000,000;  Belgium,  $210,000,000;  Holland,  $165,000,- 
CXX3;  Australia,  $95,000,000.     The  amount  of  coin  in  circula- 


\ 


"71 


DICTIONARV    111     FACTS    ANU    FIGURES. 


565 


Hon,  exclusive  of  copper,  is  as  follows  :  France,  $1,505,000,000 ; 
Inilia,  $900,000,000;  United  Slates,  $785,000,000;  United 
Kinijdom,  $715,000,000;  Germany,  $540,000,000;  Italy, 
$225,000,000;  Spain,  $io5,ooo,ooo ;  Russia,  $170,000,000; 
Belgium,  $145,000,000;  South  America,  $140,000,000;  Japan, 
$125,000,000;  Austria,  S I oo.ooo.ooo ;  Holland,  $85,000,000; 
Australia,  $70,000,000. 

MOUNTAINS. — Highest  and  most  noted  mountains  on  the 
globe. — XoKiH  .\MERICA. — Norlltern  Coast  Mis.:  Ml.  .St. 
Elias,  19,283  ft.  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range:  Mt. 
Whitney,  14,887;  Mt.  Rainier,  14,444;  Mt.  Shasta,  14,440; 
Ml.  Tyndall,  14,386;  Mt.  Dana,  13,277;  Mt.  Hood,  11,225. 
Rocky  Mountains :  Uncompihgre  Peak,  14,540 ;  Mt.  Har- 
vard, 14,384;  Gr.iy's  Peak,  14,341;  Mt.  Lincoln,  14,297; 
Long's  Peak,  14,271  ;  Pike's  Peak,  14,149.  Mexican  Plateau: 
Ori/.aha,  17,897;  Popocatepetl,  17,784;  Iztacciliuatl,  15,700. 
Central  America. — .\gu.a,  14,494;  Fue;.;o,  12.790.  .South 
America. — Andes:  lUampu,  24,812  ;  Illimani,  24,155  ;  Acon- 
cigua,  23,421;  Tupaugati,  22,015;  Chimborazo,  21,424; 
Nevada  de  Sorata,  21,290;  Nevada  de  Cayambe,  19,535; 
Anlisiiia,  19,137;  Catopaxi,  18,870;  Tunguaragua,  16,424, 
Pichinclia,  15,924.  Europe. — Elburi  (.\siatic  boundaryl, 
18.573;  Blanc  (.Mps),  15,784;  Rosa  (.\lps),  15,223;  Matter- 
horn  (Alps),  14,039;  Finsler-.\arhorn  (.Vlps),  14,039  ;  Jungfrau 
(.Vlps),  13,718;  Lseran,  13,270,-  Mulhacen  (Spain),  11,654; 
Maladetia  (Spain),  11,426;  Mt.  Etna  (Sicily),  10,874;  Mt. 
Olympus  (Greece),  9,754;  St.  Bernard  (Switzerland),  8,000; 
Parnassus  (the  home  of  the  muses,  Greece),  6,000 ;  Vesuvius 
(volcano,  ne.ir  Naples),  3,900.  Asia. — Everest  (Himalayas, 
highest  in  the  world),  29,002;  Dapsang  (Karakorum  Mts.), 
28,278;  Kintchinjunga  (Himalayas),  28,156;  Dhawalagari 
(Himalayas),  26,826 ;  Nanda  Devi  (Himalayas),  25,661  ; 
highest  peak  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  Mis.,  20,000;  Ararat  (Ar- 
menia), 17,200;  Fusiyama  (Japan)  14,177;  Ml.  Sinai  (.Vrabia), 
8,200.  Africa. — -Killimanjaro  (Central  Africa),  20,ocx>; 
Kenia  (do.),  18,000;  TenerilTe  (Canary  Islands),  12,182; 
highest  peak  of  the  Atlas  Mts.,  11,400;  highest  peak  of  the 
Mts.  of  Abyssinia;  10,000.  ISL.\NDS. — Mauna  Loa  (Sandwich 
Islands),  14,000;  Ophir  (Sumatra),  13,842;  Owen  Stanley 
(Papua),  13,205;  .Semero  (Java),  12,000;  Egmont  (New  Zea- 
land), 8,840;  highest  peak  of  the  Australian  Alps,  7,500; 
Kilanea  (.Sandwich  Islands),  6,000  ;  Stromboli  (volcano  in  the 
Mediterrane.m),  3,000. 

The  greatest  height  attained  by  Humboldt  was  19,510  feet, 
in  the  Andes,  but  Mr.  Whymper,  in  18S0,  ascended  Cotopaxi 
to  19,620  feet,  and  Chimborazo  to  20,545  feet. 

NAVIES. — See  diagram,  page  336;  also  Xavy  Department. 

NAILS. — The  size  and  weight  of  nails  are  as  follows  : 


Name.                Length. 
2  penny I      inch. 

4  "       i',i  "     . 

5  '■       iK  •■     . 

6  "       3       "     . 

7  "       2'^   "     . 


No-  in  lb. 

557 

353 

2^2 


Name.  Length.        No.  in  lb. 

10  penny 3)^  inch 68 

■2      "       3       "     54 

.        20      "      3'*   "     34 

167  I  Spikes 4       "    16 

M'  I       "        ■tM    ■■     "^ 


NAVAL  ARMAMENT 

in  30  years  has  been  : 

1854.    Gunbo.its  built  for   Crimean  war 
proof. 


The  progress  of  "  iron-clad  science  " 

inch    pt.itcs,    perfectly    sbot- 


1862      The  Merrimac  and  Monitor  in  American  civil  war  ;  first  battle  of 
iron-dads. 

1873.  English  rifle  cannon  send  200  lbs.  shots,  9-tor.  gims,  through  8-inch 
plates. 

1874.  Plates  of  10  inches  pierced  in  like  m.inner. 

1876.     Armstrong  100-ton  gims  broke  22-inch  Creusol  steel  plates. 

1879.  Shot  from  9-inch  gun,  75  lbs.  powder,  unable  to  pierce  a  t2-incli 
plate  of  iron  and  steel  alternate  layers. 

iSSo.     Result  of  Krupp's  experiments  : — 

Pcnetra-  Foot 

Gun  Inch.        Shot.  Lbs.         tion.  Tons. 

Knipp     9;-^  348  18. 1  8,630 

British     itj^  8i2  17.9  12,260 

Krupp's  shot  penetrated  18-inch  plates,  the  British  did  not. 

18S3.     Italian  iron-clad  "  Lepanto  "  has  plates  36  inches  thick. 

NICOTINE. — According  to  Orfila,  the  proportion  of  nicotine 
in  Hav.tna  tobacco  is  2  per  cent;  in  French,  6  p.r  cent,  and  in 
Virginia  tobacco,  7  per  cent.     Th.it  in  Brazilian  is  still  higher. 

NEWSPAPERS.— The  population  of  the  world,  the  number 

of  newspapers  in  each  continent  in  1885,  and  the  number  of 

copies  per  annum  in  proportion  to  each  inhabitant,  are  shown 

below  : 

No.  of  pub-  Per 

Population.  lications.  head. 

Europe 3<»  .356,369  19.557  =4-38 

North  America 7*.'J33.776  14.802  36.66 

Asia 1.0^^7,128,657  775  0.01 

South  America 29,988,509  699  3.92 

Australasia 3.670.85°  o*'  30-63 

Africa 205,<xio,ooo  182  o.oi 

TJie  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  'Dnited  States  in 
18S5  was  14,111,  of  which  1,273  were  daily. 

NICKNAMES  of  Natives  of  States  and  Territories.— Ala- 
bama, Lizards;  Arkansas,  Toothpicks;  California,  Ciokl-hunt- 
ers;  Colorado,  Rovers;  Connecticut,  Wooden  Nutmegs;  Da- 
kota, Squatters;  Delaware,  Muskrats;  Florida,  Fly-up-the- 
creeks;  Georgia,  Buzzards;  Idaho,  Fortune-seekers;  Illinois, 
.Suckers;  Indiana,  Hoosiers;  Iowa,  Hawkeyes;  Kansas,  J.iy- 
hawkers;  Kentucky,  Corn  Crackers;  Louisiana,  Creoles; 
Maine,  Foxes;  Maryland,  Clam-Humpcrs;  Massachusetts,  Yan- 
kees; Michigan,  Wolverines;  Minnesota,  Gophers;  Mississippi, 
Tadpoles;  Missouri,  Pukes;  Nebr.a.ska,  Bug-Eaters;  Nevada, 
■Sage  Hens;  New  Hampshire,  Granite  Boys;  New  Jersey, 
Blues,  or  Clam-Catchers;  New  Mexico,  Spanish  Indians;  New 
York,  Knickerbockers;  North  Carolina,  Tarheels;  Ohio,  Buck- 
eyes; Oregon,  Hard  Cases;  Pennsylvania,  Pennainites,  or 
Leather-Heads;  Rhode  Island,  Gunflints;  South  Carolina, 
Weazles;  Tennessee,  Whelps;  Texas,  Beefheads;  Utah,  Polyg- 
amists;  Vermont,  Green  Mountain  Boys;  Virginia,  Beagles; 
Wisconsin,  Badgers. 

OCEANS. — The  Pacific  Ocean  covers  a  surface  of  about  So,- 
000,000  square  miles;  Atlantic, 40,000,000 ;  Indian,  20,000,000; 
Southern,  10,000,000;  Arctic,  5,000,000.  The  seas,  bays,  gulfs, 
etc,  connected  with  each  ocean,  are  included.  Most  geogra 
phers  concede,  however,  that  the  exact  .superficial  extent  of  tlic 
several  oceans  is  not  known  with  certainty,  nor  the  exact  pro- 
portion of  land  and  water. 

'  OPIUM.— The  shipments  from  India  for  twenty  years  have 
been  as  follows :  1861-65,  4,305  tons;  1866-70,4,870;  1871-75 
5,250;  1876-80,  6,005— value  nearly  $250,000,000.  There  arc 
3,000,000  opium  smokers  in  China. 

A  paper  read  before  the  New  York  Medical  Society  at  Al- 
bany in  1885,  by  Dr.  F.  N.  Hammond,  presented  some  signifi- 
cant and  important  facts.  In  1840  about  20,000  pounds  of  opium 


'A 


-^The  Yearly  Wheat  Krop  in  Principal  Countries j<- 


(In  Bushels.     Censi's  iSSo). 


pEgypt, 
g,8oo,ooq 


Algeria, 
25,500,000 


Belgium, 
25,560,000 


Australia, 
36,500,000 

^^  Roumania, 

f^~^^.,__j6,920,oo£_ 

Turliey, 
42,600,000 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
105,000,000 

Austria-Hungary, 
105,080,000 


Italy, 
107,920,000 


Spain, 
116,440,000 


Germany, 
120,700,000 


Russia, 

227,200,000 


India, 
240,000,000 


France, 
289,680,000 


United  States, 
459.479,505 


yw. 


Florida,       -      -     422  

Louisiana,      -      5.034  

Massachusetts,    15,768  

Nevada.  -      -    69,298  

N.  Hampshire.  169,316 ^ 


Vermont,      -     337.257 g 

Idaho,       -        540.589 Q 

New  Mexico,  706,641 
Utah,  -  1,169,199  ^g| 
Vrkansas.  1.269.730  [^ 
Alabama,  1.529.657 
Washing'n,  1.921,322 
Dakota,    -    2.830.289^^ 

N.Carol'a,  3,397,393 

W.  Va.,      4,001,711 

Va.,     7,822,504 

Maryland,    P 
8,004,864 

Nebraska, 
'3,847.007 


240  k.  Island, 

4.674  Wyoming, 

6,402  Dist.  Col. 

38,742  Conn. 

136,427  Arizona, 

218.890  Miss. 

469,688  Montana, 

665,714  Maine, 

962.358  S.  Carol'a. 

1,175.272  Delaware. 

1.425.014  Colorado, 

1,901.739  N.  Jersey. 

I  2.567.760  Texas, 


Georgia,  3,159.77' 

(Tenn.,  7,331,353 

Oreg.,  7,480,000 

Kentucky, 

ii,356,"3 

^1    New  York, 

11,587,766 


17.324.141 
19,462,405 


24,884,689 
24,966,627 
29,017,707 
31,154,205 


Minnesota, 
34.601,030 

Michigan, 
35-532.543  _ 

Ohio, 
46,014,869 

Indiana, 
47,284,858 


Illinois, 
51,110,000 


Designed  and  Ingraued  exjprsfs'a  /or  Peale's  Papular  Eduoator. 


■#- 


-^iTN  World's  Yearly  Production  of  the  Precious  Metals. ^^ 


Alabama. 

Tennessee, 

Alaska, 

Virginia, 

Main*^ 

South  Carolina, 

Wyoming,   - 

Michigan, 

New  Hampshire, 

Swe<Ien, 

Georgia,  U.  S,     - 

Italy. 

North  Carolina,  - 

Washington,    - 

Norway, 

New  Mexico, 

Argentine  Republic, 

British  Columbia,    - 

Oregon, 

Japan, 

Idaho, 

Africa,     -         -         - 

Arizona. 

Austria,  -        -        - 

Dakota, 

Montana, 

Colombia,    - 

Utah.       - 

Germany.     - 

Nevatla. 

California.    - 

Colorado, 

Mexico, 

Russia,     -         -         - 

Australia, 

Other  countries. 


/■ 


United  Slates, 

All  other  countries, 

Total,  world, 


ON    Diil.I.AKS 


GOLD. 


SILVER. 


1,301 


1,998 


5.9SI 


9.32' 


2.999 


13.040 


17.321 


10.999 


1.994 
81,029 

72.37s 


"8.953 


135.800 


49.354 


78.546 


gio.804 


1.097,701 


460,548 


1.479.653 


1,993.800 


211.965 


1,062,031 


3,305,843 


1.805.767 


4,000.000 


291.587 


205,361 


4.888.242 


17. 150.941 


2.699.898 


Ti 


51 


7,200 


56 


25.858 
16.000 


2.435 


332 


17.949 


140 


1.019 


166.270 


392.337 


420.225 


27.793 


916.400 


464.550 


2.325.825 


2.002.727 


70.813 


2.905.068 


4.743.087 


6.938.073 


12,430,667 


1,150,887 


16,549.274 


989.161 


25.167.763 


26.584.000 


413.676 


r 


29.018.223 


1.993,800 


3.1 '7.570 


GOLD. 
33.379,663 
67,376,643 

100.756,306 


SILVEK. 
41,110,957 
40,225,088 

81,336,045 


TOTAL  BULLION. 

74,490.620 

107,601,731 

182,092,351 


NoTI?. — The  total  bullion  yield  of  United 
States  in  1882  was  79,300,000.  The  census 
report  for  1880  is  used  for  comparison,  no 
later  foreign  estimates  being  obtainable. 


A 


—^^      Deaigned  and  Bngruued  eMpreasly  for  PeaJe'a  Popular  Educator. 


567 


56S 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


~7 


were  consumed  in  the  United  States ;  in  iS8o,  533,450  pounds. 
In.  1868  there  were  about  90,000  habitual  opium-eaters  in  the 
country ;  now  they  number  over  500,000.  More  women  than 
men  are  addicted  to  the  use  of  the  drug.  The  vice  is  one  so 
easily  contracted,  so  easily  practiced  in  private,  and  so  difficult 
of  detection  that  it  presents  peculiar  temptations  and  is  very  in- 
sidious. The  relief  from  pain  that  it  gives,  and  the  peculiar  ex- 
altation of  spirits,  easily  lead  the  victim  to  believe  that  the  use  of 
it  is  beneficial.  Opium  and  chloral  are  to-day  the  most  deadly 
foes  of  women.  Dr.  Hammond  is  the  better  qualified  to  speak 
on  this  subject  from  having;  once  been  a  consumer  of  opium 
himself.  To  break  off  from  the  habit,  ^he  says,  the  opium-eater 
must  reduce  the  quantity  of  his  daily  dose,  using  at  the  same 
time  other  stimulants,  and  gi'adually  eliminate  the  deadly  drug 
entirely. 

OYSTERS. — Annual  production,  in  millions:  United  States, 
11,200;  Portugal,  600;  France,  3S0;  United  Kingdom,  300. 
Baltimore  packs  seven  million  bushels  yearly. 

PARTIES.— See  diagram,  page  333. 

PHYSICANS. — Tlie  number  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in 
various  countries  is  as  follows,  according  to  Mulhall :  United 
States,  65,000;  England,  15,920;  Scotland,  3,455;  Ireland, 
3,560;  France,  10,743;  Germany,  32,000;  Russia,  13,475; 
Austria,  10,000 ;  Italy,  9,400 ;  Spain,  5,200 ;  Belgium,  2,893  ; 
Scandinavia,  1,120. 


PLAGUES. — Remarkable  plagues  of  modern  times  : 


Deaths,    Weeks. 


23 

33 
36 
32 
18 
25 
13 


Deaths 

per  Week, 

10,400 

2,100 

1,100 

2,700 

9,500 

3,500 

11,100 

3,200 

900 

2,400 


Date.  Place. 

1656 Naples   380,000 

1665 London 68,800 

1720 Marseilles 39,100 

1771 Moscow 87,800 

1778 Constantinople 170,000 

1798 Cairo 88,000 

1812 Constantinople 144,000 

1834 ...Cairo    57,000 

1835   '...Alexandria 14,900 

1871 Buenos  Ayres 26,300 

POLITICAL  PARTIES.— See  diagram,  page  333. 

POPES. — The  various  nations  of  Europe  are  represented  in 
the  list  of  Popes  as  follows :  English,  I ;  Dutch,  I ;  Swiss.  I  ; 
Portuguese,  I;  African,  2;  Austrian,  2;  Spanish,  5;  German, 
6;  Syrian,  8;  Greek,  14;  French,  15;  Italian,  197. 

Eleven  Popes  reigned  over  20  years;  69,  from  10  to  20;  57, 
from  5  to  10 ;  and  the  reign  of  1 16  was  less  than  5  years. 

POPULATION.  —  See  diagrams.  Comparative  Density  of 
Population  and  Curiosities  of  the  Census  ;  also  full-page  tables 
under  head  "Statistics  of  Population,"  pages  5S1-584. 

Increase  of  Population  in  United  States. 

Natural. 

1831-40 28,02 

1841-50 26.19 

1851-60 24.20 

1861-70 15.38 

1871-80 22.78 

The  increase  of  population  since  1830  (see  page  5S1)  has 
averaged  32  per  cent  every  10  years.  At  tliis  rate  there  will  be 
88  millions  in  igoo. 


Total 

Immigration. 

per  Cent 

4.65 

32.67 

9.68 

35.87 

11.38 

35.58 

7-25 

22.63 

7.29 

,  30.07 

The  Great  Powers  of  Europe. 


Thousands  Omitted. 

1380. 

148U. 

1580. 

16S0. 

1780. 

iSSo. 

England 

2,360 
11,240 
600 
1,200 
2,300 
8,400 
7,500 

3,700 
12,600 
800 
2,100 
9,500 
g,2oo 
8,800 

4,600 
14,300 

1,000 

4,300 
16,500 
10,400 

8,150 

5,532 
18,800 

1,400 
12,600 
14,000 
11,500 

9,200 

9.561 
25,100 

5,460 
26,800 
20,200 
12,800 

9,960 

35,004 
37.4°o 
45,260 
84,440 
37,83° 

Russi.^i 

Italy 

16,290 

Total 

33,600 

46,700 

59.25" 

73,°32 

109,881 

285,134 

In  the  above,  England  now  stands  for  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  Prussia  for  ihe  German  Empire. 

POULTRY. — The  following  table  contains,  in  a  small  space, 
much  valuable  information  for  those  engaged  in  the  poultry 
business  : 


Breeds 


^W 


Brahmas,  light 

Brahmas,  dark 

Cochins,  black 

Cochins,  buff 

Cochins,  white 

Cochins,  partridge 

Common 

Dorkings   

Dominiques,  American 

Games,  black- breasted  red 

Hamburgs 

Houdans 

LeghornSj  black . . . 

Leghorns,  brown 

Leghorns,  dominiqiie 

Leghorns,  white 

Plymouth  Rocks 

Polish 

Spanish,  black 

Ducks,  common     

Ducks,  Aylesbury 

Ducks,  Cayuga 

Ducks,  Pekin 

Duks,  Rouen 

Geese,  common 

Geese,  African 

Geese,  Egyptian 

Geese,  Enibden 

Geese,  Toulouse 

Turkeys,  common 

Turkeys,  black 

Turkeys,  bronze 

Turkeys,  buff 

Turkey;,  Narraganselts. . . 


_ 

J. 

o-S 

>, 

.£  >, 

■ft. 

CJ30 

E  S 

°  B. 

s  = 

rt  " 

rt 

> 

3 

> 

< 

h 

< 

.iJ4 

8 

24 

ji  50 

i    9° 

10^ 

7 

24 

1 50 

90 

10 

7 

24 

1 50 

90 

10 

l\i 

24 

1 50 

90 

11 

9 

24 

1 50 

90 

11 

8 

24 

1 50 

90 

3'.« 

3 

12 

1 00 

75 

6H 

5 

18 

1 25 

90 

5 

4 

12 

1 25 

90 

7'/2 

s 

12 

1 00 

75 

4 

3 

12 

80 

75 

7'/ 

5 

20 

1 25 

I  00 

4!4 

3-^ 

12 

75 

75 

4'/<; 

l!4 

12 

75 

75 

4^2 

% 

12 

75 

75 

4i< 

12 

75 

75 

8}4 

by- 

18 

1 50 

90 

SH 

3!4 

14 

1 00 

75 

7 

6 

18 

1 00 

80 

3 

3 

6 

75 

I  00 

7 

6 

18 

1 00 

1  00 

6 

sM 

15 

90 

I  00 

6 

■;W 

18 

1 10 

I  00 

Z^ 

6« 

24 

1 10 

I  00 

8 

7 

12 

I  25 

1  50 

20 

18 

24 

1  75 

2  00 

7 

6 

12 

1  00 

I  50 

18 

15 

3? 

I  75 

2    00 

22 

20 

36 

2  00 

2    00 

12 

10 

12 

I  20 

1    50 

15 

12 

18 

1  75 

I  75 

24 

15 

36 

2  00 

2  00 

15 

12 

24 

1  75 

I  50 

22 

14 

30 

I  75 

I  75 

Jl  50 
I  50 

1  70 

1  20 

1  40- 

1  so 

1  60 

1  20 

1  70 

1  7° 
I  80 

1  70 

2  00 
2  00 
2  00 

2    GO 

I  75 
1  70 
1  70 
90 
80 
1  00 


30 
40 
20 
40 
50 
50 
50 
50 


A    Comparison. 

The  annual  supply  of  eggs  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at 
over  500,000,000  dozen,  and,  at  the  low  price  of  sixteen  cents  per 
dozen,  represents  a  value  of  over  $80,000,000 — twice  the  value 
of  the  product  of  our  silver  mines. 

PRECIOUS  METALS.— See  diagram,  page  567. 

PULSE. —  fhe  number  of  pulsations  per  miniUe  is  120  in 
infancy.  So  in  manhood,  60  in  old  age,  ami  rather  more  in 
women  than  in  nien. 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


569 


A 


PYRAMIDS.— The  largCbt,  that  of  Cheops,  is  composed  of 
four  milliim  Ions  of  stone,  aiul  occu))ied  100,000  men  during  20 
years,  oi|ual  to  an  outlay  of  $200,000,000.  It  would  now  cost 
$20,000,000  at  a  contract  price  of  36  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

QUININE. — Annual  production  :  IVru,  8,900,000  lbs.;  India, 
2,200,000  U«.;  Java,  1 10,000  lbs.;  Jamaica,  21,000  lbs.  Total, 
11,231,000  lbs. 

RABBITS. — One  pair  of  rabbits  can  become  multiplied  in 
four  years  into  1,250,000.  They  were  introduced  into  Australia 
a  few  years  ago,  and  now  that  colony  ships  6,000,000  rabbit  skins 

yearly  to   England. 

RAILWAYS. — [Isee  diagram..]     There  are  constant  additions 

to  the  railroads  of  the  United  States,  and  the  number  of  miles, 

on  Jan.    I,  1S84,  had   increased   to    120,552.      From   Jan.    I, 

1884,10  Jan.  1,  1885,  3,870  additional  miles  of  track  were  laid, 

as  follows  : 

No.  lines.     Miles. 

New  Engl.ind  States 8  75 

Eastern  Middle  States 24  332 

Middle  Western  States 35  564 

Southern  States  (east  of  Mississippi  River) 50  1,003 

Missouri  Belt 36  828 

Kansas  Belt "  22  580 

Colorado  Belt 7  98 

P.acific  Belt 14  390 

Railway  Sigrnal  Code. 
One  whistle  signifies  "  down  brakes."  Two  whistles  signify 
"  off  brakes."  Three  whistles  signify  "  back  up."  Continued 
whistles  signify  "danger."  Rapid  short  whistles  "a  cattle 
alarm."  A  sweeping  parting  of  the  hands  on  the  level  with  the 
eyes,  signifies  "go  ahead."  Downward  motion  of  the  hands 
with  extended  arms,  signifies  "stop."  Beckoning  motion  of  one 
hand,  signifies  "back."  Red  flag  waved  up  the  track,  signifies 
"  danger."  Red  flag  stuck  up  by  the  roadside,  signifies  "  danger 
ahead."  Red  flag  carried  on  a  locomotive,  signifies  "an  engine 
following."  Red  flag  hoisted  at  a  station,  is  a  signal  to  "  stop." 
Lanterns  at  night  raised  and  lowered  vertically,  is  a  signal  "to 
start."  Lanterns  swung  at  right  angles  across  the  track,  means 
"  stop."     Lanterns  swung  in  a  circle,  signifies  "  back  the  train." 

RECEIPTS  and  expenditures  U.  S.  Government. — See  dia- 
gram, page  546. 

RAINFALL. — The  average  annual  rainfall,  as  ascertained  by 
ob^ervalions  at  diflferent  points  throughout  the  Union,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 


Inches. 

Baltimore 41 

Baton  Roni^e,  L.i 6.* 

Boston 44 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 33 

Burlington,  \'t ^4 

Brunswick,  Me 44 

Charleston,  S.  C 45 

Clevel.in.l.Ohio 37 

Cincinnati    44 

Dalles,  Or 21 

Detroit,  Mich  31 

Fort  Bliss,  Tex 9 

Fort  Bridger,  Utah 6 

Fort  Brown,  Tex 31 

Fori  Colvillc,  Wash.  Ter 9 

Fort  Craig,  N.  Mex it 

Fort  Defiance,  Ariz 14 

Fort  Carland,  Col 6 

Fort  Oibson,  Indian  Ter 36 

Fort  Hoskins,  Or 66 

Fort  Kearney,  Neb 25 


Inches. 

Huntsville,  Ala 54 

Key  West,  Fla 36 

Macinac,  Alich 23 

^I.lrie^ta,  Ohio 42 

.Meadow  Valley,  C.l 57 

Mentphis,  Teiui 45 

Milwaukee,  Wis 30 

.Muscatine,  Iowa 42 

•Ml.  Vernon  Arsen.d,  Ala 66 

Natchez.  Miss 53 

Ne.ah  Bay.  Wash.  Ter 123 

Newark, N.J 44 

New  Bedford,  M.-tss 41 

New  Haven,  Conn 44 

New  Orleans,  La 51 

New  York 4^ 

Penn  Yan.N.  \ 2!! 

Peoria, III. 35 

Hhilatlelphia 44 

Pittsburijh,  Pa 37 

Providence,  R.  I 41 


Fort  Laramie,  Wy 13 

Fort  I^avenworth,  Kan 31 

Fort  Marcy,  N.  Mex 16 

Fort  Massachusetts,  Col 17 

Fort  Myers,  Fl.i 56 

Fort  Randall,  Dak 16 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 40 

Fort  Snelling,  Minn 25 

Fort  Towson.  Indian  Ter 57 

Fort  Vancouver,  Wash.  Ter 38 

Fortress  Monroe 47 

Gaston,  N .  C 4  ^ 

Hanover,  N.  II 40 


Richmond,  Ind 43 

Sacramento,  Cal 19 

Salt  Lake,  ULth 33 

San  Francisco,  Cal 21 

San  Diego,  Cal 9 

Savannah ,  G.i 48 

Sitka,  Alaska 83 

Springdale,  Ky 48 

St.  I.ouis,  Mo 42 

Washington,  Ark 54 

Washington,  D.  C 37 

White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va 37 


RELIGION. — [See  diagrams.]  The  estimated  number  of 
religious  denomin.ations  among  English-speaking  communities 
throughout  the  world  is  as  follows:  Kpiscopaiians,  21,100,000; 
Methodists  of  all  descriptions,  15,800,000;  Roman  Catholics, 
14,340,000;  Presbyterians  of  all  descriptions,  10,500,000;  Bap- 
tists of  all  descriptions,  8, 1 60,000 ;  Congregationalists,  6,ooo,(XX) ; 
Unitarians,  1,000,000;  Free  Thought,  1,100,000;  minor  relig- 
ious sects,  2,000,000 ;  of  no  particular  religion,  20,000,000. 
Total  English-speaking  population,  100,000,000. 

RICE. — Production :  India,  1 6,800,000 tons ;  Japan,  3,450,000; 
Java,  2,740,000;  Manilla,  1,800,000;  Italy,  710,000;  Ceylon, 
480,000;   United  .States,  90,000;  Spain,  80,000. 

RIVERS. — Length  of  principal  rivers:  North  -Amf.rica. — 
Missouri  to  the  sea  (longest  in  the  world),  4,200;  Missouri  to 
the  Mississippi,  2,800;  Mis.sissippi  proper,  2,800;  Mackenzie, 
2,300;  St.  Lawrence,  2,200  ;  Nelson  and  .Saskatchewan,  1,900; 
Rio  Grande,  1,800;  Yukon,  1,600;  Arkansas,  1,514;  Ohio  (in- 
cluding the  Alleghany),  1,275;  Columbia,  1,200;  Red  River, 
1,200;  Colorado,  1,100;  Platte,  800;  Hrazos  (Colorado  of 
Texas),  650.  South  America. — Amazon,  3,600 ;  Rio  de  la 
Plata  (Parana  included),  2,250;  Orinoco,  1,500;  St.  Francisco, 
1,500;  Tocantius  and  Uraguay,  1,250;  Magdalena,  9<x). 
EL'Rorii. — Volga,  2,000;  Danube,  1,800;  Don,  Dneiper,  1,000; 
Rhine,  880;  Petchora,  Elbe,'  737;  Dwina,  700;  Vistula,  691  ; 
Ix>ire,  599  ;  Tagus,  550;  Dneister,  Guadiana,  500;  Oder,  Douro, 
Rhone,  Po,  Seine,  450.  Asia. — Yenisei,  3,400 ;  Yang-tse- 
Kiang,  3,320;  Lena,  Obi,  Hoang-Ho,  2,700;  Amoor,  2,650; 
Indus,  1,850;  Mekong,  1,800;  Euphrates,  1,750;  Ganges, 
lirahmapootra,  1,600;  Irrawaddy,  1,200;  Tigris,  1,150  Ural, 
1,000.  Africa. — Nile,  3,895;  Niger,  3.000;  Zambesi,  1,800; 
Congo  (or  Livingstone),  estimated,  1,600;  Senegal,  Orange, 
1,000.     AfsTRAi,i.-\. — Murray,   1,700. 

ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH.— Pope    Leo   XIII.   is  the 

258111  Pontiff.  The  full  number  of  the  Sacred  College  is  70, 
namely:  Cardinal  Bishops;,  6;  Cardinal  Priests,  50;  Cardinal 
Deacons,  14.  At  present  there  are  62  Cardinals.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Hierarchy  throughout  the  world,  according  to  oflicial 
returns  published  at  Rome  in  18S4,  consisted  of  11  Patriarchs, 
and  1,153  Archbishops  and  Bishops.  Including  12  coadjutor  or 
auxiliary  bishops,  the  number  of  Roman  Catholic  archbishops 
and  bishops  now  holding  office  in  the  British  Empire  is  134. 
The  numbers  of  the  clergy  are  approximate  only. 

RYE. — The  annual  rye  crop  of  the  world  is  worth  over 
$1,100,000,000,  and  feeds  1  So,ooo,ooo  of  people.  Russia  pro- 
duces annually  680,000,000  bushels;  Germany,  240,000,000; 
Austria,  130,000,000;  France,  80,000,000;  Italy  and  Spain, 
68,000,000;  Scandinavia,  40,000,000,  and  the   United   States, 


-Vl 


/ 


F>f(S    TFiOM^- 


In  tons  of  2,000  lbs.,  produced  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1881.       From  the  statistics  of  the 
American    Iron   and   Steel   Association. 


Connecticut,    28,483 
Minnesota,     7,442 
Colorado,        6,396 


California, 


Note. — In  1S76  the  total  production  of  the  world  was 
14,000,000  gross  tons,  and  in  1882,  23,6oo,oou  tons.  In  1882 
Great  Britain  produced  8,400,000  tons  and  the  United  States 
4,600,000.  The  production  in  the  United  States  has  doub- 
led in  the  last  five  years.  In  1870  the  production  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  was  1,800,000  tons  ;  in  1872,2,800,000;  in  1882, 
4,600,000. 


Massachusetts,   18,318 

Indiana,      7,300 


M 

aine, 

4,400 

V 

srmont, 

2,796 

□ 

N 

orth  Carolina, 
800 

D 

•*^      Designed  and  £ngraued  expressly  jor  Peale'a  Popular  Educator. 


57° 


Annaal  ProduGtiGn  q|'  Goal  in  the  United  States. 


D 


(IN   TONS.) 


Maryland,    -      2,228,917 


West  Virginia,   1,839,845 


Illinois, 
6,115.377 


Iowa, 


Indij 


Kentucky, 

Kansas, 

Wyoming, 

Missouri, 
II      I  Tennessee, 

Colorado, 

m  Alabama, 


1,461,116 


1,454,327 


946,288 


771,142 


589.59s 


556,304 


495.'3i 


462,747 


323.972 


Pennsylvania, 
47,065,982 


Ohio, 
6,008,595 


IN   VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 


Great  Britain, 
158,000,000 

United  States,   1882, 
88,100,000 

France, 
20,800,000 

Russia, 
3.245,000 

Australia, 
2,200,000 


Canada, 
1,437,000 


Spain, 
1,171,000 


India, 
1,030,000 


Chili. 
800,000 


Japan, 
530,000 

D 


Swcdrn. 

I20.0CX> 


D 


California, 

236.950  1 1 

Georgia. 

- 154.644  n 

Washington,    - 

■tS.oiS     03 

Michigan, 

-  108,000    u 

•  Oregon, 


Virginia, 


Arkansas, 


43.205 


43.079 


14.778       0 


Rhode  Island,    -       6.176       1* 


North  Carolini.  350       ■ 


Montana, 


Xebr.aska, 


224        • 


Belgium, 
17,500,000 


Germany, 
65,400,000 

Austria-Hungary, 
18,000,000 

China, 
3,000,000 

V^    vs  ".^      Designed  and  Engraued  cxprasslif  for  Pvate'i  Popular  Educator, 


571 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


^ 


31,000,000,  while   the  products  of  other    countries    swells  the 
grand  total  to  1,408,000,000  bushels. 

■  SEAS. — Length  in  miles  (approximate  1  :  Mediterranean, 
2,000;  Caribbean,  l,Sooj  China,  1,700;  Red.  1.400;  Japan, 
1,000;  Black,  932;  Caspian,  640;  Baltic,  600;  Okhotsk,  600; 
White,  450;  Aral,  250. 

SERFS. — Russia:   There  were  47,932.000  serfs  in  Russia  in 

1S61,  as  follows  :  Crown  serfs,  22,851,000;  appanage,  3,326,000; 

held    by    nobles,  21,755,000.      The   cost   of  redemption  was  as 

follows,  in  round  numbers  : 

Mortgages  remitted ;Ji 52,000,000 

Government  scrip 101,000,000 

Paid  by  i-erfs . 52,000,000 

Balance  due 20,000,000 


Totul , 53^5)000,000 

The  indemnity  to  the  nobles  was  $15  per  serf.     The  lands  are 

mortgaged  to  the  State  till  I912.     The  lands  ceded  to  Crown 

serfs  are  mortgaged  only  till  1901.     The  item  of  "  mortgages 

remitted  "  is  the  amount  due  by  nobles  to  the  Imperial  Bank  and 

canceled. 

Austrian  Servitude  (18401. 

Value. 

Labor  (two  days  per  week) gi 75 ,000,000 

Tithe  of  crops,  etc 60,000,000 

Male  tribute,  timber 7,000,000 

Female  tribute,  spun  wool g,ooo,ooo 

Fowl,  eggs,  butter 5,000,000 


Total ^256,000,000 

There  were  7»ooo,ooo  serfs,  whose  tribute  averaged  more  than 
$35  per  head,  which  was,  in  fact,  the  rent  of  their  farms.  Some 
Bohemian  nobles  hud  as  many  as  10,000  serfs.  The  redemption 
was  effected  by  giving  the  nobles  5  per  cent  Government  scrip, 
and  land  then  rose  50  per  cent  in  value. 

German  Serfs. 
In    1S4S  the   State  took  60,000,000   acres  from  the   nobles, 
leaving  them  still  25,000,000  acres,  and  gave  the  former  among 
the  serfs.     Indemnity  as  follows: 

1.  Government  scrip,  S900  for  each  serf  family,  to  nobleman. 

2.  Land  tax,  $15  per  annum,  transferred  to  peasant. 

3.  Interest,  S35  per  annum  for  47  years,  to  be  paid  by  peasant  to  the  State, 
being  4  per  cent  on  cost  of  redemption. 

SHEEP. — The  number  of  sheep  in  various  countries  is  a.s 
follows  (in  round  millions):  River  Plate,  76;  Australia,  66; 
United  States,  49;  Russia,  48;  United  Kingdom,  28;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  25;  Germany,  25;  France,  23;  Austria,  21;  Cape 
Colony,  II;  Algeria,  9 ;  Italy,  7  ;  Roumania,  etc.,  6;  Scandi- 
navia, 5 ;  Canada,  3  '^  ;  Belgium  and  Holland,  i  J^  ;  the  total 
number  being  about  395,000,000. 


SHIPPING.— [See  diagram,  page   563]. 
at  principal  ports : 

Thousands  Omitted. 


Tonnage  of  entries 


London ,  8,210 

New  York 7t5o6 

Liverpool 7.320 

Marseilles 3,260 

Antwerp 2,720 

Hamburg 2,315 

Havre   2,260 

Glasgow ' 2,170 

SHOEMAKERS'  MEASURE. 


Dublin 2,  t2o 

Belfast 2,030 

Hull 2,010 

Genoa 1,640 

Boston 1,560 

Baltimore 1,365 

Philadelphia i  ,360 


Small  sizes. — Xi.  i.  4  i--ih  in. 

No.  2.  4  i-8th  in.  4-  i-3d  =  4  ii-24thin. 
No.  3.  4  i-Sth  in.  +  i-3d  -f  i-3d  =  4  i9-a4th  in. 
Etc,  etc.,  etc. 


Lar^e  sizes. — 

No.  I.   8  ii-24th  in. 

No.  2.  8  ii-24th  in,  -i-  i-3d  =  8  ig-24th  in. 
No.  3.  8  ii-24lh  in.  -r  i-jd  -f  1-30  =  9  i-8th  in. 
No.  4.  8  ii-24th  in.  -r  i-3d  -f-  i-3d  +  i~3d  ^  9   ii-24th  in. 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

SICKNESS. — The  ratio  of  sickness  rises  and  falls  regularly 
with  death-rate  in  all  countries,  as  shown  by  Dr.  Farr  and  Mr. 
Edmonds  at  the  London  Congress  of  1S60,  when  the  following 
rule  was  established ; 

Of  1 ,000  pei-sons,  aged  30,  it  is  probable  10  will  die  in  the 
year,  in  which  case  there  will  be  20  of  that  age  sick  throughout 
the  year,  and  10  invalids. 

Of  l,oco  persons,  aged  75,  it  is  probable  that  loo  will  die  in 
the  year,  in  which  case  the  .sick  and  invalids  of  that  age  will  be 
300  throughout  the  year. 

For  every  100  deaths  let  there  be  hospital  beds  for  200  sick, 
and  infirmaries  for  100  invalids. 

SILK. — Production  of  raw  silk: 

lbs.  Silk.  Value. 

China 21,000,000  $72,500,000 

Japan 4,400,000  20,500,000 

Italy 6,600,000  33,000,000 

India  and  Persia 2,000,000  7,500,000 

France 1,200,000  6,000,000 

Turkey,  Spain,  etc 2,800,000  12,500,000 


Total 38,000,000      ^152,000,000 

SILVER. — Production  in  500  years; 

Tons. 

Mexico 78 ,600 

Peru,  etc 72,000 

United  States 11,600 

Germany 8,470 

Austria 7,93° 

Russia. 3,200 

Various , 11,200 


Millions  Dollars.       Ratio. 

3,040  40.7 

2.770  37-3 

445  6-0 

325  4-4 

30s  4-1 

120  1.7 

430  5-8 

7,435  100.0 


Total 193,000 

See  also  diagram,  page  567. 

SLAVERY. — The  number  of  slaves  emancipated  in  the  Bri/- 
ish  Colonics  in  1S34  was  780,993,  the  indemnity  aggregating,  in 
round  figures,  ^100,000,000.  In  Brazil,  in  1876,  there  were 
1,510,800  slaves,  15  per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  These 
were  held  by  41,000  owners,  averaging  37  to  each  owner.  In 
1882  the  number  of  slaves  was  1,300,000,  and  it  is  expected  that 
there  will  be  more  remaining  in  1900. 


Slavery  in  the  United  States. 


Year. 


Number. 

697,900 

893,040 

1810 1,191,400 

1S20 1,538,100 


1790. 

rSoo 


Year,  Number. 

1830 2,009,030 

1S40 2,487,500 

1850 3,204,300 

i86o 3.979i7oo 


Slaves  of  Antiquity. 

Some  of  the  wealthy  Romans  had  as  many  as  10,000  slaves. 
The  minimum  price  fixed  by  law  was  ^So,  but  after  gieat  vic- 
tories they  could  sometimes  be  bought  for  a  few  shillings  on  the 
field  of  battle.  The  day's  wages  of  a  Roman  gardener  were 
about  16  cents,  and  his  value  about  $300,  while  a  blacksmith 
was  valued  at  about  $700,  a  cook  at  $2,000,  an  actress  at  ;j;4,ooo, 
and  a  physician  at  j^  11,000. 

SMALL-POX. — In  the  epidemic  of  18S1  in  England  the  re- 
turns showed  4,478  deaths  per  million  inhabitants — 98  vacci- 
nated to  4,380  unvaccinatcd,  or  in  the  proportion  of  44  to  i.  In 
the  epidemic  at  Leipsic  in  1871,  the  death-rate  was  12,700  per 
million,  70  per  cent  of  whom  were  unvaccinated.     These  figures 


A 


^ 2>K 


\ 


DICTIONARY    111'    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


A 


573 


are  by  Dr.  Mulliall.  In  Boston  tlio  projiortioii  was  15  to  50, 
and  in  Philatklphia,  17  to  64. 

During  the  Franco-German  war  the  Germans  lost  only  263 
men  from  this  disease,  the  French  23,499,  the  former  having 
been  re-vaccinated  in  barracUs.  In  the  war  in  Paraguay,  the 
Brazilians  lost  43,000  men  from  malignant  or  black  small-pox, 
that  is,  35  per  cent  of  their  army,  nine  cases  in  ten  proving  fatal. 

STARCH. — The  percentage  of  starch  in  common  grains  is  as 
follow-,  according  to  Prof.  Yeomans:  Rice  flour,  84  to  85  ;  In- 
dian meal,  77  to  So;  oatmeal,  70  to  So;  wheat  flour,  39  to 
77;  barley  flour,  67  to  70;  rye  flour,  50  to  61;  buckwheat, 
52;  peas  and  beans,  42  to  43;  potatoes  (75  jier  cent  wateri. 
131015. 

STEAM  POWER.— See  diagram,  page  563. 
STEEL. —  The  number  of  tons  made  for  the  years  named  is  as 
{olhiws  : 


Thousands  Omiiicd. 

Ratio 
in 

1881. 

1850. 

1870. 

1881. 

49 
32 

71 

% 
170 

94 
22 

9 
10 
6 

6-'o 

.,780 
■,374 
865 
418 
■  76 
296 
'35 
37 

5,..8. 

35.0 
27.0 

■7-> 
8.3 

3-4 
5.8 
2.7 
0.7 

Austria 

Russia 

Total 

Sq. Inch 

Section. 

1. 0000 

•9799 

.933» 

.8741 


Strain,  Tons 
pcrSq.  Inch. 

13-93 

16.96 

23-43 

27.23 


Tensile  Test  of  Steel. 

BAR   8    ISXHES   LONG. 

Extension,     Sq.  Inch    Strain,  Tons  Extension, 

Inches.       Section,     per  Sq.  Inch.  Inches. 

.8325                28.35  1.40 

.7088                27.32  2.00 

•554»                  25-05  2  20 


SUICIDES.— According  to  religion  : 


.40 
1. 00 


EListic  Limit 17*40  tons. 

Maximum  Strain 28.35     " 

Breaking  Load 25.05     " 


Cohesion    45-21  tons. 

Extension ^7%  per  cent. 

Contraction 44J4        '* 


Tuking    the  strength    of    Swedish    iron     at    100,   the  tensile 

strength  of  steel  compares  thus : 

Swedish  iron 100  I  Cannon  steel 1 73 

Boiler  steel 118  [  Spring  steel   202 

STRENGTH. — Comparative  scale  : 

Ordinary  nuiii 100  I  Farnese  Hercules 362 

Byron's  Gladiator 173  |  Horse 750 

Tensile  and  Transverse  Strength. 

A  crushing  force  of  1,000  pur  scjuaie  inch  on  a  bar  I  incli 

square,   and    12    inches   long,    gives    the   following   ratios    of 

strength : 

Tensile.    Transverse.  |  Tensile.     Transverse. 

Stone 100  10  Cast  iron 158  20 

Glass 123  10  I  Timber 1,900  85 


SUGAR. — Production,  thousands  of  tons. 


•Germany 606 

Cuba 520 

'Austria 460 

•France 390 

British  colonics..  340 
•  Beet  sugar. 


•Russia 240 

Java 190 

Manilla 180 

Brazil 150 

•Holland, etc 115 


French  colonics.  105 

United  States...  90 

Eijypt,  etc 285 

All  beet 1,811 

All  cane i,86j 


Ucet  sugar  has  increased  nine-fold  since  1S53,  and  now  gives 
7  JILT  cent  of  saccharine  instead  of  4  per  cent ;  that  is,  14  tons 
of  roots  give  a  ton  of  sugar. 


Unitc<l  Kingdom, 

Prussia 

B.iv:.r.a 

Austro-Hiingary. 
Switzerhinil 


l'I!K    MILLION    I'ilUSONS. 

Protcsiant. 

63 

7" 

'95 

MO 

263 


Catholic, 
17 

81 


General  Ratio. 
56 

103 
96 

303 


Legoyt  says  the  Jews  have  even  a  lower  ratio  of  suicide  than 
Catholics. 

TARIFF. — Import  duties,  general  average  : 


United  Kingdom. 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Holland 


Ratio  to 
Imports, 
per  Cent. 

S% 
.        6J4 
6 


Ratio  to 
Imports, 
per  Cent. 

Belgium 1 54 

Denmark 9 

Sweden  and  Norway 12 

Europe jy^ 

United  States 28 

Canada 15 

Australia 13 

Urazil 44 

Argentine  Republic 37 


See  also  diagram,  page  546. 

TEA. — Production  in  millions  of  pounds :  China,  290 ; 
Japan,  35  ;  India,  5:;;  Java,  7  ;  Paraguay,  10.  Total,  394.  Con- 
sumption :  Great  Britain,  167  ;  United  States,  72  ;  Australia,  14  ; 
Russia,  37  ;  Various,  1 14.     Total,  394. 

TELEGRAPH.— The  United  States  have  154.650  miles  of 
telegraph  lines;  Russia,  69,000;  France,  48,000;  Germany, 
46.500;  Austria-Hungary,  31,000;  the  United  Kingdom,  27,000. 

TELEPHONES.— See  diagram,  Railroads,  page  57S. 

TEMPERATURE. — Tlie  temperature  of  the  sea  varies  as  fol- 
lows : 


ithoiiis. 

0 

100 

200 

Equator.              3S  N. 
77.9                   70.0 
55-6                  63-5 
46.6                  60.6 

Fathoms. 

800 

1,000 

1,200 

Equator. 

36.9 
56.7 

38  N. 
38.t 
37-9 
37-1 

3°o 
500 

42.2                   60.0 
38.9                   46.7 

1,500 
2,700 

36.. 
34-7 

36.7 

3';  = 

Mountains  (Humboldt). 

Height, 

Depression  of 

Height, 

Depression  of 

I'eet. 

1  herniometer. 

Feet. 

Th,. 

rmometcr. 

3,724 
6,740 
9,029 

14.07 
23.31 
30.07 

10,790 
19^=86 

34.72 
49.62 

57-38 

Frost. 

1234.  Mediterranean  frozen  ;  traffic  with  carts. 

1420.   Bosphorus  frozen. 

1468.  Wine  at  Antwerp  sold  in  blocks. 

1658.  Swedish  anillery  crossed  the  Sound. 

1766.  Snow  knee-deep  at  Naples. 

1789.  Fahrenheit  thermometer  marked  23*^  below  zero  at  Frankfort,  and  36° 

at  Hasle. 
1809.  Moscow,   48°  below   zero,   greatest   cold     recorded   there  :    mercury 

frozen. 
1839.  Jakouisk,  Siberia,  73°  below  zero  on  a5th  January:  greatest  cold  on 

any  record. 
1846.  December  marked  25°  below  zero  at  Pontarlier  :  lowest  ever  marked 

in  Fr;ince. 
1855.  Fires  on  Serpentine,  Hyde  Park, 
1864,  January,  Fahrenheit  stood  at  zero  in  Turin  :  greatest  cold  recorded  in 

Italy. 

Captain  parry,  in  liis  Arctic  cxj^lorations,  suffered  for  some 
time  51  degrees  below  zero.  Frost  is  diminishing  in  Canada 
with  theincrea.se  of  population,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  Hud- 
son's Bay  was  closed,  from  i82S-'37,  184  days  per  annum,  and 

from  iS7l-'8o  only  179  days  i)cr  annum 

Summer  Heat  in  Various  Countries. 

The  following  figures  show  the  e.\tremc  summer  heat  in  the  various  coun- 
trif  s  id  the  worUl : 

Bengal  and  the  African  desert,  150°  Fahrenheit;  Senegal  and  Guada- 
loupc.  130";  Persia,  125°;  Calcutta  and  Central  America.  120;  Alghanistan 
and  ihc  Arabian  desert,  110'^;  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Utah,  105";  Greece, 
104*^;  Arabia,  103*^;  Montreal,  103°;  New  York. 102'^;  Spain,  India. Chuta. 


\ 


Tbe  World's  Yearly  ProduGtion  of  Gotton  and  Tobacco. 


(Reports  for  1880.) 


States  not  named 

Washington.     - 

Oregon. 

Florida. 

South  CaroHna.  ■ 

Louisiana, 

Nebraska, 

Minnesota, 

CaHfornia, 

Michigan 

Vermont, 

New   Hampshire, 

New  Jersey, 

Kansas, 

Texas.     - 

Georgia,     - 

Mississippi,    - 

Iowa, 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

West  Virginia, 

Illinois, 

Massachusetts. 

New  York, 

Indiana, 

Wisconsin, 

Missouri, 

Connecticut, 


rr 


5  "^      Designed  and  tngraved  expressly  /or  Fc  lie's  Popular  Bduvator. 


574 


IV 


576 


/ 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


and  Jamaica,  loo*^  ;  Sierra  Leone,  94'-';  France,  Denmark,  St.  Petersburg, 
Shanghai,  the  Burman  Empire,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
90°;  Great  Britain,  Siam,  and  Peru,  85^;  Portugal,  Pckin,  and  Natal,  80°; 
Siberia,  77°;  Australia  and  Scotland,  75°;  Italy,  Venezuela,  and  Madeira, 
73°";  Prussia  and  New  Zealand,  70'^;  Switzerland  and  Hungary,  66'^  ;  Bava- 
ria, Sweden,  Tasmania,  and  Moscow,  65°;  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland 
Isles,  55°  ;  Iceland,  45'^  ;  Nova  Zembla,  34°. 

THERMOMETER.— 

Reaumur.     Centigrade,     Fahrenheit  . 

Freezing  point o  o  32 

Vine  cultivation  8  10  50 

Cotton  cultivation 16  20  68 

Temperature  of  Brazil 24  30  87 

Hatching  eggs 32  40  104 

40  50  122 

48  60  140 

36  70  158 

64  80  1 76 

72  90  194 

Water  boils 80  100  212 

TOBACCO. — See  diagram,  page  574. 

TUG-BOATS. — One  tug  on  the  Mississippi  can  take,  in  six 
days,  from  St.  Louis  to  New  Orleans,  barges  carrying  10,000 
tons  of  grain,  which  would  require  70  railway  trains  of  fifteen 
cars  each.  Tugs  in  the  Suez  Canal  tow  a  vessel  from  sea  to  sea 
in  44.  hours. 

VELOCITY. — The  average  velocity  of  various  bodies  is  here 
given  : 

Per  hour.  Per  sec. 

A  m.in  walks 3  miles,    or  4   feet. 

A  horse  trots 7      "         or  10    " 

A  horse  runs 20      "          or  29     " 

Ste.imboals  move 18      "         or  26     " 

S.iiling  vessels   move 10      "         or  14     " 

Slow  rivers  flow 3       "         or  4     "■ 

Rapid  rivers  flow 7       "         or  \o     " 

A  inoder.iie  wind  I'lows. 7      "         or  10    " 

Astormniuves 36      "        or  52     " 

A  hurrican-- moves 80      "         or  117     " 

A  rifle  b.ill  moves 963      "         or  1,466     " 

Sound  moves 743      "         or  1,142    " 

Light  moves   192,000  miles  per  second. 

Electricity  moves 288,000      '*       "  " 

Velocity  of  a  Bullet. 

Grains,  Velocity, 

Powder.  Feet  per  second. 

Smooth-bores ' 110  1.500 

Rifle 60  963 

WAGES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING.— From  the  report  of  tlie 
Secrcl-uy  i:f  Stale  on  the  state  of  labor  in  Europe,  derived 
from  facts  reported  by  the  United  States  Consuls  Washington, 
1S79,  the  following  tables  are  gleaned  : 

Comparative  Rates  of  Weekly    "Wages    Paid    in    Europe   and  in 
the  United  States. 


France. 

Ger- 
many. 

Italy. 

Great 
Krilaiii. 

United  States. 

New 
York. 

Chicago. 

B.\kt;rs 

s-ss 

5-45 
4.85 
4.00 
6.00 

5-42 
3-I5 

$ 

3-5' 
3-55 
3.82 
3.6. 
3-97 

4.00 
2.87 
a. 92 

3.92 
1.80 
3.60 
4.80 
3.12 
3-58 
3.65 

% 
3 -90 
3-94 
3-90 
3-45 
3-95 

4. .8 
3-50 
2.6) 
4.6J 
4-35 
3-9' 
3.91 
4.J2 

5:S 

% 
6.50-  6.60 
7.04-  8.12 
6.5'J-  7-83 
7.58-  9.03 
7.70-  8.48 

7.33-  8.25 
3.4.-  4,25 
4.50-  5.00 
7.25-  8.16 
7.60-10.13 
7.13-  8.46 
7-52-  7-75 
7-35 
5.00-  7.30 
6.00-  7.30 

S?8 

10-14 

I2-l3 
12-15 

9-^3 
9-12 

s-^2 
9- 12 
9-  20 
9- 10'^ 

7-     '5 

7;-i-i2 

Blacksmiths 

Cabinet-makers. . . . 
Carpenters  and  Join- 

6-9 

10-15 
12-18 
8-18 

1 2-1 8 

io-i3 
10-14 

5^-9 
6-    12 

9-     15 

J  2-      20 
12-      18 
9-      18 

6-    18 
9-    12 

4.90 

Plumbers 

Printers 

Shoemakers 

Tailors 

5.50 
4.70 
4-73 
5.10 
4.4=> 

Comparative  Retail  Prices  of  the  Necessaries  of  Life. 


Bjef,  Roast.... lb. 
Corned.,  .lb. 

Beans qt. 

Bread lb. 

Butter lb. 

Coal ton . 

Co'lfish lb 

Coffee lb. 

E;;gs doz. 

Flour lb 

Lard lb. 

Milk qt. 

Mutton lb. 

Oatmeal lb. 

Pork,  fresh.... lb 

"     salted lb. 

'*  Bacon. .  .lb 
"     Sausage,  lb. 

Potatoes... .bushel 

Rice lb. 

Soap lb, 

Sugar lb. 

Tea lb. 


Cents, 
22 

"3 

10 

3-7 
22 

S4-25 


hV. 


Cents 


12 
13 

6 

28 

Sii  .00 

9 
32 
t8 
10 


6 


8>^ 


OCQ 


Cents. 


9 

iM-  4M 

29-38 

$2.65-84.10 

6-  8 

28-50 

14-30 
iii-4ii 

12-18 
5-  9 

16-17 
3'A-  4% 

10-16 

10-16 

12-16 
18 

6S-S2 .00 
3'A-  8 
Sii-9 
5M-10 

4     88 


United  States. 


New  York.     Chicago 


Cents. 

12-16 

8-12 

7-10 

4-  4}« 

•    i5-32 

S3-*5-25 

6-7 

20-30 

25-30 

3-  4 
10-12 

8-10 
g-io 

4-  5 
S-ij 
8-10 
8-10 
8-10 

. 40-S1.60 
8-10 

6-7 
8-10 
50-60 


Cents. 
0-125^ 

4-  7 

5-  9    , 

4-  4>^ 
16-40 

S3-S6.7 

5-  9 
16-40 
10-24 

^a-  45^ 

6-10 

3-6 

5-I2j2 

4-  5 
4-  5 
6-12 
7-12 
6-10 
60-80 
5-10 
3-8 

7-10 

25-€i .00 


WAR. — The  cost  of  recent  wars,  according  to  figures  furnished 
by  the  London  Peace  Society,  is  as  follows  : 

Crimean  war ;iJ34o,ooo,ooo 

Italian  war  of  1859 60,000,000 

American  civil  war — North ^ 940,000,000 

"             "       "  — South 460,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war 7,000,000 

Austrian  and  Prussian  war,  1S66. 66,000,000 

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Morocco,  Par.tyuay,  etc.,  (sLiiy  only)  40,000,000 

Franco- Prussian  war. 500,000,000 

Russian  and  Turkish  war,  1S77 210,000,000 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 30,000,000 

_^2, 653, 000,000 
This  would  allow  $10  for  every  man,  woman  and  child  on  the 
habitable  globe.     It   would   make  two   railways   r-U  round  the 
world  at  $250,000  j^er  mile  each. 

Summary  of  Losses  from  War  in    Twenty-Five    Years  (1855-80.) 


Crimean  war 

Italian  war,  1859 

War.of  Schleswig-Holstein 

American  civil  war — the  North 

"  "       "  — the  South 

War  between  Prussia,  Austria  and  Italy,  in  :866. . . . 
Expeditions    to   Mexico,   Cochin    China,   Morocco, 

Paraguay,  etc 

Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  —  France 

"  "  "  "      ■' — Ciermany 

*Russian  and  Turkish  war  of  1877 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 


Killed  in  battle,  or  died 
of  wounds  and  diseasi;. 
750,000 
45,000 
3,000 
s8o,ooo 
520,000 
45,000 

65,000 
155.000 

60,000 
225,000 

40,000 


Total. 


;l,lS8,.X)0 


Length  and  Cost  of  American  Wars. 

Wars.  Length. 

War  of  the  revolution 7  years — 1 775-1 7-'~'-; 

Indian  war  in  Ohio  territory 1790 

War  with  the  Barbary  States 1803-1804 

Tecumseh  Indian  war 1811 

War  with  Great  Brit;iin 3  years — 1812-1815 

AlgL-rine  war 1815 

First  Seminole  war 1817 

131ack  Hawk  war 1832 

Second  Seminole  war 1 845 

Mexican  war 2  years — 1846-1848 

Mormon  war 1856 

Civd  w.ir 4  years— 1861-1865 


Cost. 


66,000,000 


(i,50o,<.;0o,ooo 


*About  thirty  thousand  skeletons  of  Russian  and  Turkish  soldier-;  were 
shipped  to  England  iu  1881,  as  manure,  in  the  form  of  bones  or  hone  dust. 


/ 


-^I 


rv 


DICTIONARV    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


577 


Quota  of  Troops  Furnished  by  the  States  and   Territories   Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War. 


nl  'I'crrilorics, 


Nt;w  Knct.iDcl  States 

Middle  Slates 

Western  States  and  'I'crritories. . 

PacificSLiics 

Burdcr  Stitcs 

Southern  Stales 

In  I  Ian  Nation 

•Colored  troops 


(irund  tot.al . . . 


Troops 
furnished. 


375. '3t 

1.098,088 

19,579 

30t,o6j 

54.'37 

3.530 
93.44' 


t2.859.'3= 


At  l.itKC 

Not  accounted  for. 
Ulliccrs 


7.9 '6 
13,922 
12,711 


45.t84 
63.57' 


733 
5.083 
7. '•-■•-■ 

156,240 


m 


103,807 

362,686 
^03,924 


776,829 


h.  o  a. 


12.0 
12.2 

.3.6 

4-3 

8.3 

.6 


WAR  EXPENDITURE.— Sec  diagrams,  pages  546,  563. 

WATER. — One  cubic  font  =  62)4  lbs.,  or  6^  gallons.  One 
cubic  foot  sea  water  =  64  lbs.,  or  6j,:(  gallons.  One  gallon  of 
water  =10  lbs.,  or  277  cubic  inches.  One  inch  of  rainfall  equals 
14,500,000  gallons  per  square  mile.  Eight  cubic  feet  of  snow 
will  produce  one  cubic  foot  of  water.  Current  requires  a  mini- 
mum fall  of  one-tenlh  inch  ]>er  mile. 

WATER-POWER. — Niagara  =  Icn  million  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  sav  three  million  horse-power  nominal,  or  nine  million 
re.il. 

In  the  United  Slates  there  arc  51,000  water- wheels,  with  1  '^ 
millioit  horse-power  aggregate. 

WEALTH  OF  NATIONS— The  wealth  of  the  principal 
nations  of  lite  world  is  thus  given  by  Mulhall.  The  figures 
represent  millions  sterling  : 


United  States    .... 
United   Kingdom   . 

France  

(fCnnany 

Russia  

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Holland 

Hclg.um 

Sweden    

C.nada 

Mexico 

Australia  

Portugal    

Denmark 

.\rgcnlinc  Republic 

.Switzerland 

Norway 

Greece 

Total   


Land 

and 

Forest. 


2.150 

1,880 

2,930 

3,420 

1,940 

1,590 

905 

740 

220 

270 

444 

230 

125 

192 

170 

2l6 

122 
ito 

■73 
112 


»6.939 


Cattle. 


378 

23s 

312 

23' 

345 

205 

56 

57 

33 

3" 

4= 

35 

32 

66 

II 

3" 

54 


Rail- 
ways. 


Public 
Works. 


1,190 
770 
494 
467 
309 

255 
108 

79 

27 
61 
26 
72 


527 

547 
590 
442 
224 
188 

'3' 
60 

125 
4' 
32 
30 


6 
30 
■3 

7 


2,780 
2,280 
1,89a 

".470 
88a 
770 
656 

116 

140 
62 
140 
240 
108 
80 
44 
72 
70 


Furni- 
ture. 


Merchan- 
dise. 


1 ,140 

945 

735 

440 

385 

328 

170 

58 

70 

3' 

70 

no 

54 

40 

22 

36 

35 


!,3o6 


6,098 


15; 
350 
165 

■55 
60 
64 
48 

23 

61 
58 

■4 

18 

20 
52 

7 


Btiliion. 


157 
'43 
301 
108 
34 
20 
45 
4' 
■7 
29 

4 


Shipping. 


60 
120 
■5 
'5 
7 
4 
9 
7 
4 


283 


Sundries. 


7'3 

■.255 

5.8 

280 

104 

132 

65 

77 

326 

105 

35 

41 

67 

'4 

31 
16 

'3 


9.495 

8.720 

8,c6o 

6.323 

4.343 

3.613 

2.35' 

".593 

967 

806 

t95 

650 

638 

590 

37' 
366 

33= 

282 


WEIGHT  AND  STATURE  OF  MAN. 


Age. 


50 
6.) 

70 

So 


Mean  weight 103.66 


Feet. 


1.64 
3.60 
3.04 
3-44 
4.00 
4.36 
4-72 
5.07 
5.36 
5-44 
5-49 
5-52 
5-53 

5.3» 
5.29 
5. 29 


Lbs. 


7.06 
35.01 
31.38 
38.8a 
49-95 
59-77 
75.81 
96.40 
116.56 
137.59 
132.46 
J40.38 
140.43 
139.96 
136.07 
131.37 
"7-54 
>27-54 


FEMALUS. 


Feel. 


1.62 
2.56 
3.00 
3.38 
3.93 
4.36 
4.60 
4.92 
5.10 

S.13 
5.16 
5.18 
S.18 
5.04 
4-97 
4.97 
4-94 
4-94 


Lbs. 


The  average  weight  of  a  male  infant  at  birth,  it  will  be  seen, 
is  a  Utile  over  7  lbs. ;  of  a  female  infant,  a  little  less  than  Oyi 

•This  gives  colored  troops  enlisted  in  the  Slates  in  rebellion  ;  besides 
this,  there  were  92,576  colored  troops,  included  (with  the  white  soldiers)  in 
the  quotas  of  the  several  states  ;  the  second  column  gives  the  aggregate  of 
colored,  hut  many  enlisted  South  were  credited  to  the  Northern  st:it._-v. 


lbs.  Children  lose  weight  during  the  first  three  days  after  birth  ; 
at  the  age  of  a  week  they  sensibly  increase,  and  at  the  end  of 
one  ye.ir  ihey  triple  their  weight. 

WHEAT.— See  iliagram,  y'ear/y  ly/ieal  Crop,  page  566. 

WIND. — Velocity  and  pressure  : 

Pressure — lbs. 

per  sq.  foot. 

I    oz. 

4    oz. 

1    lb. 

3K    lbs. 

U" 

"'A  •' 

WINE.  — See  .\k.,holic  Liquors, 

WOMEN  WORKERS.— In  the 
were  women  workers  as  follows  : 
barbers,  2,902 ;  commercial  travelers,  272;  dressmakers,  millin- 
ers, etc.,  281,928;  journalists,  288;  lawyers,  75  ;  musicians,  13,- 
181 ;  physicians,  2,432  ;  preachers,  165  ;  printers,  3,456  ;  tailors 
52,098;  teachers,  154,375;  telegraphers,  1,131. 

tThis  is  the  aggregate  of  troops  furnished  for  all  periods  of  service — 
from  three  months  to  three  years*  time.  Reduced  to  a  uniform  three  years' 
standard,  the  whole  number  of  troops  enlisted  amounted  to  3,330,272. 


Feet  per 

Miles 

Second. 

per  hour 

S 

3» 

10 

7 

20 

'4 

30 

20 

40 

=7 

50 

34 

60 

4" 

70 

48 

Feet  per 

Miles 

Pressure — lbs. 

Second. 

per  hour. 

per  sq.  fool. 
16      lbs. 

80 

54 

90 

61 

^'A  ■■ 

100 

68 

25 

110 

11 

30'X" 

130 

36  '■ 

130 

83 

42K ;; 

140 

95 

49 

150 

103 

56   •' 

United  Slates 
Artists,  2,061  ; 


in    1880  there 
authors,  320 ; 


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~^^      Designed  and  Engraved  expresaly  for  Puale't  Pupuutr  td 


K" 


f  HE  Slocks  of  the  ®orld. 


VL 


579 


Sr 


(V 


•>-JFiB  REIX7  gYSiFEM  8B  E^^RJRRB  iFIfflR-^ 


\^ 


Difference  between  Old  and  New  Standards  at  Points  which  have  been  Established  Standards   under  the  Old 

System.  (/.  faster,  s.  slower.) 
Compared  with  linstprn.  Time:  Albany,  N.  Y.,  s  minutes  {.;  liMltimorc,  MJ.,  6  m.  s.;  B.ith,  Me.,  20  m.  f.;  Boston,  Mass.,  16  m.  f.:  Ch.irles- 
Dk'i  J  1'  i'  '"«'■•  I^'="'°"'  Mich  32  m.  s.;  Hamilti>n,  Ont.,  19  m.  s.:  Montru.il,  Que,  6  m.  f.:  New  London,  Conn.,  12  m.  f.:  New  York  City,  4  m.  f.; 
Philadelphia.  Pa.,  i  m.  s.:  Port  Hope,  Can.,  14  ni.  s.;  Port  Huron.  Mich.,  30  m.  s.:  Portland.  Mc.,  19  m.  f ;  Providence,  R.  1.,  14  m.  f.;  Richmond, 
Va.,  lo  m.  5..  Savannah.  Ga.,  24  m.  s.:  Toronto,  Can.,  17  m.  s.;  Washington.  D.  C.  8  m.  s.  Cimiptlrcil  with  Crntrril  Tiliiv:  Atchison,  Kan.,  24 
""•I,*'!  Allant:i,(,a.,22  rn.  f.:  Chicigo,  111,,  9  m.  f.;  Cincinnati.  O.,  =2  m.  f.:  Cohimhus.O.,  28  m.  f.;  Detroit.  Mich,.  28  m.  f.;  Dubuque,  la  ,  3  m.  s.:  Han- 
niDal,  Mo.,  1  m.  s.;  Houston,  Tex.,  24  m.  s.;  Indian.apolis,  Ind.,  16  m.  f.;  Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  9  ni.  s,;  Kansas  City.  Mo,,  19  m,  s,:  Louisville,  Ky,,  18 
ni.  1^  iVIacon,  Ua.,  29  m.  f.:  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  13  m.  s.;  Mobile,  Ala.,  8  in.  f,;  Nashville,  Tcnn.,  13  m,  f.;  New  Orleans,  La,,  exactly  the  same;  Oma- 
ha, Neb,,  24  m,  s,;  Port  Huron,  Mrch,,  30  m,  (.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  i  m,  s.;  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  12  m.  s.;  S.avannah,  Ga..  36  m.  f.:  Selma,  Ala..  12  m.  f.:  Sioux 
City,  Li  ,  26  m  s.:  Tcrre  Haute,  Ind.,  10  m.  f.;  Vicksburj;.  Miss  ,  3  m.  s.;  Winona,  Minn  .  7  in  s.  Com  pa  vol  with  Mniiiitiiili  Time:  Denver, 
J-ol,  exactly  the  same;  Laramie,  W.  T.,  6  m.  s.:  Salt  Lake  City,  U.  T..  28  m  s.  Ci>iiipni;tl  with  rarific  Time:  Kalama,  Wash.  T.,  10  m.  s.;  Port- 
l.in.l,  (Jr.,  10  m.  s.:  San  Francisco.  Cal.,  10  m.  s      Interciiloiiial  Time,  touchim;  only  Halifax,  St.  John  and  Quebec,  is  omitted. 


f  s »- 


5  So 


*. 

• 

-1            c 

> 

G\ 

GROWTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.                                                                           581 

> 

^STATISTICS  OF  POPULATION.  -   ' 

A  TABULAR  STATEMENT  OF  THE 

COMPARATIVE  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

i      SHOWING  THEIR  RANK  ACCORDING    TO    POPULATION    AT    EACH    CENSUS 

FROM   1790  TO  1880. 

STATES    AND 
TEKKITOKIES. 

1T90. 

1800. 

1 

1 

1810. 

1830. 

1830. 

1840. 

18S0. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

Total 

Alahama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

3.9-9..!'4 

5.308,483 

7,239,881 

9,633,822 

12,806,020 

17,069,453 

23,191,876 

31,443,321 

38,558,371 

So,'5S,7S3 

I 

:  :::;■.■.::: 



19 

2fl 

127,901 
""■4,255 

■5 

2S 

309.527 
30,388 

12 
25 

590.75« 
97.574 

12 
29 

771.623 

,209.Sw 
92.597 

13 

25 

]26 

'24 
42 
32 
35 

1 
964,201 

435.4.';o 
379,c)94 

996.0.1' 

9.65^ 

4S4.471 

5(«.Jt7 

39,S04 

537.451 
14,1s, 
125.015 
'31.70.' 
'87.74^ 

1,184,10,, 
14..XJ.I 

2.?.?0,S91 

1  .oSi.(.3; 

1,U_^,02U 

264.30,1 
1,321,01 1 
726.91 ! 
626,01,: 
780,8.;, 

'.t.<7.35i 

1,1 84,05,1 

439.700 

827.02.- 

1,721,295 

20,59? 

I22,i»3 
42,491 

3iS..iO" 
906,0,/. 

91,874 

4..3S2,75„ 

1.071,301 

2,(y,5,2fxt 

90,923 

3,52 ',95' 

2'7,.i.S3 

705,001, 

i,2i;s.!:2o 

818,579 

86,7,86 

330.55' 
1,225,163 

23.955 
442,014 

1,054.670 

17 
1- 
24 

28 

,!" 

31 

'A 
4 

< 

K 

20 

s 

22 

7 
9 
26 
iS 

5 

15 
,io 
43 
31 
19 

41 
1 

15 
3 
37 

2 

M 
21 
12 
11 

.39 
3i 
14 
42 
^ 

16 

1,262,50s 
40rH0 

.802.525 

194,327 

622,700 

■.35.177 
146,60s 
177.624 

2o>.;,493 

1,542,180 
32,610 

3.077.871 
1  ..178,301 
1,024,015 

9.)6.o96 

1 ,04S,r«» 

9.W.'M6 
64'*.9,?6 
934  .W3 

■.783.085 
1,6,^6,937 
780,773 
1,1 3^,597 
2,168,380 

39, '59 

452,403 

62,266 

340.'»9' 
1,131,116 

119.565 
5,082,^71 
'..?9i).750 
3.i.>S.o?>2 

■74,768 

4.282,891 

27",S3' 

995,577 

■.54  2, .359 

1.59' ,749 

143,063 
332. 2S6 

i.5i2.-;63 
75,116 

6iSh(57 
>.3^5497 

Connecticut 

Dakota  

s 

2,37.946 

S    251,002 

1^ 

261,943 

14 

275,148 

16 

297.67s 

20 

.309.978 

21 

370.792 

460,147  I25 

4. 8.57 :,  45 
112,216  135 
75.0S0  ,34 

Delaware 

Dist.  of  Coiiimbia 
Kloritla 

16 

59.09" 

7      <it,273 
9      '4.093 

l'9 

'22 

72.''>47 
24.023 

22 
25 

72.749 
33.039 

24 

25 

:: 

76,74s 
39.S34 
34,730 

5'6,S23 

26 

28 

27 
9 

7S.0S5 
43.712 
54,477 

691.392 

.?o 
.33 
31 

9 

91. .552 
51.6S7 
87.445 

906.185 

'3 

82,54? 

2     i62,6So 

II 

252433 

11 

340,985 

1,057,286 

c: 
+1 
4 
0 
1 1 

29 

8 
21 
23 
20 

7 
13 

2S 
iS 

5 

43 

.56 
4" 
31 
'7 

Idaho 

I24 
'21 

12,2S2 
24.520 

\t 

55, '62 
'47,'7S 

?3 

'57.445 
343.03' 

'4 
10 

29 

4(6.1  S3 

6S5,S<* 

43,112 

11 
7 
27 

851.470 
<^H4i6 
192,214 

t 
20 

33 
9 
17 
22 
19 

7 
16 

21 

■ 

2 
29 

iS 

10 
23 

11 

5 
40 

1.711.951 
i,3;o,42S 

674.913 

107,206 

1,155.684 

70S,002 

62S,..7o 

687,0,9 

1,231,066 

749.113 
172.023 

791 .30^ 
1,182,012 

""'2S.&li 

6.S57 
326.073 
672,035 

"        5.fH' 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts... 

■4 

11 
6 

4 

73,677 

96.540 

378.787 

9     220,955 

4  "51.719 
7    34' ,548 

5  422.845 

,1 

'i 

5 
25 

20 
23 

iV) 

12 

40(',5" 

76.556 

228,705 

3!>o,546 

472.010 
4,702 

40.352 
20,845 

2'4.4"o 
245,5<>2 

6 

'7 
12 
10 

7 
27 

21 
23 

'5 
13 

564, '.35! 
'52,923 
298,269! 

407,350, 

'  '75.4+8 

66,557; 
1 

244.022 
277,4261 

6 

'9 
12 
11 

S 
27 

22 

21 

is 

'4 

687,917 

2 '5.739 
3W.45S 
447,040 

610,40s 
3 '.639 

136.621 
•40,455 

26<:>.32S 
320,*>23 

6 
19 
13 
15 

S 

23 

17 
16 

22 

iS 

779.S2S 
552.(11 
501.793 
470,019 

737,699 
212,267 

375.651 
383,702 

2S4.574 
373,306 

s 

iS 

16 
17 

6 
20 
.56 
iq 
13 

22 
19 

32 

1 
10 

3 
34 

2 

2S 
14 

5 

25 

35 
4 

9S2.405 
517.762 
583. i6>; 

583,034 

9<>».5'4 

97."54 

6.077 

606.526 

682,044 

317.976 

489,55s 

6 '..547 
3.0')7.3<H 

.8lx,,039 
l,9S<).32„ 

2,^11,786 

'47.,545 

6'>S,5o7 

1,002,717 

212,592 

"..380 

3'4.i'0 

l,4Jl,6()l 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Mis^iouri 

Montana 

NehniNka 

Nevada 

New  ilampshire. 
New  Jersey 

■; 

■V4'i;ss5 

'S4,'39 

io"'s',S30 
0    211,149 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. 
Ohio 

5 
3 

340,120 
393,75' 

3  589.05" 

4  478.103 

s     45.365 

2 

4 

"3 

959.049 
555.500 
230,700 

1 
4 
5 

581.295; 

1 
5 
4 

1 ,9lS,6oS 
737 .9S7 
937,903 

1 
7 
3 

2,428,921 

7.53.419 

'.5i9,4"7 

3.8'^.735i    1 
m)2.oj2|  14 

2, 3,19..^  11  !  .3 
52,465  38 

2,906,215     2 
174.620  32 
703.70SJ  22 

I,IO,).StlI        9 

604,215    19 

40.273!  .39 
315,09s   30 

Pennsylvania.... 

Khode  Island 

South  Carolina.. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

2 

■5 
7 
'7 

'mi 

24<;.o73 

35.''9' 

2     602  ,,^65 
6       69,122 
6     345.591 
5     ios.<'o2 

3 

'I 
10 

810,091 

76,931 

4'5."5 

261,727 

3 
20 
S 
9 

1 

1,047,507 
S3 .01 5 
502.741 

422.771 

2 
23 
9 
7 

',348,2.33 

5?;:;g 

6Si,./H 

2 

24 
11 

5 

1,724.033 
loS.S.io 
■S9(,.i98i 
829,210 

Utah 

A'"erinont 

12 

1 

85.425 
747,610 

3     '54.465 
1     SSo,2oo| 

"5 

1 

217.895 
974.600 



16 
3 

■• 

235.966 
1,065,116, 

'7 
3 

280,652 
1,211,405 

21 
4 

29',9fS 
',239,797 

Washington 

".594 

42 
27 

'5 

Wisconsin 

Il" 

1 

1 

30 

30,945 

24 

1 
775.SS1' 

' 

t 

1 

1 

ll" 

1 

9."8|.„,        -.,-,        1 

e 

Note.— The  figures  in  the  first  column  under  c.ich  year  show  the  rank  of  the  respective  States  an  J  Territories  according  to  population. 

1 

■r" 

<s           "" 

-•           ;- 

^• 

582 


"71 


POPULATION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


3!optiCatiotv  cl-^  I'fie  ^^fiii teb  States. 


ACCORDINO  TO  THEIR  RANK  IN  1880,  BY  SEX,  NATIVITY 

AND  RACE. 


STATES 
AND  TERRITORIES. 


The  United  States. 


The  States 

New  York 

Pennsylvania  - 

Ohio 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Indiana 

Massachusetts 

Kentucky 

Michigan 

Iowa 

Texas   

Tennessee 

Georgia 

Virginia  

North  Carolina 

Wisconsin 

Alabama 

M  ississipj)! 

New  Jersey 

Kansas 

South  Carolina 

Louisiana 

Marvlanil 

California 

Arkansas 

Minnesota 

Maine 

Connecticut 

West  Virginia 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

A'ermoiit 

Rhode  Island 

Florida 

Colorado 

Oregon  .  .  -  - 

Delaware 

Nevada 

The  Territories.. 

District  of  Columbia 

Utah 

Dakota 

New  Mexico 

Washington...      .... 

Arizona 

Montana 

Idaho 

Wyoming 


SO,"SS,7S3 


49.37' -340 


5,oS2,7Si 
4,2Si,S(;>l 
3,l9S,ci(t2 

3.077.S7" 
2,i6S,3So 

1, 978,^01 
i,7S.?,oS; 
1 ,648,690 

'>63l'.W7 
1,624,615 

>,S')'<749 
',54^.(59 
1,542,180 

l,.?99>7So 

i,3'S.*)7 
1,262,505 

1,131,116 

996,096 

995.577 
939.9*6 
934  ■'>43 

802,525 

780,773 
648,936 
622,700 
618,457 
452,402 

346,(x)i 
332,286 
27f'.53l 
26),4<)3 

'94.3^7 

174,76s 
l46,fioS 
62,266 


7&».443 


'77.6>4 

■43.963 
■35.177 
■  '9,565 
75, "6 
40,440 
.W.'59 
32,610 
20,789 


25,518,820 


25.075.619 


2.505,332 
2,136.655 
1.613,936 
i,5S<>.523 
1,127,187 

1 ,010,361 
858,440 
832,590 
862,355 
848,136 

823,840 

769.277 
762,981 
745.5S9 
6i7,90S 

680,069 
622,629 
567.'77 
559,922 
536,667 

4i>3,4o8 
4'>''.754 
41,2,187 
518,176 
416,279 

419,149 
3.!4,os8 
305,782 
3'4.19S 
249,241 

170.526 
i«.,SS7 
■33.030 
'.10.+44 
■29,13' 

103,381 
74.10S 
42,019 


443,201 


S3.57S 

74,509 
82,296 
64,41)6 

45.973 
25,202 
28,177 
2i,8iS 
14,152 


24.636.963 


24.295.721 


2,577.549 
2,146,236 
1,584,126 
1.491.348 
1,041.193 

967,940 
924,64s 
816,100 
774,582 
776,479 

753,909 
773,082 

779,199 
766,976 
7 1 1 .842 

635,428 
639,876 
564,420 
57'. '94 
459.429 

505,169 
471.192 
472,756 
346,518 
386,246 

361 ,624 
324.87S 
316,918 
303,962 
203,161 

176,465 
'65,,1'19 
'13,501 
',«,049 
65,196 

71.387 
72,500 
20,247 


34". 242 


94.046 

69454 

S2,ssi 
55.069 

29.'4.i 
12,238 

10,(^2 
10,792 
6.637 


43.47S.S4O 


42.S7i.556 


3,871,492 
3,695,062 
2,803,1 19 

2.494,295 
1 ,956,802 

l,S34.'23 

',.),i".5'4 
',.'i^i.i73 
1 ,24s, 429 

1.362,965 

l.477,'.!3 
1,525.657 
1,531,616 
1 ,497,869 
1 ,396,008 

010,072 

1.252.77' 

1,122,388 

909,416 

SS6,oio 

987,891 
885,800 

S52.137 
571,820 

792,175 

S'3,097 
590,053 
492,708 
600,192 
354,988 

300,697 
291,327 
202,53s 
259,584 
■54,537 

■  44,265 
■37,140 
36.613 


604,284 


160,503 

S3,.>S2 
111,514 
59,3 '3 
36,613 
24,391 
27,638 
22,636 
■4,939 


FOREIGN. 


6,679,943 


6.499.784 


'.211,379 
587,829 
.394,943 
5S3.576 
21  ".578 

144,178 

443,491 

S9,S'7 

3^8,508 

261 ,650 

114,616 
16,702 
10,564 
14,696 

3.742 

405.425 
9,734 
9,209 

221,700 
110,086 

7.686 
54, '46 
S2,So6 
292,874 
10,350 

26^,676 

58,883 

12l),t).12 
18,265 
97.414 

46,294 
40.959 

73.9<;3 
9,,;o9 
39.790 

30.503 
>l,4(,8 
25.653 


■80,159 


17,122 

43.9'H 
5 ',795 
8,051 
'5,803 
16,049 
11,521 
9,974 
5.850 


43.402,970 


42.7'4.479 


5,016,022 
4,197,016 
3.117.920 
3,031. '5' 
2,022,826 

1,9,38,798 
■ ,763,782 
',,377.179 
1,614,560 
1,614,600 

'.'97.2,37 

l.i?S,8v 

816,906 

880,858 

867,242 

1,^09,618 
«,2,i85 
479.3'>8 

1,(102,017 
953,155 

391,105 
454.954 
724.f»;3 
767,181 
591,53' 

776,884 
646,852 
6io,7(i<> 
592,537 
449.7"4 

346.229 
331. 21S 
2ttl.9.i9 
142,1x15 
191,126 

'63,075 

120,1(X> 

53.556 


688,491 


iiS,oo6 

■42,423 
■.33, '47 
108,721 
67,1'W 
35, "« 
35,.385 
29,013 
'9,437 


COLORED. 


6.580,793 


6.5'3.772 


65.'04 
S5.535 
79,900 
.46,368 
'45.350 

39.228 
18,697 

27'. 45' 
15,100 

9.5'6 

393,384 
403, '5' 
725, '33 
631,616 

531.277 

2,702 

600,103 

650.291 

38,853 

43,' 07 

604.332 
483.655 
210,2^0 
6,ji8 
210,666 

1,564 

1.45' 

11, .547 

25,886 

2,385 

6S5 

'  ,057 

6,488 

126,6110 

2,4.55 

4S7 

26,442 

488 


62,421 


59.596 

232 
401 
■  ,015 
325 
'55 
346 
S3 


CHINESE. 


105.465 


93.7S2 


9OC) 
I4S 
109 
209 
9' 

29 

229 

10 

27 

33 

'36 
25 
'7 
6 


16 
4 
SI 
170 
'9 

48.^ 
5 

75.132 

'33 

24 
S 
'23 
5 
18 


27 
18 


9,510 

I 

S.4'6 


11,683 


■3 

5°i 
2,iS 

3.1S6 
'  .630 
'.765 
3.379 

914 


JAPAN ■ 
ESE. 


1 48 


141 


'7 

8  • 

3 
3 


66,407 


44.S'''6 


1S4 
■30 
140 
"3 

246 

3<i9 

50 

7.249 

466 

992 

352 

124 

85 

1.230 

3. '6' 
2'3 

■.S57 

74 

S15 

■3' 

848 

'5 
16,277 

'95 

2,300 
625 
255 


63 

I! 

77 
iSo 

154 

'.694 

„5 

2.803 


21,841 


S07 
■..391 
9,772 
4,405 
3,493 
l,f*3 
'65 
140 


THE  GREAT  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


5S3 


GREAT  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD  HAYING  100,000  INHABITANTS. 


Clllei. 


"."iS:!-  <:-'"'• 


Abcokuta Africa 

Alexandria Egypt 

Agra India 

Ahmcdab'ad  ....  India 

Allahabad India 

Amritoxir India 

Antwerp Belgium 

Aberdeen Scotland 

Amsterdam Holland 

Baltimore United  States  .. 

Boston United  States  . . 

Brookl)*n United  States  . . 

Buffiilo United  States  . . 

Bahia South  America. 

Buenos  Ayres. .  .South  America. 

Bongalorc India 

Bangkok India 

Barcilly India 

Baroda India 

Benares India 

Bombay India 

Brussels Belgium 

Bordeaux France 

Beritn Germany 

Bremen Germany 

Breslau Germany 

Belfast Ireland 

Birmingham  ....England 

Blackburn England 

Bolton England 

Bradford England 

Brighton England 

Bristol England 

Bucharest Roumania 

Bologna Italy 

Barcelona Spain 

Budapcsth Austria-Hungary 

Chicago United  Slates.. 

Cincinnati United  States.. 

Cleveland United  States.. 

Cairo Eg>'pt 

Canton China i 

Calcutta India 

Cawnpore India 

Cohimho Ceylon 

Copcnh.igcn  ...  .Denmark 

Colngne Germany 

Constantinople.  ..Turkey 

Christiana Sweden 

Detroit United  States  . . 

Delhi India 

Dhar India 

Damascus Turkey-in-Asia. 

Dantzig Germany 

Dresden Germany 

Dublin Ireland 

Dundee Scotland 


Edinburgh Scotland  . . 

Fez Africa  . . . , 

Frankfort Germany  , 

Florence Italy 

Fatschan China  , . . . 

Foo  Chow China  . . . . 


Glasgow . 
Gwalior  . 

.Ghent  ... 


•  Scotland  . 
.India  . .. . 
.Belgium  . 


130,000, 
165,752. 
149,008. 
113,876. 

143-693 • 

143,381. 

159.579- 
105,818. 
308,948. 
333.590 . 
362.535- 
566,689. 
155,137- 
128,929. 
248,110. 
I42.5I3- 
600,000. 
102,982. 
112,057. 
175,188. 
644,405. 
399.936- 
215,140. 
826,341. 
112,158. 
272,390. 
207,671 . 
400,757. 
104,012. 
105,422. 
183,032. 
107,528. 
206,503. 
177,646. 
111,969. 
249,106. 
347.536. 

503.304- 
255,708. 
160,142. 
327,462. 
[,500,000, 
683.458, 
122,770. 
111,942. 
273.7=7- 
144,751. 
600,000.. 
119,407. 
116,342. 
160,553. 
100,000. 
150,000. 
108,549. 

S20,2l6. 
249,486. 
140,463. 
228,075. 
100,000. 
137,600. 
168,423. 
400,000. 
600,000. 
555.289. 
200,000. 
130,671. 


Est. 
878 
871 
871 
871 
876 
878 
881 
878 
880 
880 
880 
880 
872 
881 
871 

Est. 
871 
871 
871 
872 
878 
S76 
880 
880 
880 


880 
880 
880 
83o 

877 
Est. 
881 
87" 
88 1 
g8o 
880 
879 
880 
880 
S76 
Est. 
Est. 
2880 
1880 
loSi 


.Est. 
.1880 

.1878 
.Est. 
.Est. 

.1881 
.Est. 


Genoa Italy 163,234. 

Hangtschcu-fu  .  .China 400,000, 

Hangjang Chin.i 100,000. 

Hankow China 600,000. 

Hutschcu China 200,000. 

Hutscheu-fu  . . .  .China zoo,ooo. 

Hwangjuer China 120,000. 

Hyderabad India 200,000. 

Hakodate Japan 112,494. 

Hamburg Germany 290,055. 

Hanover Germany 122,860. 

Hague Holland 117,856. 

Jersey  City United  States  ..  120,728. 

Jangtschau China 360,000. 

Jongpin China 300,000. 

Jundpore India 150,000. 

Kesho India 150,000. 

Kagoshima Japan 200,000. 

Kanagawa Japan 108,263. 

Kiota Japan 229,810. 

Konigsberg Germany 150,396. 

Kingston England 154,250. 

Kijew Russia 127,250. 

Kischenew Russia 102,427. 

Louisville United  States  . .  123,645. 

Lima South  America.  101,488. 

Leinkong China 250,000. 

Lahore India 128,441. 

Lucknow India 284,779. 

Lille Fr.ince 162,775, 

Lyons France 342,815. 

Leipzig Germany 143,760. 

Leeds England 309,126. 

Leicester England 122,351. 

Liverpool England 522,425. 

London England 3,832,441. 

Lisbon Portugal 253,496. 

Lcmberg Austria -Hungary  110,250. 

Liege Belgium 119,943. 

Milwaukee United  States..  115,578. 

Marseilles France 318,868. 

Manchester England 341,508. 

Messina Italy 120,917. 

Munich Bavaria 330,023. 

Milan Italy 262,283. 

Madrid Sp.iin 397.690. 

Malaga Spain 115,882. 

Moscow Russia 601,969, 

Madras India 397,552, 

Mandalah India 100,000. 

Manila Ind.  Archipelago  160,000. 

Melbourne Australia 352,000. 

Montreal Canada 107,225. 

Mexico Mexico 336,500. 

Mukden China 170,000. 


New  York United  Stales  ..1,206 

New  Orleans.... United  States.,  216 

Newark United  States..  136 

Nangkin China 450 

Nantes France 122, 

Newcastle England 145, 

Nottingham  ....  England 186, 

Naples Italy 450, 

Nagoya Japan 135, 

Odessa Russia 184, 


.590- 
,140. 
,400. 
,000. 

.247- 
,228. 
,656. 


.715. 
,819. 


.1878 
.Est. 
,Est. 
.Est. 
Est. 
.Est. 
,Esl. 
,Est. 
.1877 
.1880 
.1880 
.1880 

.1880 
.Est. 
.Est. 
.Est. 

,Est. 

.1877 
.1877 
.1877 


.1874 

.1880 
.1876 
.Est. 
.1876 
.1871 
.1876 
.1876 
.1880 


.iBHi 
.1878 
.1880 
.1878 

,1880 
.1876 
,i8Si 
.1878 
.1S80 
.1878 
.1877 
.1877 
.1871 
,1871 
,Est. 
Est. 
,1881 
.1871 
.1879 
.Est. 

.1880 
,1880 
.1880 
.Est. 
.1876 


.1878 
,1877 

■1873 


Countriea. 


Populk 


Oldham England 1 1 1 ,343 . . 

Osaka Japan 284,105., 

Pittsburg United  States  ..  156,381.. 

Providence United  States  . .  104,850. . 

Philadelphia United  States  . .  846,984. . 

Patna India 158,900.. 

Puna Indiii 118,886.. 

Pernambnco  . ..  .South  America,  116,671. . 

Prague Austria-Hungary  162,318.. 

Paris France 1,988,806., 

Portsmouth England 127,953. . 

Palermo Italy 231,836,. 

Porto Portugal 108,346., 

Porto  Novo Africa 100,000.. 

Peking China 1,648,800.. 

Rio  de  Janeiro.  .South  America,  274,972.. 

Rangoon India 132,004,, 

Rouen France 104,903. . 

Rome Italy 303,383.. 

Rotterdam Holland 147,082. , 

Riga Russia 103,000. , 

St.  Louis United  States.,  350,522., 

San  Francisco  ..United  States..  232,956., 

Santiago South  America,  129,837., 

Shaohing China 500,000., 

Shanghai China 278,000.. 

Siangton China 1,000,000. , 

Singan-fu China 1,000,000.. 

Sutschau China 500,000, , 

Saoul Corea 100,000,, 

Sianagar India 132.681.. 

Surat India 107,149,, 

Smyrna Turkey-in-Asia.  150,000.. 

Sydney Australia 220,427., 

St.  Etiennc France 126,019.. 

Strasburg Germany 104,501., 

Stuttgart Germany H7,303.. 

Salford England '76,233.. 

Sheffield England 284,410. , 

Sunderland England 116,262.. 

St.  Petersburg  . ,  Russia 861 ,900. . 

Seville Spain 133.938.. 

Stockholm Sweden 169,439., 

Tunis Africa 125,000., 

Taiwau-fu Chin.i 235,000. . 

Tengtschau-fu  ..China 330,000., 

Tientsin Chin.a 950,000. . 

Tschantschau-fu. China 1,000,000., 

Tschanjang China 300,000.. 

Tschingtu*fu.  ...China 800,000., 

Tschungking-fu  .China 600,000. , 

Tokio Japan 811,510., 

Tabris Persia 120,000. , 

Teheran ,  .  .Persia 200,000. . 

Tiflis Russia-in-Asia  .  104,024 , . 

Trieste Austria-Hungary  144,437.  ■ 

Toulouse France 131,642. . 

Turin Italy 314,200. . 

Valencia Spain 143.856.. 

Victoria China 103,000. . 

Vienna Austria-Hungary  726,105., 

Venice Italy 125,376.. 

Warsaw Russia 308,548. . 

Wcihein China 250,000. . 

West  Ham England 128,693. , 


.1881 
.1877 

.1880 
.1880 
.1880 
.1871 
.1871 
.1872 
.1880 
.1876 


,1878 
.Est. 
.Est. 

.1873 
,1881 
.1876 

.1880 
.1878 
.1878 

.1880 
.1880 
.1875 
.Est. 
.Est. 
.F^t. 
.Est. 
.Est. 
.Est. 

-1873 
.1871 
-Est. 

.1881 
.1876 
.1880 
.1880 
.1881 
.1881 
.1S81 
.1869 
.1877 
.1880 

-Est. 
.Est. 

.Est. 
.Est. 
.Est. 
.Est. 
.Est. 
.Est. 

.1877 

.Est. 
.Est. 
.1876 
.1880 
.1876 
.1878 

.1877 
.Est, 

.1880 
.1878 

.1877 
.Est, 


:^ 


584 


POPULATION   AND   RANK  OF  AMERICAN  CITIES. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Having  10,000  Inhabitants  and  Over,  by  the  Census  of  1880,  and  Showing  their  Rank  According  to  Population. 


Name  of  City. 


Name  of  City. 


Population 
1880. 


Akron,  Ohio i6, 

Albany,  N.  Y 90, 

Alleghany,  Pa 78, 

AUentown,  Pa 18, 

Alexandria,  V'a 13, 

Altoona,  Pa 19, 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y 11, 

Atchison,  Kan 15, 

Atlanta,  Ga 34, 

Attlebcro,  jMass 11, 

Auburn,  N.  Y 22, 

Augusta,  Ga 23, 

Aurora,  111 11, 

Austin,  Tex 10, 

Baltimore,  Md 332, 

Bangor,  Maine 16, 

Bay  City,  Mich 20, 

Belleville,  111 10, 

Biddeford,  Maine 12, 

Binghamton,  N.  Y 17, 

Bloomington,  111 17; 

Boston,  Mass 362 

Bridgeport,  Conn 29, 

Brockton,  Mass 13 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 566^ 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 155. 

Burlington,  Vt 11, 

Burlington,  Iowa 19 

Brookhaven,  N.  Y ii. 


Cambridge,  Mass 52 

Camden,  N.J 41 

Canton,  Ohio 12 

Castleton,  N.  Y 12, 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa ioj 

Charleston,  S.  C 49. 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 12, 

Chelsea,  Mass 21, 

Chester,  Pa 14, 

Chicago,  lU 503 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 255. 

Clt:veland,  Ohio 160 

Columbia,  S.  C 10, 

Coliimbu.s,  Ohio.. . 
Covington,  Ky  ... 


5I; 
29 
Cohocs,  N.  Y 19. 

18, 


Council  Bluffs,  Iowa  , 

Concord,  N.  H , 

Cortland,  N.  Y 

Chicopee,  Mass 

Chillicothe,  Ohio 

Detroit,  Mich 

Dayton,  Ohio , 

Denver,  Colo 

Des  Moines,  Iowa.... 

Dubuque,  Iowa , 

Dover,  N.H 

Danhury,  Conn , 

Derby,  Conn 

Dallas,  Tex , 

Davenport,  Iowa.... 

Evans^illc,  Ind 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 

^Erie,  Pa 


,512. 

,Q03- 
,63i. 
,063. 
,658. 
,716. 
,711. 
.106. 
.398- 
,111 . 
.924- 
-023. 
.825. 
,960. 

,190. 
,S=7. 

1693- 
,682. 
1652. 
.315- 
,184. 
,535- 
,145- 
,608. 
,689. 
.'37- 
.364- 
,450. 
,544- 

,740. . 
,658.. 
,25s.. 
,679.. 
,104. . 

999- • 
,892. . 

,735- 
,996., 
304., 
,708. 
,142. 
,040. 
,665. 
,720. 
,417- 
,059. 
,838. 
12,664. 
■1,3=5- 
10,938 . 

116.342. 

38,677- 

35.630. 

22,408. 

22,254- 

11,687. 

11,669. 

11,657. 

10,358. 

21,834. 

29,280. 
.  28,229. 
•  27.730- 


■>9S 
218 

.  7 
.129 

97 
.225 
,179 
,124 

■"=5 
■  5 
,  69 
.161 

•  3 

•  >3 
.208 
.105 
.204 

•  3" 
.  44 
.■83 
.177 
.242 

•  36 
•■74 

•  89 


Elmira,  N.  Y 20,541 . ,  99 

East  Saginaw,  Mich 19,016.  .110 

Easton,  Pa 11, 924..  193 

Eau  Claire,  Wis 10,118.  .241 

Fall  River,  Mass 49,006..    37 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 26,880..    74 

Flushing,  N.  Y 15,919..  140 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis 13.091.  .171 

Fitchburg,  Mass 12, 405..  182 

Fishkill,  N.  Y 10*732 . .  223 

Georgetown.  D.  C 12,578. .180 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich  ....  32,015..   58 

Galveston,  Tex 22,253..  ^4 

Gloucester,  Mass 19,329.-107 

Galesburg,  111 11,446.  .206 

Hempstead,  N.  Y 18,160.  .117 

Hartford,  Conn 42,553..  42 

Hoboken,N.J 30,999..  61 

Harrisburg,  Pa 30,762..   62 

Holyoke,  Mass 21,851..  87 

Houston,  Tex 18,646.  .113 

Haverhill,  Mass   18  475.  .114 

Hyde  Park,  111 15.716.  .143 

Hamilton,  Ohio 12,122. .187 

Hannibal,  Mo 11,074.  -216 

Indianapolis,  Ind 75»o74- •  =4 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 120,728. .   17 

Johnstown,  N.  Y 16,626..  132 

Joliet,  111 1 1, 675..  203 

Jackson,  Mich 16, 105..  136 

Jacksonville,  111 10,927. .221 

Jeffcrsonville,  Ind 10,422.  .230 

Jamaica,  N.  Y 10,089. .243 

Kansas  City.  Mo 55.813..  30 

Kingston,  N.  Y 18,342.  .115 

Keokuk,  Iowa 12,117.  .188 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 11,937.  .194 

Louisville,  Ky 123,645. .   16 

Lowell,  Mass 59,485..  27 

Lawrence,  Mass 39,187..  46 

Lynn,  Mass 38,284..   48 

Lancaster,  Pa 25,769..  77 

Lewiston,  Maine 19,083.  .108 

Long  Island  Ciiy,N.Y...   17,117.  .127 

Lexington,  Ky 16,656.  .131 

Leavenworth,  Kan 16,550.  .133 

Lynchburg,  Va 15.959-  '139 

Lafayette,  Ind 14,860.  .149 

Lcadville,  Colo 14,820.  .150 

La  Crosse,  Wis 14,505.  .151 

Lincoln,  R.  1 13,765.  .156 

Lockport,  N.  Y 13,522.  .163 

Little  Rock,  Ark 13,185. .169 

Lincoln,  Neb 13,004..  173 

Los  Angclt^,  Cal 11,311.  .211 

Logansport,  Ind 11.198. .214 

Lennox,  N.  Y 10,249.. 236 

Milwaukee,  Wis 115,578..   19 

Minneapolis,  Minn 46,887..  38 

Memphis,  Tenn 33.593"   54 


Name  of  Citv. 


Manchester,  N.  H 32,630..  56 

Mobile,  Ala 31,205..   60 

Meriden,  Conn 18, 340..  116 

Montgomery,  Ala 16,714.  .130 

Macon,  Ga 12,748.  .175 

Maiden,  Mass 12,017.  .191 

Middletown,  Conn 11,731.  .197 

Muskegon,  Mich 11,262.  .213 

Madison,  Wis 10,325.  .234 

Marlboro,  Mass 10,126.  .240 

Newburyport,  Mass 13,537. .162 

New  York,  N.  Y 1,206,590..     1 

New  Orleans,  La 216,140. .  10 

Newark,  N.  J 136,400..   15 

New  Haven,  Conn 62,882..  26 

New  Bedford,  Mass 26,875..   75 

Norfolk.  Va 21,966..   86 

Norwich,  Conn 21,141..  93 

Newport,  Ky 20,433..  100 

Newburg,  N.  Y 18,050.-121 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J. ..   17,167.  .126 

Newton,  Mass 16,995..  123 

New  Albany,  Ind 16,422.  .135 

Newport,  R,  I 15,693.  .144 

New  Britain,  Conn 13,978.  .152 

Norwalk,  Conn     13,956.  .153 

New  Lots,  N.  Y 13,681..  158 

Nashua,  N.  H i3)397.  -'64 

Norristown,  Pa 13,064.. 172 

Northampton,  Mass 12,172. .184 

New  London,  Conn 10,529.  .227 

North  Adams,  Mass 10,192.  .238 

Nashville,  Tenn 43,461..  40 

Oakland.  Cat 34.556- •  5° 

Omaha,  Neb 30,518..  64 

Oswego,  N.  Y 21,117. .  94 

Oshkosh,  Wis 15,749.  .142 

Orange,  N.J 13,206.  .168 

Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y 11,923.  .194 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y 10,340.  .233 

Pittsburg.  Pa 156,381..   12 

Providence,  R.  1 104.850..  20 

Paterson,  N.  J 50,887..    34 

Portland,  Maine 33,810..   53 

Peoria,  111 29,315. .   67 

Petersburg,  Va 21,656..  90 

Poughkeepsie,  N .  Y 20,207  •  •  ^'^~ 

Pawluckct,  R.  1 19,030.  .109 

Pittsfield,  Mass 13.367-  .165 

Pottsville,  Pa >3.aS3--i67 

Portsmouth,  Va 11,388. ,207 

Portsmouth.  Oliio 11,314. .210 

Philadelphia,   Pa 846,984. .      2 

Portland,  Oregon 17, 577..  122 

Quincy.  Ill 27,275..  73 

Qnincy,  Mass 10,529. .228 

Rochester,  N.  Y 89,363..  22 

Richmond,  Va 63,803..  25 

Reading,  Pa 43,280..  41 

Racine,  Wis 16,031.  .138 

Rockford,  111 13,136.-170 

Richmond,  Ind 12, 743-  .176 


Name  of  City. 


Rutland,  Vt 12, 149..  186 

Rome,  N.  Y 12,045.  .190 

Rock  Island,  111 11,660.  .202 


St.  Louis,  Mo 350,522  ■ 

San  Francisco,  Cal 232,956. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 51,791. 

Scranton,  Pa 45,850- 

St.  P.^ul,  Minn 41,498. 

Springfield,  Mass 33,340. 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 32,484. 

Savannah,  Ga 30,681. 

Salem,  Mass    27,598. 

SomerviUe,  Mass 24,985. 

Sacramento,  Cal 21,420, 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 20,768. 

Springfield,  Ohio 20,729. 

San  Antonio,  Tex 20,561. 

Springfield,  III 19,749. 

Sandusky,  Ohio 15,838. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 13,675. 

South  Bend,  Ind 13.279 . 

San  Jose,  Cal 12,567. 

Steubenville,  Ohio 12,093. 

Stamford,  Conn 11 ,298 . 

Shreveport,  La 11,017. 

Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y. .    10,822. 

Saugcrties,  N.  Y io,375- 

Saginaw,  Mich 10,525. 

Stockton,  Cal    10,287. 

Shenandoah,  Pa 10,148 . 


Troy,  N.  Y 56,747 

Toledo, Ohio 50. 14,^. 

Trenton,  N.J 29,910. 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 26,040. 

Taunton,  Mass 21,213. 

Topeka,  Kan 15,451- 

Utica,  N.  Y 33.913- 


32 
39 
45 
55 
57 
63 
72 
78 
91 
95 
96 
98 

103 
141 

159 
,166 
.181 
,189 

,212 
,217 
.222 
.231 
.229 
■235 
■239 

■  29 

■  35 

■  65 
.  76 
.  92 
.145 


Virginia  City,  Nev 13^705.  .157 

Vicksburg,  Miss 11,814.. 196 

Washington,  D.  C 147, 

Warwick,  R.  1 12, 

Worcester,  Mass  ........  58, 

Wilmingttm,  Del 42, 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 31, 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 23, 

Watervliet,  N.  Y 22, 

Waterburj',  Conn 20, 

Williamsport,  Pa 18, 

Wilmington,  N.  C 17 

Woonsocket,  R.  1 16, 

Walikill,  N.  Y 11, 

Woburn,  Mass 10, 

Watertown,  N.  Y 10, 

Weymouth,  M.iss 10, 

Winona,  Minn 10, 

Waltham,  Mass 11, 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 18, 

Youngstown,  Ohio 15, 

York,  Pa 13, 

Zanesville.Ohio 18, 


3"7- 

-  14 

■  63. 

.1S5 

295- 

.  28 

499- 

•  43 

266. 

-  59 

339. 

•  79 

202. 

.  85 

=69. 

.101 

934- 

.111 

36.. 

.123 

053- 

-■37 

483. 

.205 

938. 

.  220 

697- 

-224 

57' ■ 

.226 

20S. 

.237 

711. 

■■99 

892. 

.112 

43>- 

.146 

940. 

•  ■54 

»\ 


\ 


FAST   TIME. 


585 


■i 


/ 


^FASO^  T?IME1^ 


THE  FASTEST  STEAMSHIP.  STEAMBOAT  AND   RAILROAD 
TIME. 

Tlic  fastest  Steamship  time  across  the  Atlantic  is  the  run  of  the  Oregon, 
from  Queenslown  to  New  York,  in  1884,  6  days.  loliuiirs,  30  minutes. 

The  f.istest  L/iComotivc  lime  was  made  on  the  New  York  Ceiitial— 1:1 
miles  in  »nc  liniir,  40  minutes,  or  109  minutes. 

The  hest  Steamboat  records  arc  as  follows  ;  The  Mary  Powkll,  from 
New  York  to  I'ouKhkecpsic,  76  miles,  in  3  hours  and  13  minutes.  The 
South  Ambkica,  26  miles -on  the  Hudson,  in  1  hour. 

FASTEST  RUNNING  RECORDS. 

MILBS.  NAME.  PLACE.  VEAK.  TIME. 

Vt, .     Belle '. Galveston  ( lex.) 1 880 0:21  )i 

•4-     Olitii'A Saratoga 1874 0:47^ 

y%,     RosAHY Louisville 1883 >:oiJ^ 

^.     Pearl  Jennings Louisville 1883 ^'■'^'iVA 

}i.     Uttlk  Phil Monmouth    Park 1882 i.=8K 

1.  Ten  Hkocck Louisville 1877 *"3S^ 

I  1-16.    Ckbosotu I^kiisvilte 1882 ^'-i^M 

i^.  Rosalie Brighton  Beach i88i i'oi% 

I  % .  Getaway Saratoga 1881 a  :oy% 

I  m.  5cx>  yds.     Brno  Ok Saratog.i 1882 2:10^4 

i}i.  Uncas Sheepshead    Bay 1880 2:21^ 

1%.  LuKii  Blackburn    Slonmouih  Park 1880 2:34 

i-H.  Bend  Ok Saratoga 1882 2:49 

1^.  Gli  DELIA Saratog.i 1882 3:01 

2.  Ten  Bkoeck I^iuisville  1877 3:27?-^ 

2J4.  Monitor Baltimore 1880 3:44  J^ 

,/    f  Springbok )c      .  „  ,,/ 

=''^-  IPkkaknkss jSaratoga 1S75 So^J^ 

2j«.     Aristidfs Lexington 1876 4:27!^ 

s^f.    Ten  Bkoeck Lexington 1876 4:58^ 

2^.     HuiiUAKu   Saratoga 1873 4:58^ 

3.  LiDA   Stanhope Saratoga 1882 5:25 

4.  '1"ln  Bkoeck Louisvdle 1876 7^1  sK 

HEAT  RACKS. 

;•<.     Red   Oak Carson  City  (Xcv.).  .1879  .0:48^—0:49 

■/i-     J*^*^  Howell San   Francisco 188a  .i:i^l4 — 1'^5 

3  heats,  Premium  winning  1st  in ^'^4l4 

t.         Bounce Sheepshead  Bay  ....1881  ..  .::42— 1:41^ 

1.  3  in  3.     L" Argentine.  .  .St.  Louis,  1879,  won  the  ist,  3d  and 

4th  heats 1 143— i  :44— i  :47^ 

1   1-16.     IJeni>  Or Louisville 1883. ..  1:49 — ^o^J^ 

3  heats.  Bootjack  winning  1st  in  1:49!^. 

lis.    Gabriel Sheepshead    Bay 1880  ...1:56—1:56 

il^.     Glen.morb Sheepshead  Bay 1880 2:10 — 2:14 

3  heats,  Mary  Anderson  winning  ist  in 2:09 

,  -    (  Keno Toledo,  iSS-j.  .(ist  and  3d  heats)  2:43J4 — 2:45 

■-*  \         (Belle  of  Nelson  won  2d  heat  in  2:45.) 

(  *Brai)A,mantk Jackson  (Miss.) 1877  .3:325^ — 3:39 

2.  s  Willie  D Prospect  Park 1879  .3:34/5—3:35 

(         •Bradamante's  record  d'nioiful. 

3.  Norfolk Sacramento 1865  .5:27^—5:29^ 

4.  Kerida Sheepshead  Bay 1880  .7:2;}^ — 7:41 

HURDLE  RACES. 

I.        .SwANNANOK Brighton  Beach 1S81 1:50 

if  s.     Kavev Saratoga 1882 2:06 

1%.    Jim  McGowAN Brighton  Be.ich 1882 2:16 

i.'b.    Speculation Jerome  Park 1881 2:40. 

,/    f  Kitty  Clark )  n  ■  l.       r>      u  00 

'^-  ispRCVLATloN |Bnghton  Bcich .881 2:47 

i)i.     ll'DiTii Monmouth  P.irk 1880 y-^7h4 

''oM    Lrathp.ks New  C>rle.ins 1875 3^47^ 

•'875 4:33 

.i87S.i:5o>i— i:5oJ< 


FAST  TROTTERS  AND  THEIR  RECORDS. 


NAME. 


TIME. 


7\{.    Cariboo Monmouth   Park. 


Mile  Heats.    Job  Rhodes St.  Louis 


FASTEST  TROTTING   RECORDS. 


One  Mile  in  Harness — Maud  S  

One  Mile  to  Wagon— Hoprpul 

One  Mile  to  Saddle — Great  Eastern 

One  Mile  with  Running  Male— Yfllow  Dock 

One  Mile— Double  Team— Matd  S.  and  Aldins  (1883) 

OneMllc— Pacing— With  running  male- Wkstmont  (at  Chicaero. 

1884) ?.. 

Two  MUes  in  H.-imess- Maud  Ciiiep 

ThreeMilcs  in  Harness— Huntress 

Four  Miles  in  Harness — Tkistee 

Fi\«:  Miles  in  Harness — Lady  AL\ck 

Ten  Miles  in  Harness — Controller , 


2:09^ 
2:1614 
2:'5^ 
2:11 

201K 
4:46 

11:06 
13:00 
37:235^ 


PLACE.  YEAR. 

Maud  S Cleveland i88s 2:«8^ 

Jay-Eve-See Providence 1884 auo 


St.  Julikn Hartford 1880. 

Rakus Buffalo 1878 . , 

Goldsmith   Maid Boston '^Z*** 

Clingstone Cleveland 1882. , 

Trinket New  York.   1881., 

HopEPUL Minneapolis 1878. 

LuLA ButTalo 1875., 

Smuggler Hartford '^?^* 

Hattik  Woodward Rochester 1880. 

.877. 
1874. 


2:14 
3:14 
a:i4 


.1879 a:>6>4 


.882. 
.1882., 
.1880. 
.1873., 
.1874. 
.1867. 
.1882. 
.1881.. 


.1878. 


Lucille  CJolddust Rochester  ... 

American  Girl Albany 

Darby Utica 

Edwin   Thorne Chicago 

Jerome  Eddy Buffalo 

Charlie  Ford Chicago 

Occident Sacramento  . 

(Jloster Rochester  . . . 

Dexter Buffalo 

Black  Cloi-d Chicago 

Piedmont Chicago 

So  So Hartford  .... 

Santa  Claus Chicago 

Hannis .Hartford  .... 

Edwin  Forrest Utica 

Dick  Swiveller Utica 

Great  Eastern Buffalo i87§. 

Kate  Sprague Rochester 1881., 

Judge  Fullekton Cleveland ^875. 

Proteins Saginaw 1879. 

Nettie Boston 1874. 

Red  Cloud Buffalo 1874 2:18 

RoBRKT  McGregor Chicago 1881 2:18 

Lady  Thorne Providence 1869 3:i8^ 

Fanny  Withersjhion Poughkecpsic i88a ^'•i&H 

Lady  Maud Rochester 1875 2:185^ 

Lucy Buffalo 1872 ^'^^H 

Midnight Buffalo 1878 2:i8Vi 

PiCKARD Hartford 1882 2:18^ 

Rosa  Wilkes Cleveland 1882 2:<8^ 

Slow  Go Cleveland 1877 2:18^ 

Monroe  Chirp Chicago 1880 2:i8j| 

CoL.  Lewis San  Francisco 1878 2:i8;4 

I.  B.  Thomas Chicago 1881 2:18^^ 

WILLIAM Chicago 1882 2:i8J^ 

Patch  EN Hartford 1880 2:18x1 

Clrora Chicago 1882 2:18^ 

Nutwood Stockton  (Cal.) 1879 2:18)$ 


16K 
2:.6J4 
2:16^ 
2:16% 
2:17 
2:i7j< 
2:17^ 

2:18 
2:18 
2:18 
2:18 
2:18 
2:18 


Adele  LlovLD Buffalo 1882. 

Albemarle Hanford 1878. 

Alexander Rochcslcr i83i. 

Alley Chicago 1879. 

BoNRSETTER Rochester "879. 

CoZETTE Rocheslcr 876. 

Edward Providence 1878. 

Graves  Stockton 1879. 

Kitty  Bates Buffalo 1880. 

Minnie  R Chicago 1882. 

WEDtlEWotiD Hartford 1882. 

Aldine Hartford 1882. 

BoDlNE Kast  Sa(;inavv »875. 

Comeu Hartford 1877. 

Croxib Buffalo 1878. 

GEORtvB   Palmer Providence 1869. 

Jim  Keenb Buffalo  : 1880. 

Parana Beacon  Park 1880, 

Driver Long  Island 1880. 

Moose Rochester 1882. 

Romero...; Stockton 1882. 

Thos.  L.  Young Fleetwood  Park,  N.Y.i875 2;i9'j^ 

Von  Arnim Rochester 1882 2:19^ 

Will  Cody Chicago 1880 2:195^ 

Adelaide Buffalo 1878 s:'9K 

Camoks Buffalo 1874 2:i9« 


2:19 

2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 
2:19 

2:i9K 
2:19^ 
'■'<>% 

=:i9H 

2:1954 
i-.tg'A 
2:195^ 


Daisy  DALE Cleveland 1880. 

Deck  Wright Buffalo 1880. 

Doctor  Norman Cleveland 1882. 

Flora  Temple Kalama^^oo 1859. 

John  S.  Clarke Rochester 1881 . 

JoSBPHus Hartford j88i. 


2: '9% 
2:i9« 
2:i9K 
2:19^ 
2;i9Ji 
2;i9ji 


-Vj 


K" 


586 


DURATION    AND    EXPECTATION    OF    LIFE. 


"Tf 


TABLES   OF  DURATION  AND   EXPECTATION   OF  LIFE. 

Constructed   bv  Dr.  Fakk,   F.  R.  S. 


23 

24 


25 

26 

2S 

29 


,^0 
3" 

32 

33 
34 


35 
36 


PERSONS   ALIVE   AT   BEGIN- 
NING  OF  YEAR. 


!>SO,507 
7yf'.S27 
768,589 
750,133 


736,818 
726,919 

7'9,iS' 
7 '2, 592 

707.'34 


7o-',S09 
698,481 
6c)(,S4+ 

6c)i,4i3 
688,051 


684,563 
68o,S74 

676,937 
672,62a 
667,900 


662,750 
657,'67 
65',4'» 
645,751 
639,931 


634,045 
628,o<>5 
622,086 
616,021 
fcij.cpo 


603,724 

597,493 
591,206 
584,863 
S7S,4S9 


.57i,9'.)3 
565,460 


5' ",745 
428,026 
400,505 
386,290 
377,077 


370.358 
365,325 
361, ,572 

358,062 
355,328 


353 ,03  > 
3S'.04S 
349,272 
347,606 
.345,969 


.344,290 
342,5011 
340,581 
,338,469 
336,149 


333, 60S 
,330,8+4 
328,043 
325,207 
322,3,39 


319,422 
3"6,5'6 
313.562 
310,581 
.307,572 


.304.534 
301 ,466 
298,366 
295,232 
292,061 


283,850 
285,596 


488,255 
422,481 
.396,322 
382,290 
373,056 


,566,460 
361 ,594 
357,779 
354.530 
351,806 


3*9,478 
347,433 
,345,572 
343.807 
342,062 


340,273 
3,38,385 
336,356 
3.34,15" 
331,751 


329,142 
326,323 
323,456 
320,544 
317,592 


3i4,f>03 
311,579 
308,524 
.305,440 
.302,328 


299,190 
296,027 
292,840 
289,611 
286,3,^8 


283,143 
279.864 


O  u  s 

(-  3  u 


149,493 
53,680 
28,238 
18,456 
13,315 


9,899 
7.7f'S 
6,5.59 

5.458 
4.625 


4,028 

3.637 

3.431 
3.382 

i,6(V 
3,957 
4.317 
4.720 
5.150 


5.5S3 
5.668 
S.748 
5,820 
5,886 


5,950 
6,001} 
6,065 
6,121 
6,176 


6,251 
6,287 
6,343 
6,404 
6,466 


6,S,?3 
6,601 


38 

39 


40 
41 

42 
43 
44- 


45 
46 
47 

48 

49 


PERSONS   ALIVE   AT   BEGIN- 
NING OF  YEAR. 


558,859 
552,181 
545.425 


538,584 
531.653 
524,626 

517,499 
510.263 


502,915 
495,448 
487,856 
480,134 
472,277 


464,280 
456,139 
447.725 
439.13s 
430,374 


421, "5 
41 1, .532 
401 ,62  5 
,391,378 
.380,785 


360,827 
358,489 
346,752 
334,603 
322,031 


.509,0:9 
295.599 
2S1 ,753 
267,509 
252.902 


237.977 
222,793 
207,424 


282,296 
278,944 
275.538 


272,073 
268,544 
264,948 
261,280 
257,534 


253.708 
249,796 
245.795 
24 1 ,700 
2.37.508 


233.216 
228,821 
224. 19S 
2'9.4.37 
214,552 


209,539 
204,395 
'99.114 
193,686 
iS8,i02 


182,350 
176,421 
170,303 
'63,98') 
'57,474 


'50,754 
143.S.33 
1.36.718 
129,421 
121,963 


■  14,370 
106,67s 
98,919 


276,563 
273,2,57 
269,887 


266,511 
263,109 
259,67s 
256,219 
252,729 


249,207 
245,652 
242,061 
238,4,14 

234 ,76.) 


231,064 
227,31s 
223,5,50 

219,698 
215,822 


21 1 ,576 

207,137 

2o3,5a> 
197,692 
192,683 


1S7.477 
182,068 
176.449 
170,614 

'64,557 


■58,275 
151,766 

'45,035 
138,088 
130,939 


123,607 
ll6,llS 

108,505 


J  -  ■= 

O  u  s 
^-  Q  " 


6,67s 

6,756 

6,841 


6,931 
7,027 
7,127 
7.236 
7.34S 


7.467 
7.592 
7.722 
7,857 

7,997 


8,141 
8,414 
8,590 
8,761 
9,259 


9,583 
9.909 
'O.245 
'0,593 
10,958 


'1,3.38 
11,737 
12,149 
12,572 
13,002 


13,430 
13.S46 
14.244 
14,607 
■4.925 


■5.184 
■5.369 

■5.46S 


73 

74 


75 
76 

77 
78 
79 


So 
Si 
82 

84 


S5 
86 

I 
89 


go 

91 

92 

93 
94 


95 
96 

97 
98 
99 


100 
lOI 
102 
'03 
104 


105 
106 
107 
108 


PERSONS  ALIVE   AT   BEGIN- 
NING OF  YEAR. 


■91.956 
■76,487 


91.149 
83.416 


161,124 
145,988 
■31.199 

ii6,S8o 
103,154 


90.133 
77.919 
66,599 
50,241 
40,889 


.38,565 
3 ',26s 
24,967 
19,621 
15,162 


1 1,509 
8,576 
6,266 
4,485 
3,142 


2.153 

1,440 

940 

598 

370 


223 
■31 
74 
41 


75,777 
68,294 
61 ,026 
54,036 
47.381 


41.115 
35.2S3 
29,922 
25,060 
20,711 


16,877 
13,549 
10,709 

8,325 
6,360 


4,770 
3.510 
2,^:51 
■.787 
■.234 


54S 
352 
220 
134 


100,807 
93.071 


85,347 
77.694 
70,173 
62,844 

55,773 


49,0 1  s 

42,656 
,36,677 
31,181 
26,178 


21,688 
■7.716 
14.258 
11,296 
S,So2 


6,739 
5,066 

3,735 
2,698 
1,908 


1 ,320 
892 

5SS 

2.36 


■44 

S5 
49 
27 
15 


J  s  a 

fc  <  - 
O  (31  -■ 


15.469 
15.363 


■5. 1.36 
■4.7S9 
■4.319 
13.726 
13,021 


12,214 
■  1,320 
10,358 
9.352 
S.324 


7.300 
6,298 
5,346 
4,4.59 
3,653 


2,933 
2,510 
1,781 
'.343 
989 


713 
500 
342 
22S 
147 


92 
57 
33 


Note. — The  annual  rate  of  mortalily  of  males  of  all  ages  is  1  in  39.91,  and  of  females,  1  in  41.85. 


AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

0 

.39-9^ 

41-85 

20 

u 

40.29 

40 

26.06 

27-34 

60 

■3-53 

■4-34 

So 

4-93 

5.26 

I 

"^gs 

47-3' 

21 

39-63 
.3S.98 

4' 

25-39 

26.69 

61 

12.96 

'3-75 

Si 

4.66 

4-98 

2 

4S.S3 

49.40 

22 

3S..3 

42 

24-73 

26.03 

62 

12.41 

'3-'7 

S2 

4.41 

4.71 

3 

49.61 

50.20 

23 

.37-46 

38-33 

43 

24.07 

25-38 

63 

11.87 

12.60 

S3 

4.17 

4-45 

4 

49.81 

50-43 

24 

36  79 

37-68 

44 

23-4' 

24.72 

64 

■■-.34 

12.05 

84 

3-95 

4.21 

5 

49.71 

50-33 

'    25 

36.12 

37-04 

45 

22.76 

24.06 

65 

iO.S2 

11.51 

85 

3-73 

3-9S 

6 

49-39 
4S.92 

48-37 

50.00 

26 

35-44 

36.. 39 

46 

22.11 

23.40 

66 

10.32 

10.9S 

86 

X-Si 

3-76 

I 

:§:^ 

27 
28 

.34-77 
.34- '0 

.35-75 
35-10 

$ 

21.46 

20.52 

22. C^ 

S 

t% 

10.47 
9-97 
9-4S 

i 

3 -.34 
3.16 

3-56 
3-36 

9 

47-74 

48.35 

29 

33-43 

.34-46 

49 

20.17 

21.42 

69 

S.90 

89 

3.00 

3.18 

10 

47-05 

47.67 

30 

32.76 

33-Si 

SO 

■9-54 
1S.90 

20.75 

70 

S.45 

9.02 

90 

2.84 

3.01 

11 

46.31 

46-95 

31 

32.09 

33-17 

S' 

20.09 

T 

8.03 

8-57 

91 

2.69 

2.85 

12 

45-54 

46.20 

32 

31.42 

I'M 

52 

1S.2S 

19.42 

72 

7.62 

8. 13 

92 

2-55 

2.70 

13 

44.76 

45-44 
44.fi6 

33 

30.74 

53 

17.67 

;i:S 

73 

7.22 

7-7' 

93 

2.41 

2-55 

14 

43-97 

34 

.30.07 

3'-23 

54 

17.06 

74 

6.S5 

7-3' 

94 

2.29 

2.42 

15 

43-18 

43-1/5 

35 

29.40 

30-59 

55 

fa 

■7-43 

75 

6-49 

6-93 

95 

2.17 

2.29 

16 

42.40 

43-14 

36 

28.73 

29.94 

56 

16.79 

76 

6-15 

6.56 

96 

2.06 

2-17 

'7 

41. f4 

42.40 

3t 

2S.06 

29.29 

57 

.5.26 

.6.17 

11 

5-S2 

6.21 

\t 

2.06 

iS 

40.1/3 

41.67 

38 

27-39 

2S.64 

S8 

14. 6S 

■S-SS 

S'S' 

5-88 

■    '-t 

■9 

40.17 

40.97 

39 

26.72 

27-99 

59 

14.10 

14.94 

79 

5-21 

S-S6 

99 
100 

i':6s 

1.S6 
1.76 

The  mean  lifetime  of  males  is  39.91  years,  and  of  females,  41,85. 


/• 


DEPARTMENT    OI'"    PUULIC    BUSINESS. 


SS7 


^        PUBLIC 


BUSINESS.    § 


A  Complete  Digest  of  Pari 

^  ^Y'lIE  origin  of  Parliament- 
ary Law  is  to  be  found  in 
the  customs  and  rules  of 
the  British  Parliament,  the 
first  deliberative  body  of 
the  modern  world.  When 
tlie  Jutes  and  Saxons  left 
their  over-crowded  homes  in  the 
Low  Dutch  Lands  and  sailed 
to  England,  they  carried  with 
them  the  ll^itc/ia  Goiiote,  the 
root  from  which  has  sprung  ev- 
ery Congress  and  Parliament, 
every  Town  Meeting  and  Con- 
vention, every  Caucus  and  De- 
bating Society  which  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race  in  the  Old  World,  or  the  New,  has 
held. 

Set  rules  governing  the  proceedings  of  Par- 
liament began  first  to  be  established  about  A.  D. 
1 1 80,  so  that  now  Parliamentary  Science  is 
about  seven  hundred  years  old.  In  the  course 
of  time  these  rules  became  more  extended  and 
exact,  the  conduct  of  public  meetings  was  re- 
duced to  a  science,  until  at  the  present  day  the 
man  who  is  not  familiar  with  them  is  apt  to  ex- 
pose himself  as  one  of  imperfect  education,  and 
to  make  blunders  which  bring  himself  into  ridi- 
cule, and  the  cause  which  he  is  supporting  into 


^P 


lamentary  Law  and  Rules. 

danger.  In  America,  where  every  matter,  grave 
or  light,  affecting  the  public,  or  any  part  of  it, 
is  promptly  made  the  subject  of  a  meeting,  the 
man  who  has  not  Parliamentary  Law  and  Prac- 
tice at  his  fingers'  ends  is  compelled  either 
always  to  take  a  back  seat  and  let  less  able  men 
come  forward,  or  else  be  in  constant  danger  of 
an  absurd  display  of  ignorance  unworthy  of  an 
American  citizen. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  whole  subject  is  easi- 
ly mastered,  and  easily  retained  in  the  memory. 
It  is  based  upon  certain  clearly  laid  down  prin- 
ciples, and  if  we  were  asked  to  give  in  one 
sentence  a  comprehensive  definition  of  Parlia- 
mentary Law,  we  should  promptly  answer  that 
it  was  common  sense  divided  into  rules.  Those 
things  that  appear  strange  are  really  founded 
upon  reason,  and  the  more  the  student  attacks 
the  subject  the  more  evident  do  its  harmonies 
appear.  Anyone  who  will  carefully  study  the 
following  digest  will  thoroughly  master  the 
subject. 

CALLING  A  MEETING. 

It  would  be  much  easier  to  make  a  list  of  the  subjects  for 
which  meetings  should  not  be  called  than  of  those  for  which  they 
should.  Generally,  all  those  matters  which  affect  a  considera- 
ble part  of  the  community,  of  the  church,  or  of  the  business  to 
which  one  belongs,  are  proper  matters  for  counsel  and  discus- 
sion among  friends,  and  for  meetings  among  citizens.  The 
forms  used  in  calling  meetings  sl'ould  be  ver)- brief  and  pointed, 


\ 


588 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


intimating  plainly  what  the  gathering  is  for,  where  and  when  it 
is  to  meet.  For  instance,  forms  to  be  printed  in  the  newspapers 
should  take  this  shape : 

Notice.— The  members  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  are 
requested  to  meet  at  ISIr,  James  Kyle's  residence,  241  Walker  street, 
on  Tuesday  evenintj,  January  15th,  at  eight  o'clock,  to  consider  ways 
and  means  of  rebuildinij  the  parsonage. 

Or  thus : 

DEMOCRATS  OF  THE  THIRD  WARD,  ATTENTION  I 

A  mass  meeting-  of  the  Democrats  of  the  Third  Ward  will  be  held  at 
Lafayette  Hall,  on  Locust  and  Main  streets,  on  Friday  evenin;:;",  Oct. 
3d,  at  7*. 30,  p,  ni.,  in  accordance  with  the  order  of  the  Central  Coin- 
niitlee,  to  select  three  deleg^ates  for  the  City  Convention  on  Saturday, 
Oct.  4th.  The  Hon.  C.  F.  Pease,  Jud^e  Bradley  Adams,  Sheriff  Por- 
son,  and  others,  will  address  the  meeting. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessaiy  that     meetings  should  be  called 
without  publicity,  when  a  form  like  this  might  be  used  : 
[  C  ONFIDENTIA  L .  ] 

St.  Louis,  Jan,  12th,  iSSo. 
James  Ashton,  Esq., 
Asliton  &  Co.,  Grocers. 

Dear  Sir: 

Ynur  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that 
the  retail  dealers  in  coffee  are  cutting-  prices  until  there  is  little  or  no 
profit  1  'ft  in  the  trade.  Quite  a  number  of  us  have  agreed  to  meet  at 
the  Majj^nolia  Club  next  Saturday  evening,  to  discuss  the  situation, 
and  see  if  some  measures  can  not  be  taken  which  will  enable  all  of  the 
firms  to  do  a  more  satisfactory  business  than  at  present.  Please 
either  be  present  yourself,  or  send  a  representative  empowered  to  act 
for  you,  and  oblige  Yours  very  respectfully, 

Spotts  &  Tremaine. 
J.  R.  Osgood  A:  Co. 
H.  A.  MiLLiiit  &  Son. 

These  forms  might  be  greatly  increased  in  number,  but  the 
reader  will  see  the  shape  upon  wliich  it  is  best  to  found  them. 
Be  cure  that  written  notices  are  sent  to  all  interested,  and  that 
printed  ones  are  inserted  several  times  before  the  event  which 
they  advertise  is  to  occur. 

ORGANIZING  A  MEETING. 

As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  have  gathered  together  at  the 
place  of  meeting,  some  gentleman — and  it  is  well  that  the  per- 
sons calling  the  meeting  should  select  this  person  with  care ;  it 
is  best  to  choose  some  well-known  and  representative  citizen — ■ 
will  mount  the  speakers'  stand  and  r»p  with  the  gavel  on  the 
table  until  the  assembly  is  brought  to  order.  He  will  then  nom- 
inate some  person  present  for  chairman,  using  the  simple  fomi, 
"I  move  that  Mr.  John  Gilkeson  act  as  chairman  of  this  meet- 
ing." ^\^len  the  motion  is  seconded  he  will  at  once  put  it  to 
the  house,  saying,  "It  is  moved  and  seconded  that  John  Gilke- 
son act  as  chairman  of  this  meeting.  Those  in  favor  will  say 
' aye'."  Those  in  favor  of  Gilkeson  will  vote  "  aye  "  in  a  clear 
tone  of  voice.  The  temporary  chairman  will  continue,  "  Those 
opposed  say  'no'."  If  Mr.  Gilkeson  is  defeated  other  names 
are  proposed  until  a  chairman  is  elected,  when  the  one  chosen 
will  be  escorted  to  the  chair,  and  the  gavel  handed  to  him  by 
the  temporary  chairman,  who  at  once  leaves  tlie  stand  and 
takes  a  seat  among  the  members.  The  chairman  raps  for  order 
and  after  a  word  or  two  of  thanks  for  the  honor  conferred  upon 
him  should  proceed  to  lay  clearly  before  the  meeting  the  purpose 
for  which  it  has  been  called.  This  is  not  the  time  for  eloquence 
or  for  attempts  at  fine  speaking.  The  chairman  should  endeavor 
to  frame  his  remarks  so  that  every  person  in  the  hall  will  under- 
stand clearly  and  definitely  just  what  the  matter  for  discussion 
is.  It  is  in  good  taste  for  the  chair  to  call  upon  any  other  mem- 
ber of  the  meeting  to  express  the  purpose  for  which  it  has  lieen 
called  if  the  chairman  docs  not  feel  himself  thoroughly  able  to 


explain  it.  But  if  the  chair  means  to  call  upon  some  other 
member  to  speak,  he  should  first  proceed  to  the  election  of  a 
secretai-y,  who,  when  elected,  will  read  the  call,  and  the  chair 
will  tlien  call  on  the  person  whom  he  wishes  to  address  the 
house ;  otherwise  the  secretary  is  not  usually  chosen  until  after 
the  president  has  spoken. 

GETTING  TO  WORK. 

Wlien  the  secretaiy  has  been  elected  and  the  purpose  of  the 
meeting  stated,  the  next  duty  of  the  chairman  is  to  get  the 
assembly  to  work  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  Suppose,  for 
example,  it  is  proposed  to  rebuild  the  church  parsonage  lately 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  chairman  will  say,  "Gentlemen,  you 
have  heard  the  reasons  why  this  meeting  has  been  called.  What 
is  the  pleasure  of  the  house  ? " 

A  member  will  rise  to  his  feet  and  say,  "  Mr.  Chairman." 

The  chairman  will  look  towards  the  speaker  and  say,  "  Mr. 
Mclntyre,"  or,  if  he  does  not  know  the  gentleman's  name,  he 
will  say,  "  The  gentleman  to  my  right,"  indicating  the  speaker 
with  a  wave  of  his  hand.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  draw  the 
attention  of  the  meeting  to  the  person  about  to  speak.  Mr. 
Mclntyre  then  says,  "I  move  that  a  committee  of  three  be 
appointed  by  the  chair  to  report  ways  and  means  of  raising 
$5,000  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  parsonage." 

This  motion  being  seconded,  the  chair  announces,  "It  is 
'moved  and  seconded  that  a  committee  of  three  to  report  ways 
and  means  of  raising  $5,000  to  rebuild  the  parsonage  be 
appomted  by  the  chair."  The  matter  now  becomes  debatable, 
and  any  member  may  rise  and  address  the  chair  as  to  the  pro- 
priety or  impropriety  of  appointing  such  committee.  When  the 
discussion  seems  to  be  concluded,  tlie  chair  will  ask,  "Are  you 
ready  for  the  question?"  To  which  the  members  will  respond 
by  caUing,  "  Question  ! "  "Question  ! "  The  chair  will  then  very 
distinctly  repeat  Uie  motion  so  that  all  can  hear  it  clearly :  "It 
is  moved  and  seconded  that  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed 
by  the  chair  to  report  ways  and  means  of  raising  $5,000  to 
rebuild  the  parsonage.  Those  in  favor  of  the  motion  will 
say 'aye.'"  The  ayes  vote.  "Those  opposed  will  say 'no.'" 
The  noes  vote.  If  the  chairman  thinks  the  ayes  are  in  a  major- 
ity he  will  say,  "The  ayes  seem  to  have  it,"  and  then,  after  a 
pause,  if  no  one  calls  for  a  division,  "The  ayes  have  it."  If  a 
division  is  called  for,  however,  the  chairman  will  call  upon  those 
in  favor  of  the  motion  to  take  one  side  of  the  hall  and  those 
opposed  to  go  to  the  other,  when  he  may  appoint  tellers  to 
count  the  votes,  or  count  them  himself.  Or  he  may  make  a 
division  by  causing  each  parly  to  raise  their  hands  in  turn,  or 
to  rise  up  from  their  seats  and  remain  standing  while  being 
counted.  The  motion  having  carried,  the  chair  will  proceed  to 
appoint  the  committee,  remembering  that  Parliamentary  Eti- 
quette demands  that  the  person  who  moved  the  appointment 
shall  be  be  made  chairman  of  the  committee.  The  chair  will 
also  decide,  as  it  was  not  incorporated  in  the  motion,  when  the 
report  shall  be  made.  If  it  is  probable  that  the  work  can  be 
done  in  a  half  hour  or  an  hour.he  will  order  the  committee  to 
report  in  that  time; if  longer,  it  is  wiser  to  adjourn  over  to  an- 
other evening.  The  committee  having  gone  out  to  work,  and 
there  being  no  business  before  the  assembly,  the  chair  may 
announce  a  recess,  or  call  upon  some  one  present  for  a  speech,  a 


/* 


7^ 


^ 


\ 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


5S9 


it. 


recitation  or  a  song ;  in  this  way,  or  in  conversation,  the  inter- 
val may  he  passc<l.  When  the  committee  is  ready  to  report  tliey 
come  hack  to  the  hall  and  announce  their  presence  to  the  chair- 
man, lie  raps  witli  the  gavel  for  order  and  announces,  "The 
committee  is  ready  to  report.  Mr.  Mclntyre,  please  read  your 
report." 

The  report  is  read  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee,  and  at 
its  conclusion  some  member  moves  its  adoption.  Tliis  being 
seconded,  the  Chair  announces :  "  It  is  moved  and  seconded 
that  the  report  of  the  committee  which  you  have  just  heard  read 
be  adopted."  This  opens  discussion,  after  which  the  motion 
is  voted  on  as  before.  The  business  of  the  evening  being  con- 
cluiled,  some  one  moves  to  adjourn.  It  is  seconded,  and  this 
motion  is  voted  just  as  any  other.  If  the  matter  must  be  taken 
up  again  later,  tlie  date  to  which  the  body  is  to  adjourn  should 
always  be  incorporated  in  the  motion.  Wiun  the  motion  is  car- 
ried, the  Cliairman  announces  the  fact  and  the  meeting  ends. 


■^^ 


m^^ 


How  to  Manage  a  Convention,  m^ 


i 


,j,-#|ONVENTIONS  differ  from  ordinary  mcet- 
y  ings  both  in  their  composition  and  in  the 
V#f'  customs  -which  are  observed.  The  fre- 
quency of  their  occurrence  and  the 
strict  manner  in  which  members  are  held 
to  ParHamentary  Rules  make  it  necessary  for 
ever}'  delegate  to  thoroughly  master  the  niceties 
of  their  organization  and  government,  and,  al- 
though in  the  pages  that  follow  the  broad  prin- 
ciples of  Parliamentary  Law  are  laid  down  so 
that  those  who  run  may  read,  it  is  necessary  here 
to  call  attention  to  the  peculiarities  which  make 
Conventions  differ  from  other  deliberative  bod- 
ies. Conventions  are  made  of  delegates  chosen 
either  by  sections  of  a  political  party  or  by  di- 
visions, councils,  encampments,  or  lodges  of  a 
society.  In  all  cases  the  delegate  must  be  pro- 
perly accredited  to  the  general  body,  and  one 
of  the  first  things  to  see  to  is  that  these  creden- 
tials are  in  proper  shape. 

TEMPORARY  ORGANIZATION. 

A  Convention  organizes  temporarily  before  it 
can  get  to  work.     A   Chairman,  a   Secretary, 


with  several  assistants,  and  several  Sergeants-at- 
Arms  are  chosen  after  the  usual  manner.  They 
are  the  result  of  nomination  and  election  just  as 
in  any  other  deliberative  body,  but  it  is  under- 
stood that  their  functions  will  cease  as  soon  as 
the  Permanent  Organization  is  perfected.  It  is 
generally  understood  beforehand  who  is  to  be 
selected  Temporary  Chairman,  however,  and 
although  the  tenure  of  office  is  brief  it  is  quite 
an  important  post.  Delegates  will  always  do 
well  to  act  slowly  during  the  temporary  organi- 
zation, as  it  has  frequently  happened  that  it  alone 
has  decided  the  whole  work  which  the  body 
had  assembled  to  do.  The  custom  is  to  choose 
the  temporary  organization  by  a  viva  voce  vote, 
and  usually  the  delegates  and  the  rest  of  the 
world  help  along  in  the  voting  with  all  their 
lungs. 

THE  COMMITTEES. 

The  temporary-  organization  has  for  its  sole 
purpose  the  selection  of  the  Committees  whose 
work  must  be  done  before  the  Convention  can 
go  to  business.     These  are  the  Committees: 

On  Credentials. 

On  Permanent  Organization. 

On  Order  of  Business. 

On  Rules. 

On  Resolutions. 

Although  it  is  common  to  join  these  last  two 
committees  into  one. 

Every  Convention  consists  of  delegations,  and 
each  delegation  consists  of  delegates.  When 
the  Chairman  calls  for  the  Committee  on  Cre- 
dentials the  delegations  each  name  one  of  their 
number  to  be  a  member  of  that  Committee.  So 
with  Permanent  Organization,  Order  of  Business 
and  Rules  and  Resolutions.  Each  delegation 
should  have  one  representative  on  each  Com- 
mittee. As  soon  as  the  names  are  given  in  the 
Committees  retire  and  a  recess  is  taken. 

THE  COMMITTEES  AT  WORK. 

The  duties  of  each  Committee  are  plainly  indicated  by  their 
names.  The  credentials  of  each  delegate  should  be  turned  in 
as  rapidly  as  possible;  generally  they  are  put  in  the  hands  of  the 


hT 


59° 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


J-  , 


members  of  the  Credential  Committee  from  the  delegation,  but 
sometimes  contests  occur,  and  this  is  the  time  for  the  contest  to 
begin  properly.  In  political  conventions  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant work  is  done  by  the  Order  of  Business  Committee.  It 
is  very  vital  in  what  order  candidates  shall  be  nominated.  All 
of  this  has  to  be  settled  at  once,  and  the  friends  of  a  candidate, 
if  they  are  afraid  that  other  candidates  have  sold  them  out, 
should  alw.ays  try  to  get  their  nomination  fixed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  schedule,  because  they  can  thus  make  the  doubtful  ones 
show  their  hands  at  once.  The  Committee  on  Permanent  Or- 
ganization must  supply  a  full  list  of  names  for  chairman,  secre- 
taries, sergeants-at-arms,  pages,  etc.,  for  the  convention.  The 
Committee  on  Rules  always  report  the  rules  governing  Congress, 
and  the  Resolutions  Committee  put  the  platform,  as  it  is  called, 
in  shape. 

THE  CONVENTION  AT  WORK. 

When  the  recess  ends,  the   committees  should  all  be  ready  to 
report,  which  they  do  in  this  order: 

Credentials, 

Permanent  Organization. 

Order   of  Business. 

Rules  and  Regulations. 
The  Credentials  Committee  gives  a  full  list  of  delegates  entitled 
to  sit,  the  Permanent  Organization  names  the  officers,  the  Order 
of  Business  reports  in  what  succession  the  convention  shall  ad- 
dress itself  to  the  business  before  it,  the  Rules  and  Resolutions 
give  shape  and  purpose  to  the  whole.  Each  committee  report 
is  acted  upon  as  soon  as  it  is  read,  usually  by  a  viva  voce  vote, 
and,  all  being  accepted,  the  convention  gets  to  work.  The  first 
step  is  for  each  delegation  to  select  a  chairman,  who  acts  as 
spokesman  for  it.  This  can  be  done  in  the  intervals  between 
the  reports.  The  permanent  ofiicials  are  installed,  generally 
with  short  speeches,  and  the  order  of  business  is  taken  up.  The 
chairman  orders  the  secretary  to  call  the  roll  of  delegations  for 
nominations,  for  Governor,  for  instance.  Two  or  three  coun- 
ties may  be  called  without  any  nominations  (for  it  is  always 
understood  beforehand  who  is  to  make  the  nominating  speeches) 
until  Butler  County  is  reached.  Then  the  gentleman  who  has 
been  selected  arises,  and,  calling  attention  to  the  eminent  serv- 
ices and  peculiar  fitness  of  thellonoralile  Allen  Blaisdell,  nomi- 
nates him  for  Governor.  Another  county  is  reached,  and  Mr. 
James  Pierson  is  nominated;  perhaps  four  or  five  more  and 
Blaisdell  is  seconded,  and  so  on  until  all  the  candidates  for 
Governor  are  fairly  in  the  field.  The  voting  in  conventions  is 
peculiar.  As  soon  as  the  nominations  close,  each  delegate 
should  hand  to  the  chairman  of  his  delegation  a  piece  of  paper 
with  the  name  of  the  person  he  votes  for  upon  it.  Wlien 
Andrews  County  is  called  the  chairman  rises  and  announces 
"Andrews  County  gives  three  for  Blaisdell,  two  for  Pierson  and 
one  fur  Holmes."  When  the  vote  is  all  in,  the  totals  are  hand- 
ed to  the  president,  who  announces:  "Total  vote  cast,  242;  nec- 
essary to  a  choice,  122.  Pierson,  98 :  Blaisdell,  84 ;  Holmes,  53 ; 
Dawes,  7.  There  beingno  election,  the  convention  will  proceed 
to  vole  again."  Which  is  continued  until  by  a  clear  majority  a 
candidate  has  been  chosen.  When  a  candidate  has  been  select- 
ed he  should  thank  the  convention  for  its  preference,  and  the 
defeated  candidates  should  also  come  forward  and  express  their 
submission  to  the  will  of  the  jiarty. 

TRADING. 

Trading  is  the  name  given  to  the  transaction  whereby  a  dele- 
gation, anxious  to  secure  the  nomination  of  their  friend  to  office, 


agree  to  vote  for  other  candidates  who  are  running  for  other 
offices,  in  return  for  support  of  their  nominee.  This  is  assum- 
ing greater  proportions  every  year,  and  the  only  note  to  be 
made  upon  the  practice  is  that  usually,  from  bad  faith  and 
treachery,  it  is  a  very  uncertain  one.  Pledges  are  easily  secured, 
but  kept  with  difficulty.  In  this  age  of  combinations  the  men 
who  do  not  combine  are  sure  to  be  defeated,  but  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  American  politics  should  give  such  a  premium  to 
deceit  as  the  "trading"  done  in  conventions  offers. 


Things  to  be  Remembered 


Seven  Things  a  Ciiairman  Should  Remember. 

1st.  Take  the  chair  promptly  at  the  time  for  the  meeting  to 
open. 

2nd.  Always  rise  to  your  feet  when  putting  a  question.  All 
your  remarks  to  the  house  should  be  made  standing. 

3rd.  Order  is  best  maintained  by  a  rigid  enforcement  of  par- 
liamentary law. 

4th.  Except  in  vote  by  ballot,  the  chairman  can  only  vote 
when  the  meeting  is  equally  divided,  or  when  his  vote  given  to 
the  minority  would  make  the  division  e<|ual. 

5th.  The  chairman  should  familiarize  himself  thoroughly 
with  the  purposes  of  the  meeting. 

6th.  Coniinon  sense,  decision  and  firmness  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  a  successful  president. 

7th.  The  president's  three  duties  are  :  to  preserve  order,  to 
put  questions,  and  to  keep  the  house  strictly  to  the  business  in 
hand. 


Six  Things  a  Secretary  Shouid  Remember. 

1st.  Provide  the  necessary  stationery  for  the  performance  of 
the  duties  of  the  secretary. 

2nd.  In  reading  minutes  and  papers  pitch  the  voice  to  reach 
the  furthest  persons  in  the  room. 

3rd.  Do  not  attem]it  to  write  up  minutes  during  a  meeting — 
take  full  notes  of  everything  that  happens. 

4th.  Preserve  all  pa]>ers  carefully.  Do  not  allow  members 
to  remove  them  after  they  are  read. 

5th.  See  to  it  that  all  committees  are  properly  warned  of 
their  appointment,  and  of  the  business  they  are  to  do. 

6th.  In  w  riling  minutes  make  them  as  short  as  possible,  but 
include  every  important  matter. 


Four  Things  a  Member  Should  Remember. 

1st.  Unless  the  chair  is  assisted  by  every  member  in  the 
maintenance  of  order,  l.iusiness  will  be  retarded. 

2nd.  Always  rise  when  about  to  speak,  and  address  the  chair- 
man alone.     Be  silent  until  he  makes  the  necessary  recognilitm. 

3id.  Be  careful  to  keep  to  the  point  in  your  remarks,  and 
never  speak  twice  on  a  matter  while  there  are  other  members 
waiting  to  be  heard. 

4th.  That  speaker  is  listened  to  with  attention  who  only 
speaks  when  he  has  something  pertinent  to  say. 


^y 


\ 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


591 


/ 


THREE    HUNDRED    POINTS    OF    ORDER. 

DECIDED    AT   ONE   GLANCE,  ON   A   SINGLE    PAGE. 

BLANKS    IN    COLUMNS    AFFIRM    STATEMENTS    AT    THE    HEAD--THE    NEGATIVE    DENIES    THEM. 


•  Not  (U-I>:it:iMe  when  another  question  is  hcforc  the  House. 

f  An  affirniative  vote  on  this  question  cannot  be  rec<msidere(l. 

a  Limited  debate  only  on  the  propriety  of  nostponenient  allowed. 

bMuy  he  moved  and  entered  on  tlie  record  when  another  has  the  fioor,  but  may  not 
stop  the  Inisiness  then  in  progress;  may  be  culled  up  by  the  mover  as  soon  as 
such  business  is  disposed  of,  and  it  then  takes  precedence  of  all  other  questions 
exept  "  to  adjourn,"  or  "  to  fix  time  to  which  to  adionrn." 

c  Mot  debatable  when  decision  is  ni  a  matter  of  breach  of  decorum. 

dCan  be  made  before  debate  has  commenced  only. 

0 

en  C 
'—   ^ 

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w.    > 
u    '^ 

u 

t  . 

U 

■Eg 
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c 
rt 

K 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
no 

no 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
no 

no 
no 
no 

no 

no 
no 

no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
no 
no 

no 

no 

no 
no 
no 

no 
no 
no 

8ih 

no 

no 
* 

no 

no 

2<1 

1st 

no 

no 
no 

no 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

7lh 

Motion  to  limit  debate 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

Molion  to  lay  on  the  table 

no 
no 
no 
no 

'.'.'.'J\ 

4lh 

no 

Srd 

no 

no 

no 

....li 

no 

gth 

6lh 

Motion  for  previous  tiviestion 

no 

no 
no 
no 

no 
no 

Sth 

Motion  to  I'cconsiider  a  debatable  ciuestion 

M(jtic)n  to  reconsider  an  undebatable  Guestion 

no 

no 

no 

no 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

Motion  to  suspend  rules » 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 

Motion  to  withdraw  a  motion 

no 

no 
no 
no 

Question  of  iirivilege 

, . . .  c 

no 
no 

no 

Leave  to  continue  speaking  after  breach  of  decorum 

no 
no 

no 

no 
no 

Motion  that  Committee  rise 

FORMS    IN    WHICH    QUESTIONS    MAY    BE    PUT. 

On  motion  for  previous  question,  the  form  ul)serve(I  is:    "Shall  the  main  question  be  put?"    This  if  carried  ends  debate. 

On  motion  for  order  of  the  day:  "Will  the  House  now  proceed  to  the  order  of  the  day?"  Thisif  canned  supersedes  interven- 
ing motions. 

WTien  objection  is  raised  to  considering  question :    "  Shall  the  cpiestion  be  considered  ? " 

On  motion  to  strike  out  words:  "Sh.all  the  words  stand  part  of  the  motion?"  If  this  be  not  carried,  the  words  are 
struck  out. 

On  an  appeal  from  decision  of  Chair:    "Sliall  the  decision  be  sustained  as  the  ruling  of  the  House?" 

When  yeas   and  nays   are  ordered  by    the  House:    "As  many  as  are  in  favor  of will  answer  a;'C  those  opposed  will 

answer  tio,  when  their  names  are  called." 

When  a  member  has  been  counted  on  the  side  against  which  he  intended  to  vote,  the  presiding  officer  can  order  the  amend- 
ment of  the  vote,  having  first  asked  the  member:  "On  which  side  he  intended  to  give  his  voice?"  This  correction  can  be  made 
only  on  the  member's  own  representation. 


\ 


-o  V 


592 


PETITIONS    AND    MEMORIALS. 


T1 


M 


EM0RIAL8: 


lil  ■    _      f 


'(.f^ 


AND 


PETITIONS. 


^^r-" 


^  ^  ^  ^  -"-^-^^^ 


The  right  of  rdition:  is  an  expression  frequently  met  with 
in  Englisli  liistory.  Tlie  earnestness  witli  which  the  people  of 
that  country  strove  for  the  maintenance  of  the  right  is  a  proof 
of  its  great  importance.  Tlie  riglit  of  Petition  necessarily  im- 
plies the  right  of  being  heard  and  heeded. 

The  bodies  to  wliom  petitions  are  addressed  are  first  of  all 
Congress,  the  President  and  the  executive  departments  of  the 
Government,  State  Governors  and  Assemblies,  Mayors,  City 
Councils,  and  lastly  public  and  private  corporations  of  every 
kind.  Certain  set  forms  are  used  in  addressing  these  assemblies 
and  persons,  and  although  the  matter  may  vary  infinitely  it  must 
always  be  put  in  a  respectful  and  decorous  manner.  The  me- 
morial to  Congress  presented  by  the  Mississippi  River  Conven- 
tion, which  assembled  in  St.  Louis  October,  1881,  is  one  of  the 
best  exemples  of  this  kind  extant.  It  will  be  found  first  among 
the  forms  whicli  follow,  necessarily  abbreviated  to  fit  the 
space  at  our  disposal. 

MEMORIAL  TO  CONGRESS. 

To  the  Senate  attd  House  of  Representatives   of  the    United   States, 

in  General  Assembly  convened  : 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Mississippi  River  Improvement 
Convention,  held  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  in  October  last, 
under  one  of  the  resolutions  unanimously  adopted,  were  charged  with 
the  duty  of  preparing  and  presenting  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
St:ites  a  memorial  embodyin^r  the  action  of  the  Convention,  accom- 
panied with  such  statistics  ana  information  as  the  Committee  might 
deem  expedient. 

The  Convention  which  committed  this  grave  duty  to  your  memor- 
ialists was  one  representing,  in  an  unusual  degree,  the  commercial 
and  industrial  power  of  the  country.  The  highest  order  of  talent, 
judgment  matured  by  careful  thought  and  Inrge  experience  of  the 
great  question  so  intimately  connected  with  the  progress  and  devel- 
opment of  tlie  imperial  domain  compreliended,  met  in  council,  and 
the  important  question  was  considered  by  men  representing  twenty 
States  and  three  Territories,  and  half  the  population  of  the  Union. 
Not  less  remarkable  was  the  variety  of  interests  gathered  and  given 
utterance  to  there.  Tliefarmers  andmerchants,  the  bankers,  the  man- 
ufacturers, the  professions,  and  the  heads  of  great  transportation 
lines  by  river  and  by  rail,  with  earnest  zeal  discussed,  and  with  strik- 
ing unanimity  reached  the  conclusion  embodied  in  the  resolutions 
adopted  by  the  Convention,  and  which  it  now  becomes  the  duty  of 
your  memorialists  to  urge  upon  the  National  Legislature. 
*********  ** 

The  aid  now  asked,  and  the  benefits  sought  to  be  received  through 
the  liberal  action  of  the  Government,  is  not  alone  for  the  present,  nor 
for  the  near  succeeding  years,  but  stretches  to  the  distant  future — that 
eventful  and  busy  future  for  which  it  is  the  duty  and  business  of 
statesmanship  to  prepare.  The  Vallev  States  and  those  in  the  farther 
West  and  Southwest,  bound  together  by  the  chords  of  a  common  in- 
terest, are  fast  gaining  the  political  power  winch  will  nuike  them  the 
grantors  instead  of  the  solicitors  of  favors  through  the  instrumentali- 
ty of  the  Government.  A  compliance  now  with  their  reasonable  de- 
mands will  be  gratetully  recogni/.ed,  and  will  liereafter  lind  reciprocal 
respttnse.  A  refusal  will  breed  an  antagonism  of  sections  which  may 
lead  to  sectional  issues. 


And  now  we  ask,  can  there  be  a  more  propitious  time  for  the 
National  Legislature  to  recognize  the  value  and  importance  of  the 
work  ? 

The  products  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  carried  cheaply  by  the  river 
route  (and  through  its  influence  less  expensively  by  railj  to  the  outer 
markets,  have  thrown  the  balance  of  the  world's  trade  grandly  in  our 
favor.  Since  this  power  and  influence  has  been  recognized,  tor  the 
first  time  in  our  history  we  now  have  among  kindred  commercial  na- 
tions the  rank  of  creditor.  The  long-sought  position  has  been  ob- 
tained through  the  agency  of  cheap  transportation  from  the  interior 
to  the  sea  ;  a  policy  we  can  only  maintain  by  carx'ying  the  thouglit  to 
tlie  utmost  conclusion. 

The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  favorably  present- 
ed by  President  Arthur  in  his  message,  shows  a  surplus  revenue  of 
over  $100,000,000  for  the  last  fiscal  year,  and  tlie  question  suggests 
itself,  how  can  this  accruing  surplus  oe  properly  and  most  benehcially 
expended?  Those  for  whom  we  speak  do  not  complain  of  the  bur- 
dens of  taxation.  They  do  not  ask  for  the  present  reduction  or  speedy 
extinguishment  of  the  national  debt,  but  they  do  ask  that  this  surplus 
shall  m  part  be  applied  to  their  great  and  cheap  thoroughfares,  feel- 
ing that  when  this  is  done  they  can  bear  the  burdens  imposed  by  the 
Government  in  the  form  of  taxes  much  easier  than  those  resulting 
from  defective  and  crippled  transportation.  Now  in  the  days  of  our 
jirosperity,  they  ask  those  to  whom  they  have  entrusted  their  rights, 
to  lay  aside  local  antagonisms  and  sectional  jealousies,  to  compass 
the  height  of  the  argument  and  conckisions  presented,  and  meet  the 
action  of  the  Conventiem  by  the  exercise  of  a  statesmanship  as  broad 
and  comprehensive  as  that  which  marked  its  deUberations. 


Secretary, 

PETITION  TO  THE  PRESIDENT. 

To   Chester  A.  Arthur^  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  Petitioners  undersigned  respectfully  solicit  of  you  the  appoint- 
ment of  W.  K.  Hunter  as  cadet  at  large  to  West  Po'int.  The  young 
man  is  the  son  of  Major  Wilson  Hunter  who  distinguished  himself 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Lookout  Mountain.  He  is 
twenty  v^'^rs  of  age,  of  perfect  form  and  robust  health,  and  is  a  grad- 
uate of  Madison  University.  He  carried  off  the  highest  htmors  of  the 
institution  in  mathematics  and  drawing,  and  is  now  engaged  in  the 
ofhce  of  Penny  tt  Rubold,  Civil  Engineers,  We  ask  this  of  you 
because  our  Representative  in  Congress  has  already,  without  know- 
ing of  Hunter's  desire,  made  his  selection. 

We  refer  to  accompanying  jiapers.  A,  R.  C  and  D. 

\Vith  the  greatest  respect, _ 


James  T.  Morgan. 
Geo,  L.  Vennor. 


Galena,  Ills.,  Oct,  14,  1SS2. 

A.  Letter  of  Hunter  to  Vennor. 

H.  "         Personal  l-'riend  of  President. 

C.  Printed  slip. 

I).  Letter  of  Dean  of  Madison  University. 


My  Dear  Mr.   Vennor: 

You  have  so  frequently  shown  your  kind  feelings  towards  me  that  I 
am  sure  you  will  not  think  me  too  i>resuniptive  in  asking  your  assis- 
tance in  a  purpose  that  I  have  resolved  upon.     It  is   that  I   should 


/ 


PETITIONS. 


593 


■71 


g^o  to  West  Point.  Vou  know  how  well  fitted  I  mny  be  for  a  cndct- 
ship.  Shouhl  my  purpose  meet  with  yotir  approval,  I  throw  all  my 
hopus  of  lutiirc  success  in  life  on  yon,  and  I  know  no  one  in  this  wide 
world  so  willing  and  so  well  able  to  help  me. 

With  the  most  sincere  regard,  Kver  yours, 

Galena,  Oct.  6th,  1SS2.  W.  E.  Hunter, 

B. 

SEALED   LETTER. 

J/y  Old  Friend: 

Should  the  application  for  the  appointment  of  Hunter  be  favorably 
received  by  you,  you  will  not  only  confer  a  favor  on  a  most  worthy 
oltject,  hut  settle  another  natter  which  will  be  a  good  stroke  of  policy 
for  our  distrfct. 

A  man  named  Trevors  is  looking  with  hungry  eyes  at  the  position 
of  U.  S.  Collector  for  this  district,  in  which  we  want  o»ir  friend  May- 
ville  retained.  Trevor's  main  dependence  would  be  on  Morgan  and 
Vennor.  Now  Morgan  is  secretary  of  the  Illinois  State  Kepublican 
Committee  and  w;is  a  power  in  the  last  convention.  Vennor  is  a  quiet 
capitalist  whose  subscriptions  have  been  very  heavy  in  any  Kepubli- 
can necessitv.  You  would  find  it  hard  to  refuse  either.  Appoint 
Hunter  and  you  save  Mayville.  They  could  not  expect  you  to  make 
a  second  nuivc  on  their  application. 

Pardon  the  length  of  this. 

As  ever  your  most  devoted. 
Galena,  Oct.  13th.  Morris  Henley. 


PRINTED   SLIP. 
From  the  Galena  Times,  Aug,  i8tA,  t882, 
*********  *.* 

This  happy  escape  from  what  would  have  been  a  most  frightful  dis- 
aster is  all  owing  to  the  presence  of  mind  of  a  young  surveyor  in  the 
employ  of  Penny  &  Rid>old.  We  predict  for  Mr.  Hunter,  the  hero 
whose  coolness  and  courage  were  the  means  of  saving  so  many  lives, 
a  most  brilliant  future. 


Messrs.  Penny  d  Rubold. 

Gkntlkmkn: — In  recommending  my  yoimg  friend  W.  E.  Hunter 
to  you,  I  can  say  with  truth  he  was  as  a  pupil  all  that  could  be  desired, 
apt  and  studious.  His  proficiency  in  mathematics  Is  almost  phenom- 
enal. Respectfully, 

MiRON  Seymovr, 
Feb.  12th,  1SS2.  J)ean  oj  Madison  University. 


PETITION  TO  THE  GOVERNOR. 

To  Titos.  T.  Crittenden,  Governor  of  the  State  of  Missouri. 

Your  Petitioner  respectfully  represent  that  the  ollice  of  Clerk  of  the 
County  Court  of  Davton  County  in  this  state  is  now  vacant  by  reason 
of  the  decease  of  James  Allison,  the  regularly  elected  incumbent. 
Your  petitioner  would  further  represent  that  imlil  the  next  general 
state  and  county  election  the  law  requires  that  the  vacancy  be  filled 
by  appointment  of  the  Governor,  Now  feeling  myself  capaole  of  fil- 
ling the  i>osition,  and  being  thoroughl)^  acquamted  with  the  duties  of 
the  office,  I  respectfully  make  application  and  solicit  you  to  appoint 
me  Clerk  of  the  Daytnh  County  Court. 
Witli  our  most  cordial  recommendation. 

HtNUY  Warren 

Thomas  Uakkison',  \  'County  Court. 

William  Hkndekson. 

S.  K.  Atchison. 

RicilAKD  I-OKD,  Sheriff. 

Jesse  K.  Dunlap,  Minister. 


KouERT  Ames. 
Justices   of  the 


PETITION  TO  A  CORPORATION. 

To  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Dubuque  Gaslight  Co. 

Gentlemen  : — As  the  vacant  lot  adjoining  your  works  and  owned 
by  you  woidd  suit  my  purpose,  I  resiiectfully  solicit  the  use  of  it  for 
the  storage  of  cement  and  salt.  Should  it  not  be  your  intention  to 
improve  tlic  lot  for  some  time,  the  collection  of  a  small  rent  from  me 
would  be  better  t!»an  allowing  such  a  property  to  lie  idle. 

Respectfully,  Alex.  Goldman. 

PETITION  TO  A  STATE  LEGISLATURE. 


To   the   llonornhlr. 
State  of  - 


the  Senate  and  House  of   Representatives  of  the 
in  Le^slature    assembled . 


The  undersigned  petitioners,  residents  and  t;ix  payers  of  the  city  of 
,  respectfully  represent  that  they 


and  that  they  your  petitioners  fully  hcHeve  that  such  action  on  your 

part  would  be  in  favor  of  the  best'interest  of  the  city   of ,  and 

would  be  in  complete  accord  with  the  will  of  the  majority  of  its   citi- 
zens, and  your  petitioners  as  in  duty  bound  will  ever  pray,  &c.,  &c. 


Signed, 


PETITION  TO  CITY  AUTHORITIES. 

To  the  Mayor  and  Common  Council  of  the  City  of ; 

Gentlemen  :  Your  petitioners,  citizens  and  tax-payers  of  the  second, 
fifth  and  sixth  wards  of  this  city,  respectfully  solicity  your  honorable 
body  to  extend  the  system  of  sewerage,  already  working  in  such  ad- 
mirable order  in  the  third  and  fourth  wards,  through  our  wards.  The 
expense  may  be  heavy  but  our  need  is  stil!  greater;  for  all  the  territory 
contiguous  to  the  low  grade  streets,  Adams,  Pine  and  Lincoln,  is  in 
extreme  danger,  should  the  ^Jestilencc  now  raging  in  the  Southern 
cities  come  this  far  north,  \\  e  respectfully  represent  that  the  largest 
portion  of  the  city  revenue  is  collected  in  our  wards  and  that  the  pro- 

Eosed  extension  will  be  paid  for  wholly  by  the  property -owners  most 
enefited  by  the  sewers. 


Signed, 


iCity,  State,  Date.) 


PETITION  TO  A  COUNTY  COURT. 


To  the  Hon,  Justices  of  the  

The  undersignedi  residents   of  - 


County  Court : 

Township,  who   are 

obliged  to  use  the  Raldwin  road  to  market  with  their  produce,  re- 
spectfully inform  your  honor  that  the  bridge  crossing  Pear  Creek  is  so 
badly  injured  by  tlie  last  flood  that  it  is  now  dangerous  and  cannot  be 
trusted.  Hoping  you  will  give  the  matter  immediate  attention  they 
earnestly  petition  your  honorable  court  to  order  the  necessary  repairs. 


Signed, 


(  County,  State,  Date  ) 


A  REMONSTRANCE. 

To  the  Mayor  and  Common  Council  oj ; 

Gentlemen  :  The  petition  of  the  undersigned  citizens  and  tax  pay- 
ers of  the  sixth  an  seventh  wards  of  this  city  resi)ectfully  represents 
tliat  they  have  learned  that  a  |)etilion  is  now  before  you  praying  for 
the  privilege  of  constnicting  a  railroad  along  Jackson  Street.  That 
if  this  privilege  were  granted  and  a  track  laUVoii  that  street  the  result 
would  be  most  injurious  to  the  property  fronting  thereon  and  would 
obstruct  the  great  traflic  now  continuous  on  that  thoroughfare.  They 
also  suggest  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  such  railroad,  as  the  one  oh 
Henry  street  two  blocks  south  is  suflicient  for  the  needs  of  the  public. 
They  therefore  respectfully  and  earnestly  remonstrate  against  the 
granting  of  said  privilege  by  your  body. 


Signed, 


{City,  State,  Date.) 


/ 


^ 


594 


LYCEUMS    AND    DEBATING    CLUB?, 


LYCEUMS  MP 
DEBATING  CLUBS. 


She  benefits  derived  socially  and  intellectually  from 
attendance  at  Lyceums  or  debating  societies  are  so 
generally  conceded  that  there  is  no  need  of  argument 
to  urge  their  fomiation. 

The  following  form  of  a  constitution  and  by-laws 
will  give  a  clear  insight  into  their  workings : 


Constitution  and  By-Laws  of  the  Ben  Franklin 
Lyceum. 

PREAMBLE. 

For  our  mutual  improvement,   for  tlie   entertainment  of  our 
friends  and  for  the  cultivaUon  of  the  amenities  of  social  life,  the 
undersigned  agree  to  form  themselves  into  a  debating  society. 
TITLE. 

ARTICLE    1. 

The  name  of  this  society  shall  be  the  Ben    Franklin  Lyceum. 
OFFICERS. 

ARTICLE    II. 

The  officers  of  the  Lyceum  shall  consist  of  a  President,  Vice-Presi- 
dent Secretary,  Treasurer,  Librarian  and  Marshal.  They  shall  be 
elected  annually  at  the  first  regular  meeting  after  the  15th  of  January 
in  each  year,  and  shall  continue  to  perform  the  duties  of  their  several 
offices  until  the  installation  of  their  successors,  which  shall  take  place 
at  the  next  meeting  after  their  election. 

DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 

AKTICLE  III. 

The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings,  and  shall  be  ex-officJo 
member  of  all  standing  committees,  but  not  of  special  committees. 

The  Vice  Phesident  in  the  absence  of  the  President  shall  take 
the  chair,  but  will  not  assume  his  duties  in  committees  unless  the 
President'shall  so  request. 

The  Secretary's  duties  shall  be  threefold — Recording,  Corres- 
ponding and  Financial, 

Recording, — He  shall  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  proceedings 
of  each  meeting,  be  prepared  to  read  them  at  the  ensuing  meeting 
and  bv  indexing  or  other  method  be  prepared  to  read  on  call  the 
record  of  any  business  that  may  have  taken  place  at  any  former 
meeting. 

Corresponding. — He  shall  attend  to  all  the  correspondence  of  the 
Lyceum. 

Financial. — He  shall  keep  the  accounts  of  the  Lyceum  with  the 
members,  with  all  parties  having  dealings  with  the  Lyceum,  and  with 
the  Treasurer,     lie  shall   collect  and  pay   over  to   the   Treasurer    all 


dues  and  fines  and  other  income.  He  shall  write  warrants  on  the 
Treasu-er  to  be  signed   by  the  President  for  all  monies  to  be  paid  out. 

The  Treasurer  shall  receive  from  the  Secretary  all  monies  of  the 
Lyceum  and  shall  pay  out  the  same  only  on  the  production  of  the 
Secretary's  \yarrant  signed  by  the  President.  He  shall  make  a  quar- 
terly statement  of  the  lunds  in  his  hands,  which  shall  be  verified  by 
tlie  books  of  the  Secretary. 

The  Librarian  shall  have  charge  of  all  books,  periodicals,  maps, 
pictures,  globes,  curiosities  and  like  articles  either  owned  or  borrow- 
ed by  the  Lyceum. 

The  Marshal  shall  have  charge  of  the  hall,  furniture,  light, 
fuel  and  comfort  of  the  members.  He  shall  act  as  aoorkeeper,  usIilt 
to  visitors,  and  messenger. 

COMMITTEES. 

ARTICLE   IV. 

Immediately  after  his  installation  the  President  shall  appoint  five 
-standing  committees: 

The  Executive  and  Financial  Committee, 
The  Library  Committee, 
Committee  o;^  Lectures, 

Committee  om  the  Selection  of  Subjects  forDebate, 
Committee  on  Criticism. 
These  committees  shall  consist  of  four  members   each,  /.  <■.,  three 
appointed  and  the  President  himself. 

Special  Committees  for  all  other  purposes  shall  be  elected  by 
the  Lyceum. 

MEMBERSHIP. 
article  v. 

Active  Membership. — Any  person  of  good  repute  in  the  commu- 
nity,of  either  sex,  over  the  age  of  sixteen  years  may  become  a  member 
of  the  Lyceum  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  members  present  at  the  next 
meeting  after  their  proposal ;  the  membership  beginning  only  after 
signing  the  Constitution  and  paying  the  initiation  fee  of  $1.00. 

Life  Membership. — Any  person  of  good  repute,  on  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  member  and  the  vote  of  the  society,  may  become  a  life 
member  and  have  the  benefit  of  the  library  and  may  attend  all  meet- 
ings and  debates  on  the  payment  of  $10.00. 

Honorary  Membership  may  be  conferred  by  vote  of  the  Lyceum 
on  any  person.    Honorary  members  shall  pay  no  fees  or  dues. 

ORDER. 

article  VI. 

The  proceedings  and  deliberations  of  the  meetings  of  the  Lyceum 
shall  be  governed  bv  the  rules  of  order  as  shown  in  the  article  on  Par- 
liamentan,'  Law  in  Peale's  Manual,  unless  such  rules  conflict  with  this 
Constitution,  its  Amendments  or  the  By-Laws. 

EXPULSION  OF  MEMBERS. 

ARTICLE  VIT. 

For  sufficient  reason  any  member  may  be  expelled  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  oi'  the  members  present  at  any  meeting,  provided  the  Executive 
Committee  has  previously  considered  the  matter  and  informed  me 
member  of  the  proposed  action,  and  that  he  be  given  opportunity  to 
defend  himself. 


\ 


^ 


LYCEUMS    AND    DEBATING    CLUBS. 


595 


/ 


TIME  OF  MEETINGS. 

ARTICLE   VIII. 

The  regular  mt-i-tinj^  of  the  Lyceum  shall  be  held  in  the  Ben. 
Franklin  H;ill  at  eijjlit  o'clock  on  every  AN'ednesday  evening".  Special 
meetings  may  be  ciuleil  by  the  President  on  the  request  of  live  mem- 
bers. 

AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

This  Constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  any  regular  meet- 
ing by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present  :  Provided  that 
written  notice  sh;ill  have  been  given  of  the  proposed  amendment  at  a 
previous  meeting. 

BY-LAWS. 

LIRRAKV. 

KLLE    I. 

No  member  shall  be  allowed  to  take  more  than  two  books  from  the 
Library  at  one  time,  A  fine  of  one  cent  per  day  tor  each  volume 
shall  be  collected  from  each  member  keepin^j  books  more  than  <ine 
week.  The  Library  shall  be  opened  one  hour  before  the  regular  meet- 
ings of  the  Lyceum. 

QUORUM. 

RULE   II. 

Two  more  than  one-half  the  active  members  shall  constitute  a 
Quorum. 

MONTHLY  DUES. 

Rt'LE  III. 

Each  member  shall  pay  a  monthly  due  of  fifty  cents.  Any  member 
having  failed  to  pay  his  dues  for  three  montlis  shall  be  notihed  by  the 
Secretary;  if  he  does  not  pay  by  the  end  of  fourth  month  his  member- 
ship shall  be  forfeited. 

DEBATES.  RECITATIONS   AND  SPEECHES. 

RULE   IV, 

The  President  shall  appoint  in  turn  members  to  take  part  in  the 
exercises.  A  week's  notice  shall  be  given,  and  a  member  failing  to 
fill  the  appointment  without  good  excuse  shall  be  fined  fifty  cents, 

ORDER  OF  BUSINESS. 

RULE  V. 

Call  to  Order. 

Roll  CiUl. 

Reading  of  Minutes  of  Last  Meeting. 

Correspondence. 

Reports  of  Officers. 

Reports  of  Commirtees. 

(Jood  of  the  Lyceum. 

Election  of  Members. 

New    Business. 

Debate. 

Recitation. 

Or.ition. 

Criticism. 

Adjournment. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE. 


I.  Ought  the  largest  city  of  a  State  to  be  the  capital  of  that  State? 
3.  Will  the  coal  supply  of  the  United  States  hold  out? 

3.  Must  the  Chinese  go? 

4.  Has   the   abolition    of    slavery   improve<l    the    condition    of  the 

blacks? 

5.  Is  universal  suffrage  a  success? 

6.  Has  tlie  attendance  at  churches  changed  the  character? 

7.  Was  the  Tichborne  claimant  the  true  heir? 
S.  Is  the   drama  immortal? 

9.  Will  the  planting  of  forests  increase  the  rainfall? 

10.  Sliould  woman  have  the  right  of  suffrage? 

11.  Is  cremation  preferable  to  burial? 

13.  Ought  Governments  to  own  railroads  and  telegraphs? 

13.  Should  the  President  of  the  United  States  be  elected  directly  by 

the  people? 

14,  Does  Prohibition  prohibit? 

ig.  Should  public  museums  .and  parks  be  opened  on  Sunday? 

16.  Should    foreign  languages  be  taught  in  the  Public  Schools? 

17.  Should  the  right  to  vote  depend  on  a  property  qualification? 
iS.  Are  early  marriages  advisable  economically? 

19.  H.ave  we  an  aristocracy? 

20.  Could  the  Government  of  the  United  States  do  as   well  without 

the  Senate? 

21.  Will  the  colored  race  become  amalgamated  with  the  whites? 

22.  Are  competitive  examinations  a  fair  test  for  the  fitness  of  appli- 

cants for  office? 

23.  Should  gold  be  the  standard  of  value? 

24.  Should  there  be  more  Arctic  expeditions  sent  out? 

25.  Was  Washington  a  military  genius? 

26.  Is  the  assessment  of  office-holders  for  political  purposes  immoral  ? 

27.  Is  communism  a  mistake? 

2S.  Has  the  visit  of  Oscar  Wilde  had  any  effect  on  the  public  taste? 

29.  Is  the  co-educalion  of  the  sexes  advisable? 

30.  Has  the  Government  been  too  liberal  in  land  grants  to  railroads? 

31.  Are  inventors  sufficiently  protected  by  the  patent  laws? 

32.  Should   married   women    be  retained    as  teachers  in  the  Public 

Schools? 

33.  Should  convict  labor  be  allowed  to  compete  with    honest   labor? 

34.  Is  the  present  system  of  trial  by  jury  the  best? 

35.  Should   voting    by    ballot  be  introduced  into  all   elective    and 

legislative  proceedings? 


/■ 


\ 


596 


MAGNA    CHARTA. 


/ 


EjeijplT^gfgiifligpgpi^pgfP^P^lJ^^. 


MAGNA  CHARTA. 

The  Steps  in  the  Growth  of  American  Liberty. 


m. 


N  the  year  121 3,  on  Aug- 
ust 25th,  in  England, was 
organized  a  movement  of 
,  hich  we  now,  after  so 
many  centuries,  feel  the 
effects  in  our  nicely  bal- 
anced constitutions  and 
equitable  codes  of  laws.  The  liber- 
ties for  which  our  American  fore- 
fathers battled  had  been  defined  and 
foreshadowed  by  their  ancestors, 
and  the  political  condition  of  our 
thriving  country  may  well  be  shown 
as  the  ripened  and  mellow  fruit  from 
the  seed  sown  nearly  seven  hundred 
years  ago.  On  that  memorable  25th 
of  August  the  Prelates  and  Barons 
tiring  of  the  tyranny  and  vacillations 
of  King  John,  founded  a  Council 
and  passed  measures  to  secure  their  rights.  Af- 
ter two  years  of  contest,  with  many  vicissitudes, 
the  Barons  entered  London  and  the  King  fled 
into  Hampshire,  whence  he  sent  word  that  he 
would  comply  with  their  demands.  By  agree- 
ment both  parties  met  at  Runnymede  on  the 
9th  of  June.  The  conference  lasted  till  the  19th, 
on  which  day  the  royal  seal  was  affixed  and 
Magna  Charta,  the  glory  of  England, was  born. 
It  was  a  comprehensive  bill  of  rights,  and  though 
crude  in  form  and  with  many  clauses  of  merely 
local  value,  its  spirit  lives  and  will  live.  Clear 
and  prominent  we  find  the  motto  we  ourselves 
have  followed: 

"  No    tax  without  representation." 
It  contained  sixty-one  articles,  the  thirty-ninth 
and  fortieth  of  which  have  had  the  most  lasting 
effect,  and  their  sentiments  are  the  very  marrow 
of  all  our  State  Constitutions. 


The  original  document  is  in  Latin,  but  a  trans- 
lation of  articles  39  and  40  from  English  Statutes 
may  give  an  idea  of  its  whole  character. 

"  39.  No  freeman  shall  be  taken  or  be  im- 
prisoned or  be  disseised  of  his  freehold,  or  liber- 
ties or  free  customs,  or  be  outlawed  or  exiled, 
or  any  otherwise  destroped  ;  nor  will  we  pass 
upon  him,  nor  condemn  him,  but  by  lawful  judg- 
ment of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

"  40.  We  will  sell  to  no  man ;  we  will  not 
deny  or  defer  to  any  man,  either  right  or  jus- 
tice." 


The  Mecklenburg  Declaration. 

Some  thirteen  months  previous  to  the  signing  of  the  great 
Declaration  of  Independence  there  was  drawn  up  a  document 
in  Meclvlenburg  County,  N.  C,  that  was  almost  a  model  in 
wor'ding  and  sentiment  of  the  gieat  charter  of  American  liberty. 
There  are  different  accounts  of  the  matter,  but  the  most  reliable 
is  this: 

At  a  public  meeting  of  die  residents  of  Mecklenburg  County, 
in  the  Stale  of  North  Carohna,held  at  Charlotte  on  the  20th  day 
of  May,  1775,  it  was 

^^ Resolved,  That  whenever  directly  or  indirectly  abetted,  or  in 
any  way,  form  or  manner  countenanced,  the  unchartered  and 
dangerous  invasion  of  our  rights,  as  claimed  by  Great  Britain, 
is  an  enemy  of  our  country — to  America — and  to  the  inherent 
and  inalienable  rights  of  man. 

^'Resolved,  That  we,  the  citizens  of  Mecklenburg  County,do 
hereby  dissolve  the  political  bonds  which  have  connected  us  to 
the  niother-countr)',  and  hereby  absolve  ourselves  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  abjure  all  political  connec- 
tion, contract  or  association  with  that  nation,  which  has  wan- 
tonly trampled  on  our  rights  and  liberties  and  inhumanly  shed 
the  blood  of  American  patriots  at  Lexington. 

"Resolved,  That  we  do  hereby  declare  ourselves  a  free  and 
independent  people:  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  a  sovereign 
and  self-governing  association,  under  the  control  of  no  power 
other  than  that  of  our  God  and  the  general  government  of  the 
Congress.  To  the  maintenance  of  which  independence  we 
solemnly  pledge  to  each  other  our  mutual  co-operation,  our 
lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred    honor." 

Two  other  resolutions  in  the  same  document,  regarding  ad- 
ministration of  the  law  and  regulating  the  militia,  having  no 
present  value,  are  omitted. 


/ 


•e  <s' 


'y 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPEXDEN'CE. 


597 


/ 


In  Conghess,  July  ^th,  1776. 


J 


* 


)  HKN,in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands 
wliicli  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to  as- 
sume, among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  wliich  the  laws  of  nature  and 
nature's  God  entitle  them  a  decent  respect  to  the  opin- 
ions of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare 
the  causes  which  impel  tliem  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  he  self-evident:  That  all 
men  are  created  equal:  that  they  are  endowed  by 
their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights;  that 
among  these  are  life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to 
secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriving 
their  just  powers  from  tlie  consent  of  the  governed  ;  that,  whenever 
a  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right 
of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a  new  govern- 
ment, laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its 
powers  in  such  form,  ;is  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their 
safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that  gi>vern- 
ments  long  established  shoidd  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient 
causes;  and  accordingly  all  experience  hath  shown  that  mankind  are 
more  disposed  to  suffer  where  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  them- 
selves by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  Rut 
when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the 
same  object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despot- 
ism, it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duly,  to  throw  off  such  government, 
and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security.  Sucii  h;is  been* 
the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies  ;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity 
which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  govermiient. 
Tlie  history  of  the  i)resent  King  of  Great  It  ri tain  is  a  history  of  repeated 
injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  t)bject  the  establishment 
of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  stales.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary 
for  the  public  good. 

lie  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pres- 
sing importance,  unless  suspended  in  tlieir  operation  till  his  Jissent 
should  be  obtained;  and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected 
to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large 
districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of 
representation  in  Uie  legislature — a  right  inestimable  to  them,  aiul 
formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  luis  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  imcom- 
fortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  tlic 
sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  h;is  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing  with 
manly  firmness   his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  hns  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause 
others  to  be  elected  ;  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of 
annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at  large,  for  their  exercise, 
the  state  remaining,  in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of 
invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 


/• 


He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  stales ;  for 
that  purpose  obstructing  the  laws  for  naturalization  of  fore:^-ners, 
refusing  to  pass  others  to  encoura|y;c  their  migration  hither,  and  raising 
conditions  of  new  appro])riation  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his 
Jissent  to  laws  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of 
their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  tlicir  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of 
ofliccrs,  to  hariiss  our  jieople,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without 
the  consent  of  our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior 
to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign 
to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws;  giving  his 
assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation,— 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us; 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  from  any 
murders  wliich  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  states: 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world: 

For  imposing  ta.ves  on  us  witiiout  our  consent: 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benelits  of  trial  by  jur\' : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  tlie  se.as  to  be  tried  for  pretended 
offenses: 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  pr- 
vince,  est:lblisliing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its 
boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument 
for  introducing  the  same  .absolute  rule  into  these  colonies: 

F'or  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws, 
and  altering,  fundamentally,  the  powers  of  our  governments: 

F"or  suspending  our  own  legislatures  and  declaring  themselves 
invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cxses  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  pro- 
tection, and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  Ikis  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coxsLs,  burnt  our  towns,  and 
destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

{le  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries, 
to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation  and  tyranny,  already  begun 
with  circumstances  of  cruelty  :iiul  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  tlic 
most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized 
nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high 
seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  countrj-,  to  become  the  executioners  of 
their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  among  us,  and  has  endeavor- 
ed to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian 
savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruc- 
tion of  all  ages,  sexes   and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in 
the  most  humble  terms  ;  ourrcpeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only 
by  repeated  injury.  A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  hy  every 
act  which  m.ay  define  a  tyrant   is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 


598 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 


-7\ 


Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British  brethren.  We 
have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  leg^islature 
ta  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded 
them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigation  and  settlement  here.  We 
have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity;  and  we  have 
conjured  them,  by  the  tics  of  our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these 
usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and 
correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
of  sanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which 
denounces  our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, enemies  in  war,  in  peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
in  General  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of 
the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by 
the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish 
and  declare,  That  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent  states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them 
and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved; 
and  that,  as  free  and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy 
war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  do 
all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent  states  may  of  right  do. 
And  for  the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the 
protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our 
lives,  our  fortunes    and  our  sacred  honor. 

The  foregoing  Declaration  was,  by  the  order  of  Congress,  engrossed, 
and  signed  by  the  following  members: 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  EUerj-. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Himtington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

NEW  YORK. 

William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


JOHN  HANCOCK. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John-Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

Caesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 

Thomas  M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Pace, 
Thomas  Stone, 


Charles  Carroll,  of  Car- 
roUton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee. 
Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  He^-ward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 

Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


Re.<:olvirJ^   That  copies   of  the  Declaration  be  sent  to   the   several   assemblies,   conventions    and   committees,  or  councils  of  safety,  and  to 
the  several  commanding  officers  of  the  Continental  troops ;  that  it  be  proclaimed  in  each  of  the  United  States,  and  at  the  head  of  the  army. 


/ 


\ 


K" 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


/ 


599 


p^^^g|g^M^g][5p[5p[5Tra[fil^lSp[Spl5J^[5T^ 


P 

IS 

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E  ^  T^  -^    ^  -f?    <^J    ^  ^VV'^^,        '"^'.W'V 

i^t,  ;€::f>i j^ 


^CONST/TUT/ON/i^  "v? 


''^ 


>t ,.-*^>w 


BlR][5iJa][5p[5p[5ir?Jl51[gJ[5Jya][5p[sp[5p[g^ 


PREAMBLE. 

We,  the  people  of  the  Unitud  States,  in  order  to  form  :i  more  per- 
fect union,  cstublish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquility,  provide  for 
the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

SECTION    I. 

I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives. 

SECTION    II. 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States  ;  and 
the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for 
electors  of  the  most  numerous  brunch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  sh.all  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citiz-jn  of  the 
Upited  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  ser\'ice  for  a 
term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all 
other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
within  ever>*  subsequent  term  of  ten  yean;,  in  such  manner  as  they 
shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  tliousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one 
representative  ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State 
of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three;  Massachusetts, 
eight;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  one;  Connecticut, 
five;  New  York,  six ;  New  Jersey,  four;  Pennsylvania,  eight;  Dela- 
ware, one;  Mar>*land,  six ;  Virginia,  ten ;  North  Carolina,  five ;  South 
Carolina,  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  executive  authoritj"  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and 
other  officers ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECTION   111. 

I.  The  Senate  of  tlie  United  States  shall  be  comi>()sed  of  two  sena- 


tors from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislatiire  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  he  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the 
sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  ever)'  second  year;  and  if 
vacancies  happen  bv  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of 
the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  tempor- 
ary appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which 
shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  vice-president  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president 
pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  vice-president,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  president  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  all  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  president  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief-justice 
shall  preside:  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disquulitication  to  hold  and  enjoy  any 
office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States;  but  the  party 
convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECTION    IV. 

1.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators 
and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legisla- 
ture thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter 
such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  place  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  ;xssemble  at  least  once  in  every  year;  and 
such  meeting  sh.all  be  on  tlie  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SECTION    V. 

I.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  tlie  election,  returns  .and  qual- 
ifications of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from 
day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent 


VL 


\ 


600 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


members,  in  such  manner  and  nnder  such  penalties   as    uach    House 
may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rule  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of 
either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION   VI. 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation 
for  their  ser\'ices,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treas- 
ury of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their 
attendance  at  the  sessions  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to 
and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either 
house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  ofhce  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of 
either    house    during    his  continuance  in  office. 

SECTION    VII. 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments 
as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if 
not  he  shall  return  it  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their 
journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration 
two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent, 
together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that 
house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 
houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
I)ersons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal 
of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the 
President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been 
presented  to  him, the  same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had 
signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its 
return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  nccessarj'  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  t^vo-thirds 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SECTION  VIII. 

Tlie  Congress  shall  have  power — 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  \velfare  of  the 
United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States. 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States. 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes. 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  Uie  United  States. 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures. 


6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities 
and  current  coin  of  the  United  States. 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads. 

S.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their 
respective  writings  and  discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribun.als  inferior  to  the  supreme  court. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies  ;  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  reg^ilation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrection,  and  repel  invasion. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States;  resenting  to  the  States  respectively  tha 
appointment  of  the  officers  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  United  States;  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over 
all  places  purchased,  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings;  and 

iS.  To  make  all  laws  which  sh.all  be  necessarj'  and  proper  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  tlie  foregoing  powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  office 
thereof. 

SECTION   IX. 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the 
States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohib- 
ited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
ei-^ht;  but  a  tax  or  duty  m.ay  be  imposed  on  such  importation  not 
exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  cor/w.?  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may- 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law,  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  propor- 
tion to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  talien. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  any  articles  exported  from  any 
State.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce 
or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

6.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasurj',  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  pub- 
lished from  time  to  time. 

7.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States ;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office, 
or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

SECTION    X. 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  m;xrque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit  bills  of  credit; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  ; 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contracts ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobUitj'. 

2.  No  State  sh:Ul,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws  ;  and  the  net  produce 
of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports, 


\  ^ ^ 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


6oi 


shall  be  for  Ihe  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States  ;  and  all  such 
laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Conyrcss.  No 
State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  ton- 
naj;re,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war.  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE    II. 

SECTION    1. 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years;  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  he  elected  as  follows. 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors  equal  to  the  whole  number  of 
senators  and  representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  tlie 
Congress;  but  no  senator  or  representative,  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an 
elector, 

3.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who 
have  such  a  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose,  by  ballot,  one  of 
them  for  President,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then,  from  the 
five  highest  on  the  list,  the  said  House  shall,  in  like  manner,  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken 
by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from 
two-thirds  of  all  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be 
neccssan,*  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors 
shall  be  the  Vice-President,  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more 
who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them,  by  ballot, 
the  Vice-President. 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States, 

5.  No  person,  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President;  and  the 
Congress  may,  by  law,  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declar- 
ing what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall  net 
accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be 
elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
llie  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected;  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  .iny  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  sh.ill  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation  : — 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States ;  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
preser^x",  protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.'* 


SECTION    II, 

1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-in'chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  St.ates,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States.  He  may 
require  tlie  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of 
their  respective  offices ;  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves 
and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers 
and  consuls,  judges  of  tlie  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of 
the  United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  othenvise  pro- 
vided for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law.  But  the  Congress 
may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they 
think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the 
heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

SECTION    III. 

I.  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such 
measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient.  He  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them; 
and  in  case  of  disagreement  bet^veen  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of 
adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think 
proper.  He  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers. 
He  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed;  and  shall 
commission  all  officers  of  the  United  States. 

SECTION  IV.  • 

1.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  convic- 
tion of  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.    0 

ARTICLE  III 

SECTION     1. 

1.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  m.ay  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  eslabhsh.  The  judges  both  of  the  Supreme 
and  interior  courts  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior;  and 
shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  fi>r  their  sen-ices  a  compensation  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  of  office. 

SECTION    II. 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  m.ide,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authoritv;  to  all 
cases  affecting  amb;issadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls;  to 
all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  to  controversies  between 
two  or  more  States,  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State, 
between  citizens  of  different  States,  between  citizens  of  the  same 
State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  bet^vcen  a 
State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  Slate  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  c:ises  men- 
tioned, the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as 
to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as 
the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be 
by  jury,  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crime 
shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any 
State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  muy 
by  law  have  directed. 


/ 


J^ 


\ 


602 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


SECTION  III. 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
war  against  them  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and 
comfort.  Tso  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testi- 
mony of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  cdnfession  in  open 
court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason  ;  hut  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood, 
or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  lite  of  the  person  attained. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

SECTION    I. 

I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State;  and  the 
Congress  may,  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  tliereof. 

SECTION   II. 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  fiec  from  justice,  and  be  foimd  in  another  State, 
sh.-ill,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction 
of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall  in  consequence  of  any  laws  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor;  but  shall 
be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor 
may  be  due. 

SECTION    III. 

1.  New  States  m.ay  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union; 
but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  other  Stijtc,  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  t\vo  or 
nu>re  States  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legisla- 
tures of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of,  and  make  all  need- 
fut  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property 
belonging  to  the  United  St.ates  ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall 
be  so  construed  :is  to  prejudice  any  claim  of  the  United  States,  or  of 
any  particular  State. 

SECTION  IV. 
I.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a 
republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  inv;lsion ;  and,  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the 
executive  (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domes- 
tic violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 

I.  The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution;  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  Legislature  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  St.ates, 
shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either 
case,  shall  he  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  Consti- 
tution, when  ratified  by  the  Legislature  of  three-fourths  of  the 
several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one 
or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress; 
provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the 
first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  fifth  article;  and 
that  no  St.ate,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suff- 
rage in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  eng.agements  entered  into  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  tlie  United 
States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 


made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land ;  .and  the  judges  in  even,^  State  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrarv  not- 
withstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution ; 
but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States, 

ARTICLE  VII. 

I.  The  ratification  of  the  convention  of  nine  States  shall  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so 
ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  December,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty,  and  of  the 
Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 
In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 
George  Washington, 
President  and  Deputy  from   Virginia. 


AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Congress  shiiU  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  relig-- 
ion,  or  prohibiting-  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom 
of  speech  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  tlic  penplc  peaceably  to 
assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress   of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. 

A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  witli- 
out  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to 
be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  he  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers 
and  effects,  against  imreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated;  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  sup- 
ported by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized, 

ARTICLE  V. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  caiiital  or  otherwise  infa- 
mous erime,  unless  on  a  jiresentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury, 
except  in  c:ises  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia, 
when  in  actual  service  in  time  ot  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any 
person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of 
life  or  limb,  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  a  wit- 
ness against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for 
public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall 
have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law;  and  to  be  informed  of  the 
nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  wit- 
nesses against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining 
witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  (or  his 
defence. 


v^ 


-NJ 


THK    CONSTITUTIOX    OF    THE    UNITED.  STATES. 


603 


/ 


ARTICLE  VII. 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  v.ilue  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  !>e  pruscrveil ;  nnd  no 
fact  tried  l>y  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-exaniinttl  in  any  court  of  the 
United  States,  than  according  to  the  niks  of  the  connnon  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishment  indicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X, 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reser\'ed  to  the  States  respec- 
tively, or  to  the  people. 

AJITICLE  XI. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 

extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity  CQinnienced  or  ])rosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign    State. 

ARTICLE  XII. 

1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vife-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  They  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots,  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President;  and  they  shall  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  :is  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each; 
which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat 
of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  the  certificates,  and  the 
votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number 
of  voles  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person 
have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  num- 
bers, not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President, 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  tlie 
President.  But,  in  clioosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum 
for  this  pur]>ose  sliall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two- 
thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representativt-s  shall  not  choose  a 
President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them, 
before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent shall  be  tlie  A''ice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  major- 
ity, then  from  the  two  highest  ninnbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President.  A  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist 
of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  shall  be  necess:iry  to  a  choice. 

3.  Rut  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United   States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

I  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  ser\'itude,  except  as  a  punishment 


for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicte^l,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdic- 
tion. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  tJiis  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 


All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  St.ates  and  of  the 
State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within 
its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

SECTION   II. 

Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several  States  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons 
in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  exec- 
utive and  judidial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature 
thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any 
way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the 
basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which 
the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of 
male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

SECTION    III. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or  elec- 
tor of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military, 
under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  i>reviously 
taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United 
States,  or  .as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or 
judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof;  but  Congress 
may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

SECTION    IV. 

The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties 
for  scr\-ices  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  ques- 
tioned. But  neither  the  United  States  ni>r  any  State  shall  iussume  or 
pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of 
any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

SECTION    V. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation, 
the  provisions  of  this  article.  , 

ARTICLE  XV. 

SECTION    I. 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  any  State,  on  account  of  race, 
color  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

SECTION   II. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 

legislation. 


/ 


V. 


6o4 


THE    DEPARTMENTS    AT    WASHINGTON. 


THE  DEpAl^TMEplT^  \J  WA^flll^TOW. 


THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT, 


S    PROVIDED    by  the 

Constitution,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States 
performs  its  allotted  work 
through  three  distinct 
channels,  the  Execu- 
tive, the  Legislative  and 
the  Judiciary. 


The  President,  whose  oath  of  office,  duties  and 
powers  are  described  in  the  Constitution,  holds 
office  for  four  years.     He  must  be  thirty-five  years 


fourteen  years, 
.auguration  takes  place  on 
the  fourth  of  March  next 
succeeding  his  election  ;  his 
salary  is  $50,000  a  year, 
payable  monthly,  and  he 
has  the  use  of  the  furniture 
and  the  other  effects  in  the 
"White  House,"  a  Govern- 
ment building  in  Washing- 
ton, where  he  resides.  The 
President's  official  house- 
hold, selected  by  himself, 
consists  of: 

,  SALARY. 

1  secretary,     -    $3,^50 

1  ass't  secretary,  2,250 

2  clerks,  each,      2,000 
I  clerk,       •     •      ijSoo 


THE  CAPITOL 
SALARY.  SALARY. 

1  clerk,       •     •    $1,400  I  usher,      •     -    $1,400 

I  clerk,     •     •         1,200  9  doorkeepers,  e.  1,200 

I  stenographer,    i,Sck)  i  watchman,     -      900 

I  steward,     •        i,Soo  i  fireman,      -     -    S64 

The  patronage  of  the  President  is  enormous  The  appointments  to 
every  branch  of  public  service,  made  by  him,  give  him  a  power  that 
would  be  appalling  but  that  it  is  balanced  by  the  safeguard  of  the 
consent  of  the  Senate. 

The  office  of  President  is  one  which  has  been  called  by  European 
writers  the  highest  to  which  humanity  can  aspire.  The  chief  magis- 
tracy of  the  American  Republic  is  a  prize  for  which  every  eminent 
American  statesman  has  struggled,  and  it  is  singular  in  looking  back 
over  the  history  of  the  country  to  note  how  many  men  peculiarly  fitted 
by  their  great  talents  and  great  prominence  for  the  Presidency 
have  been  beaten  by  unknown  men.  Two  of  the  greatest  Senators  in 
the  history  of  the  Union  were  Daniel  Webster  and  Henry  Clay,  neither 
if  whom  succeeded   in  winning   the   crowning   honor  of   a   political 


career.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  comparatively  unknown 
men  who  have  been  chosen  by  their  parlies  and  elected  by  the  people, 
is  very  large 

The  original  intention  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Republic  is  one  that 
the  politicians  of  the  country  have  departed  from  widely.  The  elect- 
oral system  did  not  contemplate  nominations  and  party  organization  ; 
it  intended  that  the  electors,  men  chosen  by  the  people  of  each  State 
as  safe  men  for  this  important  office,  should  cast  about  for  the  most  fit 
man  in  the  Republic  for  the  honor  of  the  Presidency.  For  this  man 
they  were  to  vote.  But  under  the  manner  in  which  the  system  is 
worked  the  electors  furnish  a  clumsy  method,  often  a  faulty  one,  lor 
expressing  the  direct  popular  will.  No  elector  would  dare  to  use  his 
own  judgment;  he  is  simply  chosen  on  a  pledge  to  vote  for  a  certain 
candidate  chosen  for  him.  In  this  way  the  people  choose  directly  the 
President,  and  yet,   owing  to  the  facr  that  the  electors  are  never  in 

number  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  population,  it  fre 
quently  happens  that,  while 
one  candidate  has  a  majori- 
ty of  the  popular  vote,  the 
other  has  a  majority  of  the 
electors  and  becomes  Presi- 
dent. 

The  Presidential  resi- 
dence at  Washington  is  a 
very  handsome  pile.  It  is 
called  the  White  House 
from  its  color.  It  has  been 
the  centre  of  the  fashion 
and  grace  of  the  republican 
court.  There  are  regular 
reception  days  set,  when 
any  one  who  wishes  may 
call  upon  the  President. 
Upon  private  reception 
days  admittance  is  only  se- 
cured by  card.  Upon  these 
occasions,  the  gay  court  costumes  of  the  foreign  legations,  the  mili- 
tary uniforms  and  the  splendid  dresses  of  the  ladies  form  a  scene  not 
soon  to  be  forgotten. 

The  grounds  about  the  White  House,  taking  in  as  they  do  the 
conservatories  and  nursericsof  the  Agricultural  Department,  are  very 
pretty  and  well  kept.  The  Presidential  residence  is  furnished  by  the 
Government  for  the  President. 

The  City  Covernment  of  Washington. 

When  the  District  of  Columbia  was  cut  off  from  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  and  put  in  possession  of  the  Government,  it  was  decided  that 
the  whole  territory  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Union  alone,  so 
that  it  would  be  altogether  independent  of  State  influence.  As  the 
city  of  Washington  grew  up  around  the  Capitol  provision  had  to  be 
made  for  its  municipal  government,  which  was  obliged  t<i  be  peculiar 
under  the  circumstances.  The  President  appoints  tbree  Commission- 
ers of  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  whose  hands  lie  all  of  the  functions 
usually  performed  by  mavors  and  boards  of  aldermen.  The  residents 
of  Washington  have  no  votes  as  there  are  no  elections.  All  of  the  city 
officers  are  appointed,  and  the  whole  machinery  of  local  government 
IS  directly  in  the  hands  of  the  President  and  Congress. 


AT   WASHINGTON. 


^ 


\ 


DEPARTMENT    OF    STATE. 


605 


ii^^m. 


/$^^L: 


DEPARTMENT    OK    STATE. 


w^^^^'^i^r 


:r^^=3:(3>' 


V 


'inc  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  this  Department  are  pre- 
scribed by  law  and  relate  chiefly  to  correspondence 
with  public  Ministers  or  Consuls  from  the  United 
States,  to  negotiations  with  public  Ministers  of  for- 
'*     V  '^     cign    States    and    to    memorials  or   other    applica- 
i  "       tions   from   foreigners.      Through   his  hands  all   the 
elMs      business    of    the    Government    with    other    Powers 
passes.    Any  bill  passed  by  Congress  and  signed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, or   that  becomes  a  law  in  any  other  lawful  manner,  is 
received  by  the  Secretary  and  made  public  by  him. 

It  is  his  duty  to  report  annually  to  Congress  all  the  in- 
formation that  should  naturally  ronie  through  his  office. 
Any  new  amend- 
ment to  the  Con- 
stitution,  any 
act  of  Congress 
that  becomes  a 
law,  any  foreign 
treaty,  postal  con- 
vention or  Con- 
gressional joint 
resolution  is  sent 
to  the  Public 
Pri  n  ter  by  the 
Secretary  of  State 
for  legal  publica- 
tion; he  must  also 
publish  in  some 
newspaper  the 
commercial  in- 
formation he  may 
deem  of  public 
importance.  Pass- 
ports when  ren- 
dered are  free   of 

charge.    Copies  of  records  in  this  Department  when  applied  for 
are  furnished  by  the  Clerk  at  a  cost  to  applicant  often  cents  for 
every  hundred  words. 
The  salaries  paid  in  the  Department  of  State  are : 

Secretary,      -        -        $8,000 

3  ass't  secretaries,  each     3,500 
I  chief  clerk,  -  2,500 

I  translator,        -        -      2,100 

4  chiefs  of  Bureaus,  each  2,100 

I I  clerks,  each   -        -      1,800 

I  assistant  engineer,        -        $1,000 

With  watchmen,  firemen,  laborers,  etc,  the  total  amount  is 
about  $100,000  a  year. 

The  Examiner  of  Claims,  an  officer  appointed  by  the  Attor- 
ney-General, has  charge  of  the  legal  busmess  of  the  Department 
of  State.  There  are  a  number  of  Bureaus  in  the  Department, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Consular.  Quite  a  number 
of  interpreters  arc  continually  needed  in  the  offices. 


The  Diplomatic  Service. 


IJIil'AHTMtNTS    OF    STATF, 


4  clerks,  each 
2  clerks,  e.ach    - 

10  clerks,  each 
2  clerks,  each    - 

10  clerks,  each 

$1,600 

-      1,400 

1,200 

1,000 

900 

I  engineer. 

-      1,200 

The  dinlnmntic  scr\'icc  of  the  United  States,  all  of  which  is  in 
charjje  of^tlic  Stcretary  of  State,  consists  of  Envoys  Extraordinary 
and  Ministers  I'lcnipotcntiarv,  Ministers  Kcsident,  Charges  d*Af- 
faires,  CQnsuls-Gener;iI,  Consuls  an&  Commercial  Agents. 

The  hi^hi^st  class  of  Rlinisters  arc  those  sunt  to  France,  Germany, 
Great  Britain  and  Russia;  Ihey  are  paid  $17,500  per  year.  The  sec- 
ond chiss  ($(2,oooayear)  arc  sent  to  Austria,  Hungan,-,  Brazil,  China, 
Italy,  Japan,  Mexico  and  Spain,    The  third  chiss  ($10,000  a  year) 

fo  to  Chili,  Peru  and  the  Central  Amercain  States.  Ministers  Kesi- 
cnt  receive  $7,500  (with  the  exception  of  the  one  in  Bolivia,  $5,000, 
and  the  one  in  Liberia,  $4,000),  and  arc  in  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Belgium,  Colombia,  Hawaian  I.sland*;,  Hayti,  the  Netherlands, 
Sweden  and  Norwav.  Turkey  and  Venezuela.  Charges  d' Affaires 
have  J;.^^^  n  venr.  ana  are  in  Denmark,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  Uru- 
t!u;i\  :um1  r    i"  ,  Tliiru    arc  live  Consvils-Gcneral  in  British  do- 

minions, at  Cal- 
cutta, Melbourne, 
London,  H  alif  ax 
and  Montreal;  two 
in  Germany,  at 
Berlin  and  Frank- 
fort; two  in  Tur- 
key, at  Cairo  and 
Const  antinople; 
and  one  each  in 
Paris,  Vienna, 
Kome,  St.  Peters- 
burg, Bucharest, 
i'angkok,  Shang- 
hai, K  an  agaw  a, 
Havana  and  Mex- 
ico. Their  salaries 
range  froni$j,oooto 
ff.txo.  There  arc 
tlu-  iiillowing  ranks 
of  consulates.  Five 
at  $6,000  a  year; 
two  at  $5,000;  one 
at  $4,500;  six  at 
$4,000;  eight  at$3.- 
^00;  twenty-one  at 
^5,000;  sixteen  at 
$.',500;  thirty-seven 
at  $j,ooo;  forty- 
seven  at  $1,500;  and 
twenty  at  $1,000. 
All  Consuls  receiv- 
ing a  fixed  salary 
pay  into  the  Treas- 
ury all  fees  received 
by  virtue  of  their 
office.  But  there  are  many  Consuls  and  Agents  whnsc  only  com- 
pens.ition  comes  from  fees.  Such  officers  are  usually  allowed  to 
go  into  business. 


Secretaries  of  State. 


Thomas  Jefferson,  Va. 
Edmond  Randolph,  Va. 
Timothy  Pickering,  Pcnn. 
John  Marshall,  Va. 
James  Madison,  Va. 
Kohcrt  Smith.  Md. 
James  Monroe,  Va. 
John  Q.  Adams,  Mass. 
Henry  Clay,  Ky. 
Martin  Van  Buren,  N.  Y. 
Edward  Livingston,  La. 
Louis  McLanc,  Del. 
John  Korsyth,  Ga. 
Daniel  Webster,  M.ass. 
Hugh  S.  Legair,  S.  C. 

Thomas 


17S9 
>7M 
>79S 
1800 
iSoi 
1S09 
iSii 
1S17 

.S2S 

1S29 
IS3I 
IS33 

>SJ4 

IS4I 

■S43 


F.  Bayard,  Del., 


Abel  P.  Upshur,  Va. 
John  C.  Calhoun.  S.  C. 
James  lliichanan,  Penn. 
John  M.  Clayton,  Del. 
Daniel  Webster.  Mass. 
Edward  Everett,  Mass. 
William  L.  Marcy,  N.  Y. 
Lewis  C:lss,  Mich. 
Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Penn. 
William  H.  Seward,  N.  Y. 
Klihu  B.  Washburn, 
ILamilton  Fish, 
William  M.  Evarts 
James  G.  Blaine 
F.  T.  l-relinghuyseo 


1S43 
.844 
'S4S 
1S49 
1S50 
1S53 
1S54 
ISS7 
1S60 
1S61 
1S69 
1S69 
1S77 
iSSi 
iSSi 


1885 


\ 


606 


THE    TREASURY    DEPARTMENT. 


J-  . 


A 


LL  of  the  moneys  of  the  United  States,  all  matters 
•  relating  to  the  collection   and  payment   of  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Government,  and,  in  a  word,  all  of  the 
duties  appertaining  to   the   finances  of  the  nation, 

e^»p^=  fall  naturally  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  lie 
is  assisted  by  a  numerous  corps,  the  Treasury  Department 
requiring  naturally  more  clerical  detail  than  any  other  in  the 
Government.  There  are  two  Assistant  Secretaries,  one  having 
charge  of  appoint- 
ments,  public 
money,  revenue 
marine,  loans  and 
currency,  engrav- 
ing and  printing, 
the  mints,  and  the 
signature  of  doc- 
uments ;  the  other 
attends  to  cus- 
toms, special 
agents,  internal 
revenue  and  navi- 
gation, and  thf 
general  supervis- 
ion   of  accounts. 

There  are  two 
Comptrollers. 
The  first  counter- 
signs warrants, 
attends  to  the  pay 
of  the  diplomatic 
service,  and  exam- 
ines  requisitions 
and  claims.  The  second  has  charge  of  the  accounts  of  the  Army, 
Soldiers'  Homes,  Pensions,  Marine  Corps  and  Navy  Yards, 
Disbursing  Agents,  and  of  the  Financial  Agency  of  the  Govern- 
ment at  London. 

The  Commissioner  of  Customs  examines,  revises  and  passes 
all  accounts  concerning  duties,  tonnage,  marine  hospitals,  fines, 
penalties  and  forfeitures  under  the  navigation  laws,  and  approves 
bonds  of  customs  officers. 


The  Six  Auditors. 


There  are  six  Auditors  in  the  Tre:isur>'  Department,  among  whom 
the  work  is  divided  as  follows: 

First  Auditor;,  Customs,  Judiciarj',    Public  Debt,  Warehouse  and 
Bonded  Goods,  Miscellaneous  Accounts. 

Second  Auditor:     Army  Paymaster,  Miscellaneous  Claims,  Indian 
Affairs,  Bounties,  Frauds,  Book-keeping. 

Third  Auditor:      Book-keeper,   Quartermasters,    Subsistence    and 

Engineering,  State 
War  Claims,  Mis- 
cellaneous Collec- 
tions. 

Fourth  Auditor: 
Prize  Mdney,  Xavy 
Agents,  Paymas- 
ters. 

Fifth  Auditor: 
Diplomatic  and 
Consular  division. 
Internal  Revenue. 
Sixth  Auditor: 
Post-of  f  i  ce  ac- 
counts. 


UNITED    STATES    TREASURY    BUILDING, 


Other  Treasury 
Officers. 

The  Treasurer  of 
the  United  States 
has  custody  of  all 
the  public  monev; 
he  pays  warrants, 
issues  and  redeems 
Treasury  Notes,  re- 
deems National  bank  notes,  pays  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  and 
IS  custodian  of  the  Indian  trust  funds. 

The  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  supervises  and  controls  theNational 
banks  throughout  the  countn,',  under  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
The  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury  examines  all  revenue  frauds  and  over- 
sees the  legal  measures  for  their  prevention  and  punishment.  I\X\  of 
the  legal  business  of  the  department  goes  through  his  hands,  and  the 
secret  ser\-ice  operations  are  directed  by  him.  "When  required  he  must 
give  his  opinion  on  any  legal  question.     The  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury 


/ 


THE    TREASURY    DEPARTMENT. 


607 


is  really  an  officer  of  the  Department  of  Justice,  as  will  be  seen  on 
another  page. 

The  Comnussioner  of  Internal  Revenue  makes  assessments  and 
apportions  taxes.  The  bureau  is  divided  into  seven  departments: 
I.  Appointments.  2.  Laws.  3.  Accounts.  4.  Tobacco.  5.  Distilled 
Spirits.  6.  Stamps.  7.  Assessments.  Special  agents  arc  appointed  by 
the  Commissioner  to  watch  the  manufacture  and  h:indlingof   whisky. 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey  has  charjife  of  all  the  sur- 
veys of  the  ocean  and  coast  and  the  making^  of  maps,  charts,  etc. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  collects  and  publishes  information  in  regard 
to  trade  and  commerce,  shipping,  imports  and  exports,  emigration,  etc. 
Its  reports  are  published  quarterly  and  distributed  gratuitously. 

The  Mint  in  Philadelphia  is  the  one  to  which  the  Mints  at  New 
Orleans,  Carson  and  Denver  must  send  their  reports.  Kach  Mint  has 
a  superintendent,  assayer,  teller,  refiner,  coiner  and  assistants,  and  the 
one  at  Philadelphia  has  also  an  engraver.  The  Director  of  the  Phila- 
delphLi  Mint  makes  an  annual  report  of  the  mmting  done  in  the 
country. 


Quarantine. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  executes  the  laws  which  restrain,  stop 
and  govern  vessels  arriving  at  United  States  ports  from  pLaces  afflicted 
with  infectious  discises.  The  officers  of  the  customs  revenue  arc  re- 
quired to  see  to  the  execution  of  the  public  liealth  laws  of  the  General 
Government  and  of  the  several  .States  in  this  regard. 


The  Light-House  Board. 

The  Light-House  Board,  which  is  appointed  by  the  President,  is 
attached  to  the  Trcasiirj'  Department.  It  consists  of  two  ofiicers  of 
the  Navy  of  high  rank,  two  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  and  two 
citizens  of  high  scientific  attainments.  This  Board  h:is  general  charge 
of  the  light-house  service  of  the  United  States. 


CASH-KOOM    IN    THE    TK&ASUKY    BUILDING. 


S 


The  Life-Saving  Service. 

rh«  life-saving  service  is  divided  into  seven  ocean  districts  and 
three  lake  districts.  The  various  stations  are  supplied  with  such 
apparatus  as  may,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasurj', 
be  best  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  e.ach  station,  such  as  lifeboats, 
ropes,  mortars  for  sending  ropes  onboard  wrecked  vessels,  contriv- 
inccs  for  getting  passengers  safely  on  shore,  etc.  Each  district  is  in 
charge  of  a  superintendent,  who  possesses  the  powers  and  performs 
the  duties  of  an  inspector  of  the  customs  for  each  of  the  co:ists  on 
which  stations  are  established.  These  districts  number  seven  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  three  on  the  great  lakes,  and  each  superintendent 
receives  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  the  proper  instnictions 
relative  to  the  duties  required  of  him. 

Each  station  is  in  charge  of  a  keeper,  who  is  instructed  in  his  duties 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Tre.asurj-.  At  some  stations  experienced  surf  • 
men  are  engaged  to  assist  in  aiding  wrecked  vessels. 


Secretaries  of  the  Treasury. 


/• 


Alexander  Ilaiiiilton.  N.  ^'.  17^) 
Oliver  Wolcott,  Conn.  1795 

Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.  iSoo 

Albert  Gallatin,  Penn.  lSa2 

George  W.  Campbell,  Tenn,  1S14 
Alexander  J.  U.-Ulas,  Penn.  1S14 
William  II.  Crawford,  Ga.  1817 
Kichard  Rush,  Penn.  1825 

Samuel  D.  Ingham,  Penn.  1S29 
L<uiis  MeLane,  Del.  iS.^i 

William  J.  Duane,  Penn.  1S33 
Koger  B.  Taney,  Md.  1 

Appointed  during  recess  ;  >  1833 
not  contirmed  by  Senate.   J 
I. evi  Woodbury,  N.  II.  18.^ 

Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio.  1841 

Walter  I'■or^vard,  Penn.  1S41 

John  C.  Spencer,  N.  Y.  1S43 

Geo.  M.  Uible,  Ky.  1S44 

Hugh  McCulloch,  Ind.      1S84 


KolurtJ.  Walker.  .Miss. 
William  .M.  Meredith,  Penn. 
Thomas  Cor^vin,  Ohio. 
James  Guthrie,  Ky. 
Howell  Cobb,  Ga. 
Philip  F.  Thomas,  Md. 
John  A.  Dix,  X.  Y. 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio. 
William  Pitt Fessenden.Me. 
Hugh  McCulloch,  Ind. 
George  S.  Boutwell. 
William  A.  Richardson. 
Benjamin  II.  Brislow. 
Lot  M.  .Morrill. 
John  Sherman. 
William  Windom. 
Charles  J .  Folgcr. 
Daniel  Manning,  N.  Y.     1885 


I&4S 
1849 
■  S50 
"853 
■S57 
iS6o 
1S61 
1S61 
1864 
1865 
1870 
■873 
1S74 
1876 
1S77 
iSSi 

1S8I 


\ 


y 


608 


THE   WAR    DEPARTMENT. 


r~ 


THE  WAR 


k^-^ 


^ 


DEPARTMENTS 


jF  ALL  matters  relating  to  military  affairs  the  Secretary 
ofWar  has  entire  charge.  He  must  communicate  to 
J  Congress  estimates  of  the  appropriations  needed  for 
his  Department,  not  only  for  its  internal  working,  but 
for  the  construction  of  public  works  and  other  public 
ser\ice  performed  under  his  direction.  He  must  report 
annually  a  statement  of  the  appropriations  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  (always  counting  from  the  1st  of  July),  showing  how 
much  was  appropriated  for  each  Bureau  of  the  Department,  and 
the  balance  on  hand,  together  with  estimates  of  the  amounts 
necessarj-  for  the  ensuing  year.  He  will  submit  to  Congress 
reports  of  surveys  of  rivers  and  harbors  ordered  by  Congress. 

He  furnishes  an  abstract  of  the  returns  of  the  Adjutants-Gen- 
eral of  the  militia  of  the  States. 

These  annual  reports  are  made  at  the  beginning  of  each  regu- 
lar session  and  cover  all  the  transactions  of  the  Department  dur- 
ing the  year.  Tlie  Department  is  divided  into  ten  branches, 
governed  by  the  following  officers :  The  Adjutant-General,  Quar- 
temiaster-CJeneral,  Paymaster-General,  Commissary-General, 
Surgeon-General,  Chief  of  Engineers,  Chief  of  Ordnance,  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  the  Judge  Advocate-General  and  the  Superinten- 
dent of  the  MiHtary  Academy  at  West  Point. 

The  annual  salaries  paid  in  this  Department  are : 
Sccrctan', 
I  chief  clerk, 
I  disbursing  elerk, 
7  Bureau  chiefs,  e.  $2,000 
52  clerks,  each 
52  clerks,  each 
95  clerks,  each 
390  clerks,  each 
191  clerks,  each 
32  clerks,  each 
1  draughtsman, 
1  anatomist, 
S  printers, 


- 

$S,ooo 

• 

2.75° 

- 

2,000 

2,000 

14,000 

i.Soo 

93,000 

1,600 

83,200 

1,400 

133,000 

1,200 

468,000 

1,000 

191,000 

900 

28,800 

• 

i.Soo 

- 

1,600 

• 

S,Soo 

3,Soo 
46,800 
33.000 

1,440 


3  engineers, 

65  messengers,  •   720 

50  laborers,  •        660 

S  char-women  -    iSo 

125  physicians,  •  1,200  150,000 
1S5  hospital  stewards  360  66,600 
50  paymaster's  clerks  1,200  60,000 
90  Nat.  Ccm.  keepers  Soo  72,000 
450  weather  obser\'ers  720  324,000 
1,000  employes  at  ar- 
mories and  other 
business  of  Dep't.,  Soo  Soo,ooo 

?-:.5y3.590 

With  rations,  quarters  and  fuel  in  many  cases,  the  expense  of 
the  Department  borders  on  $3,000,000  annually. 

The  Bureaus  of  the  War  Department. 

The  Adjutant-General's  Office.  From  this  office  are 
issued  all  orders  with  regard  to  the  movements  of  the  army. 
All  records  of  individuals  in  the  army  from  the  privates  to  the 
officer  of  the  highest  rank  may  be  found  in  this  office.  All  com- 
missions, promotions,  charges  and  discharges,  come  through  this 
Bureau.  In  one  word,  the  Adjutant-General  is  the  instrument 
by  which  the  Executive  communicates  with  the  army. 

The  Quartermaster-General's  Office.  This  Bureau  has 
charge  of  the  purchasing  and  distributing  of  all  supplies  (except 
subsistence)  needed  by  the  army,  to  furnish  transportation  for 


soldiers,  military  stores  and  supplies,  and  to  pay  all  expenses  of 
the  military  service  not  provided  for  in  other  Bureaus. 

The  Commissary-General's  Office.  The  business  of  this 
office  consists  in  the  purchase  and  distribution  of  subsistence 
and  supplies  for  the  army. 

The  Paymaster-General's  Office.  Payments  to  the  army 
are  made  through  this  office.  Arrears  of  pay  shall  never  exceed 
two  months. 

The  Surgeon-General's  Office.  This  Bureau  has  charge 
of  the  surgical  and  medical  department  of  the  army,  the  pur- 
chase and  distribution  of  hospital  and  medical  supplies.  It  has 
authority  in  sanitary  matters,  such  as  supervising  the  cooking 
done  in  the  army,  and  the  preparation  of  rations  for  the  enlisted 
men. 

The  Office  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers.  This  Bureau  has 
charge  of  the  various  fortifications,  and  provides  for  the  surveys 
of  rivers  and  harbors.  All  matters  connected  with  skilled  labor, 
such  as  building,  bridging,  excavation,  mining,  etc.,  in  the  mili- 
tary service,  belong  to  this  Bureau. 

Office  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance.  This  office  has  charge 
of  all  skilled  labor  necessary  in  the  preparation  and  care  of  the 
ordnance  and  ordnance  supplies.  It  purchases,  inspects  and 
controls  the  construction,  movement  and  storing  of  all  the  heavy 
armament  in  the  service. 

The  Office  of  Military  Justice.  This  office  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  Judge  Advocate-General.  The  proceedings  of  all 
Courts-Martial,  Courts  of  Inquiry  and  Military  Commissions  are 
received,  revised  and  recorded  in  this  office.  All  matters  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  justice  in  the  army  are  the 
peculiar  province  of  this  Bureau. 

The  Signal  Office.  The  Signal  Service,  which  has  proved 
itself  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  country,  is  an  adjunct  of  the 
War  Department  and  is  managed  by  the  officers  of  the  Army 
detailed  by  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  Military  Academy.  The  military  school  at  West  Point 
is  the  last  of  the  Bureaus  of  the  War  Department.  It  is  a  school 
for  the  training  of  the  officers  of  the  army,  and  ranks  on  its 
own  merits  as  one  of  the  best  colleges  in  tlie  country. 

The  Cadet  Corps. 

The  corps  of  cadets  consist  of  one  from  each  Congressional 
District  of  the  United  States,  one  from  each  State,  one  from  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  ten  from  the  United  St.ites  at  large, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  President.  The  cadets  must  be 
between  seventeen  and  twenty-two  years  old  w'hen  admitted ; 
they  must  be  well  versed  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, geography  and  historj',  particularly  of  the  United  States. 
The  course  at  the  Academy  lasts  four  years,  and  on  graduation 
the  cadets  are  commissioned  as  second  lieutenants  in  tlie  army. 


THE    AMERICAN    ARMY. 


609 


faEfjaEiiaisiraisnaiEiiaisnaisiiii 


R][5Hiii5TR]5iR][5pi5ifa[5iTa[5na[5ir^ 


rVERY  citizen  of  this  Republic  may  well  be  proud  of 
the  history  of  the  American  Army.  Organized  by 
George  Washington  and  commanded  ever  since  by 
-£,-y^  '  -  eminent  chieftains,  it  has  carried  the  Star-spangled 
't  ■  Banner  over  hundreds  of  stricken  fields  of  battle,  and 
never  without  honor.  It  has  fought  through  four  great 
V  wars  and  innumerable  Indian  revolts.  Again  and 
again  has  its  valor  been  proved,  until  to-day,  one  of  the  smallest, 
the  American  Army  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective 
in  the  world.  In  time  of  peace  its  work  does  not  cease.  All 
along  the  Western  frontier  the  scattered  forces  have  all  that 
they  can  do  holding  the  savage  Indian  tribes  to  good  behavior. 
Always  fighting  at  tremendous  odds,  the  service  performed  by 
the  soldiers  in  the  far  West  can  only  be  described  by  the  word 
"remarkable."  The  regular  army  is  the  skeleton  upon  which  in 
time  of  war  the  forces  of  the  Republic  form.  It  consists  of  about 
25,000.  On  a  war  footing  our  aiTny  could  now,  1883,  be  pushed 
up  to  over  three  millions  of  men  under  arms.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  civil  war  the  total  of  the  Federal  and  Confederate  service 
was  much  larger  than  that  figure.  On  the  resignation  of  Gen- 
eral U.  S.  Grant,  who  became  President  in  1868,  General  Wil- 
liam Tecumseh  Sherman,  a  soldier  who  fought  his  way  to  the 
front  in  the  time  that  tried  men's  soulr.,  was  assigned  to  the 
highest  rank.  General  .Sherman  retired  from  relive  service, 
however,  in,  1883,  and  General  Phil.  .Sheridan  is  now  at  the 
head  of  the  troops.  The  various  ranks  in  the  army,  with  ihcir 
pay,  will  be  found  In  the  table',  followin};: 

Pay-Roll  of  the  United  States  Army. 


I  general, 

I  lieutenant-general, 

3  major-generals,  each 


$13,500 — 6  aides  dc  camp,  each  •         $3,500 

11,000 — 2  aide;i-de-cainp,  each  •          3,000 

7,500 — S  aides-de-camp,  $200  addition  to 
line  pay. 

6  brigadier-generals,  each     5,500 — 13  aides-de-cainp,  $150  addition  to 

line  pay. 

CAVALUY. 


10  colonels,  each  -  $3,Soo 

10  lieiitcnanl-colonels,  each  3,000 
30  majors,  each  •  -,500 

120  captains,  each  2,000 

10  adjutants,  each        •  t  ,Soo 


10  rcg't  quartermasters,  ea.  $i,Soo 
120  1st  lieutenants,  each  1,600 

120  id  lieutenants,  each  1,500 

2  chaplains,  each  .  1,500 


5  colonels,  each  •  $3,500 

5  lieutenant-colonels,  each    3,000 
15  majors,  each  •  2,500 

2,000 


60  captains,  each 


ARTILLERY. 

5  adjutants,  each  -  ?r,Soo 

S  rcg't  quarter-masters,  ea.     1  ,Soo 
120  ist  lieutenants,  each  i.fioo 

65  2d  lieutenants,  each,  1,500 


/ 


INFANTRY. 


25  colonels,  each  •  $3,500 

25  lieutenant-colonels,  each  3,000 
25  majors,  each  -  2,500 

250  captains,  each     •         -       i.Soo 
25  adjutants,  each        ■  i,Soo 


25  '■fg't  quartermasters,  e.  $i,Soo 

250  ist  lieutenants,  each  1,500 

250  2d  lieutenants,  each  MOO 

2  chaplains,           •           .  1,500 


DEPARTMENTAL  SERVICE. 


S  brigadier-generals,  each   $5,500 
12  colonels,  each  -  3.300 

S3  lieutenant-colonels,  each  3,000 


150  majors,  each  -  * 

127  captains,  each 

76  1st  lieutenants,  each 


ENGINEER  CORPS. 

1  brigadier-general,       -       $5,500    |    24  majors,  each 

6  colonels,  each  -         -     3,500        30  captains,  each     - 

12  lieutenant-colonels,  each  3,000    | 

SIGNAL  OFFICE. 
I  colonel,  -  .  $3,500    I    32  lieutenants,  each 

RETIRED  LIST. 

131  captains. 


$2 


500 
,000 

,600 


,500 
,Soo 


$1,500 


5  major-generals, 
iS  brigadier-generals 
59  colonels,     - 
34  lieutenant-colonels 
50  majors. 


72  ist  lieutenants, 
15  id  lieutenants, 
S  chaplains. 


Enlisted  Men. 


NON-COMMISSIO.\ED   OFFICERS. 

The  following  enlisted  men  are  paid  these  sums  monthly  dur- 
ing their  first  terms  of  enlistment,  with  some  modifications  pre- 
scribed by  law:  Sergeant-majors  of  cavaliy,  artillery  and  infan- 
try, $23  each;  quartermaster-sergeants  of  cavalry,  artillery  and 
infantry,  $23  each  ;  chief  trumpeters  of  cavalry,  $22  ;  principal 
musicians  of  artillery  and  infantry,  $22;  chief  musicians  of  regi- 
ments, $60,  and  the  allowances  of  a  quartermaster-sergeant; 
saddler  sergeants  of  cavalry,  $22 ;  lirst  sergeants  of  cavalry, 
artillery  and  infantry,  $22 ;  sergeants  of  cavalry,  artillery  and 
infantr)',  $17;  corporals  of  cavalry  and  light  artillery,  $15; 
corporals  of  artillery  and  infantry,  $15;  saddlers  of  cavalry, 
$15;  blacksmiths  and  farriers  of  cavalry,  $15;  trumpeters  of 
cavair)-,  $13;  musicians  of  artillery  and  infantry,  $13;  privates 
of  cavalry,  artillery  and  infantry,  $13;  sergeant-majors  of  engi- 
neers, $36;  quartermaster-sergeants  of  engineers,  $36;  ser- 
geants of  engineers  and  ordnance,  $34;  corporals  of  engineers 
and  ordnance,  $20;  musicians  of  engineers.  $13;  privates  (first 
class)  of  engineers  and  ordnance,  $17;  privates  (second  class) 
of  engineers  and  ordnance,  $13.  To  these  rates  of  pay$i  a 
month  is  added  for  the  third  year  of  enlistment.  $1  for  the  fourth 
year,  and  one  more  for  the  fifth  year,  making  $3  a  month 
increase  for  the  last  year  of  enlistment;  but  this  increase  is  "re- 
tained pay,"  and  is  not  given  to  the  soldier  until  his  term  is 
ended,  and  it  is  forfeited  if  he  misbehaves  himself  before  he 
receives  his  discharge.  Occasional  extra  services  by  soldiers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  also  entitle  them  to  additional  pay. 


-M 


'\ 


6io 


THE   WAR    DEPARTMENT. 


The  Army  During  the  Civil  War. 

The  following  table  shows  the  dates  of  the  President's  proc- 
lamations for  men,  the  number  of  men  called  for  and  the  num- 
ber secured. 


DATE    OF    president's    PROCLAMA- 
TION. 


April  15,  1S61 

May  3,  1861 

July  £2.  and  25,  1861  . 
May  and  June,  1S62. 

July  2,  iS62 

Au^st  4,  1S62 

June  It;,  1S63 

October  17,  1S63 

February  1,  1S64 

March  14,  1S64 

April  23,  1S64 

July  iS,  1S64 

December  19,  1864... 


Total . 


NO. 

CALLED 

FOR. 


PERIOD  OF 
SERVICE. 


75,000 
82,748  ) 
500,000  i 

300,000 
300,000 
100,000 
300,000  I 
200,000  i 
200,000 
85,000 
500.000 
300,000 


3  months. 

3  years. 

3  months. 
3  years. 
9  months. 
6  months. 

2  years. 

3  years. 
100  days. 

I,  2,  3  years 
I,  2,  3  years 


2,94-'.74S 


NUMBER 

obtain'd 


93.3^6 

7'4.23» 
15.007 

431.95S 
S7,5S8 
16,361 

374.S07 
284,021 
83,652 
384,882 
204,568 


2 ,6«;)0,40i 


The  Strength  of  the  Federal  Army. 


January  ist,  iS6i 

July  ist,  1S61 

January  ist,  1S62 

January  1st,  iS<>3 

January  1st,  1S64 

January  1st,  1S65 

May  1st,  186s 


ON   DUTY. 


14.663 
iS.i.'iSS 

69S,Soa 
61 1 ,250 
620,024 
797  .»07 


1.704 
3. '63 
4S.7'4 
219,389 
249,487 
338,536 
202,709 


16,367 
1S6751 

575,917 
9lS,.8l 
860,737 
959,460 
1,000,516 


Volunteers  in  the  War. 


The  following 
the  Federal  army 
New  York, 
Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, 
Illinois, 
Indiana, 
Massachusetts, 
Missouri, 
Wisconsin, 
Alichigan, 
Iowa, 

New  Jersey, 
Kentucky, 
Maine, 

Connecticut,    " 
Maryland, 
New  Hampshire, 
Vermont, 
West  Virginia 
Tennessee, 
Alinncsota, 


table  shows  the  number  of  men  furnished  to 
by  each  State  in  the  Union. 
445,959        Rhode  Island 


338,155 
310,654 
258,162 

194-363 
146,467 
108,162 
91,021 
88, III 
75.793 
7S.3'5 
75.275 
69.73^ 
55,755 
46,053 
33,9 '3 
33,272 

3 '.092 
24,002 


Kansas, 

District  of  Columbia, 

California, 

Delaware, 

Arkansas, 

New  Mexico 

Louisiana, 

Colorado, 

Indian  Nation, 

Nebraska, 

North  Carolina, 

Alabama, 

Texas,         • 

Oregon, 

Nevada, 

Washington  Territory, 

Mississippi, 

Dakota  Territory, 


23,248 

20,095 

16,534 

<  5.725 

12,265 

8,289 

6,561 

5.224 

4,903 

3.530 

3.157 

3.'5o 

2.576 

1.965 

1,810 

i,oSo 

964 

545 

206 


The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead. 

There  were   killed   in    action,  or  died  of  wounds  in  the  Civil  war, 
commissioned  ofiicers,  5,221 ;  enlisted  men,  90,868.    Died  from  disease 


or  accident,  commissioned  officers,  2,321 ;  enlisted  men,  182,329;  mak- 
ing a  total  loss  of  289,739.  Deaths  which  occurred  after  the  men  left 
the  army  are  not  included  in  these  figures. 

The  Strength  of  the  World's  Armies. 


COUNTRIES. 


Argentine  Republic 
Austria-Hungary. . 

Belgium 

Bolivia    

Brazil 

Canada  

Chili 

China 

Colombia 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Prance 

Germany 

Great  Britain 

Greece 

India,  British 

Italy   

Japan 

Luxemburg 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Persia 

Peru 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

United  States 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


2,400,000 

37.739^*07 

5,476,('rf>S 

.  2 ,0^0,000 

11,108,29! 

4,3c;2,oSo 

2400,3./' 

434,620,00-. 

2,774,000 

1 ,969454 

17419,9^0 

36,905,788 

45.194.172 

35.346,562 

1.679,775 

252,541,210 

28,209,620 

34,33^404 

209,673 

9,389461 

3,981  ,iS7 

I  ,So6,i)O0 

7,000,000 

3,01^0,000 

4.34^,551 

5,376,000 

72,520,000 

1,589,650 

16,333,293 

4.53'. ^'3 

2,831,787 

8,86f'>,;32 

50,155.7^3 

447,000 

',7M.'97 


1^ 


S,227 
289,100 

4fi.3S3 
3,021 

15,304 
2,000 

3.573 

300,000 

3,000 

35,7.^7 

15,000 
502,7^14 
,H5.40- 
131-".!" 

12, uS 
189,597 
214,667 

36,777 

{^^ 
24,830 

65.113 
18,750 
57,600 
4,670 

34,874 
19,812 

974.771 

50,000 

90,000 

41,280 

] 17,500 

350,600 

25,745 

2,357 

2,240 


304,000 

1,125,833 
165,877 


32,000 

700,152 

50,000 

I  ,coo,ooo 

30,740 
49,054 
43,000 
1.753,164 
1,4.^,104 
577,906 

35,000 
380,000 
736,502 

51.721 


I  3,374,51s 
53,386,915 
s.776.429 

1,126,916 
8,690,000 

777.699 


163,198 

241,600 


40,000 

78,024 

300,000 

2,733,305 

265,000 
450,000 
202,783 
210,495 

6jO,20O 

3,165,000 
2^,357 
185,000 


<  ,5 


982,432 

2.539.027 

2,198,216 

11^,279,76 

98,330,429 

74,901,500 

2,264,716 

84,481,195 

42,947,263 

8,151,000 

90,980 

9,786,964 

8,397,000 

1,626,750 

3,392,000 


4.373.833 

5,222,227 

137.812,202 

1 ,765,02 1 

24,802,930 

4.649.940 

2.352,160 

19,642,099 

40,466,460 

1,870,686 


o  a 
f-  o- " 


11.46 
I. 41 
1.60 


•35 
1.19 
.12 

3-«< 
2.1 
2.12 
1-34 
•33 

1-52 

•23 

•43 

1.04 

2.10 

.90 

.48 


1. 00 

•97 
1.90 
I. II 

■•5 
1.02 

•83 
2.21 

.80 
4.1S 


19-53 
87.3S 
15-73 
25.01 
14-54 
3.11 


20.96 

20.88 
^S.31 
66-57 
18.02 
12.06 
26.74 
15-15 
13-76 
5-64 
42-31 
16.86 
13.62 
41-71 


12.68 
21.61 
29-37 
34 -t2 
15.S2 

23-13 
29.32 

34.19 

15.52 
40.53 


Secretaries  of  War. 


Henry  Knox,  Mass.  17S9 

Timothy  Pickering,  Penn.  1795 

James  McHenry,  Md.  1796 

Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.  1800 

Roger  Griswold,  Conn.  iSoi 

Henry  Dearborn,  Mass,  iSoi 

William  Eustis,  Mass.  1809 

John  Armstrong,  N.  Y.  1813 

James  Monroe,  Va.  1S14 

William  H.  Crawford,  Ga.  1S15 

John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C.  1817 

James  Barbour,  Va.  1S25 

Peter  B.  Porter,  N.  Y.  182S 

John  H.  Eaton,  Tenn.  1829 

Lewis  Cass,  Oliio.  1831 

Joel  R.  Poinsett,  S.  C.  1837 

John  Bell,  Tenn.  1S41 

John  C.  Spencer,  N.  Y.  1S41 

James  M.  Porter,  Penn.  \    q 
Negatived  by  Senate,  j  '**3 


William  Wilkins,  Penn. 
William  L.  Marcy,  N.  Y. 
George  W.  Crawfod,  Ga. 
Charles  L.  Conrad,  La. 
Jefferson  Davis,  Miss. 
John  B.  Floyd,  Va. 
Joseph  Holt,  Ky. 
Simon  Cameron,  Penn. 
Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Penn. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant. 
Lorenzo  Thomas. 
John  ^^.  Schofield. 
John  A.  Rawlins. 
William  W.  Belknap, 
Alphonso  Taft. 
James  D.  Cameron. 
George  W.  McCrary. 
Alex.ander  Ramsey, 
Robert  T.  Lincoln. 
William  C.  Endicott,  Mass. 


1S44 

1S45 
1849 
1S50 
1853 
1S57 
1S61 
1861 
1S61 
1867 
1S6S 
1S6S 
1S69 
1S69 
1S76 
1S76 
1S77 
1S79 
iSSi 
1885 


Vl 


ok ' 


4. 


THE   MILITIA. 


6ll 


f     -,♦/,►    ^►^♦     %"*,^     ^'%*    .N'". '%*%*', ^*t*:  .  ::!»*jE2-.__^^>.%*     '.*"'^^    <?V 


ff-tL^  o  A 


THE 


Militia.^.. 


-g — ^ — t^ 


?t^ 


HE  main  strength  of  the  American  army  comes  from 
the  volunteer  spirit  that  has  ever  animated  the  peo- 
ple. The  moment  an  appeal  is  made  to  them,  and 
»^-^  even  before,  when  there  is  an  appearance  of  neces- 
'"tfj"'  sity,  the  mditia  are  on  the  alert.  The  organization  of 
this  immense  and  powerfid  auxiliary  to  the  regular 
army  is  so  well  systematized  throughout  the  States  that 
the  expense  of  a  large  standing  army  is  saved.  Con- 
gress has  provided  by  law  how  the  militia  shall  be 
disciplined  and  organized,  the  purpose  being  to  have  the  whole 
body  act  as  a  national  army,  trained  in  one  school,  when  the 
nation  needs  the  service.  This  end  could  not  be  attained  if 
each  State  was  left  to  its  own  devices  in  raising,  organizing  and 
drilling  its  soldiery.  When  called  into  active  service  by  the 
President,  each  regiment  of  infantiy  has  one  colonel,  one  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, one  major,  one  adjutant  (a  lieutenant),  one  quar- 
termaster (a  lieutenant),  one  surgeon,  two  assistant  surgeons, 
one  sergeant-major,  one  regimental  quartermaster-sergeant,  one 
regimental  commissarj'-sergeant,  one  hospital  steward  and 
two  principal  musicians;  the  regiment  composed  of  ten  com- 
panies, each  company  consisting  of  one  captain,  one  first  lieu- 
tenant, one  second  lieutenant,  one  first  sergeant,  one  first  lieu- 
tenant, one  second  lieutenant,  one  first  sergeant,  four  sergeants, 
eight  corporals,  two  musicians,  one  wagoner,  and  from  sixty- 
four  to  eighty-two  privates.  The  militia  is  further  organ- 
ized into  divisions  of  three  or  more  brigades  each,  and  each 
division  has  a  major-general,  three  aids-de-camp,  and  one  as- 
sistant adjutant-general  (with  the  rank  of  major).  Each  brigade 
is  made  up  of  four  or  more  regiments,  and  has  one  brigadier- 
general,  two  aids-de-camp,  one  assistant  adjutant-general  (with 
the  rank  of  captain),  one  surgeon,  one  assistant  quartermaster, 
one  commissary  of  .subsistence,  and  sixteen  musicians  as  a  band. 
When  called  into  active  service  the  President  specifies  the 
time  (not  exceeding  nine  months)  over  which  that  service  shall 
extend.  When  called  out,  the  militia  is  entitled  to  the  same  pay, 
rations,  clothing  and  camp  equipage  as  the  regular  army.  They 
are  also  entitled  to  mileage  from  their  homes  to  the  place  of 
rendezvous,  forage  for  animals,  pay  for  horses  lost  in  service,  etc. 

How  to  Organize  a  Militia  Company. 

Every  town  where  there  are  thirty  or  forty  young  men  of  sol- 
dierly bearing  and  good  address  should  organize  a  militia  com- 
pany. The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  drill  are  immense  in 
themselves.    The  opportunities  for  pleasant  social  intercourse 


are  not  equalled  in  any  other  form  of  organization,  and  beyond 
all  that,  in  a  Republic  such  as  this,  where  a  great  standing  army 
is  repugnant  to  the  spirit  of  our  institutions  and  to  the  interests 
of  the  tax-payers,  every  American  should  feel  himself  in  honor 
bound  to  be  ready  to  go  forward  to  the  front  at  his  countr)''s 
call,  and  to  do  the  State  good  service  in  the  hour  of  need.  By 
looking  back  over  the  Parliamentary  Department  of  this  work, 
thereader'will  observe  a  number  of  forms  of  calls  for  different 
kinds  of  public  meetings.  The  call  to  organize  a  mditia  company 
may  be  made  in  the  same  shape.  It  should  be  signed  by  names 
well  known  in  the  community,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
among  the  organizers  men  who  have  seen  service  and  who  know 
the  details  of  military  work,  ^\^len  the  meeting  has  asscmblctl, 
and  it  has  been  resolved  to  form  a  company,  a  roster  or  list  is 
first  made  of  those  who  agree  to  join.  These  then  proceed  to 
elect  the  officers,  choosing  first  the  captain,  then  the  first  lieu- 
tenant, then  the  second  lieutenant.  It  is  customary  to  elect  the 
non-commissioned  ofticers,  but  frequently  they  are  appointed  by 
the  captain.  When  the  organization  is  complete,  the  names  of 
the  officers  and  the  details  of  the  company  are  sent  to  the  Gov- 
ernor, who  empowers  some  person  to  swear  in  the  troop, 
issues  commissions  to  the  captain  and  the  two  lieutenants,  and 
orders  the  proper  authorities  to  supply  the  company  with  rifies, 
bayonets,  cartridge  boxes,  etc.,  for  which  receipts  must  be  signed 
and  returned  to  the  capital.  The  company  should  fix  a  drill 
night,  and  work  steadily  at  the  "  School  of  the  Soldier  "  until  they 
are  thoroughly  up  in  the  handling  of  their  arms.  The  officers 
have  the  work  and  the  responsibility  on  their  shoulders,  and  the 
success  of  the  company  will  depend,  more  than  anything  else, 
on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  drillmasters  master  their  own 
science.  Competitive  drills  have  been  found  to  be  the  only 
certain  means  of  bringing  a  company  rapidly  into  militar>' 
effectiveness. 


Military  Etiquette. 


To  settle  the  question  of  how  orders  should  be  signed,  the 
editor  of  this*work  affixes  the  following  verbatim  copy  of  an 
order  issued  some  time  since  at  Fort  Leavenvforth: 

Fort  Leavenworth,  June  iS,  1SS2. 
1;.  O.  No.  34. 

Capt.  Wvcks  will  parade  Co.  K  at  S  A.  M.  to-morrow,  June  lotli.and 
march  to  the  ruilro.-id  depot  in  Leavenworth,  where  he  will  report  to 
Col  Oiincan  for  orders.  The  troop  has  been  ordered  to  New  Mexico, 
and  the  soldiers  will  make  their  necessary  preparations  for  leaving 
this  fort  permanently.  McDowKl.t,, 

By  Priestly,        '  Co/one/  Commanding. 

First  Lieut,  atui  Post- Adjutant. 


>> 


\ 


6t2 


THE    NAVY    DEPARTMENT. 


[^faisTraEpEifaETfaEirafsifaETfaE^^ 


HAT  the  duties  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Kr-vy  are,  is  indicated  in  the 
name  of  the  Department.  He  has 
control  of  the  ships  of  war  of 
the  Republic,  and  of  all  mat- 
ters growing  out  of  that  con- 
trol. There  are  eight  Bureaus 
in  the  Department,  among  which 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the 
naval  work  are  divided.  These  are  the  Bureau 
of  Yards  and  Docks,  presided  over  by  an  officer 
selected  from  the  navy,  not  below  the  grade  of 
Commander ;  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Re- 
cruiting, presided  over  by  a  similar  officer;  the 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  similarly  officered;  a  Bureau 
of  Ordnance,  a  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair 
follow  in  order,  the  chief  of  each  being  a  naval 
officer  of  rank ;  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
is  presided  over  by  one  of  the  chief  engineers  of 
the  na\7  ;  the  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing, 
at  the  head  of  which  is  one  of  the  paymasters  of  the  navv,  of  not 
less  than  ten  years'  standing ;  and  lastly  the  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery,  presided  over  by  one  of  the  surgeons  of  the  navy. 
Each  of  these  chiefs  is  appointed  by  the  President;  they  hold 
office  four  years  and  receive  only  the  salary  of  their  rank  in  the 
navy.  The  Secretary  in  common  with  the  other  Cabinet  officers 
gets  $8,000  per  year.    The  pay-roll  then  goes  on : 

THE  LINE  AT  SEA.  * 


I  admiral, 

I  vict!-admiral, 

II  rear-admirals, 
25  commodores, 

,50  captains, 
90  commanders. 
So  licut.-commandcrs,2,Soo*3,ooo 


13,000 

2S0  lieutenants,        $2,400  i 

$2,600 

9,000 

100  masters,         .       i,Soo 

2,000 

6,000 

100  ensigns,                  1,200 

r,4oo 

5,000 

40  midshipmen, 

1,000 

4.500 

334  cadet  midsliip*n,    500 

950 

3.500 

43  mates. 

900 

15  medical  directors, $2 
13  pay  directors,  2 

70  chief  engineers,        2 
50  surgeons,  -         2 

50  paymasters,  2 

100  passed  and  assist- 
ant surgeons,  i 
30    passed     assistant 

paymasters,  2 

20  ass't  paymasters,      i 


STAFF. 

,Soo&  4,400 
,Soo  4,200 
,Soo  4,200 
,Soo  4,200 
,Soo    4,200 


,900    2,200 


2,200 
1,900 


100  passed  ass't  eng's  i 
100  ass't  engineers, 
24  chaplains, 

11  naval  constructors, 
5  ass't  constructors, 

12  professors  of  math 
ematics, 

g  civil  engineers, 
Cadet  engineers. 


THE  MARINE  CORPS. 


I  colonel-commandant,  $3,500 

1  colonel,               -            -  3,500 

2  lieutenant-colonels,  3)000 
I  major,                -            -  3,500 


iS  captains, 

30  1st  lieutenants, 

20  2d  lieutenants,  - 


2,000  &  2,200 

1 ,700  1 ,900 

2,500  2,S00 

3,200  4,200 

2,000  2,600 

2,400  3,500 

2,400  3,500 

500  1,000 


$i,Soo 

1,500 

1,400 


MARINE  CORPS  STAFF. 

$2,500    1    2  captains. 


$2,000 


RETIRED  LIST. 
I  brigadier-general,  -  '    I    4  captains,         ... 

I  lieutenant-colonel,  -  •  2  1st  lieutenants,     -  -  - 

3  majors,      -  -  .  •    '    3  2d  lieutenants. 

Attached  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  is  a  hydrographic  office 
which  provides  charts,  sailing  directions  and  manuals  for  the  use 
of  the  naval  and  merchant  marine.  The  Nautical  Almanac  is 
prepared  at  the  Naval  Observatory. 


Rank  in  the  Army  and  Navy. 

The  relative  rank  in  the  two  arms  of  the  service  runs  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  admiral  with  the  general,  the  vice-admiral  with  the  lieu- 
tenant-general, rear-admirals  with  major-generals,  commodores 
with  brigadier-generals,  captains  with  colonels,  commanders 
with  lieutenant-colonels,  lieutenant-commanders  with  majors, 
lieutenants  with  captains,  masters  with  1st  lieutenants,  and  en- 
signs with  2d  lieutenants. 


Ul 


Q «^ 


THE    N  \\  \'     PI- I'AK  1  MEKT. 


613 


■71 


The  Naval  Force. 

There  are  now  with  the  navy,  counting  cadets  at  Annapolis 
Academy,  1,103  officers  of  the  line,  693  staff  officers,  242  warrant 
officers ;  total,  2,038  officers  of  all  grades.  There  are  7,500 
enlisted  men  and  boys,  and  a  marine  coqjs  of  77  officers  and 
1,500  men — grand  total,  11,115  men.  The  fleet  consists  of  65 
steam  vessels,  23  wooden  saihng  vessels,  24  ironclads,  2  torpedo 
boats  and  25  tugs — total,  139,  only  half  of  which  are  fit  for  duty. 

The  Navies  of  the  World. 


COUNTRIES. 


Ai^entinc  Republic 

Austria- Hungary 

Belgium 

Ilrazil 

Canada,  Dominion  of 

Chili 

China 

Colombia 

Denmark 

li^&ypt 

I*  ranee 

Germany 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  . 

Greece 

Italv 


lap an. 


ftlexico 

Netherlands  . 

Norway ,. 

Peru 

Portugal 

Kouniania. ... 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Turkey  

United  States 
Venezuela .. . 


25s 
S6 

53S 

iS 

67 

27 

4 

122 


389 

"Is 
139 

4 


NO.   OF 
MEN. 


99" 
6,369 

T 

4.9!^4 


l,46S 


'.'25 


4S,iS3 
15,815 
58,800 
652 
16,140 
5.S5I 


5,914 
4.34-! 


3.5<i9 

530 

30.  "94 

■5. '79 

5,925 

23,000 

11,115 

200 


COST    OF 
'  NAVY. 


$    550.439 
4,033,669 


5,898,132 


1,000,000 
1,383,940 


32,267,49s 
9,722.721 

51,607,175 
1 ,050,536 
9,227,132 
3,015,000 


4,849,776 
448,632 


1,607,411 


19,268,755 
6,429,163 
1,424,250 
2,816,000 

15,686,671 


Our  Naval  History. 


Since  Paul  Jones  carried  the  American  flag  into  English 
waters  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  our  navy  has  been  a  just  source 
of  national  pride.  In  the  Revolutionary  war  the  marine  forces 
did  good  service,  and  one  of  the  brightest  pages  in  our  history 
is  the  record  of  the  American  men-of-war  in  1812.  In  the  Mexi- 
can war  the  fleet  compelled  the  surrender  of  Vera  Cruz  and 
Monterey,  and  during  the  Civil  war  the  navy  did  yeoman  service 
in  blockading  the  Southern  ports,  capturing  and  destroying  a 
total  of  over  1,200  sailing  vessels,  while  on  the  Confederate  side 
the  exploits  of  the  cruisers  read  like  a  chapter  of  romance. 


Secretaries  of  the  Navy. 


Benjamin  Stoddart,  Md.  1799 
Robert  Smith,  Md.  1S02 

J.icob  Crowninshield,  Mass.  1805 
I*aul  Hamilton,  S.  C.  1S09 

William  Jones,  Penn.  1S13 

Benjamin  W.  Crowninshield, 

Mass.  1S14 
Smith  Thompson,  N.  Y.  iSiS 

Samuel  L.  Southard,  N.J.  1S23 
John  Branch,  N.C.  1S29 

Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H.  1S31 

Mahlon  Dickerson,  N.  J.  1S34 
James  K.  Paulding,  N.  Y.  1838 
George  E.  Badger,  N.  C.  1S41 

Abel  P.  Upshur,  Va.  1S41 

David  Henshaw,  M:iss.  t    ^ 

Negatived  by  Senate,  i    ^^ 


Thomas  W.  Gilmer,  Va. 

John  Y.  Mason,  Va. 
George  Bancroft,  Mass. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Va. 
William  B.  Preston,  Va. 
William  A.  Graham,  N.  C. 
John  P.  Kennedy,  Md. 
James  C.  Dobbin,  X.  C. 
Isaac  Toncey,  Conn. 
Gideon  \\'elles.  Conn. 
Adolph  E.  Boui. 
George  M.  Robeson. 
Richard  W.  Thompson. 
Nathan  Goff,  Jr. 
William  H.  Hunt. 
Wm.  E.  Chandler,  N.  H. 
Wm.  C.  Whitney,  N.  Y. 


1S44 
1S44 
1845 
1S46 
1S49 
1S50 
1S52 
1S53 
1S57 
1S61 
1S69 
1S69 
1S77 
iSSi 
iSSi 
1884 
1885 


r 


\ 


\ 


614 


THE    POST-OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


^;:a--xy^xi:-xV.O-V  /y^w/  /.m/Z. 


TpE^pO^T- OFFICE  ^DEpAI(TME]\lT. 


/r.^y/ /,^::/ / ^OW  /  A^-y  AA^ M^^ 


'HE  Postmaster-General  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  President.  His  term* 
unless  he  dies,  resigns  or  is  removed, 
continues  for  one  month  after  the 
Presidential  term  expires.  There  are 
tliree  Assistant  Postmasters-General, 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  an 
Assistant  Attorney -General,  appointed 
by  the  Postmaster- General,  in  this 
Department. 

THE  OATH. 
Every  person  employed  in  the  postal  service, 
from  the  Postmaster-General  down,  before  en- 
tering upon  his  or  her  duties,  or  drawinj^  any 
salary,  takes  the  following  oath: 

"I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that 
I  will  faithfully  perform  all  the  duties  required  of 
me,  and  abstain  from  everj'thing  forbidden  bv 
the  laws,  in  relation  to  the  establishment  of 
post-offices  and  post-roads  within  the  United 
States;  and  that  I  will  honestly  and  truly  ac- 
count for,  and  pay  over,  any  money  belonging 
to  the  said  United  States  which  may  come  into 
my  possession  or  control :    So  help  me  God." 

Controlling  the  machinery  of  the  whole 
postal  system,  the  duties  of  the  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral arc  multifarious,  and  most  of  them  appear  plainly  in  the  detailed 
workings  of  the  ser\'ice.  The  Postmaster-General  reports  annually 
to  Congress  all  contracts  for  carrying  the  mails  made  within  the  pre- 
ceding year,  with  all  particulars  concerning  them ;  a  statement  of  all 
land  and  water  mail  routes  established  within  the  year,  and  of  all 
allowances  made  to  mail  contractors  above  the  contract  prices,  and 
why;  a  detailed  statement  of  the  finances  of  the  Department;  a  report 
of  fines  assessed  against  mail  contractors  ;  a  copy  of  each  contract  for 
carrj'ing  mails  between  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries,  and  a 
statement  showing  its  benefits  to  the  Department;  a  report  on  the 
postal  business  and  agencies  in  foreign  coiintries;  a  statement  of  the 
money  expended  in  the  Department,  with  details. 


The  Personnel 


Of  a  post-office  in  one  of  the  larger  cities  consists  of  the  Postmaster, 
his  private  secretary  and  inquiry  clerk.  Assistant  Postmaster,  auditor 
of  accounts,  bookkeeper,  cas'^iier,  watchman,  mailing  clerks,  delivery 
clerks,  letter  carriers,  registered  letter  clerks,  money  order  clerks, 
special  postal  agents. 


The  Work. 


The  Postmaster  having  general  supervision,  his  private  secretary 
attends  to  the  correspondence  relating  to  the  business  of  the  office. 

The  Inquiry  Clerk  receives  all  complaints  about  missing  let- 
ters, and  institutes  searches  for  them. 

The  Assistant  Postmaster  is  the  ever  present  superintendent. 

The  Auditor  examines  and  corrects  the  accoimts  of  the  Postmaster 
with  the  Government,  and  with  his  subordinate  officers,  clerks  and 
employes. 

The  Bookkeeper  keeps  the  accounts  of  the  Postmaster  with  the 
Government,  and  with  every  person  doing  business  with  his  post- 
office. 

The  Cashier  has  super\ision  of  all  the  money  paid  into  or  out  of 
the  post-office,  and  provides  for  its  safe  keeping  and  proper  deposit 
with  the  United  States  Sub-Treasurer  or  in  some  other  designated 
place. 

The  Mail  Clerks  open  all  packages  of  letters  addressed  to  the 
office,  count  and  compare  them  with  the  post  bills  accompanying  the 
packages,  and  check  any  errors  in  the  bills,  file  the  bills  and  send  the 
letters  to  the  letter  carriers'  department,  the  general  delivery,  the 
registry  office  or  the  money  order  office,  as  may  be  necessary. 

If  the  office  is  a  distributing  post-office,  letters  for  other  places 
within  the  distributing  limits  of  the  office  are  sorted,  billed,  repacked 
and  forwarded  ;  some  of  the  clerks  sort  out  newspapers  and  period- 
icals for  delivering  or  mailing;  other  clerks  receive,  sort,  stamp,  bill 
and  mail  letters  for  other  places;  others  receive  and  mail  transient 
newspapers;  others  receive  newspapers  and  periodicals  sent  from 
publishers  direct  to  subscribers,  weigh  them  to  find  out  the  amount  of 
postage  to  be  prepaid,  and  send  the  "account  to  the  proper  officer. 
These  papers  are  then  fonvarded  without  furtlier  charge. 

Delivery  Clerks  receive  letters,  papers  and  periodicals  not 
directt-'d  to  any  special  box,  street  or  number,  and  place  them  in  the 
general  delivery,  to  be  called  for  by  the  owners.  Letters  directed  to  a 
specified  box  are  placed  in  it  and  remain  until  called  for. 

The  Superintendent  of  Free  Delivery  has  charge  of  the  letter- 
carriers. 

One  or  more  clerks  in  the  general  delivery  assort  and  deliver  the 
letters  and  i)apers  sent  to  their  department. 

When  letters  remain  a  set  time  in  the  general  deliver)*  without  being 
called  for,  they  are  advertised  and  kept  a  certain  time  longer,  and  are 
then  forwarded  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office. 

Postal  Agents  superintend  the  railway  postal  service,  and  the 
special  agents  in  the  free  delivery  and  money  order  sen-ice,  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  Post-office  Department. 


V- 


THE    POST-OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


6iS 


-7\ 


Stamps. 


Stamps  arc  sold  by  the  shctrt  or  in  g^reater  quantities,  and  stamped 
envelopes  by  the  package  or  larger  quantity,  and  postal  cards  by 
packages  or  hundreds,  in  a  wholesale  department  ot  the  post-office. 
In  a  retail  department  they  are  sold  singly  or  in  small  quantities. 
Scales  are  kept  in  this  department  to  weigh  transient  packages  to 
a:»certatn  the  postage  to  be  prepaid. 


Registered  Letters. 


The  Postmaster-General,  for  the  greater  security  of  valuable  letters, 
h:is  established  a  uniform  system  of  registration.  The  fee  for  register- 
ing IS  ten  cents  prepaid  in  addition  to  the  regular  postage.  The  regis- 
try clerk  gives  the  person  registering  a  letter  a  receipt  properly 
describing  it.  The  letter  is  chissified  on  the  books  of  the  office  as  a 
registered  letter;  it  is  tlien  mailed  to  the  Postmaster  at  the  post-office 
to  which  it  is  directed,  is  classified  there  as  a  registered  letter,  and  de- 
livered to  the  person  to  wliom  it  is  addressed  only  upon  his  giving  a 
receipt  for  it  as  a  registered  letter. 


Money  Orders. 


The  Postmaster-General  has  established  a  uniform  money-order 
system  at  all  suitable  post-offices  known  as  "  money  order  offices." 
Rlank  applications  for  money  orders  are  kept  at  money  order  offices ; 
each  applicant  fills  a  blank  with  his  name,  the  name  and  address  of 
the  party  to  whom  the  order  is  to  be  paid,  and  the  amount  and  date  of 
the  application. 

The  Postmaster  who  issues  a  money  order  sends  notice  immediately 
by  mail  to  the  Postmaster  on  whom  it  is  drawn. 

Money  orders  are  payable  only  to  the  persons  in  whose  names  they 
are  drawn,  but  the  right  to  collect  the  amount  may  be  transferred  in 
writing  on  the  money  order  to  one  other  individual  by  the  person  in 
whose  favor  the  order  is  drawn.  After  a  money  order  has  been  taken 
out,  if  the  purchaser  desires  to  change  or  alter  it,  the  Postm;ister  can 
take  it  back  and  give  a  ne^v  one  instead,  but  a  new  fee  is  charged. 

The  Postmaster  who  issues  a  money  order,  on  the  application  of 
the  person  who  obtained  it  and  the  return  of  the  order,  shall  repay  the 
amount,  but  not  the  fee. 

Any  Postmaster  who  issues  a  money  order  without  having  first 
received  the  money  for  it,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  maybe  fined 
from  $50  to  $500. 

The  Postmaster  of  any  city  having  branch  offices,  subject  to  him, 
may  have  the  money  order  system  run  through  said  branch  offices, 
but  he  IS  accountable  along  with  his  sureties  for  money  passing 
through  such  branches.  Transfers  of  money  order  funds  from  one 
Postmaster  to  another,  or  money  from  the  postal  revenue  to  the 
money  order  fund  at  any  post-office  where  it  may  be  needed,  is  regu- 
lated by  the  Postmaster-General. 

The  New  Money  Order  Law. 

The  general  provisions  of  the  law  passed  by  Congress  in  1SS3, 
reducing  the  fees  for  post-office  money  orders  and  providing  for  the 
issue  of  postal  notes,  are:  The  limit  of  single  money  orders  is  raised 
from  $50  to  $100,  and  the  following  scale  of  fees  is  established :  Orders 
not  exceeding  $10,  S  cents;  $10  to  $15,  10  cents  ;  $15  to  J30,  15  cents;  $30 
to  $40,  20  cents ;  $40  to  $50,  25  cents  ;  $50  to  $60,  30  cents ;  $60  to  $70,  35 
cents;  $70  to  $So,  40  cents ;  $So  to  $100,  45  cents  ;  for  sums  not  exceed- 
ing $5  the  "postal  note"  costs  3  cents.  The  postal  notes  are  used 
under  these  conditions:  Postmasters  issue  them  payable  to  bearer; 
they  are,  like  orders,  payable  only  at  the  office  of  issue  and  at  the  office 
on  which  they  are  drawn;   after  a  note  has  been  paid,  no  matter  to 


^^U 


Vi- 


whom,  the  responsibility  of  the  Government  ceases,  so  that  if  one  is 
lost  or  stolen,  the  owner  is  the  sufferer;  and  a  note  will  become  invalid 
at  the  end  of  three  months  from  the  last  day  of  the  month  on  which  it 
is  issued,  after  which  time  the  bearer  must  pay  three  cents  more  and 
have  it  sent  to  Washington  for  renewal  before  he  can  get  his 
money.  A  note  issued  under  these  regulations  in  July,  for  instance, 
will  not  be  paid,  without  renewal  at  the  extra  charge,  after  October  31. 
The  object  of  this  restriction  is  to  prevent  a  general  circulation  of  the 
notes  as  money.  The  shape  and  size  are  similar  to  those  of  a  bank- 
note. The  regulations  for  issue  and  payment  are  printed  on  the  face, 
space  being  left  for  the  name  of  the  office  of  payment,  the  amount,  the 
name  of  the  issuing  Postmaster,  the  signature  of  the  person  to  whom 
payment  is  made,  and  the  st.amps  of  the  offices  of  issue  and  payment. 
At  one  end  is  printed  a  series  of  months  and  years,  and  at  the  other 
three  rows  of  figures,  for  dollars,  dimes  and  cents.  The  Postmaster 
issuing  the  note,  with  an  ordinary  punch  cuts  out  the  month  and  year 
of  issue  and  the  amount  which  corresponds  to  that  written  in  the  body 
of  the  paper.  It  is  obvious  that  the  notes  are  as  good  as  money  to 
any  one  getting  i)osscssion  of  them,  save  ia  tl.e  two  respects  that  they 
are  payable  only  at  two  places,  and  only  within  a  limited  time. 

Commissions. 

As  compensation,  a  Postmaster  receives  a  commission  of  one-third 
of  the  whole  amount  of  fees  collected  on  issuing  money  orders,  and 
one-fourth  of  one  per  cent  on  the  gross  amount  of  orders  paid  at  his 
office.  Provided  tliat  the  compensation  with  his  salary  does  not  ex- 
ceed $4,000  a  year  (New  York  City  excepted). 

Officers. 

There  is  a  Government  officer  at  Washington  known  as  the  Super- 
intendent of  the  Money  Order  System,  whose  salarj*  is  $3,000  a  year. 

The  officers  in  charge  of  the  money  order  division  of  a  post-office 
are  a  superintendent,  an  examiner  and  a  cashier.  The  superintendent, 
underthe  instructions  of  the  Postmaster,  controls  the  operation  of  the 
office.  The  examiner,  before  passing  a  money  order  to  the  cashier 
assures  himself  of  its  correctness  and  makes  a  memorandum  of  the 
name,  place  of  issue,  number  and  amount.  The  cashier,  receiving  the 
order  from  the  examiner,  pays  the  money. 


Advertising  Letters. 


Once  a  week  each  Postmaster  advertises  the  list  of  letters  uncalled 
for  in  his  post-office.  This  is  done  in  the  newspaper  of  the  vicinity 
having  the  largest  circulation  wilhm  the  limit  of  the  post-office  deliv- 
ery, or  by  a  written  list  posted  in  some  public  pl.ace.  He  is  also  re- 
quired to  have  the  list  posted  up  in  some  conspicuous  place  in  the 
office. 

Dead  Letters. 

Undelivered  letters,  having  been  advertised  and  having  lain  m  a 
post-office  a  prescribed  time,  are  sent  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office;  so  also 
are  sent  letters  deposited  in  an  office  for  mailing,  on  which  the  name 
of  their  destination  was  accidentally  omitted,  or  on  which  the  address 
could  not  be  understood,  or  on  which  postage  was  not  prepaid,  and 
letters  addressed  to  known  fraudulent  institutions. 

The  Dead  Letter  Office  is  a  branch  of  the  Post-office  Depart- 
ment at  Washington.  All  letters  sent  to  this  office  are  opened  and 
examined.  If  they  contain  valuable  enclosures  they  are  registered, 
and  if  the  party  to  whom  they  are  addressed  or  the  writer  cannot  be 
found,  the  contents  are  disposed  of  and  an  accountkeptof  the  amounts 
realized  in  each  case.  Should  cither  the  sender  or  the  person  addressed 
apply  within  four  years,  he  can  claim  the  money.  All  other  letters 
are  disposed  of  as  the  Postmaster-General  directs. 


-Nj 


"71 


6i6 


THE    POST-OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


Writer's  Address. 


Letters  bcarinj^  ui)f)n  the  oui-sitlt;  thi-  nuiiiu  :intl  address  of  the  writer 
arc  not  advertised,  hut,  if  not  called  for  wUhln  the  time  mentioned  on 
tlicin,  having  been  j)repaid,  arc  returned  without  further  charj^e. 


Postal  Cars. 


On  the  railway  postal  cars  the  clerks  sort  the  mails  for  eacli  station 
on  the  route  and  deliver  them  whilst  i:i  motion  by  throwing  the  bags 
off  the  car  at  the  jjroper  places,  or  handing  them  to  the  mail  messen- 
gers at  the  depots  wlierc  the  train  halts. 


Postmasters. 


There  arc  five  classes  of  postmasters.  The  fourth  and  fifth  classes, 
who  do  the  least  business,  arc  appointed  by  the  Postmaster-General ; 
the  others  by  the  President.  A  Postmaster  must  reside  within  the 
delivery  of  his  olTicc.  He  must,  before  entering  upon  his  duties,  give 
bond  to  the  Government  for  their  faithful  performance,  with  good 
security.  If  a  money  cjrder  ofhce,  there  are  additional  conditions  on 
the  bond.  lie  must  every  three  months  report  to  the  Postmaster- 
General  a  sworn  statement  of  all  moneys  received  by  him  from  postage 
or  other  sources  connected  with  his  department.  li  he  neglects  for 
one  month  to  make  this  quarterly  return  he  and  his  sureties  forfeit 
and  pay  double  the  amount  of  the  gross  receipts  at  his  oflicc  during 
any  previous  or  subsequent  period  of  time,  and  if  at  the  time  of  trial 
no  accoimt  has  been  rendered,  they  arc  liable  to  a  penalty  in  such  a 
sum  as  may  he  estimated  equivalent. 

In  a  city  where  there  is  an  Assistant  Treasurer  of  the  United  States, 
the  Postmaster  must  deposit  with  him  all  moneys  collected.  Where 
there  is  no  Assistant  Treasurer  the  Postmaster  must  keep  such  funds 
safely,  subject  to  the  order  of  the  Postmaster-General.  He  can 
neither  lend,  use,  deposit  in  an  unauthorized  bank,  nor  exchange  for 
other  money,  the  public  funds  which  come  into  his  hands. 

Contracts  for  carrying  the  mails  (except  in  the  railway  service) 
arc  made  with  the  lowest  bidder,  he  giving  ample  security  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  work. 

The  Uailway  Skhvick  is  classified  according  to  the  amount  of 
mail  moved.  Companies  owning  routes  of  the  first  class  arc  paid  $300 
per  mile  per  year;  second  class,  $100;  third  class,  $50. 

Lettkk  Carkieks  are  employed  in  towns  where  there  are  20,000 
inhabitants.  They  must  give  bond  with  security.  They  are  uniformed. 
Any  person  assaulting  a  letter-carrier  while  performing  his  duty  is 
lial)le  to  a  fine  of  from  $100  to  $1,000,  or  imprisonment  from  one  to 
three  years. 


Rates  of  Postage. 


Postal  Cards,  i  cent  each,  go  without  further  charge  to  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Cards  for  foreign  countries  (within 
the  Postal  Union),  a  cents  each. 

Ai.i-  Lettkks,  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  2  cents 
per  ()Utice  or  fraction  thereof. 

LucAi.|  OK  "  DkoI'"  Letters,  that  is,  for  tlic  city  or  town  where 


deposited,  2  cents  where  Ijie  carrier  system   is  adopted,  and   i   cent 
where  there  is  no  carrier  system. 

First  Class, — Letters  and  all  other  written  matter,  whether  sealed 
or  unsealed,  and  all  other  matter  sealed, nailed,  sewed,  tied  or  fastened 
in  any  manner  so  tliat  it  cannot  be  easily  examined,  2  cents  per  half 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Postal  curds,  i  cent  each.  Postal  cards 
arc  unmailabic  with  any  writing  or  printing  on  the  address  side,  ex- 
cept the  direction,  or  with  anything  pasted  upon  or  attached  to  them. 

Second  Class. — Only  for  publishers  and  news  agents;  2  cents  per 
pound. 

Third  Class.— .Printed  matter,  in  unsealed  wrappers  only  (all  mat- 
ter inclosed  in  notched  envelopes  must  pay  letter  rates),  1  cent  for  each 
two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof,  which  must  be  fully  prepaid.  This 
includes  books,  circulars,  chromos,  engravings,  handbills,  lithographs, 
magazines,  music,  newspapers,  pamphlets,  photographs,  proof-sheets 
and  manuscript  accompanying  the  same,  reproductions  by  the  electric 
pen,  hektograph,  metallograph,  papyrograph,  and,  in  short,  any  re- 
production upon  paper  by  any  jirocess  cxcei)t  handwriting  and  the 
copying  press.  Limit  of  weight,  4  lbs.,  except  for  a  single  hook, 
which  may  weigh  more. 

Fourth  Class. — All  mailable  matter,  not  included  in  the  three  pre- 
ceding classes,  which  is  so  prepared  for  mailing  as  to  be  easily  with- 
drawn from  the  wrapper  and  examined.  Rate,  i  cent  per  ounce  or 
fraction  thereof.     Limit  of  weight,  4  lbs,      F'uU  payment  compulsory. 

Foreign  Postage. — The  following  are  the  postal  rates  with* 
Europe.  The  rates  for  letters  arc  for  the  half  ounce  or  fraction  there- 
of, and  those  for  newspapers  for  s  ounces  or  fraction  thereof: 

To  Great  Uritain  and  Ireland,  France,  Spain,  and  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many, including  Austria,  Denmark,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Russia,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Turkey  (Kuropcan  and  Asiatic),  Egypt,  letters  5  cents, 
newspapers  i  cent  for  each  2  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 

To  Australia,  letters,  via  San  Francisco  (except  to  New  South 
Wales),  5  cents;  via  Brindisi,  ig  cents;  newspapers,  via  San  Fran- 
cisco, 2  cents;  via  Brindisi,  4  cents.  China,  letters,  via  San  Francisco, 
5  cents;  via  Brindisi,  13  cents;  4  cents  for  each  paper  not  weighing 
over  4  ounces.  British  India,  Italian  mail,  letters  5  cents  ;  newspapers 
I  cent  for  2  ounces.  Japan,  letters,  via  San  Francisco,  5  cents  ;  news- 
papers I  cent  for  2  ounces. 


Postmasters-General. 


Samuel  Osgood,  Mass.  1789 

Timothy  Pickering,  Penn.  1791 

Joseph  Habersham,  Ga.  1795 

Gideon  Granger,  Conn.  1802 

Return  J.  Meigs,  Ohio.  1814 

John  McLean,  Ohio.  1823 

William  T.  Barry,  Ky.  1829 

Amos  Kendall,  Ky.  1835 

John  M.  Niles,  Conn.  1840 

Francis  Granger,  N.  Y.  1S41 

Charles  A.  Wickliffe,  Ky.  1S41 

Cave  Johnson,  Tenn.  1S45 

Jacob  Collamcr,  Vt,  1849 

Nathan  K.  Hall,  N.  Y.  '  1850 

Samuel  D.  Hubbard,  Conn.  1S52 

Frank  Hatton,  Iowa.  1884 


James  Campbell,  Penn. 
Aaron  V.  Brown,  Tenn. 
Joseph  Holt,  Ky. 
Horatio  King,  Mo, 
Montgomery  Blair,  Md. 
William  Denison,  Ohio. 
A.  W.  Randall,  Wis. 
John  A.  J.  Crcswell. 
Marshall  Jewell. 
James  N.  Tyner. 
David  M.  Key. 
Horace  Maynard. 
Thomas  L.  James. 
Timothy  O.  Howe, 
W.  Q.  Grcsham. 
Wm.  F.  Vilas.  Wis. 


1853 
i8S7 
1859 
1S61 
1861 
1S64 
1S66 
1S69 
1S74 
1876 
1S77 
1880 
iSSi 
1S81 
1883 


ki 


\ 


\ 


THE    DKPARTMENT    OF    THE    INTERIOR. 


617 


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THE  DEPARTMENT  4  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 


^^^ra^F 


LIST  of  the  Bureaus  over  which 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  has 
supervision  includes  the  following : 
The  census,  the  public  lands  and 
mines,  the  Indians,  pensions  and 
bounties,  patents  for  inventors,  and 
education.      He   reports   annually 
'l;^;     .■^to  Congress  all  claims  fordepreda- 
s'i'Sfc-tions   committed   by   the   Indians, 
all  the  expenditures  of  the  dilTer- 
ent  branches  under  his  charge,  and  estimates 
for  furllier  appropriations.     The  transactions 
of  this  Dep.artment  are  conducted  through  six 
branches,  each  governed  by  a  Commissioner: 
The  General  Land  Office. 
The  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs. 
The  Pension  Office. 
The  Patent  Office. 
The  Bureau  of  Education. 
The  Bureau  of  Agriculture. 


The  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office 

Superintends  the  survey  and  sale  of  the  public  lands  of  the 
United  States;  issues  patents  for  all  lands  granted  by  authority 
of  government.  Plats  of  surveys  and  all  information  concerning 
the  public  lands  can  be  found  in  his  office.  All  patents  issued 
from  the  office  are  signed  by  the  President,  countersigned  by  the 
Commissioner,  and  have  the  seal  of  the  office  affixed. 

A  Surveyor-General  is  appointed  to  each  of  the  surveying  dis- 
tricts: Louisiana,  Florida,  Minnesot.a,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa, 
Dakota,  Oregon,  Washington,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Califor- 
nia, Idaho,  Nevada,  Montana,  Utah,  Wyoming  and  Arizona. 
When  the  surveys  in  any  State  are  finished  and  all  the  maps, 
field  notes  and  other  records  turned  over  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  of  such  State,  the  office  of  Surveyor-General  ceases  in  that 
State. 


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How  to  Secure  a  Homestead. 

All  the  public  lands  not  already  disposed  of  by  reservations  or  by 
^ants  or  sales  are  owned  by  the  United  States  Government.  These 
lands,  except  such  as  are  reserved  by  any  treaty  or  by  Presidential 
proclamation  for  any  purpose,  or  that  arc  lyiny^  within  the  corporate 
liiniLs  of  any  city  or  town,  or  those  on  which  salt  springs  are  situated, 
arc  open  to  pre-emption. 

This  right  of  pre-emption  has  proved  of  inestimable  value  in  popu- 
lating and  bringing  into  subjection  the  vast  tracts  of  wilderness  spread 
over  the  face  of  the  country.  This  wise  land  system  induces  the 
sturdy  sons  of  toil  to  come  out  of  the  *'  house  of  bondage"  in  tl»e 
densely  crowded  districts  of  the  East  to  create  new  homes  in  the  re- 
gions of  the  setting  sun. 


Who  may  Pre-empt. 


Any  head  of  a  family,  or  widow,  or  single  person  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  being  a  citizen  actually  or  in  prospective,  having  settled 
and  made  a  home  on  any  of  these  lands,  may  at  the  nearest  land  olfice 
enter  any  quantity  of  land  not  exceeding  160  acres  by  the  payment  to 
the  Government  of  $^.50  per  acre  for  a  tract  of  less  than  Si  acres  or $1.25 
per  acre  for  a  larger  one.  L'/t/ess  he  or  she  already  owns  3.20  acres  of 
land  in  any  State  or  Territory,  or  has  abandoned  land  already  owned 
to  settle  in  the  same  State  or  Territory. 

No  person  is  entitled  to  more  than  one  pre-emption,  nor  can  he 
secure  a  second  tract  of  public  land  by  this  means. 

Land  Offices. 

Land  offices,  where  all  information  regarding  the  settlement  and 
entry  of  these  lands  may  be  obtained,  are  located  close  to  the  public 
l;inds.  In  Missouri,  at  Kot)nviIle,  Ironton  and  Springfield  ;  Aialuima, 
at  Mobile,  Huntsville  and  Montgomery;  Louisiana,  Vit  New  Orleans, 
Natchitoches  and  Monroe  ;  j\/ic/iijran,  at  Detroit,  Kast  Saginaw,  Ionia, 
Marquette,  Traverse  City  or  Cheboygan;  O/fio,  at  Chillicothe;  In- 
iiiana,  at  Indianapolis  ;  Illinois,  at  Springfield  ;  Arkansas,  at  Dardan- 
elle,  Little  Rock,  C.-imden  and  Harrison;  Florida,  at  Tallahassee, 
Gainesville  or  East  Florida;  Iowa,  at  Des  Moines,  Council 
Uluffs,  Fort  Dodge  and  Sioux  City;  Wisconsin,  at  Menasha,  St.  Croix 
Falls,  Wausau,  La  Crosse,  Kayfield  and  Eau  Claire;  California,  at 
San  Francisco,  Marysvillt,  Humboldt,  Stockton,  Visalia,  Sacramento, 
Los  Angeles,  Shasta  and  Susanvillc;  jVezada,  at  Carson  Cit>',  Austm, 
Relmont,  Aurora  and  Elko;  Washington,  at  Olympia,  Vancouver  or 


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THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    THE    INTERIOR. 


Columbia  River,  and  AValla-'Walla ;  Minnesota^  Taylor's  Falls,  St. 
Cloud,  Duluth,  Alexandria,  Jackson,  New  Ulm,  Litchfield,  Redwood 
Falls  and  Oak  Lake;  Oregon,  at  Oregon  City,  Roseburgh,  Lc  Grand, 
and  Lake  View;  Kansas,  at  Topeka,  Salina,  Independence,  Concor- 
dia^ Wichita  and  Cowper;  JV^braska,  West  Point,  Beatrice,  Lincoln, 
Dakota  Citv,  Grand  Island,  North  Platte  and  Lowell ;  Dakota ,z.t  Ver- 
million, Springfield,  Pembina  and  Yankton;  Colorado,  at  Pueblo, 
Denver  City,  Fair  Play  and  Central  C\t\\  I^ezv  Mexico,  ^t  Santa  Fe; 
Idaho,  at  Boise  City;  Monta7ta,  at  Helena;  Utah,  at  Salt  Lake  City; 
Wyoming,  at  Cheyenne ;  Arizona,  at  Prescott ;  Mississippi,  at  J  ackson. 

How  Pre-emption  is  Perfected. 

Within  thirty  days  of  first  settling  on  the  land,  the  pre-emptor  must 
file  a  written  declaration  of  his  intentions.  Failing  to  make  this  state- 
ment, or  to  furnish  proof  of  settlement  and  improvement,  or  to  make 
the  required  paj'ment  within  the  vear,  any  other  person  may  enter  the 
same  tract.  When  more  than  one  person  settles  on  the  same  tract, 
the  first  comer  has  the  right  of  pre-emption. 

In  entering  land  at  the  land  office,  the  pre-emptor  must  swear  that 
he  is  the  head  of  a  family,  or  that  he  js  twenty-one  years  old  ;  that  he 
is  a  citizen,  or  is  about  to  become  one,  or  has  ser\'ed  in  the  army  or 
navy  of  the  United  Slates  ;  that  he  h.is  never  before  availed  himself  of 
his  privilege  to  pre-empt  public  Land ;  that  he  does  not  own  320  acres 
of  land  in  any  State  or  Territory-;  that  he  has  not  settled  upon  and 
improved  this  land  to  sell  it  on  speculation,  but  for  his  own  use  ;  that 
he  has  not  bargained  with  any  other  person  that  the  title  of  said  land, 
either  in  whole  or  in  part,  shall  be  vested  in  any  other  than  himself 
alone. 

The  certificate  of  this  oath  is  filed  in  the  land  office,  and  a  copy  of  it 
is  also  sent  to  the  General  Land  Office  for  preser\'ation. 

On  making  the  application  the  pre-emptor  must  pay  a  fee  of  five 
dollars  on  a  claim  of  eighty  acres  or  less,  and  ten  dollars  on  a  larger 
one. 

The  certificate  of  the  Register  of  the  Land  Office  is  not  issued  to  the 
applicant  until  proof  is  furnished  of  a  five  years'  continuous  residence 
and  cultivation  after  the  entry  has  been  made.  The  payment  must  be 
complete    before  the    expiration    of   the    five    years.     The  applicant 


must  also  prove  that  he  still  retains  the  land.  Then,  after  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States  Government,  he  is  entitled  to  a 
patent.  This  homestead  then  cannot  be  levied  upon  and  sold  for  any 
debts  contracted  before  the  Government  patent  was  issued. 

Penalties  for  Perjury. 

By  false  swearing  at  the  time  of  making  the  entr\-,  the  pre-emptor 
forfeits  the  money  he  h;is  paid  and  the  land  itself ;  and  if  he  has  agreed 
to  convey  his  pre-emptive  title  to  any  other  person,  tliat  conveyance  is 
null  and  void. 

False  swearing  at  the  time  of  applying  for  the  patent  renders  all  the 
parties  liable  to  punisliment  for  perjury. 

How  to  Shorten  the  Period  of  Pre-emption. 

The  time  of  granting  the  patent  is  shortened  to  tiiree  years  if  the 
claimant  proves  that  he  has  timber  of  his  own  planting  growing  on 
the  tract  for  two  years,  one  acre  with  the  trees  no  farther  apart  than 
twelve  feet  for  every  sixteen  acres  of  the  homestead. 

Officers  of  the  Land  Office. 

There  are  a  Register  of  the  Land  Office  and  a  Receiver  of  Public 
Money  (the  latter  reports  to  the  Treasury  Department),  appointed  by 
the  President,  for  every  land  district,  and  each  is  required  to  reside  at 
the  place  where  the  land  office  to  which  he  is  appointed  is  directed  to 
be  kept.  Each  receives  a  salary  of  $500  a  year  besides  fees  and  com- 
missions for  locating  land  warrants,  issuing  certificates,  etc. ;  but  the 
salar\',  fees  and  commissions  cannot  exceed  $3,000.  All  balances  over 
this  amount  must  be  paid  into  the  United  States  Treasury.  The  re- 
ceivers make  monthly  returns  to  the  Treasury;  should  any  Register 
knowingly  and  falsely  inform  a  person  applying  to  enter  land  that 
the  same  land  liad  been  already  entered,  and  refuse  to  permit  the  per- 
son so  applying  to  enter  the  land,  he  makes  himself  liable  to  the  ap- 
plicant for  damages  of  five  dollars  for  each  acre  of  the  land  in  ques- 
tion, which  may  be  recovered  in  an  action  for  debt,  before  any  proper 
court. 


■(\s— 


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THE    BUREAU    OF    INDIAN    AFFAIRS. 


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THE  BUREAU  OF  INDIAN  AFFAIRS. 


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^;VLL    matters  concerning  the   Indians  are  in  charge  of 
^^V     the    Commissioner  of    Indian  Affairs,     lie  examines 
:i!l  accounts  and  vouchers  forchiims  and  disburse- 
iiicnts  connected  with  Indian  affairs.     He  reports  an- 
:    Lilly  a  tabular  statement  sliowing  the  several  objects 
t  expenditure  under  his  supervision,  and  embodying 
Llic  statements  of  all  agents  issuing  supplies  of  any 
^^'~'  kind  to  the  Indians,  with  the    number  of  Indians  re- 

ceiving Ihcm. 

There  is  an  Advisory  Hoard  connected  with  this  Bureau,  consist- 
ing of  not  more  than  ten  persons,  appointed  by  the  President. 
Members  of  this  Board  receive  no  compensation ;  they  arc  chosen 
as  men  eminent  in 
the  communit>',  who 
have  exhibited  some 
peculiar  mark  of  fit* 
ness  for  the  position. 
The  Board  supervises 
the  expenditures  of 
money  appropriated 
for  the  Indians,  and 
inspects  all  goods 
purchased  for  tht  m 
It  has  access  l<> 
books  and  papers  re- 
lating to  Indian  af- 
fairs in  any  Govern- 
ment office.  TIu 
Board  has  no  direct 
power  further  than 
that  of  inspection. 


Inspectors. 

From  one  to  U\  c 
Indian  Inspectors  are 
appointed  by  the 
President.  Their  duty 
is  to  visit  twice  a 
}  ear  each  Indian  su- 
perintendency  and  agency,  and  fully  investigate  all  matters  belonging 
to  the  business  of  each,  including  the  examination  of  accounts,  the 
manner  of  expending  the  money,  the  number  of  Indians  provided  for, 
contracts  of  all  kinds,  the  condition  of  the  Indians,  their  advance  in 
civilisation,  the  extent  of  the  reservations,  and  what  use  is  made  of 
the  hinds  set  apart  for  that  purpose,  and  all  matters  belonging  to  the 
Indian  service. 

Each  inspector  has  power  to  examine  on  oath  all  officers  and  others 
in  and  about  the  superintcndencies  and  agencies,  and  to  suspend  any 
superintendent  or  employe  and  appoint  others  temporarily.  He 
has  j>ovver  to  enforce  the  hiws  in  the  several  agencies  and  superinten- 


dencies.     The  same  inspector  does  not  visit    and    investigate    any 
agency  or  superintendency  twice  in  succession. 

Four  or  more  superintendents  are  appointed  by  the  I'resident.  Their 
duties  are  each  in  his  own  district  to  supervise  and  control  the  official 
conduct  and  acts  of  all  persons  employed  by  the  Government  in  Indian 
affairs. 


Indian  Agents. 


Indian  Agents  are  appointed  by  the  President.  They  must  give  bond 
vj}*h  good  security  before  enlisting  upon  their  duties.  Every  agent 
must  reside  and  keep  his  agency  near  the  tribe  of  Indians  to  which  he 

is  assigned.  ^Vilhin 
his  agency  he  man- 
ages and  superin- 
tends the  intercourse 
with  the  Indians  and 
enforces  all  rules  pre- 
scribed to  him.  No 
person  employed  in 
Indian  affairs  may 
have  an  interest  in 
any  trade  with  them, 
under  a  penalty  of 
$5,000  and  removal 
from  ollice. 

Teachers  may  be 
employed  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  In- 
dians, when  it  is 
deemed  opportune, 

Indian 

Traders. 

Abondof$5,noo.\vith 
approved  secvintv, 
must  be  given,  war- 
ranting the  obser\'- 
ance  of  all  laws  with 

respect  to    intercourse   with  the  Indians,   by   any  one  proposing  to 

become  an  Indian  trader. 

Pension  Office. 

The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  has  the  management  of  this  office. 
Pension  Agents  are  required  to  give  bond  ;  they  receive  a  commission 
of  two  per  cent  on  all  money  paid  ont  by  them  to  pensioners,  and  a 
fee  of  thirty  cents  on  every  voucher  prepared  and  paid  by  them. 
Agents  and  their  clerks  may  take  the  affidavits  of  pensioners  and  their 
witnesses,  but  receive  no  fee  for  that  service.  In  paying  pension  the 
agent  is  authorized  to  deduct  the  attorney's  fee  for  aiding  the  pen 


r.\TEN'T   OFFICE. 


/ 


\ 


620 


DEPARTiiENT  OF  THE  i:;t:::uor. 


/ 


sioner.    He  retains  a  fee  of  thirty  cents  for  this  service.    Pension  sur 
geons  receive  $i,Soo  a  year;  the  medical  referee  receives  $2,500. 

Boards  of  examining-  surgeons  consist  of  three  members.  In  ordinary 
cases  each  member  receives  one  dollar  fee;  in  special  examinations, 


tin-. 


;  doUa 


Patent  Office. 


In  this  Bureau  are  kept  all  records,  books,  models,  drawings,  speci- 
fications and  other  paocrs  and  things  belonging  to  patents  for  inven- 
tions. 

The  Commissioner  of  Patents  and  the  chief  clerk  are  required  to 
give  bond.  I  o  officer  or  employe  in  the  Patent  Office  is  allowed  to 
acquire  or  take  during  his  or  her  term  of  office  any  right  or  interest  in 
any  patent  issued  by  the  office.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents  has 
copies  of  patent  claims,  laws,  regulations  and  circulars  printed  for 
tlic  information  of  the  public.  He  makes  an  annual  report  to  Congress 
of  all  matters  committed  to  his  charge. 


The  Secret.iry  of  the  Interior  also  has  supervision  of  the  Government 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  and  the  Columbia  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institu- 
tion in  the  District  of  Columbia. 


Agriculture. 


The  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  although  the  Commissioner  is  appointed 
directly  by  the  President,  is  a  branch  of  the  Interior  Department. 

This  Bureau  was  created  by  Congress  to  acquire  and  distribute 
among  the  people  of  the  United  States  useful  information  on  subjects 
connected  with  agriculture,  and  to  procure,  propagate  and  distribute 
among  the  people  valuable  plants  and  seeds.  The  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture  is  appointed  by  the  President,  and  has  for  his  subordinates 
a  chief  clerk,  one  chemist,  one  assistant  chemist,  one  entomologist, 
one  microscopist,  one  botanist,  one  statistician,  one  superintendent  of 
experimental  gardens  and  grounds,  one  assistant  superintendent  of 
same,  one  disbursing  clerk,  one  superintendent  of  seed  room,  one 
assistan'   superintendent   of  same,  one   librarian,  one  engineer,  one 


Bureau  of  Education. 

The  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of  this  Bureau  consist  in  the  collec- 
tion of  facts  and  figures  showing  the  condition  and  progress  of  educ.i- 
tion  in  the  several  States  and  Territories,  to  diffuse  information  with 
regard  to  the  management  of  schools  and  methods  of  teaching,  and 
promote  the  cause  of  education. 

The  Miscellaneous  Offices. 

Besides  the  six  main  heads  under  which  the  workings  of  the  Interior 
Department  are  carried  on,  there  are  the  office  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Documents,  .and  the  Returns  Office.  The  first  needs  no  de- 
scription ;  the  latter  is  an  office  where  the  returns  of  all  contracts  made 
by  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  arc  filed  and  indexed.  Certified  copies  of  any  of  their 
returns   are  furnished  at  a  charge  of  five  cents  per  hundred  words. 


supermtendtnt   of  folding-room,  two  attendants  in  museum  and  one 
carpenter. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  to  procure  and 
preserve  all  the  information  he  can  obtain  concerning  agriculture,  by 
means  of  books,  correspondence,  experiments,  practical  and  scientific* 
collecting  statistics,  and  by  any  appropriate  method  in  his  power.  lie 
is  also  required  to  collect  seeds  and  plants,  to  test  them  by  cultivation, 
propagate  those  that  are  worthy,  and  distribute  them  among  agricul 
turists. 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior. 


Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio.  1S49 
Alexander  H.  H.  Stewart.Va.  1S50 

Robert  McClelland,  Mich.  1S53 

Jacob  Thompson,  Miss.  1S57 

Caleb  B.  Smith,  Ind.  iS6i 

John  P.  Usher,  Ind.  1S63 

James  Harlan,  Iowa.  1S65 


O.  H.  Brownmg,  III. 
Jacob  D.  Cox. 
Columbus  Delano. 
Zachariah  Chandler. 
Carl  Schurz. 
Samuel  J.  Kirkwood. 
Henry  M.  Teller,  Col. 


1S66 
1S69 
1S70 

1S75 
1S77 
iSSi 


L.  Q.  C.  Lamar,  Miss.  1885. 


\ 


THE    ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 


621 


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(LA 


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i  > 


'^"^frtf'i?7i>'-'"--^- 


'Yi-'if1-iMi*f^-^-* 


r-*-'»'i^THE  / 


/:=s<»^. 


"■^^^m. 


» ^^ATTORNEY-GENERAL.     4^^^^ 


(im> 


'•rC^HE     Attorney-General     of     the 

i 
Zf     United  States  has  charge  of  the  De- 
partment   of   Justice.       The    officers 
under  him  are  the  Solicitor-General, 
three  Assistant  Attorneys-General,   a 
Solicitor  o£  the  Treasurj*,  a  Solicitor  of 
Internal   Revenue,  a  Naval  Solicitor 
and  an    Examiner  of  Claims    for    the     De- 
partment   of    State,    all    of    whom    are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  hold  office  for 
,  four  years. 

%\'hcnevcr  required  by  the  President,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  Attorney-General  to  ^ve  his  advice 
1-j    and  opinion  on  questions  of  law.     He  must 
decide  on  the  validity  of  the  land-title  to  any 
Xy^J  ^h^^y  property  where  the  Government  proposes  to 

^    (^  erect  buildings. 

He  must  give  his  opinion  on  any  question  of  law  arising  in  any  of 
the  Executive  Departments,  when  called  upon  by  the  head  of 
such  Department. 

He  superintends  the  District  Attorneys  and  Marshals  of  the  United 
Slates,  and  may  employ  other  counsel  to  aid  District  Attorneys  in 
their  duties.  He  may  send  the  Solicitor-General  or  any  officer  of 
his  Department  to  any  State  or  district  of  the  United  States,  to  attend 
•o  the  interests  of  the  Government  in  any  Federal  or  State  court.  He  has 
supcr\'ision  of  the  accounts  of  District  Attorneys,  Marshals,  Clerks  and 
other  officers  of  the  United  States  courts.  He  signs  all  requisitions 
for  the  payment  of  moneys  appropriated  for  the  use  of  his  Department. 


He  reports  to  Congress  annually  a  full  account  of  the  business  of 
his  Department  during  the  year,  the  expenses  of  the  Federal  courts, 
number  of  pending  suits,  number  of  additional  counsel  and  attorneys 
employed,  statistics  of  crime,  etc.  The  approval  of  the  Attorney- 
General  is  necessary  to  make  the  opinions  of  his  subordinates  valid. 

All  questions  of  law  referred  to  him  he  may  submit  to  his  subor- 
dinates for  examination  and  opinion,  except  such  questions  as  involve 
a  construction  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  St.ites. 

The  officers  of  this  Department  assist  in  performing  all  legal  service 
required  for  the  other  Departments,  in  prosecuting  or  defending  Gov- 
ernment claims  and  suits.  The  travelling  expenses  of  the  officers  of 
this  Department  when  on  dut>"  are  paid  in  addition  to  their  salaries. 

Attorneys-General. 

Edmund  Randolph,  Va. 
William  Bradford,  Penn. 
Charles  Lee,  Va. 
Levi  I^incoln,  Mass. 
Robert  Smith,  Md. 
John  Brcckenridge,  Ky. 
Ca;sar  A.  Rodney,  Del. 
William  Pinkney,  Md. 
Richard  Rush,  Penn. 
William  Wirt,  Va. 
John  M.  Berrien,  Ga. 

Roger  B.  Taney,  Md. 
Benjamin  T.  Butler,  N.  Y. 
Felix  Grundy,  Tenn. 
Henry  D.  Gilpin,  Penn. 
John  J.  Crittenden,  Ky. 
Hugh  S.  Lcgarc,  S.  C. 
John  Nelson,  Md. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Va. 


A.  H. 


.7S9 

Nathan  Clifford,  Me. 

■  &(6 

'794 

Isaac  Touccy,  Conn. 

1S4S 

'795 

Rcverdy  Johnson,  Md. 

1S49 

iSoi 

John  J.  Crittenden,  Ky. 

1S50 

1805 

Caleb  Cushing,  Mass. 

1S53 

iSos 

Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Penn. 

1S57 

1S07 

Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Penn, 

)S6o 

iSii 

Edward  Hates,  Mo. 

iSrtl 

1S.4 

James  Speed,  Ky. 

.S<i4 

.S.7 

Henry  Stanbery,  Ohio. 

lS(J6 

1S29 

William  M.  Evarts. 

1S6S 

■s.v 

E.  Rockwood  Hoar. 

lS«9 

■sh 

Amos  T.  Ackerman. 

1S70 

.s,,s 

George  H.  Williams, 

1S71 

i8,|o 

Edwards  Pierpont. 

1S7S 

1S41 

Alphonso  Taft, 

1S76 

.&,. 

Charles  Devcns. 

1S77 

■&t4 

Wayne  MacVt-agh, 

iSSi 

■&4S 
rarlan 

Benjamin  H.  Urcwster. 
d,  Ark.  1885, 

iSSi 

\ 


\ 


622 


THE    SUPREME    COURT. 


/ 


^!T^ 


[5H?][5Ua[5TfHJ[S]fHJ[SUa[5ifH][5n^ 


rz][sji?]5uz][sirg[siR][sirH^ 


"The  judiciiil  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Su- 
preme Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish." — Cojistitutiott. 

Judges  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts  hold  office  during- 
good  behavior,  and  there  can  be  no  decrease  in  the  compensation  they 
receive  during  their  continuance  in  office.  The  power  of  the  judiciary 
extends  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising  under  the  Constitution, 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  and  all  treaties  ^vith  foreign  countries. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  consists  of  a  Chief  Justice 
and  eight  Associate  Justices,  appointed  by  the  President. 

Precedence  of  the  Associate  Justices  is  according  to  the  dates  of  their 
commissions.  Should  the  commissions  of  two  or  more  bear  the  same 
date,  precedence  will  be  according  to  their  age. 

Should  a  vacancy  occur  in  the  office  of  Chief  Justice,  his  duties  de- 
volve upon  the  Associate  Justice  who  is  first  in  precedence. 

If  one  of  these  Judges,  after  having  held  office  for  ten  years,  being 
then  seventy  years  of  age,  resigns,  he  will  receive  for  the  remainder  of 
his  life  the  same  compensation  as  he  did  whilst  a  member  of  the  court. 

Anj'  six  of  the  Justices  form  a  quorum. 

The  Supreme  Court  appoints  a  clerk,  a  marshal  and  a  reporter. 

The  Clerk  is  under  the  same  oath,  restrictions  and  bond  as  the 
clerks  in  the  United  States  District  Courts.  Deputy  clerks  when  needed 
may  be  appointed  and  removed  by  the  court. 

The  Marshal  is  required  to  attend  the  court  at  its  sessions,  to 
serve  and  execute  all  processes  and  orders  issuing  from  it,  or  made  by 
the  Chief  or  Associate  Justices,  in  pursuance  of  Law,  and  to  take  charge 
of  all  property  of  the  United  States  used  by  the  court  or  its  members. 
He  may,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Chief  Justice,  appoint  assist- 
ants and  messengers  to  attend  court,  with  the  same  allowance  of  com- 


pensation as  is  received  by  similar  officers  in  tlae  Lower  House  of 
Congress. 

The  Reporter  of  the  Supreme  Court  must  print  and  publish  the 
decisions  of  the  court  within  eight  months  after  they  are  made,  and 
everj'  subsequent  year  he  must  issue  a  similar  volume.  He  receives 
for  his  first  volume  $2,5cx),  and  for  each  of  the  succeeding  ones  $1,500. 
They  must  be  completed  at  the  prescribed  time. 

Annually,  beginning  on  the  second  Monday  in  October,  tlie  Su- 
preme Court  holds  its  session.  Adjourned  or  special  terms  are  held 
when  necessarj'. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  pointed  out  by  the  Consti- 
tution, and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  In  action  at  law  against  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  trials  of  issues  of  fact  are  always  by  jury. 


Federal  Courts. 


t  Chief  Justice,        (  Clerk. 
Supreme  Court    <  Eight  Associate   )  Marshal. 
(     Justices.  I  Reporter. 


I  Attorney-General, 
olicitor- General. 


(  The  9  Justices  of  (  Clerk? 

9  Circuit  Courts   ^Supreme,  and  9  <  Distri 

( Circuit-Judges.  (     shal 

SSDistrict Courts  <  SS  Judges. 


istrictMar 
shals. 


t  Clerks. 
}  Marshals. 
(  Grand  Juries. 
Juries  are  called  In  all  courts  when  requisite. 


5  Ati 
iSo: 


District     Attor- 
neys. 


istnct 
neys. 


Attor- 


Districts. 

The  United  States  are  divided  into  fifty-five  Federal  judicial  districts. 
A  Judge  is  appointed  for  each  district  by  the  President.  Each  Judge 
must  reside  in  the  district  for  which  he  is  appointed.  All  the  records 
of  the  court  are  kept  at  the  place  where  the  District  Court  is  held. 


Al 


THE    LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT. 


623 


/ 


3£fgMP^pgfP^p£fg£f3'^f3^7g^TgSf3Sf^ 


foY^g 


I,     <^THE  LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMENT.^* 


Irnl:r  rliiiir^iTf^izrrgllzHi^ll^r^Jg 


Duties  of  the  American  Congress. 


iities   and   rc- 


,-.,.^       •"•?'•        \\Jy 

If^*'  ■'-"'■;  '^-^-  LTIIOUGH  the  dul 
'-^  -  *!^^ "  "^.'S  sponsibilitics  of  the  American  Con- 
gress are  very  plainly  laid  down  in 
the  Constitution,  a  further  exam- 
ination of  the  functions  of  the 
Legislative  Department  cannot  but 
be  of  interest.  Congress  is  divided 
into  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 
Representatives,  a  division  which 


V  was  made  because  our  Government 
was  founded  upon  the  model  of  England, 
whose  Parliament  consists  of  a  House  of  Peers 
and  a  House  of  Commons.  The  Senate  is 
supposed  to  play  the  same  part  in  American 
legislation  which  the  House  of  Peers  does  in 
Britam.  It  is  a  sort  of  governor  in  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  body  politic,  which  exerts  a  con- 
servative and  prudent  influence  on  law-making. 
The  Senate  originally,  although  that  meaning 
has  been  largely  neglected,  meant  the  conclave 
of  the  sovereign  States  of  the  Union,  a  council  which  was  to 
look  more  closely  after  the  general  and  external  affairs  of  the 
confederacy,  while  the  House  of  Representatives  was  to  repre- 
sent the  people  of  the  whole  Union.  This  meaning,  it  has  been 
said  above,  has  been  largely  lost  in  the  course  of  time,  but  the 
fiction  remains,  and  the  division  of  the  powers  of  Government 
between  the  two  bodies  illustrates  the  purpose  which  the  fathers 
of  the  Government  had  in  the  original  separation  into  two 
Houses. 

The  Senate. 

The  Senate  consists  of  two  Senators  from  each  State  of  the  Federal 
Union  ;  these  Senators  are  chosen  by  the  I-egislaturcs  of  the  respective 
States  and  hold  office  for  six  years.  There  was  a  strong  effort  made 
at  the  time  of  the  drafting  of  the  Constitution  to  extend  the  term  for 
life,  but  this  was  believed  to  savor  too  much  of  aristocracy,  and  after 
long  debate  six  years  was  agreed  upon  as  a  compromise  measure. 
The  pay  of  Senators  is  $5,000  per  year.  The  Senate  is  presided  over 
by  the  Vice-President,  and  when  he  has  for  any  cause  vacated  his 
office  a  Presidcnt/ro  tempore  of  the  Senate  is  elected.  There  are 
now  (1SS3)  seventy-six  Senators.  All  impeachments  are  tried  by 
the  Senate,  and  when  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  on  tnal  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  must  preside.  The  Senate  must  ap- 


prove of  treaties  made  with  foreign  governments  by  the  President  be 
fore  they  can  become  binding,  and  the  consent  of  the  Senate  is  nee* 
essary  to  the  appointments  to  all  the  great  offices  of  the  State  made 
by  the  President.  The  Senate  is  the  only  permanent  body  in  the 
United  States  Government,  the  elections  being  always  so  ordered  thai 
two-thirds  of  the  Senators  hold  over. 


The  House  of  Representatives. 

l.x\  the  early  days  of  the  Federal  Union  the  only  legislative  body  was 
the  Continental  Congress,  which  exercised  both  the  executive  and 
legislative  functions  of  government,  and  which  occasionally  per- 
formed judicial  duties  also.  The  old  Congress  piloted  the  nation 
through  the  Revolutionary  war,  but,  although  effective  for  its  original 
purpose,  it  was  not  able  for  the  work  which  fell  upon  its  shoulders 
under  the  articles  of  confederation.  The  articles  themselves  were 
imsuited  to  the  land,  and  in  a  little  while  it  became  evident  that  the 
United  States  experiment  would  end  in  disaster  and  disappointment 
unless  something  was  done  to  give  it  shape  and  direction. 

The  man  that  had  led  the  Continental  Army  to  glorj'  and  freedom 
through  the  Revolution  again  came  fonvard  and  preserved  by  his 
wise  statesmanship  the  Republic  which  his  military  genius  had 
founded.  At  the  call  of  George  Washington  the  American  Constitu- 
tion was  born,  and  the  keystone  of  the  Constitution  is  the  House  of 
Representatives.  This  body  is  the  brain  of  the  nation;  on  its  floor 
all  the  momentous  issues  of  the  Republic  have  been  settled;  no 
higher  office  can  a  citizen  win  than  a  seat  in  the  council  of  the 
Nation,  none  greater  in  the  influence  which  it  wields,  not  for  America 
alone,  but  for  the  future  of  the  human  race. 

The  number  of  Representatives  is  decided  by  the  census,  which  is 
taken  every  ten  years.  As  soon  as  this  is  done.  Congress  decides  upon 
the  number  of  Representatives  for  the  ensuing  decade.  The  number 
since  the  L-stftblishment  of  the  Constitution  has  been  as  follows; 

la^S— iSS3.        .        ■        .        223 
1S53-1S63,  .        .  237 

1S63— 1S73,        ...        243 
1S73-JSS3.  ■        ■  293 

1SS3— 1S93,        ...        325 


17S9- 

>"93- 
1S03- 
1S13- 
1823- 
1833- 


■  1793. 
■1S03, 

1S13, 
■ 1S23, 

1S33. 

'S43, 


65 
105 
149 
1S9 

3>3 

240 


These  Congressmen  are  paid  $5,000  a  year,  with  certain  additions  in 
the  shape  of  mileage,  stationery,  etc.,  etc.  The  qualifications  for  a 
Representative  are  fully  explained  in  the  Constitution. 


[N 


624 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


"Tf 


■K^J)MXKK 


El}<2  various  Eilmcnts  of  tl^c  ^uman  ISoby,  anb 
l^ou)  to  STrcat  STf^em. 


<^— »-»4^1^^*l"'' 


ft. 


^HE  mechanism  to  be  studied  in  the  body  of  a  living 

animal — more  particularly  the  highest  of  all  animals, 

I  ,"     man — is  of  such  wonder  and  beauty,  exquisite  finish 

I  T      and  perfection,  that,  could  it  all  be  comprehended 

CT^''  and  long  enough  retained  by  the  memory  to  afford 
one  broad  contemplation  of  its  simplest  facts,  all  the  triumphs 
of  art  could  bear  no  relation  to  its  loveliness. 

Huxley  so  concisely  and  clearly  begins  his  delightful  little 
volume  of  Elementary  Physiology,  that  for  the  purposes  of 
this  article  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  his  opening  lines. 
"  The  body  of  a  living  man,"  he  says,  "  performs  a  great  divers- 
ity of  actions,  some  of  whicli  are  quite  obvious,  others  require 
more  or  less  careful  observation,  and  yet  others  can  be  detected 
only  by  the  most  delicate  appliances  of  science. 

"  Thus  some  part  of  the  body  of  a  living  man  is  plainly  always 
in  motion.  Even  in  sleep,  when  the  limbs,  head  and  eyelids 
may  be  still,  the  incessant  rise  and  fall  of  the  chest  continues  to 
remind  us  that  we  are  viewing  slumber  and  not  death. 

"  More  careful  observation  is  needed,  however,  to  detect  the 
motion  of  the  heart,  or  the  pulsation  of  the  arteries,  or  the 
changes  in  the  size  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  with  varying  light, 
or  to  ascertain  that  the  air  which  is  breathed  out  of  the  body 
is  hotter  and  damper  than  that  which  is  taken  in  by  breathing. 

"  .'Vnd  lastly,  when  we  try  to  ascertain  what  happens  in  the 
eye  when  that  organ  is  adjusted  to  different  distances,  or  what  in 
a  nerve  when  it  is  excited  ;  or  of  what  materials  flesh  and  blood 
are  made;  or  in  virtue  of  what  mechanism  it  is  that  a  sudden 
pain  makes  one  start — we  have  to  call  into  operation  all  the 
methods  of  inductive  and  deductive  logic,  all  the  resources  of 
physics  and  chemistry,  and  all  of  the  delicacies  of  the  art  of 
experiment." 

It  is  plainly  obvious  that  man  differs  from  the  stones  and 
earth,  the  flowers  and  trees,  and  all  inanimate  objects.  He  is 
warm,  whilc'these  things  are  cold;  he  is  able  to  move  about  at 


will  while  they  must  remain  always  in  one  place ;  he  can  exert 
power  and  force,  while  they  must  remain  forever  inactive;  he  is 
possessed  of  mind  and  purpose  to  guide  him,  while  they  are 
influenced  only  by  the  elements. 

Combustion  and  Heat. 

Now  warmth  is  clearly  due  to  the  burning  of  something. 
The  warmth  of  the  day  and  the  heat  of  the  summer  come  to 
us  from  that  gi'eat  central  fire,  the  sun,  whose  flames  leap  up 
from  its  surface  tens  of  thousands  of  miles.  The  warm  breezes 
at  night,  when  the  sun  does  not  shine  upon  us,  and  the  temper- 
ate winds  which  from  time  to  time  visit  us  in  winter,  all  gain 
their  warmth  from  some  great  tract  of  southern  land  or  tropical 
body  of  water,  which,  previously  heated  by  the  fires  of  the  sun, 
now  radiates  the  heat  absorbed  therefrom,  warming  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  which,  moving  in  currents,  carries  heat 
from  the  tropics  even  to  the  very  poles. 

Wlien  the  sun's  heat  is  not  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  we  make 
artificial  fires  of  wood,  coal,  oil  or  gas.  There  is  no  heat  or 
warmth,  however  slight,  that  is  not  produced  hy  combustion,  or 
oxidation,  or,  in  other  words,  the  burning  of  something.  But 
all  things  do  not  oxidize  or  burn  with  a  flame,  as  in  the  case 
of  our  furnace  fires.  You  every  day  see  objects  burn  with- 
out coming  to  a  blaze,  but  only  with  the  red  glow  of  a  live 
coal.  Other  things  you  see  burn  and  crumble  to  ashes  which 
never  even  come  to  a  glow.  If  you  hold  over  a  lamp,  and  at 
a  little  distance  from  it,  a  piece  of  writing-paper,  it  will  burn 
black  and  finally  crumble  in  ashes  without  showing  a  single 
spark  of  fire  or  light,  and  yet  it  so  rapidly  burns  that  it  crum- 
bles to  pieces  in  the  space  of  only  a  few  moments.  The  char- 
acter or  appearance  of  combustion  or  oxidation  depends  entirely 
upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the  article  is  burned.  Thus,  .some 
objects  burn  with  an  explosion,  some  with  aflame,  some  with  a 
glow,  while  some  show  only  a  simple  evolution  of  heat.     Gun- 


VL 


KT 


PHVSIOI.OC.Y  AND  MEDIC. NIC. 


625 


"^ 


powder  so  quickly  burns  that  great  force  is  exerted,  though  we 
see  but  a  single  flash  of  light.  Dry  pine  burns  far  more  slowly  ; 
the  force  of  its  heat  is  distributed  over  a  greater  length 
of  time,  and  hence  there  is  no  disastrous  explosion,  though 
it  burns  with  a  roaring  flame.  Peat  burns  still  more  slowly, 
and  with  the  glow  of  a  live  coal.  In  the  slaking  of  fresh 
lime  an  oxidation  or  burning  takes  place,  and  great  heat 
is  given  off,  but  there  is  no  flame,  no  glow,  no  spark  of  light. 
A  thousand  things  burn  still  more  slowly,  some  of  them  requir- 
ing years  or  centuries,  under  certain  conditions,  in  oxidation, 
and,  while  constantly  giving  off  heat,  the  burning  is  so  slow  and 
the  amount  of  heat  given  off  therefore  so  exceedingly  small, 
that  it  is  not  detectable  except  by  the  most  delicate  instruments 
of  science. 

If  combustion  takes  place  almost  instantly,  as  in  the  case  of 
dynamite,  or  gunpowder,  or  certain  gases,  we  call  the  result 
explosion.  If  it  goes  on  more  slowly,  as  with  wood,  coal  or 
peat,  we  call  the  process  burning.  If  combustion  takes  place 
still  more  slowly,  as  in  slacking  lime,  or  in  a  bin  of  wheat  or 
barley,  where  heat  is  given  off,  but  without  a  spark  of  fire 
or  light  visible,  we  commonly  call  the  process  oxidation.  Thus, 
you  see,  the  words  explosion,  combustion,  burning  and  oxida- 
tion mean  practically  one  and  the  same  thing,  and  that  all 
force,  or  heat,  or  warmth,  comes  from  the  oxidation  or  burning 
of  something,  cither  rapidly  or  slowly,  visibly  or  invisibly. 

"  If  a  mass  of  seeds  be  laid  together,"  says  Draper,  "  as  barley 
in  the  making  of  malt,  the  operation  conducted  at  a  gentle  tem- 
perature, and  with  the  access  of  atmospheric  air,  oxygen  disap- 
pears, carbonic  acid  is  set  free,  and  the  temperature  rises  forty 
or  fifty  degrees.  A  process  of  oxidation  must,  therefore,  have 
been  carried  into  effect,  and  to  it  we  trace  the  heat  disengaged  ; 
for  carbon  cannot  produce  carbonic  acid  without  a  rise  of  tem- 
perature ensuing.  The  loss  of  weight  which  the  seed  exhibits 
is  therefore  due  to  its  loss  of  carbon,  and  the  whole  effect  is 
explained  in  the  statement  that  atmospheric  air  has  united  with 
a  portion  of  the  carbon  contained  in  the  seed,  producing  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  an  evolution  of  heat." 

If  we  put  a  lighted  candle  into  a  glass  jar  and  seal  it  up  air- 
tight, it  will  continue  to  burn  for  a  certain  time,  the  duration  of 
which  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  jar  ;  the  flame  will  grow 
less  'and  less,  until  finally  it  will  go  out,  and  the  candle  will 
cease  to  burn.  As  soon  as  the  air  in  the  jar  has  coole  1  a  little, 
drops  of  moisture  will  collect  on  the  inside  of  the  jar,  showing 
that  in  burning  the  candle  has  given  off  water.  If  we  now  open 
the  jar  and  test  the  temperature  with  a  thermometer,  we  find  the 
air  of  the  jar  warmer  than  when  the  candle  was  put  into  it,  showing 
that  in  burning  heat  was  given  off.  If  we  now  force  some  of 
the  air  of  the  jar  through  lime  water,  the  water  becomes  milky 
from  the  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime,  showing  the  presence 
of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  of  the  jar,  which  was  not  present 
before  the  burning  of  the  candle — showing  that  in  the  burning 
carbonic  acid  was  given  off.  If  a  further  analysis  be  made  it 
will  be  discovered  that  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  jar  has  dis- 
appeared, and  if  the  candle  be  weighed,  it  will  be  I'ound  to  have 
lost  weight. 

Such  is  the  result  of  all  combustion  or  oxidation — /icat  is 
given  off,  luatcr  and  carbonic  acid  are  evolved,  oxygen  is  con- 
sumed, and  the  burning  object  loses  substance. 


Oxidation  and  Animal  Heat. 
If,  in  winter,  we  place  a  healthy  living  man  in  a  cold,  dry 
room  with  closed  glass  windows,  having  carefully  noted  the 
temperature  of  the  room  and  the  exact  weight  of  the  man,  and 
shut  him  in  as  we  did  the  burning  candle  in  the  glass  jar,  and 
then  require  him  to  walk  up  and  down  for  an  hour,  the  same 
important  facts  may  be  observed  as  in  the  case  of  the  candle. 
In  his  exercise  he  will  have  obviously  exerted  a  great  amount  of 
mechanical  force — as  nmch  at  least  as  would  he  required  to  lift  his 
own  weight  as  high  and  as  often  as  he  has  raiseil  himself  at  every 
step,  which,  in  the  aggregate,  would  be  about  a  mile  or  more 
above  the  ground.  At  the  end  of  an  hour  let  the  temperature 
of  the  room  again  be  taken,  and  it  will  be  found  to  be  warmer 
than  at  the  beginning.  The  man  has,  therefore,  given  off  heat. 
If  the  windows  of  the  room  be  observed,  the  glass  will  be  found 
covered  with  the  vapor  of  water,  which,  if  the  air  outside  be 
sufficiently  cold,  will  be  converted  into  ice  or  frost,  such  as  is 
seen  in  the  morning  upon  the  window-panes  of  our  sleeping- 
rooms  in  winter — showing  that  he  has  given  off  water.  I  f  some 
of  the  air  in  the  room  be  now  forced  through  lime  water,  the 
water  will  be  found  milky  from  the  precipitate  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  showing  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  which, 
like  the  heat  and  the  water,  has  been  given  off  by  the  man,  just 
as  we  have  seen  that  heat,  water  and  carbonic  acid  are  given  off 
by  a  burning  candle. 

And  so,  if  the  air  of  the  room  be  further  analyzed,  a  large 
amount  of  oxygen  will  be  found  to  have  disappeared.  The 
flame  of  the  candle  died  and  the  light  went  out  when  all  the 
oxygen  in  the  jar  had  been  consumed  ;  so  would  the  fires  of  life  in 
the  man  likewise  have  died  out  had  he  not  been  released  before 
all  the  oxygen  in  the  closed  room  had  been  breathed  into  his  lungs 
and  consumed.  Furthermore,  if  the  man  be  now  again  weighed 
at  the  end  of  the  hour,  he  will  be  found  to  have  lost  weight  just 
as  the  candle  lost  weight  in  burning  and  the  barley  in  oxida- 
tion. Thus,  in  the  concise  language  of  Huxley  :  "A  living, 
active  man  constantly  exerts  mechanical  force,  gives  off  heat, 
evolves  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  undergoes  a  loss  of  sub- 
stance. "  In  other  words,  his  tissues  are  constantly  burning  up, 
or  oxidizing,  and  when  this  process  ceases  he  grows  cold  and 
dies.  Oxidation  of  the  candle  is  started  by  apjilying  a  flame  to 
the  wick.  Once  b^gun,  it  needs  no  further  aid.  The  oxygen  of 
the  air  unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  candle,  and  the  evolution 
of  heat,  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  in  the  form  of  vapor  is  the 
result,  and  the  process  continues  until  the  candle  is  consume<i  or 
the  supply  of  oxygen  shut  off. 

As  w^e  have  seen,  a  man,  like  the  lighted  candle,  is  con- 
stantly burning  up,  or  oxidizing — giving  off  heat  and  water  and 
carbonic  acid,  and  the  ashes  of  his  burned  tissues.  He  loses 
every  day  300  grains  of  nitrogen  (which  is  the  ashes  of  his  mu.s- 
cles),  six  and  a  half  pounds  of  water,  and  burns  ten  and  a  half 
ounces  of  carbon.  Altogether  he  loses  from  seven  to  ten  pounils 
in  weight  daily.  It  is  clear  that  this  state  of  things  could  not 
continue  very  many  days  or  the  man  would  dwindle  to  nothing- 
ness. He  would  last  but  a  few  days  longer  than  his  candle. 
Bu:  long  before  this  loss  of  substance  can  be  noticed  by  another 
it  is  felt  by  the  subject,  who  suffers  from  hunger  and  thirst.  He 
takes  food  and  drink,  which  being  digested  and  made  into 
blood,  his  wasted  tissues  are  repaireil,  and  the  loss  by  oxidation 


VL- 


626 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


-A 


is  made  good.  A  man  may  be  likened  to  a  lamp  that  is  cease- 
lessly fed  and  as  ceaselessly  wastes  away.  Or  he  may  be  likened 
to  a  steam  engine.  The  food  which  he  takes,  digests,  assimi- 
lates and  burns,  corresponds  to  the  coal  which  is  burned  in  the 
furnace  of  the  machine  ;  his  warmth  and  life  and  strength  cor- 
respond to  the  heat  and  power  of  the  engine.  The  warmth  and 
strength  of  the  man  and  the  heat  and  power  of  the  engine  are 
due  to  the  fuel  burned  in  the  tissues  of  the  one  and  the  furnace 
of  the  other. 

Power  and  Life  Due  to  Heat. 

All  force,  of  whatever  kind,  is  due  to  heat.  A  large  part 
of  the  machinery  of  the  world  is  run  by  steam  power,  which 
is  produced  by  heat.  The  winds  are  caused  by  the  heated 
tracts  of  land  or  bodies  of  water,  where  the  atmosphere  in 
consequence  becomes  rarified,  and  currents  of  colder  air  rush 
across  the  face  of  the  earth  with  gentle,  or  sometimes  terrific 
force,  to  fill  the  vacuum.  All  the  force  of  the  stream  and  the 
waterfall  is  due  to  heat,  which  evaporates  the  water  of  the  sea, 
and,  lifting  it  up  in  vapor,  carries  it  in  the  warm  breezes  back 
to  the  high  land,  where,  cooling,  it  falls  in  rain  and  rushes  with 
force  through  guUeys  and  the  river-beds  back  to  the  sea.  In 
like  manner  heat  is  the  cause  of  power  in  animals  and  men. 
Food  is  the  fuel ;  the  entire  body  is  the  furnace  ;  through  the 
lungs  is  the  draft  of  air.  Oxidation  and  heat  and  life  and 
power  and  force  are  the  result. 

But  the  fuel  proper  for  the  steam  engine  is  wholly  unsuitable 
for  this  human  engine.     To  enable  the  body  to  continue  exert- 


ing force  and  giving  out  heat,  water  and  carbonic  acid  at  the 
same  rate,  for  an  indefinite  period,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  body  should  be  supplied  with  three  things,  and  with 
three  only.  These  are  fresh  air,  water  and  food.  Mr.  Huxley 
says:  "  In  a  properly  nourished  man  a  stream  of  food  is  con- 
stantly entering  the  body  in  the  shape  of  complex  compounds 
containing  comparatively  little  oxygen  ;  as  constantly  the  ele- 
ments of  the  food  {whether  before  or  after  they  have  formed  a 
part  of  the  living  substance)  are  leaving  the  body  combined 
with  more  oxygen.  And  the  incessant  breaking  down  and  oxi- 
dation of  the  complex  compounds  which  enter  the  body  are 
definitely  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  force  which  the  body 
exerts,  whether  in  the  shape  of  heat  sr  otherwise.  Let  a  man 
lift  a  heavy  body  from  the  ground,  and  the  loss  of  weight 
which  he  would  have  undergone  without  that  exertion  will  be 
immediately  increased  by  a  definite  amount,  which  cannof  be 
made  good  unless  a  proportionate  amount  of  extra  food  be 
supplied  him;  just  in  the  same  way  as  the  amount  of  work  to 
be  gotten  out  of  a  steam  engine  and  the  amount  of  heat  it  and 
its  furnace  give  off  bear  a  strict  proportion  to  its  consumption 
of  fuel. " 

In  every  instance  the  production  of  animal  heat  and  force  is 
due  to  oxidation  taking  place  in  the  economy.  This  oxidation 
takes  place  in  the  blood,  and  in  the  tissues  themselves  in  every 
part  of  the  body.  The  food,  which  is  the  fuel  of  this  human 
engine,  before  it  can  reach  the  tissues  where  it  is  burned,  must 
undergo  elaborate  preparation. 


J^TKE.  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.*^ 


There  are  a  large  number  of  organs  whose  sole  use  is  the 
preparation  and  elaboration  of  the  food,  rendering  it  suitable 
for  consumption  by  the  economy.  These  organs,  taken  to- 
gether, are  kno\vn  as  the  digestive  organs.  They  consist  of 
machinery  for  dividing  and  grinding  the  food  and  testing  its 
quality  ;  of  glands  for  the  manufacture  of  chemical  fluids  for 
dissolving  it ;  of  receptacles  for  holding  and  warming  it  while 
it  is  acted  upon  by  the  dissolving  fluids ;  of  canals  through 
which  it  is  passed  from  one  receptacle  to  another  ;  of  absorb- 
ents which  take  up  and  carry  the  refined  product  into  the 
current  of  the  blood,  and  of  a  further  tube  to  carry  out  of  the 
l.ody  the  insoluble  and  unsuitable  constituents  of  the  mass  taken 
into  the  stomach.  The.se  organs  are  the  mouth,  tongue,  palate, 
teeth,  salivary  glands,  pharynx,  asophagus,  stomach,  small 
intestines,  large  intestines,  the  liver,  and  the  pancreas,  or 
sweetbread. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 
The  Mouth. 

The  mouth  is  the  cavity  into  which  food  is  first  introduced. 
It  is  supplied  with  organs  for  testing  the  quality  of  the  food  ; 
with  organs  for  dividing  and  grinding,  and  with  a  fluid  for 
moistening  and  softening,  and  for  converting  the  insoluble 
starch  of  the  food  into  a  soluble  sugar.  It  has  a  fixed  roof, 
formed  by  what   is  known  as  the  hard  palate  (3),  and   with  a 


movable  floor  made  up  of  the  tongue  and  the  lower  jaw. 
Around  the  sides  and  front  of  the  mouth  are  two  rows  of  sixteen 
teeth  each,  which  spring  from  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  out- 
side of  these  the  cavity  is  closed  at  the  sides  by  the  cheeks,  and 
in  front  by  the  lips.  When  the  mouth  is  closed  the  tongue 
comes  in  close  contact  with  the  roof  (3),  and  back  of  the  hard 
palate  the  communication  with  the  nasal  cavity  and  the  pharynx 
is  further  impeded  by  a  curtain  of  flesh,  the  soft  palate,  in  the 
middle  of  which,  at  the  extreme  back  part  of  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth,  is  a  small  prolongation  or  teat  of  flesh,  the  uvula  (4). 
On  each  side  are  double  muscular  cords  (5  and  6),  which  are 
known  as  pillars  of  the  fauces,  and  between  these  on  each 
side  are  the  tonsils  (7).  At  the  back  part  of  the  base  of  the 
tongue  is  a  lid,  the  epiglotis  (g),  made  of  cartilage,  or  gristle, 
which  closes  the  entrance  to  the  trachea  (12).  Behind  the  uvula 
and  the  epiglotis  is  the  cavity  of  \\ift pharynx  (Sand  11),  which 
has  walls  of  muscles  and  covered  with  mucous  membrane.  It 
is  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  and  has  seven  openings 
into  it :  two  from  the  back  part  of  the  nasal  cavity ;  two  (one 
on  each  side)  above  and  close  to  these — the  openings  of  the 
eustachian  tube  (2),  leading  to  the  ears  ;  one  from  the  back  part 
of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  (S) ;  one  from  the  trachea  ( 12)  or  wind- 
pipe, and  one  leading  into  the  a-sophagus  (11)  or  gullet.  The 
whole  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  the  pharynx  (as  well  as  the  entire 
alimentary  tract,  which  includes  the  gullet,  stomach  and  intes- 


^ 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


627 


/ 


tines)  is  lined  l)y  a  delicate  membrane,  know'n  as  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. It  commences  on  the  li))s  where  it  joins  the  skin  ;  it  is  red 
and  moist  and  soft  and  tender  ;  its  structure  is  like  that  of  the 
skin,  only  more  delicate  and  more  easily  wounded.  It  is  full  of 
minute  little  glands  which  secrete  a  fluid  known  as  mucus,  and 
which  keep  the  membrane  moist.  Besides  these  little  mucous 
glands  there  are  three  pairs  of  large  glands  which  secrete 
three  diflerent  kinds  of  fluid,  known  as  saliva,  and  the  glands 
as  salivary  glands.  These  glands  are  named  according  to 
their  situation  :  the  sub-lingual,  under  the  tongue ;  the  sub- 
mascillary,  under  and  to  the  inside  of  the  lower  jaw.  The 
saliva  secreted  by  these  two  pairs  of  glands  is  emptied  into  the 
mouth  through  a  small  duct  under  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  The 
paroliii  gland  lies  in  front  of  the  car,  and  its  duct  opens  into 
the  mouth  on  the  inside  of  the  cheek  opposite  the  second  upper 
double  tooth. 

The  Teeth. 

Kach  of  the  thirty-two 
teeth  has  a  crown,  a  pulp, 
and  one  or  more  roots  or 
fangs,  which  are  received 
into  sockets  in  the  jaw-bone. 
The  teeth  are  composed  of 
ivory,  an  enamel  and  a  ce- 
ment which  securely  fastens 
the:n  iu  tlicir  sockets. 

Kvery  person  who  lives  to 
adult  life  is  given  two  sets 
of  teeth.  The  first  set,  con- 
sisting of  twenty  teeth  (ten 
above  and  ten  below),  are 
known  as  the  temporary  set, 
and  the  last,  consisting  of 
thirty-two  (sixteen  above 
and  sixteen  below ),  are 
known  as  the  permanent 
set. 

After  these,  now-a-day, 
a  person  can  have  as  many 
additional  sets  of  teeth  as 
he  can  pay  for. 

The  four  teeth  in  each 
ja.v  which  are  directly  in 
front  have  sharp,  chisel-like 
edges,  and  are  known  as  the 
incisors,  or  cutting  teeth. 
Ne.\t  these  on  each  side  is  a 
long,  round-cornered  and 
sharp  tooth,  something  like 
the  tooth  of  the  dog,   and 

hence  known  as  the  canine  or  tearing  tooth.  The  next  two 
teeth  on  each  side  have  two  prominent  points  or  cusps  on 
the  surface  of  the  crown,  and  are  therefore  called  bi-euspiiis. 
All  of  these  have  generally  but  a  single  root  or  fang.  The 
remaining  twelve  teeth  have  two  or  more  roots  and  broail, 
heavy  crowns,  and  are  known  as  molars  or  grinding  teeth. 
(See  Fig.  2. ) 


»,  Opening  of  the  eustachian  lube ; 


of  the  fauces;  7,  tonsil;  8  and  11.  pharynx;  9,  epiglotis;   12,  Iaryn-\. 


Each  tooth  is  sui>plied  with  blood-vessels  and  a  nerve,  which 
enter,  to  pass  into  the  pulp,  at  the  root  of  the  tooth,  as  shown 
by  the  illustration. 

When  solid  food  is  first  taken  into  the  mouth,  it  is  first 
submitted  to  division  and  grinding  by  the  teeth.  It  is  kept 
between  the  teeth  by  the  muscles  of  the  cheeks  on  the  outside, 
and  by  the  tongue  from  the  inside.  When  the  teeth  are  closed 
together  the  food  is  pressed  out  on  either  side,  but  is  immedi- 
ately replaced  by  the  action  of  these  nmscles,  and  this  is  con- 
tinued until  the  entire  mass  is  thoroughly  rubbe<l  down.  Dur- 
ing this  process  the  salivary  glands  have  been  excited  and  have 
poured  into  the  mouth  their  fluids,  which  have  become  incorpor- 
ated with  the  food,  while  the  glairy  mucus  from  the  mouth 
coats  the  bolus  of  food  thus  prepared  for  the  action  of  the 
stomach.  By  the  action  of  the  tongue  the  bolus  is  forced 
backward  into  the  pharynx,  the  soft  palate  and  valve  prevent- 
ing its  passage  upwards  into 
the  back  part  of  the  nasal 
cavity,  while  the  epiglotis 
closes  down  securely  over 
the  entrance  into  the  wind- 
pipe, and,  the  muscles  of 
the  pharynx  contracting 
upon  the  bolus,  the  move- 
ment or  act  of  swallowing 
is  performed.  The  bolus 
glides  over  the  epiglotis 
and  is  then  carried  through 
the  oesophagus,  or  gidlet, 
into  the  stomach,  where  it 
is  digested. 

The  Stomach. 
Tile  stomach  (  see  Kig.  3) 
is  llij  principal  organ  of 
digestion.  It  lies  immedi- 
ately below  the  diaphragm 
in  the  cavity  of  the  abdo- 
men, being  separated  from 
the  heart  and  lungs  above 
by  the  diaphragm,  anil  lies 
more  upon  the  right  side  of 
the  body  than  the  Wt.  It 
is  a  muscular  pouch,  being, 
when  moderately  full,  about 
twelve  inches  long  by  four 
:nchcs  deep.  It  is  covered 
on  the  outside  by  a  delicate, 
smooth  membrane,  which 
covers  also  the  intestines 
and  lines  the  entire  cavity 
of  the  abdomen.  This  membrane  secretes  a  small  amount  of 
fluid  in  health,  sufiicier.t  to  so  lubricate  its  surfaces  that  the 
organs  may  gliiie  over  each  other  without  injury.  The  stomach 
is  lined  by  the  mucous  membrane,  spoken  of  previously  as  lining 
the  entire  alimentary  tract.  This  membrane  in  the  stomach  is 
thick,  smooth,  soft  and  velvety.  When  the  stomach  is  empty  it 
lies  in  folds,  or  ruga'.     When  the  stomach  is  full  these  folds  are 


Fig.  1. 

3,  harj  palate 


,  soft  p.alate ;  5  and  6,  pillows 


/ 


V 


628 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


14- 


obliterated.  When  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  is 
examined  by  a  magnifying-glass,  it  presents  a  peculiar  honey- 
combed appearance,  which  is  due  to  the  opening  of  the  ducts 
from  little  glands  situated  in  and  beneath  the  membrane.  These 
glands  secrete  an  acid  fluid  known  as  the  gastric  Jtiice^  and  a 
certain  substance  known  as  pepsin,  which,  together,  have  the 
power  to  dissolve  a  certain  class  of  foods  known  as  proteids, 
presently  to  be  described.  The  stomach  has  two  openings,  one 
by  which  food  is  received  from  the  gullet,  or  cesophagus,  and 
called  the  cardiac  orifice ;  the  other  by  which  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  are  passed  into  the  small  intestine,  and  known  as 
the  pyloric  orifice,  which  is  guarded  by  a  kind  of  valve — the 
pylorus. 


Fig.  3. 

The    Intestines. 

The  intestines  form  one  long  convoluted  tube  with  muscular 
and  mucous  coats  like  the  stomach,  lie  wholly  within  the 
abdominal  cavity,  and  are  enveloped  by  the  peritoneum.  They 
are  divided  into  the  small  intestines  and  the  large  intestines, 
the  latter  having  a  far  greater  diameter  than  the  former.  The 
small  intestine  is  about  twenty  feet  long  and  divided  into  the 
duodenum,  the  jejunum  and  the  ilium.  The  lining  mucous 
membrane  is  thick,  velvety,  and  full  of  blood  vessels.  It  is 
thrown  into  transverse  folds,  which  are  about  two  inches  long, 
and  half  an  inch  in  depth  in  their  broadest  place,  and  are  called 
valvula  connivcntes.  These  folds  are  covered  by  a  net-work 
or  tufts  of  capillary  and  lacteal  vessels  known  as  villi.  These 
are  very  numerous  —  the  number  in  the  whole  length  of  the 
intestines  being  estimated  at  four  millions.  In  the  upper  part 
of  the  duodenum  empties  the  duct  from  the  pancreas  and  the 
bile  duct  from  the  liver,  both  of  which  organs  secrete  a  digest- 
ive fluid  which,  being  poured  into  the  duodenum,  completes 
the  solution  of  the  food  received  from  the  stomach. 

The  large  intestine  extends  from  the  termination  of  the  small 
intestine  to  the  outlet.  It  is  about  five  feet  in  length.  It 
differs  from  the  small  intestine  in  its  greater  size,  more  fixed 
position  and  its  sacculated  form.     It  is  divided  into  the  civcum. 


the  colon  and  the  rectum.  The  caecum  is  a  dilated  pouch, 
into  which  the  ilium  empties.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  side 
of  the  body  in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  Con- 
tinuous with  this  rises  the  colon.  It  passes  upward  on  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  until  it  reaches  the  under  surface  of  the  liver, 
when  it  crosses  transversely  to  the  left  side  of  the  body,  and 
then  descends.  It  is  lined  by  mucous  membrane,  but  its  struc- 
ture is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  attention  here. 


* 


lus 


Fig.  3. 

1,  4,  Liver:  2,  ligament  of  liver:  3,  gall-bladder:  5,  diaphragm;  6,  lower 
end  of  the  cesophagus ;  7,  stomach:  8,  10,  omentum;  9,  spleen;  11,  duo- 
denum; 12,  12,  small  intestine:  13,  ca;cum;  14,  ensiform  appendix:  15, 
15,  transverse  colon;   16,  descending  colon;   17,  urinary  bladder. 

The  Liver. 

The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body,  weighing  from 
three  to  four  pounds.  It  belongs  to  the  digestive  apparatus,  its 
function  being  chiefly  the  secretion  of  bile ;  still  it  undoubtedly 
effects  important  changes  in  the  blood  during  its  passage  through 
the  gland.  It  is  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  on  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  on  a  level  with  the  lower  ribs.  Its  upper 
.surface  is  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm,  w'hich  separates  the 
liver  from  the  right  lung.  It  measures,  from  side  to  side,  ten  to 
eleven  inches  ;  from  before  backwards,  six  to  seven  inches,  and 
is  about  three  inches  thick  in  its  thickest  part.  It  is  held  in 
place  by  strong  ligaments,  and  is  covered  by  the  same  serous 
membrane,  \ks peritoneum,  which  covers  the  stomach  and  other 
abdominal  organs.  The  liver  is  made  up  of  hepatic  or  liver 
cells,  whose  function  it  is  to  secrete  the  bile,  and  of  a  substance 
known  as  glycogen,  which  will  be  spoken  of  again.  The  bile 
or  gall  is  a  compound  fluid  of  golden  yellow  color,  and  very 


/_ 


_^ 


5^ 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


629 


~A 


bitter  in  taste,  and  the  total  quantity  secreted  in  twenty-four 
hours  is  probably  not  less  than  two  or  three  pounds.  It  is 
both  a  secretion^  i.e.,  an  essential  digestive  fluid,  and  an 
excretion,  i.e.,  contains  elements  of  waste — the  ashes,  so  to 
speak,  of  oxidized  tissues,  which,  being  emptied  into  the  intes- 
tines, are  carried  out  of  the  body. 

The  Pancreas. 

The  pancreas  is  very  similar  in  structure  to  the  salivary 
glands.  It  is  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity  beneath  the 
stomach,  and  extends  from  the  duodenum  on  the  right  to 
the  spleen  on  the  left.  The  pancreas  is  oblong  in  shape, 
and  larger  at  one  end  than  the  other.  The  larger  end,  known 
as  the  head,  is  in  contact  with  the  duodenum,  gently  tapering  to 
the  left  as  it  approaches  the  spleen,  into  what  is  called  the 
tail.  The  entire  gland  is  about  six  or  seven  inches  long,  an 
inch  and  a  half  broad,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
averages  three  ounces  in  weight.  The  pancreas  secretes  a 
digestive  fluid  very  similar  to  the  saliva,  which  empties  into  the 
duodenum  through  an  orifice  in  common  with  the  bile  from  the 
gall-bladder. 

The  Process  of  Digestion. 

When  the  stomach  is  empty  the  lining  membrane  is  pale, 
the  blood-vessels  contracted,  and  the  stomach  glands  secreting 
scarcely  more  than  enough  fluid  to  moisten  the  surface.  As 
soon,  however,  as  food  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  the  nerves  of 
the  part  are  stimulated  to  activity,  the  blood-vessels  dilate,  the 
mucous  membrane  becomes  red,  and  little  drops  of  fluid  begin 
to  appear  at  the  mouths  of  a  thousand  little  glands  and  run 
down  as  gastric  juice.  The  presence  of  food  in  the  stomach 
sets  up  a  contraction  of  its  walls,  which  rolls  the  food  about, 
not  unlike  cream  in  a  churn,  until  the  digestive  or  dissolving 
fluid  becomes  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  food.  We 
have  seen  that  saliva  has  the  power  of  acting  upon  starchy 
foods,  converting  the  starch  into  sugar,  but  has  no  power  to 
dissolve  that  class  of  foods  essential  to  life  and  known  as  vital 
food-stuffs— /^D/f/Vj.  Among  the  proteids  may  be  mentioned 
ihc gluten,  albumen,  fibrin,  syntonin,  casein,  etc.,  which  are 
the  chief  food  constituents  of  bread,  eggs,  meat,  cheese  and 
milk.  Now  the  gastric  juice  has  the  power  of  dissolving  these 
articles  of  food  at  the  temperature  of  about  100  degrees,  or 
that  to  which  the  food  is  raised  in  the  stomach.  The  motion 
of  the  food  in  the  stomach  has  no  other  value  than  to  thor- 
oughly mix  it  with  the  digestive  fluid.  When  the  proteids, 
whether  from  meat,  or  bread,  or  eggs,  or  cheese,  are  dissolved, 
we  have  a  substance  kno\vn  3.%  peptones.  Peptones  are  readily 
absorbed  and  taken  into  the  current  of  the  blood.  Still  there 
are  many  articles  of  food  that  are  not  dissolved  in  the  stomach. 
As  soon  as  the  starch-foods,  or  amyloids,  become  incorporated 
with  acid  fluid  of  the  stomach,  the  solution  which  has  begun 
by  the  alkaline  saliva  ceases,  and  these  starchy  foods  pass  out 
of  the  stomach  unchanged.  The  fats,  too,  are  not  digested  in 
the  stomach  ;  neither  is  the  solution  of  proteids — bread,  meat, 
cheese,  etc. — completed  in  the  stomach.  A  large  part  of  the 
peptones  are  absorbed  by  the  stomach  and  taken  into  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood.  The  remaining  contents,  the  starches,  fats, 
and  half-dissolved  proteids,  are  permitted  slowly  to  flow  out  of 
the  stomach  through  the  pyloric  orifice  into  the  duodenum. 


Here  it  mixes  with  the  bile  from  the  liver,  which  has  been  saved 
up  in  a  little  reservoir,  \\ie  gall-bladder,  for  this  purpose,  and 
with  the  fluid  from  the  pancreas,  and  with  the  juice  from  the 
intestinal  glands,  which  together  have  the  power  of  digesting 
the  starchy  foods,  breaking  up  the  fats  into  an  emulsion  (or 
held  in  suspension,  as  butter  is  in  new  milk  before  it  is  churned) 
and  completing  the  solution  of  the  proteids,  so  that  here  all 
the  starch  of  the  vegetables  we  eat  is  converted  into  a  peculiar 
sugar  known  as  grape  sugar  ;  all  the  butter,  fats  and  oils  made 
into  an  emulsion  ;  all'the  gluten,  and  syntonin,  and  casein,  and 
albumen  of  the  bread,  and  meat,  and  milk,  and  cheese,  and 
eggs  which  we  eat  is  converted  into  peptones.  Now  this  grape 
sugar,  and  the  emulsions,  and  the  peptones,  are  very  readily 
absorbed  by  the  millions  of  villi,  or  the  velvety  little  tufts  of 
blood-vessels  and  lacteals  which  cover  the  folds  on  the  intes- 
tinal mucous  membrane.  Those  parts  of  the  food  unfit  for  the 
use  of  the  body,  or  which  are  not  needed,  are  passed  along  into 
the  large  intestine,  and  finally  carried  out  of  the  body. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

We  have  seen  hfcw  perfect  is  the  machinery  for  the  elabora- 
tion of  our  food,  and  the  many  processes  through  which  it  goes, 
by  which  it  is  rendered  fit  to  be  taken  into  the  current  of  the 
blood  to  rebuild  the  wonderful  organs  of  man's  mechanism  and 
to  restore  the  tissues  which  have  been  burned  up  in  the  produc- 
tion of  power  necessary  in  work,  and  in  the  production  of  animal 
heat,  which  is  essential  to  life.  More  than  this,  man  is  supplied 
with  every  desirable  means  of  testing  the  kind  and  quality  of  his 
food  before  it  is  introduced  into  this  wonderful  laboratory.  To 
digest  the  stone  of  a  peach  would  be  impossible  ;  such  things, 
taken  into  the  stomach,  could  not  result  otherwise  than  in  death. 
The  pit  is  taken  into  the  hand,  or  tried  between  the  teeth,  and, 
perceiving  its  hardness,  it  is  rejected,  even  by  a  starving  idiot,  as 
unfit  for  food.  Two  wonderful  faculties  is  man  possessed  of 
necessary  to  the  proper  inspection  of  food — the  sense  of  smell 
and  the  sense  oi  taste.  The  aroma  and  flavor  of  substances  fit 
for  food  he  is  made  to  like  ;  while  the  odor  and  taste  of  sub- 
stances unfit  for  food  and  harmful  to  the  body  are  made  disa- 
greeable, nauseous,  or  even  disgusting  to  him.  Tainted  meal, 
or  tlecomposing  eggs,  would  be  most  harmful  taken  into  the 
stomach.  Hence,  such  articles  are  promptly  rejected  by  the 
official  inspectors — smell  and  taste.  Certain  harmful  substances 
may  fail  of  detection,  either  by  sight,  or  smell,  or  taste,  or  any 
of  the  senses  a  part  of  whose  function  is  to  inspect  the  food,  and 
therefore,  as  in  the  case  of  certain  poisons,  be  taken  into  the 
stomach.  But  even  in  the  stomach  there  seems  to  reside  a 
sense  of  the  fitness  of  things,  and  the  poison  is,  by  the  act  of 
vomiting,  immediately  rejected.  If  any  part  of  an  offending 
substance  is  carried  into  the  duodenum,  an  action  is  there  imme- 
diately set  up  to  hurry  it  out  of  the  body.  Nothing  could  be 
more  perfect  than  this  system  of  inspection  and  elaboration  of 
the  food.  Nothing  further  in  this  direction  could  be  desired,  so 
long  as  the  apparatus  of  this  wonderful  laboratory  continues  in 
good  repair — in  other  words,  so  long  as  the  organs  remain  in 
health.  Every  organ  and  tissue  in  the  body  is  liable  to  get  out 
of  repair.  Whenever  any  organ  fails  to  do  its  work  or  shows 
any  defect,  we  say  it  is  diseased. 


/ 


\ 


630 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


~? 


Mumps. 
Parotitis,  or  Mumps,  is  an  inflammation  of  the  parotid 
gland — that  one  of  the  salivary  glands  which  is  situated  in 
front  of  and  below  the  ear.  While  the  swelling  and  soreness 
are  local,  the  disease  is  evidently  constitutional.  The  amount 
of  swelling,  soreness  and  pain  varies  in  different  cases.  There 
is  usually  considerable  pain,  particularly  upon  moving  the  jaw. 
The  swelling  may  be  limited  to  one  side,  or  both  sides  may  be 
involved.  When  both  sides  are  affiected,  usually  one  side  is 
invaded  a  day  or  two  in  advance  of  the  other.  It  is  commonly 
believed  to  be  contagious,  although  some  high  authorities  deny 
this.  Whether  it  may  be  communicated  from  one  person  to 
another  or  not,  it  is  sometimes,  at  least,  endemic.  Persons 
between  18  and  30  years  of  age  are  most  susceptible  to  the  dis- 
ease. It  never  occurs  but  once  in  the  same  person.  The 
disease  is  usually  trivial  and  never  dangerous.  No  physician 
is  needed — the  popular  fear  of  taking  cold  is  groundless.  If 
the  pain  is  severe,  the  patient  will  do  well  to  lie  down  and 
keep  quiet.  Hot  fomentations  may  be  applied  to  the  swelling, 
and  twenty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  taken  once  in  three  or 
four  hours  to  relieve  the  pain. 

Acute  Tonsilitis — Quinsy. 

Quinsy,  or  Tonsilitis,  is  an  inflammation  of  the  tonsil. 
One  or  both  tonsils  may  be  involved.  It  is  a  very  distressing 
and  painful  disease,  and  swallowing  is  rendered  very  difficult  by 
the  great  swelling  of  the  tonsils,  which  often  apparently  quite 
closes  the  opening  into  the  pharynx.  The  affection,  however, 
is  not  dangerous.  It  usually  ends  in  an  abscess,  which  breaks 
upon  the  inside.  There  is  a  predisposition  to  the  disease  in 
some  persons,  who  suffer  from  repeated  attacks.  An  attack  is 
sometimes  caused  by  exposure  to  cold.  Persons  predisposed  to  the 
disease  should  have  the  tonsils  removed,  as  should  be  done  in  all 
persons  with  permanently  enlarged  tonsils.  A  perfect  instrument 
is  made  especially  for  this  purpose.  The  removal  of  a  tonsil 
is  but  the  work  of  a  moment  on  the  part  of  the  surgeon.  The 
operation  is  attended  with  scarcely  any  pain,  the  wound  is  alto- 
gether trivial,  and  a  permanent  cure  is  effected  and  the  patient 
relieved  from  a  constant  source  of  discomfort.  During  an 
acute  case  of  tonsilitis,  or  quinsy,  the  patient  should  remain  in 
bed  ;  poultices,  or  flannels  WTung  out  of  hot  water,  may  be 
applied  to  the  throat ;  steam  may  be  inhaled,  and  a  gargle  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  chlorate  of  potassium,  in  water  may  be 
used.  In  addition,  the  following  prescription  will  be  found  of 
great  use  : 

Quinine, 24  grains. 

Morphine,  .....       i  grain. 

Make  six  powders.     Take  one  every  four  hours. 

Acute  Pharyngitis — Sore  Throat — Cold. 
Acute  Ph.\rvngitis  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  pharynx,  and  is  one  form  of  a  cold.  On 
looking  into  the  throat  the  membrane  is  found  to  be  red  and 
inflamed.  If  it  extends  deep  into  the  pharynx  there  will  be  a 
cough,  which  is  not  in  any  way  husky,  showing  that  the  larynx 
is  not  affected.  There  is  considerable  soreness  and  pain  when 
an  attempt   is   made   to  swallow,    and  very  often  there   is   a 


white  exudation,  both  in  the  throat  and  on  the  tonsils,  which 
are  usually  more  or  less  inflamed.  These  white  points  often 
lead  to  mistaking  the  disease  for  diphtheria.  The  affection  is 
often  attended  with  considerable  fever.  The  duration  of  the 
disease  is  from  five  to  ten  days.  The  treatment  recommended 
for  cjiiinsy  should  be  employed. 

Chronic    Granular     Phar3mgitis — Clergyman's    Sore 
Throat. 

Chronic  Pharyngitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  pharynx  of  long  standing.  It  frequently  exists 
without  the  patient  making  any  complaint.  There  is  usually, 
however,  a  dry,  hacking  cough,  which  is  increased  by  fatigue 
or  mental  depression,  and  the  voice  frequently  becomes  hoarse 
from  speaking.  It  is  a  disease  of  middle  life,  is  much  more 
common  in  men  than  women,  and  from  the  annoyance  it  occas- 
ions clergymen  it  has  received  the  name  of  clergyman's  sore 
throat.  It  occurs  no  more  frequently  among  clergymen  than 
other  persons,  but,  because  of  the  necessity  for  using  the 
voice,  it  occasions  them  more  inconvenience.  The  disease  is 
not  dangerous  and  has  no  tendency  to  run  into  consumption  or 
any  other  disease.  Still  it  is  apt  to  persist  for  many  years,  and 
is  very  difficult  to  cure.  The  following  prescription  will  do 
good,  and,  with  proper  hygienic  care,  may  produce  a  cure. 
Iodide  of  potassium,  -  -  -  4  drams. 
Bromide  of  potassium,  .  -  -  i  ounce. 
Compound  tincture  of  gentian,        -     6  ounces. 

Dose. — One  teaspoonful  in  a  wine-glass  of  water  three  times 
a  day  after  meals. 

The  above  should  be  continued  for  a  long  time.  Quinine  in 
two-grain  doses  may  be  taken  three  times  a  day.  Outdoor 
exercise  should  be  taken ;  relaxation  from  mental  labor,  together 
with  recreation  and  good  living,  will  be  found  of  the  gieatest 
benefit.  If  the  patient  is  dyspeptic,  particularly,  he  should 
abandon  the  starvation  brown-bread  diet,  and  demonstratp  his 
ability  to  live  as  other  men  do,  upon  a  generous  diet  such  as 
his  appetite  craves.  Let  the  variety  of  food  taken  be  as  great 
as  possible. 

Dyspepsia. 

Acute  Dyspepsia — commonly  called  a  bilious  attack,  or  Jit 
0/  indigestion — is  a  disorder  of  short  duration.  It  begins  by  a 
sense  of  weight  and  fulness,  and  of  pain  in  the  region  of  the 
stomach  ;  nausea  and  vomiting  often  occur,  and  later  there  may 
be  a  diarrhoea.  There  is  generally  slight  fever  and  considerable 
pain  in  the  head. 

Sick  Headache  is  an  acute  dyspepsia,  differing  from  the 
above  only  in  the  more  frequent  occurrence  of  vomiting  and 
severe  headache.  The  vomited  matters  usually  contain  bile, 
and  the  patient  is  commonly  described  as  bilious.  The  disease 
is  commonly  held  by  physicians  to  be  an  affection  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach,  while  it  is  by  good  authority  also 
claimed  to  be  of  nervous  origin.  Whatever  the  original  cause, 
acute  indigestion  is  the  result,  and  the  evacuation  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels  is  the  way  of  relief  One  or  two  com- 
pound cathartic  pills  may  be  given  after  the  first  occurrence  of 
vomiting.     Strict  rest  in  bed  must  be  required.     The  writer  has 


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/ 


found  the  following  prescription,  after  vomiting  has  occurred, 
to  be  of  the  utmost  service  in  numerous  cases  : 

Hydrate  of  chloral,         -         -    v    -         15  grains. 

Sulphate  of  morphia,         -         -         ■     }4  grain. 
Dissolve  in  a  wine-glass  of  water,  and  take  at  one  dose.     If 
the  patient  does  not  find  rest  and  sleep  in  one  hour,  repeat 
the  prescription. 

Sometimes  it  is  lietter  to  give  20  grains  of  chloral  at  the  first 
dose.  Often  such  treatment  will  afford  the  patient  from  five  to 
eight  hours'  sleej) ;  he  then  awakes  free  from  headache  and 
nausea.  The  disease  sometimes  appears  to  be  hereditary, 
several  members  of  the  same  family  being  subject  to  frequent 
attacks.  It  is  a  disease  of  early  adult  and  middle  life,  usually 
disappearing  after  40  years  of  age. 

DvsPEPSiA — a  chronic  affection — is  characterized  by  dis- 
tention of  the  stomach  and  bowels  by  gas,  and  consequent 
uneasiness  and  pain,  with  an  oppressive  sense  of  fulness  ;  fre- 
quent regurgitations  of  fluid  from  the  stomach  which  has  either 
a  salty,  insipid  or  acid  taste.  Sometimes  it  is  acrid  and 
intensely  disagreeable.  This  regurgitation  is  commonly  known 
as  water-brash.  This  condition  is  not  unfrequently  attended 
with  a  burning,  painful  sensation  at  a  point  where  the  oesopha- 
gus opens  into  the  stomach,  extending  upward  along  the  course 
of  the  oesophagus — a  symptom  commonly  called  heart-burn. 
Constipation  is  also  generally  present.  Vomiting  is  rare.  The 
gas  in  the  stomach  and  bowels  may  be  derived  in  large  part  from 
the  fermentation  of  undigested  food,  but  it  is  certain  that  in  many 
cases  it  has  its  origin  in  a  disordered  state  of  the  nervous 
system.  Dyspepsia  is  attended  with  depression  of  spirits. 
This  is  greatest  when  the  stom.ich  and  bowels  are  most  dis- 
tended by  gas,  and  is  never  seen,  I  believe,  unless  accompanied 
by  more  or  less  distention.  This  state  of  depression,  carried 
beyond  a  certain  point,  eventuates  in  a  form  of  mental  aberration 
known  as  hypocondriasis  (vulgarly  called  hyp.'),  or  even 
melancholia.  We  have  in  mind  a  night-watch  in  a  public  hos- 
pital, whowa.s  subject  to  attacksof  rapid  a  cumulati  m  of  gas  in 
stomach  and  bowels,  attended  with  c  >nsi  lerable  pai.i.  Not- 
withstanding the  frequency  of  the  attacks  and  the  always  happy 
termination  within  an  hour  or  two,  his  memory  and  experience 
seemed  of  little  use.  He  always  believetl  that  lie  was  within  a 
few  niinutes  of  death,  and  that  the  Lord  had  made  this  special 
visitation  upon  him  as  a  punishment  for  his  sins  (although  he 
was  not  noted  for  this  sort  of  religious  faith  at  other  times), 
which  he  would  proceed  to  confess,  and  which  were  ridiculous 
trivialities  :  he  had  failed  to  l)e  polite  to  some  one,  or  he  had 
reported  some  employe  for  neglect  of  duty,  or  some  other 
equally  trivial  fault,  or  even  a  virtue,  which  at  these  times  he 
would  distort  into  a  fault.  He  was  no  coward,  but  a  brave, 
courageous  and  sensible  young  man.  As  soon  as  the  pain  and 
distention  was  relievetl,  these  melancholy  delusions  appeared  as 
ridiculous  to  him  as  to  his  physician,  although  the  experience 
wa-s  of  no  possible  aid  to  his  reason  on  the  next  occasion. 

Prof.  Austin  Flint,  of  New  York,  is  authority  for  the  state- 
ment that  "  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases,  dyspepsia  originates 
and  is  perpetuated  by  mental  causes.  It  is  induced  and  kept  up 
by  anxiety  and  depression.  In  the  first  place  it  is  produced  by 
mental  causes,  and  then  the  dyspepsia  reacts  upon  the  mind. 


increasing  its  morbid  condition.  Most  cases  show  the  affection 
to  have  been  preceded  by  mental  inquietude  of  some  sort.  Per- 
sons who  aie  constantly  anxious  about  something,  such  as 
acquiring  success  in  life,  getting  out  of  debt,  securing  independ- 
ent positions,  or  imaginary  troubles,  are  those  who  are  prone  to 
the  disease.  The  disease  is  most  frequent  from  early  adult  to 
middle  life,  during  the  time  when  anxieties  are  greatest." 

The  Treatment. — The  scope  of  this  article  will  not  permit 
more  than  to  indicate  the  general  character  of  the  treatment  to 
be  employed.  First,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  mind. 
The  patient  should  be  made  to  understand  that  his  gloomy  fore- 
boding regarding  his  health  has  no  foundation  in  fact ;  that  his 
anxiety  constitutes  his  dyspepsia,  and  that  there  is  not  another 
such  a  father  of  "  the  blues  "  as  "  wind  on  the  .stomach."  Exer- 
cise is  a  good  thing,  but  if  ordered  to  take  it  at  stated  times 
without  any  other  purpose  than  treatment,  it  will  fail  of  its  best 
results  by  keeping  the  mind  of  the  patient  upon  himself  and 
his  dyspepsia.  He  should  have  a  change  of  scene— should  go 
where  new  objects  will  engage  his  attention  and  take  possession 
of  his  mind.  Nothing  is  better  than  foreign  travel.  Objects 
of  interest  engage  his  mind,  and  he  forgets  nimself.  He  finds  it 
impossible  to  stick  to  his  brown  bread  and  limited  variety  of  foods 
(which  he  has  had  cooked  in  a  particular  way  for  years,  perhaps, 
under  the  delusion  that  he  could  not  live  if  he  should  dare  to 
go  beyond  his  self-imposed  restrictions),  for  it  is  not  to  be 
obtained.  By  his  exercise  and  cheerful  interest  in  what  is 
novel  to  him,  he  becomes  hungry  and  indulges  freely  in  the 
variety  of  table  fares  which  he  finds  at  the  various  hotels,  and 
he  soon  learns  that  he  suffers  no  inconvenience  from  whatever 
he  chooses  to  eat,  so  that  often  a  few  months'  travel  is  sufficient 
to  permanently  dispel  the  delusions  and  cure  the  most  chronic 
case  of  years'  standing. 

There  is  no  more  prevalent  American  fallacy  than  the  notion 
that  one  should  not  sleep  soon  after  eating — the  notion  that, 
no  matter  how  hungry  one  may  be,  he  must  not  eat  before 
retiring.  This  notion  is  not  held  by  any  other  nation  in  the 
world,  and  how  it  became  so  prevalent  here,  it  is  difficult  to 
account  for.  Those  people  who  eat  the  largest  meal  at  from 
7  to  9  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  perhaps  take  a  luncheon  the 
last  thing  before  retiring,  and  who  require,  .consequently,  a 
very  light  breakfast,  are  far  less  frequently  attacked  by  dys- 
pepsia than  those  who  exercise  after  eating. 

As  regards  diet,  the  patient  should  take  in  sufficient  quantities 
and  great  variety  all  kinds  of  nutritious  food.  Milk  and  nice, 
tender  meats  of  all  sorts  should  particularly  be  largely  eaten. 
Pastry,  sweets  and  sugars  had  better  be  discardeti.  Ripe  fruit 
is  very  useful,  and  generally  any  article  which  the  appetite 
craves — roast  pork,  or  oysters,  or  melons,  or  even  the  infamous 
cucumber,  if  called  for  by  the  appetite — will  do  good  and  not 
harm. 

Medicinal  remedies  are  useful  in  relieving  some  of  the  symp- 
toms. The  regurgitation  of  fluid  from  the  stomach,  water- 
brash,  and  the  heart-bttrn,  may  be  relieved  by  moderate  doses 
of  subnitrate  of  bismuth. 

The  distention  by  gas  and  the  constipation  are  best  relieved 
by  an  enema,  which  should  be  retained  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes.  The  patient  should  drink  a  great  deal  of  fluid — milk 
and  water.       Water  shoukl  be  taken  in  large  quantity  between 


632 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


~A 


meals — not  until  an  hour  after  or  half  an  hour  before  meals. 
A  movement  of  the  bowels  every  morning  should  be  sought 
directly  after  breakfast.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  induce 
this  habit.  A  glass  of  cold  water  directly  upon  rising  will  be 
useful  in  this  regard.  A  general  tonic  will  be  found  most  use- 
ful, and  should  be  occasionally  changed  for  another.  Among 
the  best  may  be  mentioned  quinine,  in  two-giain  doses  ;  cotn- 
pound  tincture  of  geJitian,  in  teaspoonful  doses,  and  tincture 
of  mix  vomica,  in  fifteen-drop  doses. 

Polyphagia — Excessive  Appetite — Gluttony. 

PoLYPH.VGlAis  characterized  by  a  voracious  appetite,  and  tlie 
ingestion  of  enormous  quantities  of  food  beyond  the  demands 
of  the  system.  Sometimes  the  capacity  of  digestion  is  increased 
in  these  cases,  which  leads  to  excessive  accumulations  of  fat, 
and  to  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  and  other  organs.  In 
the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  used,  it  implies  a  disease.  It  is 
sometimes  observed  in  cases  of  mental  derangement.  The 
excessive  craving  for  food  may  be  diminished  by  the  use  of 
opium  in  some  form.     Recovery  is  to  be  expected. 

Polydipsia — Excessive  Thirst. 

Polydipsia  is  a  very  rare  disease.  It  consists  in  an  excessive 
craving  for  the  imbibition  of  enormous  quantities  of  water. 
The  quantity  of  urine  voided  is  proportionately  great,  is  pale 
and  limpid,  with  nearly  the  specific  gravity  of  distilled  water. 
It  contains  no  sugar  or  other  abnormal  constituents.  There  is 
no  other  evidence  of  disease.  The  patient  drinks  several  gal- 
lons of  water  daily.  A  young  man,  a  patient  in  a  public  asylum, 
in  excellent. physical  health,  developed  this  curious  affection. 
As  soon  as  the  fact  was  discovered,  an  investigation  was  made 
by  confining  him  to  his  room,  where  he  was  permitted  to  have 
all  the  water  he  desired,  all  of  which  was  carefully  measured  to 
him.  The  amount  drunk  during  the  day  was  fourteen  quarts. 
The  urine  voided  during  the  same  time  was  also  measured,  and 
corresponded  precisely  to  the  water  drnnV.— fourteen  quarts. 
The  next  day  he  was  permitted  to  have  only  a  pint  and  a  half 
of  fluid — half  a  pint  with  each  meal.  The  third  day  he  was 
♦also  restricted  to  a  pint  and  a  half  of  fluid,  and  the  urine 
voided  during  the  third  day  was  precisely  the  same  as  the  water 
taken — a  pint  and  a  half.  Recovery  in  this  case  was  com- 
plete, without  other  treatment  than  restriction  in  the  amount 
of  water  drunk.  The  symptoms  shown  during  the  excessive 
water-drinking  were  indifference  and  excessive  laziness.  Now, 
after  three  years,  there  has  been  no  recurrence  of  the  symp- 
toms. 

Dipsomania. 

DlPSOMANi.\  is  the  term  used  to  express  a  morbid  craving 
for  alcoholic  stimulants.  The  habit  may  be  developed  through 
dyspepsia  or  other  disease  of  the  digestive  system.  We  have  in 
mind  a  pitialile  case  of  a  lady  who  developed  the  habit  through 
efforts  to  get  relief  from  a  distress  which  afterwards  proved  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  tape-worm.  The  desire  for  drink  in 
some  of  these  cases  assumes  the  nature  of  the  delusions  of 
insanity.  In  such  cases  it  is  useless  to  reason  with  the  patient, 
and  the  only  certain  hope  of  rehef  is  by  placing  the  patient  in 
some  institution,  where  stimulants  will  be  withheld  and  suitable 
medicinal  and  hygienic  treatment  can  be  enforced.     The  patient 


should  reside  in  such  an  institution  long  enough  to  have  the 
physical  health  fuUy  restored  and  the  morbid  appetite  quite 
fully  overcome. 

Inanition — Starvation. 

In.\nition. — To  preserve  the  health  and  strength  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  food  should  be  supplied  in  generous 
quantity  and  variety.  There  is  no  one  article  of  food  which 
contains  all  those  principles  which  are  necessary  to  the  perfect 
nutrition  of  the  body  ;  and  among  the  first  organs  to  suffer  for 
lack  of  proper  nutrition  are  the  organs  of  digestion.  Every 
one  knows  the  pain  and  exhaustion  produced  by  a  single  day's 
abstinence  from  food.  Especially  is  this  excessive  if  work  has 
been  necessary  in  addition  to  the  abstinence  from  food.  Now, 
we  have  very  little  to  do  with  cases  of  famine,  or  starvation  by 
shipwreck.  I  f  our  assistance  could  be  made  available  in  such 
cases,  we  should  not  need  to  seek  the  advice  of  a  physician  ; 
but  the  first  move  of  the  best  informed  as  well  as  the  most 
obtuse  person  would  be  to  supply  proper  food.  How  differently 
even  the  best  informed  often  treat  the  sick  of  their  o\vn 
families,  not  knowing  what  is  best  to  do.  In  a  fever  of  what- 
ever kind,  the  tissues  are  being  far  more  rapidly  oxidized  or 
burned  up  than  in  health,  as  evidenced  by  the  great  heat  of  the 
body  and  the  rapid  loss  of  weight.  Under  such  circumstances, 
the  patient,  to  keep  up  the  loss,  really  requires  more  food  than 
in  health,  and  yet  how  often  he  is  deprived  of  food  entirely  for 
days  together,  with  the  idea  of  "  starving  a  fever."  It  is  the 
patient,  and  not  the  fever,  that  is  being  starved.  The  tissues  of 
the  body  are  being  rapidly  consumed,  and  if  food  is  not 
furnished  to  rebuild  these  tissues,  the  patient  must  die  from 
exhaustion.  If  a  well  person  even  were  put  to  bed,  and  there 
kept  practically  without  food,  and  scarcely  permitted  water,  for 
three  or  four  weeks,  as  many  typhoid- fever  patients  are,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  them  would  die,  and  it  w-ould  be  plain  that 
such  a  person  had  been  starved  to  death.  Many  a  fever  patient 
has  been  starved  to  death  who  is  said  to  have  died  from  fever. 
Many  a  dyspeptic  continues  ill  for  years  because  he  restricts 
himself  ignorantly  to  too  small  a  quantity  or  to  too  small  a 
variety  of  food.  Patients  with  cancer  of  the  stomach,  or  ulcer 
of  the  stomach,  or  chronic  diarrhoea  or  dysentery,  and  many 
other  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  generally  die  of  starva- 
tion. The  prime  object,  then,  in  all  such  diseases,  is  to  supply 
such  food  as  can  be  digested  and  taken  into  the  blood,  in  the 
greatest  possible  variety,  and  in  such  quantities  as  will  repair 
the  waste  by  disease.  Either  an  insufficient  quantity  or  variety 
of  food  is  certain  to  be  followed  by  disease.  Disease  and  pesti- 
lence always  follow  famine.  Certain  diseases,  as  scorbutus 
(scurvy),  are  developed  for  want  of  variety  of  food. 

Gastritis — Inflammation  of  the  Stomach. 

Acute  Ga.stritis  is  a  very  rare  affection.  It  seldom  occurs 
except  as  the  result  of  a  wound  or  of  some  corrosive  poison. 
Pain  is  intense  ;  thirst  is  excessive  ;  vomiting  is  frequent  and 
very  distressing.  The  vomited  matters  are  at  first  of  a  gi'eenish 
color  ;  but  if  life  is  prolonged,  in  fata!  cases,  the  vomited  matters 
are  black,  with  the  appearance  of  coffee  grounds.  The  surface 
is  cold,  and  prostration  is  extreme.  Besides  poisons,  the  taking 
of  large  quantities  of  alcoholic  stimulants  without  food  may  act 
as  the  cause  of  an  attack.     Death,  in  fatal  cases,  takes  place  in 


i^ 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days.  Cases  of  this  disease  are  so 
grave  that  a  physician  is  always  promptly  called.  The  treat- 
ment will  therefore  best  be  left  to  his  advice.  When  the  cause 
is  by  a  corrosive  poison,  the  proper  treatment  will  be  found 
under  the  head  of  poisons. 

Subacute  Gastritis,  or  catarrhal  itiflammalion  of  the 
stomach,  is  much  more  frequent  in  infants  than  in  adults.  When 
it  occurs  in  adults,  appetite  is  impaired  or  lost ;  nausea  and 
vomiting  are  very  likely  to  occur ;  sometimes  it  is  a  very  severe 
and  persistent  symptom.  Thirst  is  very  great,  and  cold  water 
is  craved.  Headache  is  usually  very  great,  and  weakness  and 
exhaustion  keep  the  patient  in  bed.  Many  of  the  symptoms  are 
identical  with  the  disease  already  spoken  of  under  the  heads  of 
acute  dyspepsia  and  sick  headache.  The  most  prominent  dis- 
tinction is  found  in  ihe  duration  of  the  attack,  subacute  gastritis 
continuing  for  from  one  to  three  weeks.  The  termination  is 
almost  always  favorable  ;  only  very  rarely,  and  in  the  most 
severe  cases,  when  the  symptoms  approach  those  of  acute 
gastritis,  is  there  any  cause  for  alarm  concerning  the  termination 
of  the  case.  The  cause  of  the  di.sease  is  not  always  clear. 
Among  adults,  those  addicted  to  intoxicating  beverages  are 
especially  liable  to  it. 

Treatment. — The  patient  may,  for  a  few  days,  be  restricted 
to  a  milk  diet.  If  the  stomach  is  intolerant  of  food,  enemas  of 
milk  may  Ije  given,  half  a  pint  at  a  time,  and  as  often  as  once 
in  three  or  four  hours,  until  the  condition  of  the  stomach  has 
improved.  Small  pieces  of  ice  may  be  swallowed  to  relieve  the 
thirst  and  the  nausea.  The  following  prescription  will  perhaps 
prove  the  most  useful  of  any  that  could  be  taken  to  relieve  the 
pain  and  vomiting  : 

.Subnitrate  of  bismuth,         •         •         -         i  dram. 
Sulphate  of  morphine,         -         -         -         i^  grains. 

Make  eight  powders.  Give  one  powder  as  often  as  necessary 
to  relieve  pain. 

Neither  emetics,  cathartics  nor  la.vatives  should  be  used.  If 
constipation  exists,  an  enema  or  injection  of  warm  water  should 
be  used  to  produce  an  evacuation. 

Chronic  Gastritis  is  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach.  It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to 
distinguish  between  chronic  gastritis  and  the  functional  disease 
dyspepsia.  If  there  is  great  thirst,  tenderness  and  soreness  at 
all  limes  over  the  stomach,  loss  of  weight,  occasional  vomiting, 
the  symptoms  point  to  gastritis  rather  than  to  dyspepsia,  in 
which  none  of  the  above  symptoms  are  prominent. 

Many  causes  lead  to  the  disease.  Insufficient  food  is  perhaps 
the  most  frequent  cause. 

Persons  suffering  from  functional  dyspepsia  brought  .ibout  by 
a  nervous  condition  due  to  anxiety  or  depression,  may,  by  limiting 
the  quantity  and  variety  of  the  food,  brmg  about  a  real  inflam- 
mation of  the  coats  of  the  stomach.  Remember  that  harm 
is  always  the  result  of  severe  so-called  "dieting,"  that  is,  limit- 
ing the  food  taken  to  an  insufficient  quantity  and  small  variety. 

.Another  and  almost  as  frequent  a  cause  is,  as  in  the  subacute 
variety,  the  u.se  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  It  is  also  caused  by 
the  continued  use  of  arsenic,  taken  sometimes  as  a  medicine, 
but  more  often  to  improve  the  complexion.  Disease  of  the 
liver,  by  causing  congestion  of  the  stomach,  also  acts  as  a  cause. 


Treatment. — The  food  best  adapted  in  cases  of  this  sort  is 
milk,  bread,  butter  and  eggs,  beef  extract,  rice,  corn-starch,  etc. 
A  change  of  scene,  fair  exercise,  and  recreation  for  the  mind, 
are  in  the  direction  of  the  best  results.  As  regards  medicine, 
nothing  can  be  better  than  the  treatment  recommended  in 
dyspeysia. 

Ulcer  of  the   Stomach. 

Gastric  Ulcer  is  a  tolerably  frequent  disease.  It  is  also  a 
disease  of  gravity  and  danger.  The  ulcer  is  of  two  kinds.  One, 
known  as  ihe  perforating  ulcer,  is  small  and  deeji,  and  affects 
chiefly  young  people  —  girls  and  young  women  with  much 
greater  frequency  than  young  men.  It  is  said  that  servant- 
girls  are  more  often  afflicted  by  this  form  of  ulcer  than  others, 
although  I  can  see  no  reason  for  this  and  doubt  the  fact.  The 
other  form  is  larger  and  not  so  deep.  It  may  be  as  large  as  a 
silver  dollar,  or  even  larger,  and  people  of  middle  age  are  more 
often  the  subjects. 

The  prominent  symptoms  are  pain  directly  after  eating,  local 
tenderness  on  pressure,  vomiting  after  eating,  and  hemorrhage 
or  bleeding  into  the  stomach.  If  blood  is  poured  out  into  the 
stomach  it  is  very  likely  to  be  vomited.  If  it  is  not  vomited 
immediately  it  is  turned  black  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice. 
From  the  fact  that  the  matter  vomited  is  black,  without  further 
examination  it  can  be  almost  certainly  relied  upon  as  being 
blood.  If  vomited  immediately  that  hemorrhage  takes  place, 
it  will  have  the  red  color  of  blood.  If  the  above  symptoms 
occur  in  a  young  person,  it  is  almost  certain  that  ulcer  of  the 
stomach  is  the  cause.  Hemorrhage  may  take  place  into  the 
stomach,  however,  without  causing  vomiting.  But  even  with- 
out this  proof,  the  other  symptoms  are  usually  sufficiently  clear 
to  render  an  opinion  upon.  In  case  of  ulcer,  pain  occurs  im- 
mediately upon  introducing  food  into  the  stomach.  In  other 
stomach  diseases  (with  the  exception  of  cancer)  the  pain  does 
not  occur  until  some  time  later.  If  any  considerable  bleeding 
takes  place  and  is  not  vomited,  the  patient  shows  the  fact  by 
weakness,  paleness,  prostration,  thir.st,  and  a  peculiar  throb- 
bing of  the  arteries  in  the  neck,  caused  by  being  only  half 
filled  with  blood  at  each  pulsation.  If  the  patient  is  young 
we  may  be  absolutely  certain  that  the  ulcer  is  not  a  cancer  of 
the  stomach  (which,  in  many  respects,  has  the  same  symp- 
toms), for  cancer  rarely  happens  in  young  people.  If  the 
patient  is  of  middle  age,  then  we  may  not  lie  able  to  decide  the 
case  at  once,  although  the  peculiar  symptoms  as  regards  the 
appearance,  in  addition  to  peculiarities  in  the  character  of  the 
pain  in  a  patient  suffering  from  cancer,  are  usually  sufficient  to 
render  an  opinion  tolerably  safe. 

In  fatal  cases  death  takes  jilace  by  different  ways.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  vomiting  of  blood  is  the  first  symptom 
pointing  to  the  disease.  Hemorrhage  sometimes  is  so  great  as 
to  cause  death.  By  the  ulceration  af  a  blood-vessel  of  consid- 
erable size,  the  patient  bleeds  to  death.  Another  cause  of 
death  is  by  the  ulcer  perforating  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  thus 
permitting  some  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  to  escape  into 
the  abdominal  cavity,  and  thus  setting  up  an  inflammation  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  alxiomen  {pcrilonitis,  a  very  pain- 
ful fever),  which,  when  produced  by  this  cause,  sjieedily  results 
in  death.  The  other  way  in  which  gastric  or  stomach  ulcer 
causes  death   is  by  inanition,  or  starvation.      When  food  is 


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vomited  as  soon  as  taken,  day  after  day  and  week  after  week, 
the  patient  rapidly  loses  weight,  and  if  nutrition  is  not  sup- 
plied in  some  other  way,  soon  dies  for  want  of  food. 

Treatment. — To  stop  hemorrhage,  pieces  of  ice  may  be  given 
to  the  patient  to  swallow,  and  cold  may  be  applied  over  the 
stomach.  If  perforation  takes  place,  nothing  can  be  done.  If 
vomiting  is  persistent,  it  is  well  not  to  give  the  patient  any  food 
by  stomach,  but  give  enemas  of  half  a  pint  of  good  rich  milk, 
beef-tea  or  mutton  broth,  and  the  white  of  eggs  beaten  up  with 
the  milk.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  stomach  a  rest, 
and  the  ulcer,  being  thus  left  free  from  irritation,  a  chance  to 
heal.  This  method  of  feeding  has,  in  some  cases,  been  kept  up 
for  two  or  three  months  at  a  time,  with  the  best  results. 

Morphine  and  bismtttk  may  be  given,  to  relieve  pain  and 
vomiting.  If  food  is  given  by  stomach,  it  should  consist  princi- 
pally of  milk. 

Cathartics  or  laxatives  should  never  be  given  by  stomacti.  If 
at  all,  they  should  be  given  by  enema.  Usually  enemas  of 
water  are  all  that  will  be  required. 

Cancer  of  the  Stomach. 

Cancer  of  the  Stomach  is  not  a  frequent  disease.  Sim- 
ple ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  far  more  common.  Perhaps  one- 
third  of  all  cancers  are  of  the  stomach.  The  disease  rarely  oc- 
curs before  forty  years  of  age.  It  is  most  common  between  fifty 
and  sixty.  It  is  twice  as  common  in  men  as  in  women.  Some- 
times there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  finding  out  what  is  the 
matter.  There  is  usually  loss  of  appetite  and  loss  of  flesh,  with 
weakness  and  exhaustion.  There  is  pain  in  the  stomach, 
which  is  increased  after  meals,  and  frequently  vomiting  also. 
Often  there  is  a  peculiar  yellow  complexion,  which  points  to 
cancer  as  the  cause.  If  these  symptoms  should  occur  in  a  young 
person,  simple  ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  more  probable.  Some- 
times a  tumor  can  be  felt  through  the  abdominal  walls  over  the 
stomach.  If  this  can  be  done,  and  the  other  symptoms  are 
present,  there  can  scarcely  be  two  opinions  in  the  case.  The 
loss  of  appetite,  the  cutting  pains,  the  vomiting,  the  black,  cof- 
fee-grounds-appearing substance  (blood  acted  upon  by  gastric 
juice)  in  the  vomited  matter,  indicate  that  the  trouble  is  not 
dyspepsia.  The  pain  of  cancer  is  "  cutting. "  Of  simple  ulcer 
it  is  described  as  "  burning  "  or  "  gnawing. " 

The  pain  in  cancer  is  more  constant,  while  in  ulcer  it  occurs 
more  particularly  after  eating  ;  vomiting  more  immediately 
after  eating  in  simple  ulcer.  Hemorrhage  is  more  frequent 
and  greater  in  amount  in  ulcer  than  in  cancer.  A  tumor  is 
never  found  in  simple  ulcer,  and  is  often  to  be  found  in  case  of 
cancer  of  the  stomach.  These  things,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  the  case,  are  usually  sufficient  to  decide  the 
case. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  treatment  that  is  of  any  avail  in 
curing  the  disease.  Remedies  may  be  given  to  relieve  pain, 
anil  life  may  be  prolonged  by  careful  attention  to  the  nutrition 
of  the  patient. 

Diarrhoea. 

DiARRHCEA  is  an  affection  of  the  small  intestines,  and  is  due 
to  many  different  causes.  It  may  be  temporary,  lasting  but 
for  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  chronic,  lasting  for  months.     It 


may  be  caused  by  any  trivial  thing,  as  a  slight  change  in  the 
weather  or  some  temporary  indigestion, .or  may  be  a  syinptom 
of  some  grave  or  chronic  disease,  as  typhoid  fever,  consump- 
tion or  intestinal  catarrh.  There  is  one  type  which  is  prob- 
ably due  to  disease  of  the  pancreas,  in  which  fat,  in  appear- 
ance like  melted  butter,  is  evacuated,  which  upon  cooling  over 
the  stool  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  mostly  fat.  This 
form  is  of  considerable  gravity,  and  often  proves  fatal. 

Diarrhoea  occurs  most  frequently  during  the  summer  months. 
In  September,  when  the  weather  suddenly  becomes  cooler, 
there  are  always  a  large  number  of  cases. 

Treatme7it. — If  in  the  beginning  of  a  diarrhoea  the  bowels 
are  freely  evacuated  by  some  mild  cathartic,  nothing  further  is 
generally  required.  For  this  purpose  a  small  dose  of  salts,  or 
what  is  better,  castor  oil,  may  be  taken.  If  the  diarrhcea  con- 
tinues, twenty-five  drops  of  laudanit7n  may  be  taken  every 
three  to  six  hours.  Or  instead,  five-giain  doses  of  Dover's 
powder,  or  a  sixth  of  a  grain  of  morphine. 

In  case  of  chronic  diarrhcea,  more  dependence  for  a  cure 
must  be  had  upon  suitable  diet.  Those  articles  should  be 
eaten  which  are  principally  or  wholly  digested  in  the  stomach, 
and  not  those  which  are  digested  in  the  small  intestine.  Ten- 
der meats  of  all  sorts  are  best  digested  ;  milk  may  betaken  also, 
and  ripe  fruits.  Vegetables  generally  should  not  be  eaten. 
The  food  should  be  taken  frequently,  and  a  small  amount  at  a 
time.  If  the  patient  lives  in  the  city,  a  change  should  be  made 
to  the  country.  A  malarious  district  should  be  avoided,  and 
care  should  be  taken  as  to  dress.  Woolen  should  be  worn 
next  the  person  at  all  seasons.  Rest  in  bed  is  useful.  Tonics 
should  be  taken — among  the  best  are  iron  and  quinine.  Fif- 
teen or  twenty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  taken  when  required 
to  check  the  diarrhoea. 

Summer  Complaint. 
Diarrhoea  occurring  in  young  children,  and  prevailing  during 
the  warm  season,  is  known  as  summer  complaint.  It  is  com- 
mon during  teething,  and  may  begin  in  an  acute  attack  of 
cholera  infantum.  It  is  a  cause  of  great  mortality  among  lit- 
tle children.  In  the  large  cities  during  certain  months  fully 
one-half  of  the  deaths  are  due  to  this  cause.  The  little  patient 
should  be  removed  to  the  country  if  possible.  A  spot  should 
be  selected  that  is  free  from  malaria,  that  is  cool  and  dry. 
Pure,  fresh,  sweet  milk,  together  with  lean,  tender  meats, 
rare  done,  or  raw  tender  beef  chopped  fine  and  seasoned  to 
taste,  should  be  fed  the  child.  Tonics  may  be  given,  and  from 
twenty  to  sixty  drops  (according  to  the  age  of  the  child  and 
severity  of  the  diarrhoea)  of  the  camphorated  tincture  0/ 
opium  (paregoric)  may  be  given  every  few  hours.  Food 
should  be  taken  often,  and  a  small  amount  at  a  lime. 

Enteritis  —  Inflammation  of  the  Small  Intestine. 
Enteritis,  either  acute  or  subacute,  is  very  rare  after  the 
age  of  infancy.  The  diagnosis  is  not  always  clear,  but  diar- 
rhoea is  always  a  .sympton,  and  is  generally  in  children  classed 
under  summer  complaint  or  cholera  infantum.  The  treat- 
ment advised  under  these  heads  should  be  employed.  When 
occurring  in  adults,  rest  in  bed  is  to  be  strictly  enjoined,  hot 
poultices  or  hot  water  dressing  over  the  abdomen  may  be  used. 


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and  opium  in  some  shape,   laudanum  or   ntorphitu^  is  to  be 
given,  together  with  ijuinine. 

Dysentery  —  Inflammation  of  the  Large  Intestine. 

AcLTE  IJvsENTEKV,  or  " jliix,"  occurs  in  single,  isolated 
cases,  and  as  an  epidemic.  The  disease  is  more  frequent  in  hot 
than  in  temperate  or  cold  climates.  It  is  more  common  in  the 
summer  or  fall  than  at  other  se.isons.  The  inflammation  is 
confined  to  the  large  intestine,  and  in  many  cases  affects  only  a 
very  small  portion  of  it.  The  isolated  cases  usually  end  in 
recovery,  although  death  sometimes  results  in  the  most  severe 
cases.  The  epidemic  variety,  commonly  known  as  the  bloody 
flux,  very  frequently  proves  fatal. 

The  disease  usually  begins  with  loose  passages  having  the 
appe-irance  of  an  ordinary  diarrhoea,  but  within  a  short  time 
the  character  of  the  evacuations  changes,  showing  a  large 
amount  of  mucus,  commonly  spoken  of  as  slime,  following 
this,  very  darlv  evacuations  frequently  take  place,  the  color  being 
due  to  blood,  the  red  color  of  the  blood  being  changed  to 
black  by  the  contents  of  the  intestine.  There  is  considerable 
griping  and  pain  with  a  constant  desire  (called  by  physicians 
tenesmus)  to  evacuate  the  bowels.  There  is  more  or  less  fever 
and  weakness.     Vomiting  is  also  common. 

In  the  epidemic  variety  the  progress  of  the  disease  is  much 
more  rapid.  All  of  the  symptoms  are  exaggerated.  The  quan- 
tity of  slime  is  more  abundant  ;  blood  in  its  red  color  is  evacu- 
ated, sometimes  in  considerable  quantity.  The  fever  is  much 
higher,  and  exhau.stion  and  prostration  are  much  more  marked. 
Death  sometimes  takes  place  within  a  few  hours,  and  some- 
times not  until  the  third  week.  The  great  majority  of  cases 
recover.  The  disease  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  is  most  com- 
mon from  thirty  to  forty  years. 

Treatment.  — A  full  dose  of  castor  oil  or  salts  may  be  admin- 
istered in  the  beginning  of  the  disease,  to  remove  all  offending 
substances  from  the  bowels.  This  is  not  to  l>e  repeated.  The 
treatment  from  this  on  consists  in  efforts  to  supijort  the  strength 
of  the  patient  and  to  limit  the  movements  from  the  bowels. 
The  patient  should  be  kept  quiet  in  bed,  and  should  restrain  a 
movement  as  long  as  possible.  Meat  broths  and  milk  should 
form  the  chief  part  of  the  diet.  Vegetables  should  not  be  per- 
mitted. Opium  in  some  form,  either  as  laudanum  or  mor- 
phine,  or  Dover's  powders,  should  be  given  after  every  move- 
ment. It  is  well  to  introduce  this  medicine  by  injection  or 
suppository  if  it  can  be  so  retained  ;  otherwise  it  must  be  taken 
by  stomach.  If  vomiting  is  present,  efforts  to  relieve  this  must 
be  made,  directions  for  which  will  be  found  in  this  article, 
under  its  proper  head.  Quinine  in  four-grain  doses  should  be 
given  to  keep  up  the  strength.  In  malarious  districts  espec- 
ially is  quinine  imperatively  called  for.  Stimulants,  as  brandy 
or  -vliisky  or  milk  punch,  should  be  given  in  all  cases  of  great 
prostration. 

Chronic  Dyse.nterv  rarely  occurs  except  as  it  follows 
acute  dysentery.  It  is  a  very  grave  and  most  intractable  dis- 
ease. It  may  be  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  given  case  is 
chronic  dysentery  or  chronic  diarrhoea  ;  that  is,  whether  the 
inflammation  is  of  the  large  or  small  intestine. 

Treatment. — Enemas  of  warm  water  should  be  used  after 
each  movement,  and  immediately  returned,  the  object  being  to 


keep  free  from  irritating  matter  the  ulcerated  and  inflamed 
spots.  Tonics  must  be  given,  and  the  diet  should  be  most 
nutritious,  and  contain  as  little  waste  as  pos.sible  to  pass  over 
the  diseased  parts.  Opium  should  not  be  used  except  when 
especially  indicated  by  pain,  for  the  reason  that  it  interferes 
with  the  appetite.  The  tendency  of  the  disease  is  to  progress- 
ive loss  of  appetite  and  flesh,  and  gradual  decline,  prostration, 
apathy  and  death  from  exhaustion. 

Constipation — Costiveness. 

CoNSTIPATlO.N,  or  costiveness,  may  proceed  from  a  variety 
of  causes.  It  is  an  aflfection  of  the  large  intestines,  and  is  gen- 
erally functional,  i.e.,  it  is  not  due  to  any  organic  change  in 
the  part.  It  is  a  very  frequent,  and  is  generally  not  at  all  a  seri- 
ous affection,  although  it  brings  about  great  discomfort,  and  may 
be  the  origin  of  dyspepsia,  piles  and  various  other  troublesome 
diseases.  It  occasions  headache,  dulness  of  mind,  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  accumulation  of  gas  in  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
colic  pains,  and  sometimes  diarrhcea.  Severe  straining  may 
produce  great  harm.  Blood-vessels  in  the  brain  have  been  rup- 
tured, and  protrusion  of  the  rectum  has  been  occasioned  by  it. 

It  is  caused  most  frequently  by  neglect  to  attend  to  the  calls 
of  nature  when  it  is  demanded,  and  both  the  sensation  and  de- 
sire after  a  time  subside.  It  may  be  twelve  or  twenty-four 
hours  before  the  call  is  repeated.  Again  it  may  be  ignored, 
and  again  subside.  In  this  way  a  habit  is  formed  which 
becomes  very  troublesome,  destroys  one's  comfort,  and  fre- 
quently, by  interfering  with  digestion,  undermines  the  general 
health.  This  habit  of  neglecting  the  calls  of  nature  is  brought 
about  chiefly  by  two  causes :  the  mind  may  be  occupied  and 
the  patient  driven  with  work.  He  will  not  take  the  time  either 
to  eat  properly,  or  to  visit  the  closet.  But  the  far  more  fre- 
quent cause,  in  my  opinion,  especially  in  the  country,  is  the 
neglect  of  people  to  provide  themselves  with  comfortable 
closets,  and  sometimes  not  even  uncomfortable  out-houses.  In 
winter,  when  the  thermometer  is  from  five  to  forty  degrees 
below  zero,  with  deep  snow-drifts,  and  the  wind  blowing  a  gale, 
a  trip  to  a  stable,  or  to  a  cold  out-house,  through  the  cracks  of 
which  the  wind  drives  a  freezing  blast,  is  indeed  a  dreaded 
experience.  To  bare  oneself  in  such  cold,  and  perhaps  stop 
the  wind  out  of  the  privy  with  a  portion  of  one's  anatomy,  is 
not  an  experience  that  seeks  frequent  repetition,  .-\gain,  when 
it  rains  in  spring  and  fall,  there  is  a  dread  of  going  out  into  the 
storm.  And  in  summer  the  stench  from  the  pri\-y  vault  is 
often  so  offensive  as  to  deter  frequent  visits.  Thus,  by  these 
inconvenieccs,  people  develop  a  habit  of  waiting  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, frequently  for  days  together,  until  a  troublesome  consti- 
pation is  developed,  which  may  be  very  diflicult  to  cure. 

Treatment.  —  .Attention  should  first  be  directed  to  a  cure  of 
the  bad  habit  of  irregularity.  The  patient  should  go  regu- 
larly every  morning  after  breakfast,  and  take  plenty  of  time  to 
complete  the  act.  Every  house  should  have  a  comfortable 
closet,  free  from  bad  smells.  If  in  the  country  where  there 
are  no  sewers,  and  no  closet  is  possible  in  the  house,  the  privy 
should  be  well  built,  the  outside  well  boardeil  up  and  battened 
and  the  inside  lathed  and  plastered,  so  as  to  keep  out  the  wind. 
A  wooden  box  should  extend  up  through  the  privy  and  open 
outside,  so  as  to  ventilate  the  vault,   which  should  be  often 


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cleaned  out.  A  good  board  walk  should  extend  from  it  to  the 
house  ;  then,  if  the  house  will  keep  an  umbrella  for  rainy 
weather,  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  family  will  be  greatly 
enhanced,  and  the  doctor's  bills  will  be  smaller. 

Of  course  there  are  other  causes,  but,  whatever  they  are,  care 
should  be  taken  to  remove  or  avoid  them.  If  constipation  is 
only  temporary,  a  laxative  pill  may  be  taken,  or  an  enema  of 
water.  If,  however,  it  be  habitual  or  chronic,  other  means 
•will  have  to  be  employed  to  cure  it.  The  diet  should  be,  in 
good  part,  articles  which  leave  a  large  residue  of  undigested 
matter  to  be  carried  out  of  the  body,  such  as  vegetables, 
salads,  cabbage,  greens ;  or  corn-bread,  oat  meal,  cracked 
wheat,  etc.  A  glass  of  cold  water  taken  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  before  breakfast  is  often  very  useful.  If  medicines 
be  taken  they  should  be  taken  in  small  doses  and  frequently 
repeated,  so  as  to  bring  about  a  regular  habit.  Free  purga- 
tion should  never  be  sought ;  much  harm  is  done  by  it.  A 
small  pill  of  a/oes,  or  of  a/ots  and  strychnine,  which  may  be 
had  at  the  drug  stores,  will  be  found  very  effective.  One  pill 
should  be  taken  every  night ;  sometimes  one  every  night  and 
morning  may  prove  most  effective. 

Colic. 

Colic,  strictly  speakmg,  is  a  functional  affection  of  the 
colon,  characterized  by  spasmodic  pains.  It  has,  however,  by 
common  usage,  been  made  to  apply  generally  to  all  severe  spas- 
modic pains  in  the  abdomen.  Thus  it  is  applied  to  the  pains 
in  certain  inflammations,  2.%  peritonitis,  enteritis  and  dysentery, 
to  the  pain  caused  by  the  passage  of  gall-stones,  and  to  that 
caused  by  the  passage  of  small  stones  from  the  kidney  into  the 
bladder,  as  well  as  to  certain  neuralgias  of  the  abdominal 
organs,  as  that  caused  by  lead-poisoning.  So  the  distinctions 
are  made  by  prefixing  a  word,  ai^atulent,  or  wind  colic  ;  cra- 
pulous colic,  or  that  caused  by  indigestion,  as  in  cholera  mar- 
bus  ;  hepatic  colic,  caused  by  the  passage  of  gall-stones  ;  ne- 
phritic colic,  caused  by  passage  of  calculi  from  the  kidney,  and 
lead  colic,  caused  by  lead-poisoning. 

For  treatment  of  the  colic  of  dysentery,  peritonitis,  cholera 
morbus  and  cholera,  as  well  as  of  the  pain  accompanying  the 
passage  of  stones  from  the  gall-bladder  and  kidney,  see  the 
proper  heads  as  above. 

The  pain  in  colic  is  caused  by  spasm  of  the  muscular  coat  of 
the  intestine.  The  object  of  treatment  is  to  relieve  this  spasm. 
Some  persons  are  subject  to  frequent  attacks,  which  are  brought 
about  by  slight  causes.     Constipation  is  a  frequent  cause. 

Treatment  should  first  be  directed  to  the  relief  of  the  pain. 
Hot  cloths  placed  over  the  abdomen,  or  cloths  wrung  out  of 
hot  water,  will  aid,  and  will  sometimes  alone  fully  relieve  the 
patient.  Various  hot  an'd  stimuluting  drinks  are  useful,  but 
there  is  no  remedy  so  absolutely  certain  of  relief  as  some  form 
of  opium.  Twenty-five  to  forty  drops  o{  laudanum  maybe 
given  every  half  hour  to  an  adult,  either  by  injection  or  by  the 
stomach,  until  relief  is  obtained.  For  children,  a  proportionate 
dose.  For  infants  and  children  under  four  years,  paregoric  is 
safest.  For  adults,  morphine  may  be  given  in  quarter-grain 
doses,  every  half  hour  until  relieved.  If  the  patient  is  consti- 
pated, two  or  three  compound  cathartic  pills  may  be  taken,  or 


what  is  better,  a  large  injection  of  warm  water,  so  as  to  free 
the  bowels.     This,  in  most  instances,  will  complete  the  cure. 

Lead  Colic  is  caused  by  poisoning  by  lead.  The  lead  may 
be  taken  into  the  system  by  many  different  ways,  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  patient.  Persons  manufacturing  paints  or 
working  in  shot-factories  or  other  places  where  lead  is  used 
may  be  poisoned.  Painters  are  very  liable  to  lead-poisoning. 
Persons  have  been  poisoned  by  sleeping  in  a  newly-painted 
room,  or  by  using  certain  face-washes  and  hair-dyes  which  con- 
tain lead,  or  by  drinking  water  which  has  stood  in  lead  pipes, 
or  beer  or  cider  which  has  been  for  some  time  in  contact  with  a 
lead  faucet,  and  by  many  accidental  or  intentional  adulterations 
of  food.  Lead-poisoning  is  manifested  by  various  affections  of 
the  nervous  system,  such  as  paralysis,  as  of  the  extensor  muscles 
of  the  hand,  and  neuralgias,  of  which  colic,  or  neuralgia  of  the 
intestines,  is  one. 

The  bowels  are  usually  constipated.  The  pain  is  sometimes 
dull  and  heavy,  and  sometimes  sharp  and  cutting.  It  usually 
comes  on  very  gi'adually,  beginning  with  slight  pain,  and  grows 
worse  until  it  may  become  very  severe.  There  is  seldom  entire 
relief  from  pain,  but  there  are  periods  of  gieat  increase,  when 
the  paroxysms  are  excruciating.  If  not  relieved  by  treatment, 
the  pain  is  likely  to  continue  for  days,  and  perhaps  for  weeks, 
and  attacks  will  frequently  occur.  Persons  do  not  die  from 
lead  colic,  although  they  may  from  other  effects  of  lead-poison- 
ing. A  blue  line  along  the  gums  next  the  teeth  is  usually 
present  in  these  cases. 

Treatment  should  first  be  given  as  in  ordinary  colic.  When 
the  pain  is  relieved  and  the  bowels  moved,  the  following  pre- 
scription should  be  taken,  which  will  produce  a  permanent 
cure: 

Iodide  of  potassium,      -         -         -         -   i  ounce. 
Distilled  w-ater,  ad.       -         -         -         -  i  ounce. 
Mix. 

Dose:     As  directed. 

The  above  is  a  saturated  solution.  Begin  with  five  drops  in 
a  wine-glass  of  water  three  times  a  day  after  meals,  and  increase 
one  drop  each  day  until  the  patient  is  taking  twenty-five  to 
thirty  drops  three  times  a  day. 

Cholera  Morbus. 

Cholera  Morbus,  ax  sporadic  cholera,  begins  very  suddenly 
by  vomiting  and  colic  pains.  This  is  followed  by  purging  and 
increase  in  pain  and  continued  vomiting.  The  vomiting  is 
sometimes  preceded  by  a  sense  of  weight  and  uneasiness  in  the 
stomach.  If  the  vomiting  and  purging  continue  long,  both 
the  vomited  matters  and  the  dejections  become  entirely  fluid 
and  acrid.  The  skin  is  usually  cool  or  cold  ;  cramps  occur  in 
the  legs  and  feet  and  in  the  abdominal  muscles.  During  the 
interims  between  vomiting  and  purging,  the  patient  is  greatly 
prostrated  and  exhausted.  The  mouth  is  dry,  and  the  patient 
suffers  from  great  thirst. 

The  disease  is  more  frequent  in  the  summer  months,  and  is 
more  likely  to  occur  at  night  than  in  the  day-time.  The 
patient  usually  recovers. 

Treatmetit. — There  is  but  one  remedy  worthy  of  mention 
in  this  disease,  and  that   is  opium  in  some  shape.     The  injec- 


VL 


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IV 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


637 


"TT 


tion  of  a  solution  of  morphia  under  the  skin  is  the  best  way  to 
administer  it.  but  none  except  physicians  are  possessed  of  the 
necessary  instrument  for  this  purpose.  Therefore,  if  the 
method  of  administration  given  below  should  fail,  by  being 
vomited  or  evacuated  before  an  effect  can  be  produced,  a  phy- 
sician should  be  called. 

Half  a  grain  of  morphia  should  be  taken  dry  on  the  tongue 
and  dissolvetl  in  the  mouth,  and  should  be  given  directly  after 
vomiting.  If  this  is  rejected,  the  dose  should  be  at  once 
repeated.  If  this  is  again  rejected,  it  may  again  be  repeated,  or 
from  sixty  to  eighty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  given  in  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  water  by  injection.  This  should  be  given 
directly  after  a  movement  of  the  bowels,  so  as  to  have  time  to 
take  effect  before  the  next  movement  occurs.  If  this  be 
rejected,  the  injection  should  be  repeated. 

To  relieve  thirst,  small  pieces  of  ice  may  be  taken  into  the 
mouth,  or  a  spoonful  of  water  may  be  allowed  every  few  min- 
utes. Sometimes  a  very  hot  cup  of  tea,  taken  without  milk  or 
sugar,  acts  well  in  relieving  the  vomiting.  The  body  should 
be  wrapped  in  a  warm  blanket. 

Cholera  Infantum. 

The  affection  treated  of  under  this  head  is  similar  to  the 
c/iolera  morbus  of  adults,  except  that  it  is  applied  to  children 
usually  under  two  years  of  age.  Unlike  the  disease  in  adults, 
wliere  recovery  is  almost  certain,  in  children  under  two  years 
it  is  frequently  fatal.  Indeed,  cholera  infantum,  together  with 
the  more  chronic  affection  Vnownas  summer  complaint,  causes, 
in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  nearly  one-half  the 
deaths  during  the  hot  season.  Children  of  the  poor  living  in 
crowded  tenement-houses  are  more  liable  to  the  disease  than 
others.  Change  of  food,  as  in  weaning,  frequently  acts  as  a 
cause.  Children  brought  up  on  a  bottle  are  especially  liable  to 
it.  Doubtless  poor,  diluted,  changed  or  soured  milk  is  a  cause. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  fresh  and  pure 
milk  for  infants  during  these  months.  Unless  there  is  urgent 
need  in  the  interest  of  the  mother's  health,  a  child  should  not 
be  weaned  during  the  hot  months. 

The  attack  usually  begins  with  vomiting  and  purging,  which 
acts  are  frequently  repeated.  The  vomited  matters  and  the 
dejections  are  very  fluid  ;  pain,  prostration  and  cramps  ensue  ; 
the  body  is  cold.  If  the  purging  and  vomiting  can  be  arrested 
recovery  may  quickly  take  place.  If  this  cannot  be  controlled, 
however,  the  child  rapidly  fails,  suffers  from  thirst  and  pain 
and  prostration,  aud  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days  goes 
into  collapse  and  dies.  It  may,  however,  become  chronic,  an 
affection  previously  treated  under  the  head  of  summer  com- 
plaint, when  the  child,  in  unfavorable  cases,  gradually  fails, 
becomes  emaciated  and  dull,  and  finally  dies  of  starvation. 

Treatment. — When  an  attack  begins  the  babe  should  be 
wrapped  in  a  warm  shawl  or  blanket.  Twenty  to  thirty  drops 
of  paregoric  should  be  given  directly  after  vomiting.  If  it  is 
rejected  the  dose  is  to  be  repeated.  If  this  is  again  rejected  or 
if  relief  does  not  follow,  it  is  again  to  be  repeated.  Each  time 
it  should  be  given  directly  after  the  act  of  purging.  If  purg- 
ing is  not  so  frequent  the  medicine  is  better  given  by  injection. 
Drinks  of  very  warm  tea   may  be  given  ;  let  the  tea  be  as  hot 


as  can  be  well  taken.     A  physician  should  be  called  if  relief  is 
not  soon  obtained. 

The  treatment  for  the  chronic  form  will  be  found  under  the 
head  of  summer  complaint. 

Epidemic  Cholera. 

Epidemic  or  Asiatic  Cholera  is  a  disease  which  seems 
to  take  its  origin  in  India.  There  it  exists  sometimes  in  isolated 
cases,  and  sometimes  as  an  epidemic.  Frequently  it  leaves  its 
native  country,  and  makes  trips  over  the  entire  civilized  world, 
following  the  highways  of  travel  and  commerce.  It  first  occur- 
red in  the  United  States  in  1832  ;  again  in  1834.  Again  it 
took  its  origin  in  India  in  1847,  and  reached  this  country  in 
1S49,  and  prevailed  here  in  1850,  '51  and  '52.  Beginning  again 
in  India  in  1S64,  it  reached  the  United  States  in  '66  and  pre- 
vailed somewhat  in  '67. 

The  pathology  and  cause  of  the  disease  are  not  well  under- 
stood. But  this  much  is  quite  well  established  :  That  it  has  a 
special  cause,  and  that  this  special  cause  can  be  transported  and 
reproduced  in  places  wliere  the  conditions  are  favorable  to  its 
development— conditions  similar  to  those  where  it  first  took  its 
origin.  That  this  special  cause  may  be  rapidly  developed  under 
conditions  favorable  to  it  ;  that  it  may  be  destroyed  by  disin- 
fectants, and  that  it  suddenly  becomes  inert,  inoperative.or  is 
carried  away  by  causes  not  understood.  There  are  many  well- 
established  facts  concerning  its  communicability,  which,  how- 
ever, are  often  apparently  contradictory,  and  hence  there  are 
few  physicians  who  do  not  hold  in  reserve  or  doubt  any  opin- 
ion which  their  experience  has  led  them  to  enlerlain. 

The  introduction  of  cholera  into  New  York  in  1866  was  not 
traceable  to  any  particular  emigrant  passenger,  nor  any  particu- 
lar lot  of  baggage  or  goods,  nor  to  any  particular  ship  ;  but  it 
followed  the  arrival  of  infected  ships  into  the  harbor. 

The  first  cases  occurred  almo.st  simultaneously,  and  in  widely 
separated  districts.  This  could  hardly  have  been  the  case  if  the 
disease  had  been  communicated  from  one  person  to  another. 

As  the  season  advanced  and  cases  became  more  frequent,  the 
disease  was  found  to  prevail  in  certain  low  and  insalubrious 
localities,  while  the  rest  of  the  city  was  almost  free  from  the 
epidemic.     These  localities  were  widely  .sejiarated. 

There  was  no  evidence  that  the  disease  was  ever  directly  com- 
municated from  one  ])erson  to  another.  Persons  in  the  same 
house,  and  who  waited  upon  the  sick,  were  not  more  frequently 
attacked  than  other  persons  who  resided  in  the  insalubrious  dis- 
trict, but  at  a  distance  from  any  ease. 

Where  the  epidemic  has  prevailed  in  Europe  and  in  this 
country,  no  more  than  from  one  to  ten  in  a  hundred  physicians 
and  nurses  who  cared  for  the  cholera  patients  had  the  disease. 
In  the  London  hospital,  out  of  one  hundred  persons  employed 
in  the  cholera  wards  only  five  had  the  disease,  and  of  eleven 
laundry-women  employed  at  the  hospital  to  wash  the  soiled 
clothing  and  bedding  of  cholera  patients,  only  one  was  at- 
tacked. 

It  is  thought  by  .some  to  have  its  origin  in  germs  developed 
in  the  alimentary  canal  of  cholera  patients,  which  are  further 
developed  in  the  soil,  the  condition  of  which,  as  regards  com- 
position, temperature  and  moisture,  must  be  favorable.  This 
one,  of  all  the  theories,  would  best  explain  the  phenomena  as 


V- 


\ 


lA 


638 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


usually  observed.  In  New  York,  for  example,  only  in  the  low 
and  unhealthy  parts  of  the  city  did  the  disease  make  its  appear- 
ance. Some  cases  occurred  in  persons  after  leaving  these 
unhealthy  districts  for  healthy  ones,  but  none  of  these  communi- 
cated the  disease  to  persons  living  in  the  healthy  district  to 
which  the  patient  had  gone.  The  germs  from  the  infected 
ships  seem  to  have  reached  all  of  the  infected  districts  at  about 
the  same  time,  and,  it  may  be,  could  only  become  active  by 
development  in  the  soil  peculiar  to  these  districts,  for  the  high 
and  clean  parts  of  the  city  never  became  affected. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  cholera  is  preceded  by  a  sim- 
ple diarrhcca,  which  continues  from  a  few  hours  to  a  week,  in 
different  cases,  before  the  full  development  of  the  disease. 
This  is  not  attended  by  pain  and  is  usually  considered  by  the 
patient  as  of  no  consequence.  Vomiting  during  this  stage 
rarely  occurs.  This  diarrhoea  occurs  in  not  less  than  ninety 
per  cent  of  cases.  Suddenly  the  diarrhoea  changes  its  aspect, 
and  large  watery  evacuations  take  place.  This  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  disease  proper.  The  dejections  may  be  clear 
like  water,  or  may  be  milky  or  muddy  in  appearance.  Some- 
times the  dejections  are  very  large,  sometimes  small.  The  act 
is  not  attended  by  pain.  Gurgling  sounds  in  the  bowels  are 
common.  Vomiting  is  also  a  common  sjTnptom.  The  matter 
vomited  is  a  watery  liquid.  As  the  disease  progresses  there  is 
a  sense  of  great  prostration  and  weakness.  The  skin  is  cool. 
In  some  cases  cramps  occur  in  the  muscles  of  the  legs.  If  the 
disease  pursues  a  favorable  course,  the  vomiting  and  purging 
cease  at  the  close  of  the  stage  of  invasion,  and  the  patient  at 
once  becomes  convalescent,  and  in  the  shortest  space  of  time  is 
restored  to  his  usual  health. 

If  the  disease  does  not  end  with  the  first  stage,  all  the  bad 
symptoms  continue.  The  pulse  usually  is  frequent  and  very 
feeble,  ranging  from  no  to  150  per  minute.  The  surface  of 
the  body  becomes  cold,  the  lips  and  face  blue.  The  breath  is 
cold  and  the  respiratory  act  is  more  frequent  and  irregular. 
The  voice  is  feeble  ;  the  patient  is  indifferent  and  has  no  appre- 
hensions for  the  result.  The  cramps  in  the  feet  and  legs  is  the 
only  pain  suffered.  Thirst  is  very  great  ;  the  patient  craves 
cold  water.     The  face  becomes  so  changed  and  old  in  appear- 


ance as  not  to  be  recognizable.  The  patient  may  sink  into 
complete  collapse  in  from  three  to  eight  hours,  in  which  state 
death  usually  ensues. 

If  the  patient  rallies  from  the  state  of  collapse,  he  is  likely 
to  continue  in  a  critical  condition  for  some  time  before  reach- 
ing convalescence.  Diarrhcea  and  vomiting  frequently  con- 
tinue, the  matters  now  being  greenish  yellow  in  color,  and  the 
patient  may  finally  sink  into  a  typhoid  state  and  die.  If 
recovery  finally  takes  place,  convalescence  is  generally  slow, 
and  the  health  is  not  fully  restored  for  a  long  time.  Excep- 
tionally, even  from  the  collapsed  state,  recovery  rapidly  super- 
venes. 

Prevention  of  Cholera. — Much  may  undoubtedly  be 
done  to  prevent  the  disease  by  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  by 
disinfectants,  and  none  of  these  things  should  be  omitted. 

There  is,  however,  in  nearly  all  cases,  a  premonitory  diar- 
rhcea, and  if  this  be  effectually  treated  there  is  little  danger  of 
the  full  development  of  the  disease.  Prudent  and  intelligent 
people  who  give  prompt  attention  to  any  occurrence  of  diar- 
rhoea during  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  rarely  have  cholera. 

If  the  diarrhoea  occurs  in  a  young  child,  full  doses  of  pare- 
goric should  be  given  every  time  the  bowels  move.  If  more 
than  eight  years  old,  full  doses  of  laudanum  should  be  given, 
together  with  acetate  of  lead  and  bismuth.  For  an  adult, 
twenty-five  to  forty  dropsof  laudanum,  or,  instead,  one-sixth  to 
one-quarter  grain  of  morphine  after  every  movement  of  the 
bowels.  Small  doses  of  red  pepper,  in  addition  to  the  opiates, 
are  useful.  The  above  treatment,  taken  in  time,  will  prevent 
the  further  development  of  the  disease  in  almost  every  case. 

The  treatment  of  cholera^  when  fully  developed,  does  not 
differ  during  the  first  stages  from  that  recommended  during  the 
premonitary  diarrhcea,  except  that  the  opiates  should  be  given 
in  larger  doses.  After  collapse  has  taken  place  there  is  little 
that  can  be  done  with  any  hope  of  success.  Sometimes  active 
treatment  in  this  stage  does  harm;  it  rarely  does  good.  The 
body  should  be  kept  warm  by  the  application  of  dry  heat. 
The  nutrition  should  be  kept  up,  and  brandy  and  water  may 
be  given  frequently  in  small  quantities. 


-H-THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS  AND  THE  BLOOD.-h- 


Absorption. 

Under  the  head  of  "  Physiology  of  the  Digestive  Organs  " 
was  described  the  elaborate  process  of  the  solution  of  the 
food.  When  this  process  has  been  completed,  absorption  takes 
place  by  the  blood-vessels  upon  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and 
small  intestines,  and  by  a  special  .system  of  little  vessels  called 
lactcals,  which  open  upon  the  intestinal  walls.  The  solution 
of  albuminous  substances  and  the  emulsion  of  fats  must  be  per- 
fect, or  they  will  not  be  taken  up.  Whether  they  are  taken  up 
l)y  the  blood-vessels  or  lactcals,  the  product  is  emptied  into 
the  large  veins.     With  the  exception  of  that  carried  by  the 


thoracic  duct,  and  one  or  two  other  lacteal  trunks,  the  product 
of  digestion,  chyle  by  name,  is  carried,  with  venous  blood, 
directly  to  the  liver,  where  it  is  distributed  to  the  liver  cells 
in  minute  capillaries,  and  is  here  probably  further  modified, 
elaborated  and  refined,  and  also  gains  the  substance  glyco- 
gen, a  liver  sugar,  and  is  then  carried  to  the  heart  in  the  cur- 
rent of  venous  blood,  and  from  the  heart  is  sent  to  the  lungs, 
there  to  be  purified  by  the  oxygen  of  the  inspired  air,  and  again 
returned  to  the  heart,  fit  to  be  used  in  nourishing  all  the  deli- 
cate tissues  and  organs,  and  in  turn  to  be  oxidized  or  burned 
and  carried  out  of  the  body. 


rr 


PHVSIOLOGV  AND  MEDICINE. 


639 


THE  HEART  AND  BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The  heart  is  the  central  organ  of  the  circulatory  system.  It 
is  situated  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  chest,  between  the  right 
and  left  lungs.  Its  base  is  above  and  to  the  right,  and  its  apex 
downward  and  to  the  left.  It  may  be  felt  beating  a  little  below 
and  toward  the  median  line  from  the  left  nipple.  It  is  in  size 
about  as  large  as  the  closed  fist  of  the  jicrson  to  whom  it  be- 
longs. It  is  a  hollow  muscle  containing  four  cavities,  two  of 
which  are  upon  the  right  and  two  upon  the  left  side  of  the 
organ  ;  the  heart  thus  being  a  double,  or,  indeed,  two  distinct 
organs,  a  right  and  a  left  heart,  which,  though  bound  together, 
are  entirely  distinct  from  each  other,  each  having  its  own  par- 
ticular work  to  perform.  The  two  cavities  of  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  communicate  with  each  other,  as  do  also  the  two 
cavities  on  the  left  side.  The  openings  between  the  cavities 
are  guarded  by  valves,  which  permit  the  blood  to  flow  only  in 
one  direction. 


Fig.  4.    Th«  Human  Heart. 

Connected  with  each  of  the  four  chambers  of  the  heart  are 
large  blood-vessels.  The  large  veins  (Kig.  5),  the  vena  cava 
ascendens  (i),  and  the  vetta  cava  descendcns  (2),  bring  the 
blood  from  all  jjarts  of  the  body  to  the  right  heart,  and  pour  it 
into  the  upper  chamber  (3),  which,  from  its  fancied  resemblance 
to  the  car  of  a  dog,  is  called  the  auricle.  This  upper  cavity  of 
the  right  side  of  the  heart  into  which  the  -■cntc  cava:  empty,  is 
known  as  the  right  auricle.  It  has  very  thin  walls  and  .serves 
only  as  a  receptacle  for  the  venous  blood  until  it  can  be  received 


into  the  cavity  below,  which  is  called  the  right  ventricle.  .\s 
soon  as  the  right  auricle  is  filled,  its  walls  contract,  and  the 
valves  which  guard  the  opening  (5,  5,  Fig.  6)  are  pushed  ojjen 
as  shown  in  the  cut,  and  the  blood  flows  into  and  fills  the  cav- 
ity (6)  of  the  right  ventricle.  The  right  ventricle  thus  being 
filled,  its  walls  immediately  contract,  the  movement  of  the 
blood  closes  the  valves  (5,  5)  called  the  ///Ww/iV/ valves,  which 
guard  auricular  ventricular  opening  (4),  thus  preventing 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  7),  the  regurgitation  of  the  blood  back 
into  the  auricle.     At  the  same  time  it  pushes  open  the  valves 


Fig.  5. 

I,  2,  Venascavae,  ascendens  and  descendcns;  3,  right  auricle;  4,  4.  4,  4, 
lungs;  5,  pulmonary  artery;  6.  right  ventricle  ;  7,  7.  7.  7,  pulmonary 
veins;  8,  left  auricle;  9,  left  ventricle;   10,  aorta. 

(9,  9)  called  the  pulmonary  valves,  which  guard  the  entrance 
(7)  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  so  that  all  the  blood  in  the 
right  ventricle  (6)  is  forced  into  the  pulmonary  artery  (8), 
which  leads  to  the  lungs  (4,  4),  as  shown  by  the  black  vessel 
(5)  in  Fig.  5,  where  it  divides  into  a  minute  capillary  net- 
work upon  the  walls  of  the  sixty  million  air-cells  of  the  lungs. 
In  these  capillaries  the  pulmonary  veins  begin  by  little  rootlets 
which  flow  together,  forming  minute  veins,  and  these  unite  to 
form  larger  veins,  these  again  to  form  still  larger,  until  the  four 
(7'  7>  '■'g-  5)  large  pulmonary  veins— two  from  each  lung — 
are  formed.  These  bring  back  the  purified  blood  from  the 
lungs  and  empty  it  into  the  upper  cavity  (8,  Fig.  5,  or  14, 
Fig.  8),  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart.  From  this  cavity, 
by  contraction  of  the  auricular  walls,  the  blood  flows  down- 
ward through  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening  (15),  guarded 
by  the  mitral  valves,  into  the  left  ventricle  (16,  Fig.  8), 
in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  right  side.  As  soon  as  the 
left  ventricle  is  filled  with  blood,  its  strong  muscular  walls  con- 
tract. The  movement  of  the  blood  closes  the  mitral  valves  (15, 
Fig.  8),  which  prevents  the  blood  from  flowing  back  into  the  left 
auricle,  and  pushes  open  the  semilunar  valves  (g.  Fig.  9)  which 
guard  the  entrance  into  the  aorta,  so  that  all  the  blood  in  the 
ventricle  is  sent  into  the  aorta,  and  thence  all  over  the  body, 
with  .suchforce  that  .nil  tlie  larger  arteries  swell  and  throbasthe 


1/ 


-^i 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


~7\ 


blood  rushes  through  them.  This  throb  of  the  arteries  is  called 
the  pulse.  Physicians  make  use  of  this  knowledge  to  ascer- 
tain, in  disease,  how  the  heart  is  doing  its  work. 


^'3 


VM' 


4        S\ 


Fig.  6.    Diagram  of  Right  Side  of  the  Heart. 

I,  2,  Vense  cavEe,  ascendens  and  descendens:  3.  cavity  of  right  auricle: 
4,  auriculo-ventricular  opening:  5,  5,  tricuspid  valves:  6,  cavity  of  right 
ventricle;  7,  opening  leading  to  pulmonary  artery:  8,  pulmonary  artery: 
9,  pulmonary  valves. 

The  aorta  ( 10,  Fig.  5 ;  18,  Fig.  8)  branches  and  subdivides  into 

a  great  number  of  large arteriesleading  to  the  head,  arms,  trunk, 

lower  extremities  and  internal  organs.     These  arteries  again 

branch  and  subdivide  a  great  many  times,  until  they  are  reduced 

to  only  ^nVrt  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     They  are  much  smaller  than 

the  finest  hair,  and  can  be  seen  only  by  a  magnifying-glass.    They 


Fig.  7.     Diagram  of  Right  Side  of  Heart,  with  Tricuspid 
Valves  Closed  and  Pulmonary  Valves  Open. 

lie  so  closely  together  that  the  point  of  a  needle  cannot  be  thrust 

into  any  part  of  the  body  without  wounding  a  greater  or  less 

number  of  them.     The  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  capillaries 

may  be  beautifully  seen  by  placing  the  web  of  the  foot  of  a 

living  frog  under  a  microscope  magnifying  about  400  diameters, 

when  all  the  little  capillaries,  with  the  blood-corpuscles  rapidly 

coursing  through  them,  may  be  seen,  as  in  Fig.  II.     If  the  frog 


is  not  allowed  to  breathe  for  a  moment  the  circulation  in  the 
capillaries  stops,  to  begin  again  when  respiration  is  resumed. 
In  these  capillaries  the  system  veins  begin  by  little  rootlets 
which  flow  together  into  minute  vessels,  these  into  small  veins, 
these  into  larger,  and  these  again  into  still  larger,  until  all 
are  collected  into  the  two  great  trunks,  the  vente  cavoe  ascendens 
and  descendens,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  empty  the  impure  blood 
collected  from  the  body  into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 

The  heart  is  enclosed  by  a  serous  membrane,  the  pericar- 
dium,which  foxvas  a  kind  of  a  double  bag.  Theinner  layer  of  the 
membrane  is  closely  attached  to  the  heart,  the  outer  layer  being 
free.  Between  the  layers  is  a  space,  containing  an  ounce  or 
two  of  fluid,  which  is  secreted  by  the  membrane  to  lubricate 
its  surfaces,  so  that  the  movements  of  the  heart  will  not  cause 
friction  and  consequent  inflammation. 

The  heart  is  lined  by  a  delicate  membrane,  the  endoeardium, 
folds  of  which  form  the  valves  at  the  openings  leading  from 
the  auricles  into  the  ventricles,  and  from  the  ventricles  into  the 
arteries. 


Fig.  8.    Diagram  of  Right  and  teft  Sides  of  Heart. 

I.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  same  as  Fig.  5:  10,  pulmonary'  artery  leading  to  the 
right  lung:  11,  branch  of  pulmonary  artery  to  the  lefthing:  12.  pulmonary 
veins  from  left  lung:  13,  pulmonary  veins  from  the  right  lung:  14,  cavity 
of  left  auricle:  15,  left  auricula-ventricular  opening:  16,  cavity  of  left 
ventricle:    17,  opening  into  aorta;    18,  aorta. 

The  muscular  walls  of  the  auricles  (Figs.  8,  9  and  10)  are  very 
thin.  As  they  have  little  work  to  do,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
they  should  be  strong.  The  walls  of  the  right  ventricle  (Fig. 
10)  are  much  thicker  than  the  auricular  walls,  for  the  reason 
that  it  has  to  force  the  blood  through  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs,  while  the  auricle  has  to  force  the  blood  into  the  ventri- 
cle only.  But  the  walls  of  the  left  ventricle  (/;  /;,  Fig.  9)  are 
much  thicker  than  those  of  the  right,  for  the  reason  that  it  has 
many  times  its  amount  of  work  to  perform.  The  right  ven- 
tricle has  to  send  the  blood  only  to  the  lung,  while  the  left  has 
to  send  it  over  the  entire  system — from  the  crown  of  the 
head  to  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  to  all  the  organs, 
the  brain,  liver,  stomach,  muscles  and  bones. 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


641 


I 


71 


Diseases  of  the  Heart. 

The  heart,  in  health,  is  a  most  woiulLTful  ami  beautiful 
mechanism.  It  performs  its  work  quietly  and  regularly,  day 
and  night,  sleeping  and  waking,  year  after  year,  never  stopping 
for  a  quarter  of  a  second.  But,  like  all  parts  of  the  body,  it  i.s 
subject  to  disease  and  injury,  and,  when  out  of  repair,  may 
cause  the  most  distressing  symptoms,  and,  not  unfrequently,  sud- 
den death. 


Tig.  9.    Showing  Right  Side  of  Heart. 

«,  fi,  Columnar  carncac;  c,  c.ivityof  rigli  .auricle;  </.  t/,  openings  of  pul- 
monary veins  into  left  auricle;  g^,  semilunar  or  aortic  valves;^",  aorta;  A,  A, 
muscular  walls  of  right  ventricle. 

The  diseases  of  the  heart  arc  many.  The  enveloping  mem- 
brane, the  pi^riearJiitm,  may  become  inflamed,  when  the  dis- 
ease is  known  as  pericarditis^  signifying  "  an  inflammation 
around  the  heart. "  Or  the  lining  membrane  may  become 
inflamed,  which  is  called  endocarditis  (endo,  within  ;  cardium, 
the  heart,  and  itis,  inflammation),  "  inflammation  within 
the  heart."  In  consequence  of  pericarditis,  the  fluid  around 
the  heart  may  be  greatly  increased,  so  as  to  interfere 
with  its  movements.  This  is  dropsy  of  the  heart.  Or  the 
s:nooth  surfaces  of  the  pericardium  or  enveloping  membrane 
may  become  agglutinated  together,  so  that  at  every  contraction 
the  heart  must  lift  the  whole  weight  of  the  diaphragm.  Or, 
from  endocarditis,  the  openings  between  the  cavities  may  be 
almost  closed  up,  or  the  valves  shortened  or  deformed  so  as 
not  to  close  perfectly,  and  hence  permit  the  blood  to  regurgi- 
tate, like  the  leaky  valves  of  an  old  pump,  which  permits  most 
of  the  water  to  flow  back  into  the  well,  instead  of  raising  it  to 
the  spout,  no  matter  how  hard  one  may  work  at  the  handle. 
A  heart  with  the  openings  greatly  contracted  by  disease  may 
be  likened  to  a  pump  with  a  spout  too  small.  It  is  easy 
to  understand  how,  if  the  openings  of  the  heart  are  con- 
tracted, as  they  sometimes  are,  to  the  size  of  a  goose-quill,  or  if 
the  valves  leak  badly,  permitting  the  blood  to  regurgitate,  the 
work  of  the  heart  is  greatly  increased.  If  a  schoolmaster 
should  become  a  blacksmith,  by  work  at  the  forge   he  would 


soon  increase  the  muscles  of  his  arms  to  double  their  former 
size.  So,  when  by  damaged  valves  or  contracted  orifices  the 
heart  is  called  upon  to  do  more  work,  the  first  effect  is  to  in- 
crease the  thickness  of  its  muscular  walls.  By  this  cause  the 
heart  sometimes  becomes  three  or  four  times  its  normal  size. 

This  condition  is  called  hypertrophy.  But  there  is  a  limit 
to  muscular  development,  and  after  a  time  the  walls  begin  to 
weaken  and  to  dilate.  They  are  no  longer  strong  enough  to 
force  all  the  blood  out  of  the  cavity  when  it  contracts  upon  it. 
More  and  more  blood  remains  in  the  ventricle  after  contrac- 
tion, until  the  day  comes  when,  perhaps,  in  a  moment  of  excite- 
ment, the  ventricle  becomes  filled  with  blood,  and,  the  muscle  of 
the  heart  not  being  strong  enough  to  force  it  out,  there  is  a 
sudden  paralysis  of  the  heart  from  exhaustion  of  the  heart  mus- 
cle, and  death  immediately  ensues,  the  patient  suddenly  falling 
down  dead.  Or  the  blood  may  be  dammed  back  in  the  veins, 
because  it  cannot  get  through  the  heart.  In  this  way  death 
may  take  place  from  congestion  of  the  lungs.  When  the  lungs 
are  congeSted,  there  is  a  great  difficulty  in  breathing.  This  is  a 
common  symptom  of  heart  disease.  The  blood  may  be  dammed 
from  the  heart  back  into  the  veins  of  the  trunk  and  lower  ex- 
tremities. When  this  is  the  case,  the  feet  and  legs  swell,  from 
the  watery  portions  of  the  blood  escaping  outside  of  the  vessels 
into  the  tissues.  Sometimes  the  swelling  is  very  great.  There 
may  be  dropsy  of  the  abdomen  in  consequence,  or  the  liver 
and  kidneys  may  be  congested,  and  their  functions  impaired. 


Fig.  10.     Showing  Right  Side  of  Heart. 

a,  h.  Vena:  cavac;  d,  left  auricle:  c,  /,  tricuspi<l  valves;  g,  pulmonar>' 
artery;  A,  aorta. 

Sometimes  fat  is  deposited  in  the  muscular  fibre  of  the  heart 
in  place  of  the  true  muscular  substance.  This  condition  is 
known  as /atty  degeneration.  It  alw.iys  greatly  weakens  the 
power  of  the  heart,  and  its  walls  dilate.  Sometimes  the  heart 
is  paralyzed  from  this  cause,  and,  occasionally,  when  one  part 
is  more  degenerated  than  another,  the  walls  of  the  heart  may  be 
ruptured  by  its  own  contraction  upon  a  quantity  of  blood. 
Death  in  either  case,  of  course,  immediately  takes  place. 


k- 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


Palpitation  of  the  heart  is  not  a  disease  proper  of  the  heart. 
It  depends  upon  a  derangement  of  the  nervous  system,  just  as  a 
trembling  hand  or  jerking  eyeUd  is  due  to  a  fault  of  the  nerves 
and  not  to  any  disease  of  the  hand  or  of  the  eyelid.  There 
is  nothing  dangerous  in  palpitation  of  the  heart. 

Neuralgia  of  the  heart  is  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  and 
not  of  the  heart. 

Most  lesions  of  the  valves  of  the  heart  are  caused  by  inflam- 
mation of  the  lining  membrane,  endocarditis,  during  an  attack 
of  injlammatory  rheumatism.  If  the  patient  does  not  die 
during  the  time  of  the  acute  inflammation,  he  is  likely  to  suffer 
from  heart  symptoms  after  a  few  years,  by  which  time  the  valves 
become  so  deformed  or  the  orifices  so  contracted  as  to  interfere 
with  the  function  of  the  heart,  and  the  patient  becomes  aware, 
for  the  first  time,  of  his  condition.  Valvular  disease  may  have 
other  causes  than  rheumatism. 

Diagnosis. — A  skilled  physician  is  able,  by /(;-/-<-««/«^  or  tap- 
ping the  chest  wall,  and  taking  note  of  the  sounds  thus  produced, 
to  say  positively  whether  the  heart  is  enlarged  or  not  ;  and,  by 
listening  to  the  beating  of  the  heart,  he  can  tell  certainly 
whether  there  is  any  leakage  at  the  valves,  and  say  with  confi- 
dence which  pair  of  valves  are  at  fault,  or  whether  there  is  or  is 
not  a  contraction  at  any  of  the  orifices.  Where  the  valves  leak, 
or  the  orifices  are  obstructed,  there  are  certain  hissing  or  blow- 
ing sounds,  called  murmurs,  which,  heard  over  different  parts  of 
the  chest,  and  at  different  times  with  reference  to  the  normal 
sounds  of  the  heart,  enable  the  educated  and  skilled  physician  to 
determine  the  character  of  the  lesion,  or  to  say  that  no  disease 
at  all  of  the  heart  exists. 


Fig.  11. 

Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Foot  of  the  Frog. 

Treatment.  —  If  one  suspects,  for  any  reason,  a  grave  dis- 
ease of  the  heart,  he  should  go  to  some  skilled  physician  in 
whom  he  has  full  confidence,  and  be  examined.  He  will  prob- 
ably learn,  as  is  generally  the  case,  that  there  is  no  organic  dis- 
ease of  the  heart  at  all,  and  that  the  symptoms  which  occa- 
sioned the  alarm,  such  as  palpitation,  are  referable  to  a  disor- 
dered state  of  the  stomach  or  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
patient  should  not  undertake  to  treat  himself,  if  really  suffering 
from  valvular  lesions  of  the  heart,  so  that  treatment  had  best 
be  left  to  the  physician  whose  advice  is  sought  in  the  case. 


Digitalis  is,  perhaps,  the  most  valuable  remedy  which  exists 
for  strengthening  the  heart's  action.  The  body  should  be  well 
nourished,  the  food  of  good  quality  and  variety,  and  the  meals 
taken  regularly.  The  bowels  should  be  kept  regular,  and  no 
very  severe  exercise  should  betaken.  A  gentleman,  a  patient 
of  the  writer,  suffering  from  valvular  disease,  together  with 
great  enlargement  and  dilitation  of  the  heart,  came  very  near 
death  every  Sunday  night  on  account  of  difficulty  of  breath- 
ing, due  to  congestion  of  the  lungs,  from  damming  the  blood 
back  into  the  pulmonary  veins,  the  left  heart  not  having 
strength  to  empty  the  ventricle.  It  seemed  strange  to  the 
patient  that  the  distress  came  only  on  Sunday  nights,  but  upon 
enquiry  it  was  found  that  on  the  six  week-days  he  took  three 
meals  a  day,  and  on  Sunday  but  two,  the  last  of  which  was 
about  2  o'clock  p.  m.  The  full  power  of  the  heart,  when  well 
nourished,  was  required,  in  its  damaged  condition,  for  the  per- 
formance of  its  functions,  and  the  abstinence  from  food  for  a 
few  hours  so  weakened  its  action  as  to  make  death  imminent. 
Sunday  night  suppers  were  ordered,  and  thereafter  Sunday 
night  ceased  to  be  an  especial  dread. 


^r'^v 


Fig.  13. 

Red  and  \Vhite  Blood-Corpuscles  Highly  Magnified. 

THE  BLOOD. 

The  blood  is  a  compound  fluid.  In  man,  and  all  the  higher 
order  of  animals,  it  is  of  a  red  color ;  in  some  of  the  lower 
forms  of  life  it  is  colorless.  The  quantity  in  man  is  about  one- 
eighth  that  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  vessels  of  a  man 
weighing  one  hundred  and  forty  poimds  would  contain  nearly 
eighteen  pounds  of  blood.  The  office  of  the  blood  is  not  alone 
to  carry  nutriment  to  the  tissues  to  assist  in  their  repair,  but 
is  also  to  carry  out  of  the  body  the  products  of  waste — the 
ashes,  so  to  speak,  of  the  oxidized  tissues  which  have  been 
burned  up  or  consumed  in  the  production  of  force  and  animal 
heat.  If  a  smaU  part  of  a  drop  of  blood  be  examined  under 
a  microscope,  it  will  no  longer  present  the  appearance  of  a 
simple  red  fluid,  but  little  circular  bodies  with  a  yellowish-red 


V. 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


643 


~7 


tinge  will  be  seen,  and,  if  magnified  two  hundred  and  fifty 
times,  will  present  the  appearance  shown  in  the  lower  part  (A, 
A)  of  Kig.  12.  These  are  the  red  corpuscles.  They  are  little 
flattened  circular  bodies  about  ^i'lm  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  not  more  than  one-quarter  as  thick.  It  would  take 
120,000,000,000  of  them  to  make  a  cubic  inch.  The  flat  surfaces 
are  somewhat  concave,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  corpuscle  is  its 
thinnest  part.  If  examined  with  a  lens  magnifying  1,000 
times,  the  corpuscles  will  present  the  appearance  of  B,  C,  D 
in  the  figure.  After  standing  a  few  minutes  the  flat  surfaces 
of  the  corpuscles  are  inclined  to  stick  together,  and  so  arrange 
themselves  in  the  form  of  a  roll  of  coin  (/>,  D).  If  treated 
with  a  drop  of  vinegar  they  become  clear  (A^.  If  instead  of 
vinegar  a  drop  of  water  ^is  added,  they  swell  up  (E),  and 
become  globular.  If  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  time,  they 
become  shrivelled  (/^,  //)  and  irregular.  In  the  lower  part  of 
Fig.  12  are  to  be  seen  two  bodies  (a,  a)  which  do  not  look 
like  the  other  corpuscles.  They  arc  larger  in  size,  globular  in 
shape,  present  a  granular  appearance,  and  are  of  a  white  color. 
They  are  known  as  the  white  corpuscles.  Only  one  white  cor- 
puscle exists  to  four  hundred  of  the  red.  The  coloring  matter 
of  the  blood  is  in  the  red  corpuscles.  When  they  are  removed 
a  clear  fluid  remains. 

If  a  quantity  of  blood  be  drawn  into  a  bowl  from  the  veins 
of  an  animal,  it  will  be,  at  first,  quite  fluid,  but  in  a  few  mo- 
ments will  become  thick  like  a  mass  of  jelly.  This  mass  is 
called  a  clot,  and  the  process  foa^K/a//o».  If  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  day  or  two  the  clot  will  continue  to  contract,  and  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  that  time  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  cov- 
ered with  a  clear  liquid  called  the  serum. 

If,  as  soon  as  the  blood  is  drawn  from  the  vein,  it  be  whipped 
with  a  bunch  of  twigs,  a  white  stringy  substance,  like  the 
gluten  obtained  by  washing  flour,  is  found  to  cover  the  twigs, 
binding  them  together.  This  substance  is  called  fibrin. 
Blood,  subjected  to  this  whipping,  does  not  form  a  clot,  for  the 
reason  that  the  coagulating  substance,  fibrin,  has  been  removed 
upon  the  twigs.  If  this  whipped  or  defibrinatcd  blood  be  now 
permitted  to  stand,  the  red  corpuscles  settle  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bowl,  while  the  clear  serum  remains  on  top.  These  three 
constituents  of  the  blood,  fibrin^  serum  and  corpuscles,  are 
rendered  plain  to  the  sight,  but  they  are  made  up  of  many 
other  substances,  such  as  albumen,  fat,  sugar,  soda,  salt,  iron, 
lime,  magnesia,  water,  carbonic  acid  gas,  oxygen,  etc.,  etc. 

The  serum  and  the  fibrin  are  not  separated  in  the  living 
blood,  but  together  form  the  plasma.  The  office  of  the  plas- 
ma is  to  nourish  and  rebuild  the  tissues  and  to  carry  the  prod- 
ucts of  waste  and  combustion  to  those  organs — such  as  the 
liver,  kidneys  and  skin — whose  function  it  is  to  separate  them 


from  the  blood  and  carry  them  out  of  the  body.  The  particu- 
lar oflice  of  the  corpuscles  is  to  carry  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to 
the  tissues  and  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  tissues  to  the  lungs, 
there  to  be  exchanged  for  oxygen. 

Diseases  of  the  Blood. 

The  plasma  of  the  blood  is  replenished  in  its  nutritive  constit- 
uents by  the  food  taken  at  frequent  intervals.  Water  is  neces- 
sary to  render  the  blood  sufficiently  fluid,  and  to  hold  the  other 
constituents  in  solution.  The  presence  of  certain  chemical  sub- 
stances is  also  essential.  Lime,  iron,  and  certain  other  minerals, 
must  also  find  a  place.  Besides  these  conditions,  certain  constitu- 
ents manufactured  in  the  body  itself,  as  liver  sugar  and  the  cor- 
puscles in  normal  quantity,  are  necessary  to  health.  Water  is 
more  essential  than  food,  and  oxygen  more  than  water.  One 
deprived  of  food  dies  from  impoverishment  of  the  blood  ;  if 
deprived  of  water,  death  takes  place  much  sooner  ;  but  if 
deprived  of  oxygen,  death  ensues  within  five  to  eight  minutes. 
.\bout  a  ton  and  a  half  in  the  shape  of  fot)d  and  drink  is  added 
to  the  blood  of  an  ordinary  man  during  the  year.  As  there 
is  the  same  amount  of  waste,  a  ton  and  a  half  of  material, 
therefore,  must  be  carried  out  of  the  body  through  the  blood 
during  the  same  time.  Some  of  the  products  of  oxidation,  as 
urea  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  very  poisonous  to  the  nervous 
system.  Certain  organs,  as  the  kidneys,  skin  and  lungs,  are 
designed  especially  to  remove  these  poisons  from  the  current 
of  the  blood,  and  carry  them  out  of  the  body.  If,  through 
disease  of  these  organs,  they  fail  10  perform  their  functions,  the 
blood  becomes  highly  charged  with  the  poison,  and,  unless 
speedily  relieved,  death  is  the  result.  If  the  lungs  fail  to 
eliminate  the  carbonic  acid,  death  results  within  a  few  minutes. 
If  the  kidneys  fail  to  remove  the  urea,  death  must  follow  in  a 
short  time.    The  same  is  true  if  the  skin  fails  in  its  oflice. 

From  the  above  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  disorders  of 
the  blood  arc  many.  There  may  be  too  much  blood,  when  the 
condition  is  called  plethora ;  or  too  little,  when  it  is  called 
anamia  ;  or  it  may  contain  too  much  water,  or  too  little  ;  or 
too  many  red  torpuscles,  or  too  few  ;  or  the  plasma  may  be 
deficient  in  tissue-building  constituents  ;  or  the  blood  may  be 
poisoned  by  the  retention  of  carbonic  acid  and  urea  ;  or  it  may 
contain  living  germs. 

Treatment. — A  considerable  quantity  and  wide  variety  of 
food  should  be  taken  regularly.  .\  sufficient  amount  of  water 
and  fluids  should  also  be  taken.  Frequent  baths  and  a  reason- 
able amount  of  exercise  are  advised.  The  sleeping-room  should 
be  well  ventilated,  and  plenty  of  fresh  air  supplied.  Where  the 
blood  disease  is  due  to  disease  of  some  particular  organ,  the 
latter  requires  primary  attention. 


-^^^i^'Y"^^^^^^^ 


/ 


644 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


/ 


-«*THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS.^ 


It  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  life  of  all  animals  that  the 
nutrient  fluid  should  be  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  system,  and 
since  the  functional  activity  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues, 
and  all  tissues,  is  dependent  upon  their  oxidation,  it  is  also  neces- 
sary that  oxygen  should  be  carried  to  and  brought  directly  in 
contact  with  every  fibre  and  cell  in  the  whole  body.  This  im- 
plies the  introduction  of  air.  It  is  necessary  in  every  animal, 
moreover,  to  keep  up  the  temperature  or  body  heat  to  a  specific 
point.  This  is  also  accomplished  by  oxidation  or  burning 
either  the  disintegrating  material  which  is  passing  to  waste,  or 
the  combustible  substances,  such  as  sugars  and  fats,  found  in  the 
blood. 


Fig.  13.    Head  and  GUIs  of  the  Menobranchus. 

As  we  saw  in  the  early  part  of  this  article,  all  organic  mate- 
rial, at  its  death  and  combustion,  gives  rise  to  two  products,  car- 
bonic acid  and  water,  and  we  have  seen  by  experiment  that 
these  are  the  products  alike  of  the  burning  candle  and  the  oxi- 
dizing tissues  of  a  living  man.  These  products  of  combustion 
of  the  tissues  are  poured  into  the  current  of  the  blood.  But 
the  conditions  of  life  are  such  that  carbonic  acid  gas  acts  as  a 
poison  in  the  system,  and  means  must  therefore  be  provided  for 
its  removal.  The  introduction  of  life-giving  oxygen  into  the 
system  and  the  removal  of  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  are  ac- 
complished by  the  same  mechanism,  the  breathing  apparatus. 


Fig.  14.    Swimming-Bladder  of  the  Fish. 

a,  h.  Air  chambers;  d,  r,  wind-pipe:  o,  (Esophagus. 

THE    LUNGS. 

The  breathing  apparatus,  or  mechanism  by  which  oxygen  is 
introduced  into,  and  carbonic  acid  is  removed  from  the  blood, 
in  all  forms  of  life,  consists  of  a  thin  membrane  so  arranged  as 
to  permit  the  blood  to  flow  upon  one  side  of  it,  while  the  other 
sideof  the  membrane  (which  must  be  moist)  is  in  contact  with  the 
air.     The  oxygen  gas  of  the  air,  having  a  greater  affinity  or 


h 


\% 


attraction  for  the  blood  corpuscles  than  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
passes,  therefore,  through  the  thin  membrane  into  the  blood 
and  displaces  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  passes  out  through  the 
membrane  into  the  air.  The  membrane,  or  breathing  apparatus, 
in  all  cases,  is  the  skin,  or  some  extension,  reduplication  or 
modification  of  it,  as  the  mucous  membrane. 
In  the  lower  forms  of  aquatic  life,  and  in 
certain  worms,  which  are  always  moist,  the 
skin  serves  the  full  purpose  of  lungs  in  purify- 
ing the  blood,  and  no  special  organs  of  respir- 
ation are  required.  The  moist  skin  of  the 
frog  is  so  delicate  as  to  serve  this  purpose. 
We  may  remove  its  lungs,  and  it  will  continue 
to  live  and  breathe,  so  to  speak  ;  the  heart 
will  continue  to  beat,  and  the  blood  to  circulate 
and  be  purified  so  long  as  the  skin  is  kept  wet. 
But  if  allowed  to  dry,  so  that  the  exchange 
of  gases  can  no  longer  take  place  through 
the  skin,  the  animal  soon  dies  "  from  the 
want  of  breath. " 

In  fishes,  the  gills,  which  are  covered  by  n 
delicate  membrane,  take  the  place  of  the  lungs. 
There  is  a  rich  plexus  of  blood-vessels  on  one 
side  of  this  membrane,  while  the  other  side 
is  bathed  in  water.  Oxygen  is  held  in  solution 
in  the  water,  and  is  appropriated  by  the 
blood,  while  carbonic  acid  is  exhaled  through 
the  membrane.  Humboldt  placed  fishes  in 
water  which  contained  20  per  cent  of  air  in 
solution,  this  consisting  of  29.8  parts  of  oxy- 
gen, 66. 2  parts  nitrogen  and  4.0  carbonic  acid. 
After  the  fishes  had  remained  in  it  a  due  time, 
analysis  showed  but  2.3  parts  oxygen,  while 
the  carbonic  acid  had  increased  to  33. 8  parts, 
showing  the  ordinary  results  of  respiration. 

In  the  menobranchus  the  gills  (Fig.  13)  are 
external   feathery  tufts  on   the   sides  of  the         Fig.  15. 
neck.      Each   filament    consists  of  a  fold  of    '-""S*  °^  Reptile, 
mucous  membrane  connected  with  that  of  the  pharynx,  and  con- 
tains a  net-work  of  capillary  blood-vessels.      Respiration  takes 
place  as  described  in  the  above  paragraph. 

But  the  first  approach  to  the  true  lung  is  seen  in  the  swim- 
ming-bladder of  fishes.  In  the  carp  there  is,  in  its  double- 
chambered  swimming-bladder  (Fig.  14),  an  approach  to  the 
double  lungs  of  the  higher  order  of  animals.  It  is  connected 
by  means  of  a  wind-pipe,  d,  c,  with  the  oesophagus,  so  that  the 
fish  is  enabled  at  will  to  increase  or  diminish  the  amount  of  air 
in  the  chambers.  While  this  is  a  rudimentary  lung,  its  real  use 
is  to  vary  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fish,  by  compression  or 
rarification  of  the  included  air.  As  explained  above,  the  gills 
in  fishes  fill  the  office  of  the  true  lung. 


\ 


J^ 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


645 


Fir.  10.    l.ungMof 
the  I-Vtig. 


The  lungs  of  the  reptile  present  a  sack-like  form  (Kig.  15). 
The  two  lungs  are  not  equal  in  size,  one,  A,  being  fully  devel- 
ope<I,  while  the  other,  /i,  remains  in  a  more  or  less  rudimentary 
state.  There  is  a  pulmonary  artery,  <-  c,  which  brings  the  im- 
pure blood  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  broken  up  into  minute 
capillaries  and  distributed  over  the  walls  of  the  membranous 
bag,  where  the  blood  is  purified  and  sent  through  the  pulmo- 
nary vein,  1/  </,  back  to  the  heart.  The  air  is  taken  into  the 
sack  through  the  trachea,  a,  by  a  kind  of  swallowing  process, 
and  is  forced  out  again  by  contraction  of  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles. 

The  progress  from  the  simple  sack,  as 
.shown  in  the  swimming-bladder  of  the 
fish  and  the  lungs  of  the  reptile,  to  the 
I  million-chambered  respiratory  organs  of 
the  higher  animals,  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  lungs  of  a  frog  (Kig.  i6),  which  has  a 
'  number  i)f  imperfect  membranous  parti- 
tionsdividing  up  the  sack  into  many  cham- 
bers, with  the  effect  to  greatly  increase 
the  respiratory  surface.  If  the  surface  of 
the  membrane  forming  the  walls  of  the 
sack  amounted  to  two  square  inches,  the 
effect  of  the  fifty  or  sixty  partitions  would 
oe  to  increase  the  surface  of  the  respiratory  membrane  to  per- 
haps fifteen  square  inches,  so  that  the  lung  with  the  partitions  is 
capable  of  purifying 
seven  times  more 
blood  per  minute  than 
the  simple  sack  with- 
out the  partitions. 

In  man  the  trachea, 
or  wind-pipe,  divides 
into  two  bronchial 
tubes,  one  of  which 
enters  each  lung,  and 
then  branches  like  a 
tree.  The  termiii 
tubes  are  only  abo 
^  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Upon  the  side? 
of  these  minute  tuln 
the  air-cells  oixn 
sometimes  single  01  n 
and  sometimes  man) 
cells  communicate 
with  one  another  (Fig. 
17).  Such  a  tubclct, 
with  the  air-cells  thus 
clustered  upon  it,  is  a 
miniature  representa- 
tion of  the  lungs  of  the  frog.  The  air  cells  vary  in  size  from  ^\■, 
to  thi>  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  said  that  each  terminal 
bronchus  has  20,000  air-cells  clustered  upon  it,  and  that  the  total 
number  in  both  lungs  is  more  than  600,000,000,  the  walls  of 
which,  if  united  and  spread  out  in  one  continuous  sheet,  would 
present  a  surface  of  1,500  s<|uare  feet.  The  cell  walls  are  formed 
of  an  exceedingly  delicate  membrane,  covered  by  the  richest  plexus 


^ 


Fig.  1«. 


of  capillary  blood-vessels  in  the  economy,  which  lie  so  thickly 
together  that  the  spaces  between  them  are  less  than  their 
own  diameters.  Figure  18  represents  five  air-cells,  with  the 
capillary  blood  vessels  distributetl  ujxm  their  walls.  These  capil- 
laries are  only  ttAto  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  requiring  200  of 
them  to  equal  the  size  of  a  cambric  needle.  As  the  cells  are 
close  together  and  the  partition  walls  of  incomprehensible  thin- 
nes-s,  the  little  capillaries  pas.sing 
l)etween  them  are  brought  in  com- 
munication with  the  air  on  both 
sides.  The  blood  corpuscles  are 
obliged  to  pass  through  the  little 
vessels  in  single  file,  and  so,  with 
air  on  both  sides,  they  rapidly  and 
completely  exchange  their  poison- 
ous carbonic  acid  gas  for  pure  life- 
giving  oxygen,  and  change  their 
color  from  blue  to  crimson.  Then, 
by  the  contraction  of  the  alxlom- 
inal  muscles,  the  chest  walls,  and 
the  elastic  walls  of  the  air-cells 
themselves,  the  impure  air  is  forctxl 
out  of  the  body,  and  by  a  new  in-^a^'i„1;^^{i;cCter« 
spiration  the  lungs  are  refilled  w  ith  Alr-CeUs. 
pure  air.  This  in  turn  loses  its  oxygen  to  the  blood,  becomes 
impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  and  is  expired,  and  the  lungs 

again     refilled      with 
pure   air. 

The  Mechanism  of 
Respiration. 
The  minute  anato- 
my of  the  pulmonary 
lobule  and  the  physi- 
ology' of  the  respira- 
tory membrane  hav- 
ing been  explained,  it 
remains  only  to  recite 
the  gross  anatomy  of 
the  respiratory  or- 
gans, and  the  mech- 
anism by  which  the 
lungs  are  filled  and 
emptied  of  air. 

The  nose  may  be 
very  properly  consid- 
ered the  first  of  the 
respiratory  organs 
By  its  turiinaletl 
bones  and  the  numer- 
ous cells  connected 
with  its  cavity,  a  con- 
siiler.iblc  surface  is  produced,  all  of  which  is  lined  by  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane;  over  this  surface  the  air  passes,  and  is 
warmed  and  cleansed  from  dust  before  passing  into  the  lungs. 
.•\t  the  entrance  of  the  nostril  are  a  number  of  stiff  hairs,  which 
act  as  a  barrier  to  dust.  Within  the  nose  resides  the  sense  of 
smell,  which  informs  us  of  the  quality  of  air  we  are  breathing. 
The  cavities  of  the  nose  communicate  with  the  throat  by  two 


Shonine  a  Portion  nf  Flv<>  Air-rrlls.  with  the  Capillaries  Upon  Cell 
Walls  ((ireally  Ma|;niiit-tl). 


/ 


Al 


V 


646 


Pm^SIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


openings.  (See  Fig.  I.)  Except  during  the  act  of  swallowing, 
the  epiglotis,  or  lid  which  covers  the  opening  into  the  larynx, 
stands  wide  open,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  while  the  gullet  below  the 
larynx  remains  closed,  so  that  there  is  a  continuous  tube  from 
the  nostrils,  into  the  lungs. 

The  Larynx  is  a  kind  of  a  triangular  box  placed  at  the  top 
of  the  tracjiea,  or  wind-pipe,  and  is  made  up  of  rigid  and 
unyielding  rings  of  cartilage  or  gristle.  The  larger  end  of  the 
larynx  is  placed  upward,  and  across  the  superior  opening  are 
stretched  four  ligamentous  bands  covered  by  a  most  delicate 
mucous  membrane.  These  bands  are  the  vocal  cords.  The 
two  upper  cords  are  called  the/a/jf,  while  the  two  lower  bands 
are  called  the  true  vocal  cords.  To  the  vibration  of  these 
latter  the  voice  is  due.  In  front  they  are  attached  to  a  fi.xed 
point,  the  thyroid  cartilages,  which  project  forward  on  the 
neck,  especially  in  men,  and  are  called  "Adam's  apple."  Behind 
they  are  attached  to  movable  pieces  of  cartilage,  which  are 
controlled  by  little  muscles,  and  can  be  so  moved  as  to  separate 
the  cords  from  each  other,  as  seen  in  inspiration  (A,  Fig.  19, 
or  Fig.  22),  allowing  the  air  a  free  entrance  into  the  trachea.  In 
expiration  the  cords  fall  together,  leaving  only  a  narrow  slit  (B), 
through  which  the  air  passes  out.  When  an  attempt  is  made  to 
produce  a  sound  there  is  a  great  change  in  the  conformity  of 
the  larynx  ;  the  vocal  cords  are  approxima  ted  more  closely 
together  and  put  upon  the  stretch.  The  air  from  the  lungs  is 
then  forced  through  the  narrow  slit,  causing  the  free  edges  to 
vibrate,  at  the  same  time  forcing  them  slightly  apart  in  the 
centre,  leaving  a  narrow  oval  slit,  C,  as  shown  in  Fig.  ig. 


Fig.  19.    The  Vocal  Cords. 

.4,  as  seen  in  inspiration:  B,  as  seen  in  expiration;  C,  as  seen  while 
uttering   a  high-pitched  sound. 

Below  the  larynx  is  the  trachea,  a  long  air-tube,  composed  of 
rings  of  cartilage  bound  together  by  connective  tissue  and 
lined  with  mucous  membrane.  The  trachea  divides  into  two 
tubes  called  the  bronchia,  one  of  which  leads  to  each  lung,  and 
there  subdivides  and  branches  like  a  tree  into  the  ultimate 
bronchial  tubules  which  open  into  the  air-cells. 

The  lungs  are  contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest  {A,  Fig. 
20).  This  cavity  is  separated  from  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen 
(C)  by  an  arched  muscle  (£)  called  the  diaphragm. 

The  lungs  are  placed  one  upon  each  side  of  the  heart  (Fig. 
21).  Each  lung  is  enclosed  in  a  double  membranous  sack 
called  the  pleura,  one  fold  of  which  is  closely  attached  to  the 
substance  of  the  lung,  while  the  outside  layer  lines  the  chest 
wall.  Between  the  two  layers  is  a  cavity  which  contains  a  little 
fluid  called  serum,  which  is  secreted  by  the  membrane,  and 
serves  to  lubricate  its  surfaces,  so  that  they  glide  smoothly  over 
each  other  with  every  movement  of  the  lungs.  The  right  lung 
is  divided  into  three  (6,  7,  8)  and  the  left  into  two  (1,2)  lobes. 


Movements  of  Respiration. 

When  the  diaplu-agm  contracts,  it  approaches  a  straight  line 
across  the  body ;  at  the  same  time  the  costal  muscles  elevate  the 
ribs,  which  are  also,  because  of  their  direction,  carried  outward. 
This  increases  the  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  The  descent 
of  the  diaphragm  increases  the  length  of  the  chest -cavity,  while 
the  movement  of  the  ribs  increases  its  breadth.  This  causes  a 
vacuum  in  the  chest-cavity,  and  the  outside  air  rushes  in  through 
the  trachea  and  dilates  the  air-cells  until  the  cavity  is  filled. 
This  is  known  as  inspiration.  The  diaphragm  and  costal  mus- 
cles now  relax,  the  ribs  return  to  their  place,  thus  narrowing  the 
chest,  while  the  abdoininal  muscles  contract,  forcing  the  stomach 
and  liver   upward  against  the  diaphragm,  which  rises  into  its 


Fig.  %0. 

^,  cavity  of  chest:  .fl,  diaphragm;  C,  cavity  of  abdomen, 
arched  position,  decreasing  the  length  of  the  chest-cavity. 
These  movements,  together  with  the  elasticity  of  the  air-cells, 
force  the  contained  air  out  through  the  trachea,  emptying  the 
limgs.  This  act  is  called  expiration,  which  is  followed  by  and 
alternates  with  the  act  of  inspiration,  and  comprises  the  phe- 
nomenon of  respiration. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    RESPIRATORY    ORGANS. 

Diseases  under  this  head  may  be  divided  into  those  affecting 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  air-passages,  those  affecting  the 
serous  membrane  covering  the  lungs,  and  those  affecting  the 
substance  of  the  lung  itself. 

Cold — Catarrh — Bronchitis. 

CoRYZA,  or  cold  in  the  head,  is  an  acute   inflammation  of 

the  lining  membrane  of  the  nose.     The  eyes,  in  this  disease,  are 

also  frequently  inflamed  and  red,  and  the  tears  flow  over  the 

face.   The  symptoms  begin  with  an  itching  or  tingling  sensation 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


647 


in  the  nose,  which  is  followed  by  sneezing.  A  slight  fever  ac- 
companies these  sj-mptoms,  and  not  unfrequently  there  is  more 
or  less  headache. 

Treatment. — Twenty  or  tucnty-five  drops  of  laudanum 
should  be  taken  at  bed-time,  the  first  evening  after  the  s>-mp- 
toms  arc  noticed.  Not  unfrei|ucntly  this  will  effect  a  cure.  If 
not,  another  dose  may  be  taken  the  following  evening,  and  this 
repeated  the  next.  If  the  cold  is  severe  the  laudanum  should 
be  taken  night  and  morning  until  relieved.  It  is  also  well  to 
take  four  grains  of  quinine  night  and  morning.  Instead  of 
laudanum,  one-sixth  rf  a  gr.n  of  morphine,  or  a  full  dose  of 
Dover's  powder,  will  serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  Treat«l 
in  the  beginning, 
nothing  is  surer  than 
a  perfect  cure  in  from 
twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours,  but  if 
not  effectually  Weal- 
ed, it  is  apt  to  extend 
to  the  larynx  and  be- 
come a  severe  bron- 
chitis, or  eventuate  in 
a  chronic,  low-grade 
inflammation  of  the 
nasal  membrane, 
called  catarrh. 

Catarrh. 

Catarrh  is  a 
name  that  properly 
applies  to  all  inflam- 
mations of  any  part 
of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane,such  as  catarrh 
of  the  stomach  or  of 
'the  bladder,  but  by 
common  usage,  un- 
less qualifietl  by  an- 
other word,  has  come 
to  mean  a  chronic  in- 
flammation of  the 
nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane. It  is  a  very 
troublesome  dbease, 
and  is  often  very  dif- 
ficult to  treat.  Pa- 
tients are  frequently 
seen  who  have  suf- 
fered from  the  disease  for  years.  The  inflammation  is  apt  to 
extend  through  the  eustachian  tube  to  the  ears,  and  sometimes 
with  not  only  the  cflect  to  impair  the  hearing,  but  to  quite  de- 
stroy it.  The  odor  is,  in  bad  cases,  most  penetrating,  rendering 
the  patient  very  offensive  to  his  associates. 

Treatment. — In  the  beginning  the  most  effective  treatment  is 
that  recommended  for  coryza.  Later,  tonics  should  be  given. 
Quinine  in  two-grain  doses,  three  times  a  day  ;  laudanum  in 
small  doses  and  iodide  of  potassium  in  five-grain  doses  three 
times  a  day.     In  the  beginning  powders  and  solutions  snuffed  up 


the  nose  usually  do  harm,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  they  ever 
do  good  in  any  stage.  The  most  effective  treatment  for  a 
chronic  case  is,  perhaps,  a  change  of  climate.  The  writer  has 
known  some  excellent  cures  to  result  from  a  residence  in  North- 
em  Wisconsin,  or  in  the  region  of  Lake  Superior. 

Acute  Laryngitis. 
Acute  Laryngitis  is  an  inllammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  larynx.  It  is  attended  with  a  cough  and  hoarse- 
ness, and  frequently  with  much  difficulty  of  breathing.  The 
hoarseness  is  due  to  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the  vocal 
cords.  Medicinal  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  that  recom- 
mended for  coryza. 
.\t  night  the  throat 
may  be  bound  with  a 
bandage  wrung  out 
of  cold  water.  Qui- 
nine should  be  taken 
in  four-grain  doses 
three  times  a  day. 

Disease  of   Vocal 
Cords. 

It  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  speech, 
or  the  power  of  pho- 
nation,  is  lost  in  con- 
sequence of  disease  or 
injury  of  vocal  cords, 
or  of  ulceration  or 
swelling  of  the  sur- 
rounding  parts. 
Within  the  last  few 
years  a  little  instru- 
ment, calle<l  a  laryn^ 
goscope^  has  been  in- 
vented, by  which  a 
view  of  the  larynx 
and  vocal  cords  may 
be  obtained.  It  con- 
sists of  a  little  roimd 
mirror,  about  the 
size  of  a  copper  cent, 
fastened  at  an  angle 
upon  a  small  stem  or 
handle.  This  is  in- 
troduced into  the 
mouth,  as  showTi  in 
Fig.  22,  the  tongue  having  been  drawn  forward.  Then,  by  the 
aid  of  a  bright  light,  placed  beside  the  patient,  and  reflected 
from  a  mirror  worn  upon  the  forehead  of  the  physician,  the  rays 
are  thrown  upon  the  little  mirror  in  the  mouth  of  the  patient, 
from  which  it  is  again  reflected  down  to  and  illuminates  the  larynx, 
the  image  of  which  is  reflected  back  into  the  little  mirror  in  the 
mouth  of  the  patient.  In  Fig.  22  the  image  of  the  larynx  and 
vocal  cords  is  shown  as  seen  by  the  physician.  By  this  means  a 
physician  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  instrument  is  able  to  examine 
an  ulcer  of  the  larynx  as  critically  as  he  might  a  burn  on  the  hand. 


Big.  21.    Showing  the  I.ungs  in  Sita. 

,  Upper  and  lower  lobe  of  left  lung:  6,  7,  8,  upper,  middle  and  lower  lobe  of  right  lung;  5 
space  occupied  by  the  heart. 


VL 


648 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


-A 


In  case  of  loss  of  the  voice,  not  clearly  due  to  an  acute  cold, 
or  in  case  of  hoarsenesss  of  long  standing,  such  an  examination 
should  be  sought  directly,  lest  the  voice  may  become  perma- 
nently impaired  or  destroyed.  Sometimes  one  or  both  of  the 
vocal  cords  may  be  paralyzed.  As  the  symptoms  may  be  due  to 
different  causes,  it  is  best  not  to  undertake  self-treatment,  but 
go  at  once  to  a  skilful  physician. 


Fig.  22.  Showing  the  Manner  of  I'sing  the  Larj-ngoscope, 
\n\X\  the  Image  of  the  Larynx,  Kpiglotis  and  Vocal  Cords  in 
the  31iTTor. 

Bronchitis. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
trachea  and  bronchial  tubes.  It  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic. 
If  acute,  there  will  be  a  slight  fever  and  considerable  cough. 
The  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  that  advised  for  coryza. 

Chronic  Brouchitis  usually  eventuates  from  an  acute  attack. 
The  disease  may  be  of  years'  standing.  Those  cases  of  death  of 
elderly  people  from  exhaustion,  attended  by  cough  and  expec- 
toration, and  accredited  to  consumption,  may  usually  be  put 
down  as  bronchitis.  Consumption  rarely  attacks  persons  after 
40  or  45  years  of  age. 

Treatment  should  consist  partly  in  good  living  and  warm  dress- 
ing. Any  of  the  bitter  tonics,  with  iron,  maybe  taken,  together 
with  some  form  of  opium  to  relieve  the  cough.  Iodide  of  potas- 
sium in  five-grain  doses,  with  two  grains  of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
taken  after  meals,  will  be  found  very  useful. 

Pertussis — Whooping  Cough. 
Whooping  Cough  is  an  infectious  disease,  attacking  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  air  passages.  It  attacks  children, 
not  exclusively,  but  chiefly.  Among  the  first  symptoms  the 
child  appears  to  have  taken  cold.  Slight  fever,  suffused  eyes, 
running  nose  and  a  cough  make  up  the  early  symptoms.  The 
cough  is  worse  at  night,  and  the  tern]  erature  and  pulse  are 
higher.  At  this  time  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  it  from 
an  ordinary  cold.  This  stage  may  last  but  a  few  days  or  be 
protracted  over  a  period  of  two  week.s,  -when  these  symptoms 
are  changed  for  a  distinct  paroxysmal  cough,  having  more 
or  less  of  a  metallic  ring.     The  child   makes  a  peculiar  noise 


during  inspiration.  There  is  more  difficulty  in  inspiration 
than  expiration  during  the  paroxysm.  The  paroxysm  over, 
the  patient  seems  to  be  well.  The  number  of  paroxysms 
during  twenty-four  hours  varies  from  ten  to  twenty  in  ordinary, 
to  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  in  aggravated  cases.  Dur- 
ing the  cough  the  child  becomes  black  in  the  face,  and  blood 
may  be  forced  from  the  nose,  throat  or  Imigs,  and  at  times  from 
the  ears.  The  little  patient  soon  learns  to  dread  these  attacks, 
and  seeks  something  to  seize  upon  for  support  during  the  par- 
oxysm. If  lying  in  bed,  he  springs  up  and  perhaps  stands  upon 
his  feet,  the  tongue  being  thrust  out  of  the  mouth  during  the 
cough.  The  material  expectorated  is  a  clear,  tough  mucus.  In 
young  children  the  nurse  will  be  obliged  to  remove  this  mucus 
with  a  handkerchief  upon  the  finger.  It  seems  sometimes  as 
if  the  patient  would  die  of  strangulation  before  it  can  be 
removed.  If  the  paroxysms  are  frequent  the  front  teeth  may 
chafe  the  under  part  of  the  tongue  so  as  to  form  ulcers  which 
great,ly  annoy  the  patient.  .\n  uncontrolable  diarrhcea  may  set 
in,  or  the  brain  may  become  affected,  when  convulsions  or  stupor 
make  their  appearance. 

Treatment. —  Cough  medicines  as  a  general  thing  disturb  the 
stomach  without  mitigating  the  cough.  Small  doses  of  the  syrup 
of  ipecacuanha  may  do  good.  The  patient  should  be  kept  warm 
with  good  flannel  underclothing.  It  is  not  advisable  to  keep  him 
shut  indoors,  but  if  the  weather  is  at  all  propitious,  it  is  perhaps 
better  that  he  should  remain  out  in  the  fresh  air. 

Tonics  are  needed.  Small  doses  of  quinine  or  cinchona  mix- 
tiu*e  will  do  good.  Three  or  four  drops  of  tincture  of  belladonna 
at  bed-time  may  give  the  patient  a  good  rest. 

If  the  child  has  not  been  vaccinated,  it  will  be  well  to  vacci- 
nate him,  for  vaccina  seems  to  favorably  modify  the  symptoms  of 
whooping  cough. 

Asthma. 

AsTH-MA  is  caused  by  a  spasm  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the 
small  bronchial  tubes,  which  obstructs  the  outward  flow  of  air 
from  the  lungs  ;  hence  the  great  distress  for  want  of  breath, 
and  the  loud  wheezing  soimds.  The  disease  is  of  nervous  origin, 
and  is  sometimes  hereditary.      It  is  generally  worse  at  night. 

Treatment, — There  are  many  remedies  which  for  a  time  re- 
lieve the  bad  symptoms,  and  a  change  of  climate  is  almost 
always  attended  by  relief.  An  attack  may  be  brought  on  by  any 
irritating  smoke,  or  vapor,  or  dust  contained  in  the  breathing- 
air.  The  emanation  from  a  feather  pillow  is  sufficient  in  some 
persons  to  produce  a  paroxysm.  The  writer  has  found  the  fol- 
lowing prescription  of  use  in  a  greater  numbjr  of  cases  than  any 
other.  It  usually  cuts  short  the  attack  within  a  few  hours  : 
Iodide  of  potassium,  -  -  -  -  go  grains. 
Carbonate  of  ammonia,  -         -         -     60  grains. 

Syrup  of  orange-peel,       -         .         .         .       j  ounce. 

Simple  syrup, i  ounce. 

Mix. 

Take  a  teaspoonful  every  two  to  four  hours  until  relieved. 

Pleurisy. 

Pleurisy  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura,  or  the  membrane 

which  envelopes  the  lungs.     It  is  usually  confined  to  one  side, 

the  left  more  frequently  than  the  right.      Sometimes,   though 

very  rarely,  both  sides  are  attacked  at  the  same  time.     The  at- 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


649 


-7\ 


tack  begins  with  sharp  pains  in  the  side,  and  in  the  region  of  the 
nipple.  Soon  it  becomes  impossible  to  take  a  deep  inspiration 
on  account  of  the  severe  jiain  caused  by  friction  of  the  two 
layers  of  the  inflamed  membrane.  Considerable  fever  is  present. 
Kxamination  by  a  physician  will  be  neces.sary  to  determine 
whether  the  symptoms  are  due  to  pleurisy  or  pneumonia. 

Pleurisy  is  not  usually  a  grave  disease.  The  patient  generally 
recovers  within  a  few  days.  Sometimes,  however,  a  great 
effusion  of  fluid  takes  place  in  the  pleural  sack,  compressing  the 
lung  so  that,  if  the  fluid  is  not  soon  absorbed,  the  lung  may 
become  permanently  disabled.  Sometimes  the  effused  fluid 
becomes  purulent. 

Treatment. — Strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  an  inch  wide  and 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  long,  may  be  applied  by 
sticking  one  end  over  the  spine  and  carrying  the  strip  around 
the  body  upon  the  affected  side,  to  act  as  a  splint,  thus  prevent- 
ing any  movement  of  the  inflamed  parts.  A  quarter  of  a 
grain  of  morphine  may  be  given,  or,  instead,  twenty-five  drops 
of  laudanum.  This  may  be  repeated  every  hour  or  two  until 
relieved  from  pain.  If  effusion  takes  place  the  treatment  should 
be  left  to  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

Pneumonia. 

Pneumonia,  lung  fever,  winter  fever,  or  infiammalion  of 
the  lungs,  is  an  inflammation  of  the  substances  of  the  lung. 
But  a  single  lobe  of  the  affected  lung  is  usually  attacked.     The 


disease  rarely  attacks  both  lungs  at  the  same  time.  In  such  a 
case  a  double  pneumonia  is  said  to  exist.  The  lower  lobes 
(S  and  2,  Fig.  21)  are  more  frequently  attacked  than  the  upper 
(6  and  i)  lobes. 

An  attack  may  occur  at  any  season  of  the  year,  but  the  disease 
is  prevalent  in  winter  and  spring.  The  attack  l)egins  with  symp- 
toms smiilar  to  those  of  pleurisy,  congestion  of  the  affected 
lobe  rapidly  supervening.  The  temperature  rises,  and  the  pulse 
beat  and  respiratory  movements  become  more  frequent.  An 
exudation  takes  place  into  the  air-cells  of  the  affected  lobe, 
completely  fdling  them,  solidifying  the  lobe  and  rendering  that 
portion  of  the  lung  entirely  useless.  A  very  high  fever  ensues, 
and  the  patient  becomes  dangerously  ill,  and  may  remain  in  a 
critical  condition  for  several  weeks.  In  unfavorable  ca.ses 
death  results  in  from  ten  to  twenty  days,  from  exhaustion. 
Occasionally  the  inflammation  involves  both  lungs,  or  more 
than  one  lobe  if  but  one  lung  is  attacked  ;  under  such  cir- 
circumstances  death  may,  in  rare  cases,  result  during  the  first 
or  sec9nd  day  from  suffocation. 

Treatment. —  In  so  grave  a  disease,  a  skilful  physician 
should  be  called  without  delay,  and  his  directions  for  treatment 
carefully  followed.  Good  nursing  is  of  great  importance, 
and  the  most  nourishing  food  must  be  given  from  the  begin- 
ning, in  order  to  guard  against  danger  from  exhaustion  toward 
the  close  of  the  disease. 


THE  EXCRETORY  ORGANS. 


The  name  excretory  is  applied  to  those  organs  whose  func- 
tion it  is  to  remove  from  the  blood  the  elements  of  waste  — 
the  ashes,  so  to  speak,  of  the  oxidized  tissues  —  which  have 
been  taken  into  its  current  during  its  passage  through  the 
capillaries.  Besides  the  lungs,  which  act  as  excreting  organs  in 
so  far  as  they  remove  from  the  blood  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
water,  and  the  lit'er,  which  also  eliminates  from  the  blood  cer- 
tain poisonous  excretions,  there  exist  two  other  organs  whose 
chief  or  exclusive  function  it  is  to  purify  the  blood,  by  removing 
from  its  current  the  debris  of  the  worn-out  and  oxidizing  tissues. 
These  organs  are  the  kidney's  and  the  siin. 
The  Kidneys. 

The  kidneys  are  two  in  number,  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column,  on  a  level  with  the 
lower  ribs.  The  kidney  is  shaped  much  like  a  lima  bean.  It  is, 
in  the  adult,  about  four  inches  long,  two  inches  wide,  one  inch  in 
thickness,  and  weighs  from  four  to  six  ounces.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  thick  cushion  of  fat  which  protects  it  from  injury.  The 
concave  margin,  w  hich  presents  a  deep  notch  called  the  hilum, 
is  turned  toward  the  spinal  column.  At  the  hilum  enter  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  and  the  excretory  duct,  called  the  ureter, 
which  carries  away  the  urine  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted,  and 
empties  it  into  the  bladder,  a  membranous  reservoir  for  holding 
it,  until  such  convenient  time  as  it  may  be  voided. 


On  making  a  vertical  section  through  the  kidney  ( Fig.  23) 
from  its  convex  to  its  concave  border,  it  appears  to  be  made 
up  of  two  substances,  an  outside  or  cortical  substance,  and  an 
inside  or  medullary  substance.  The  cortical  substance  forms 
the  greater  part  of  the  gland  and  occupies  its  surface.  It  is 
soft  and  dark-colored  and  contains  numerous  small  red  bodies, 
called  Malpighian  bodies,  scattered  throughout  its  substance. 
The  medullary  substance  is  of  a  pale  red  color  and  consists  of 
thousands  of  little  tubes  arranged  in  pyramids  (i  i,  2  2,  4  4, 
Fig.  23),  called  the  pyramids  oj  Malpighi.  The  little  tubes, 
or  urinary  tubules,  of  which  the  pyramids  are  made  up,  are 
connected,  one  with  each  of  the  Malpighian  bodies,  from  which 
they  are  gathered  together  in  pyramids,  and  empty,  by  com- 
mon ducts  (5,  5,  5,  s),  into  a  cavity  (7)  shewn  in  the  cut,  and 
known  as  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  from  which  the  ureter  (8) 
conducts  the  urine  away  to  the  bladder.  Figure  24  shows  the 
Malpighian  bodies  (i,  5,  6)  greatly  magnified  ;  3  is  a  branch  of 
the  renal  artery,  from  which  little  branches  (4,  4,  4)  enter  the 
little  bodies  and  break  into  minute  looped  capillaries  (5),  which 
again  unite,  forming  a  vein  {7,  7,  7),  which  passes  out  of  the 
little  body,  branches  and  .subdivides  (8,  9),  and  finally  again 
breaks  up  into  capillaries  (10)  to  nourish  the  substance  of  the 
kidney.  From  the  Maljiighian  bodies  extend  the  little  tubes 
(2,  2,  2),  which  finally  unite  to  form  the  pyramids. 


K  — 


JiJ 


N" 


A 


650 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


It  is  in  the  Malpighian  bodies  and  in  the  little  urinary 
tubules  that  the  urine  is  separated  from  the  blood.  The 
capsules  of  these  little  bodies,  Mr.  Huxley  says,  may  be  likened 
to  a  funnel,  and  the  membranous  walls  of  the  little  capillaries 
to  very  delicate  filtering-paper,  into  which  the  blood  is  poured. 
A  substance  called  urea,  the  ashes  of  the  oxidized  muscular 
tissue,  and  certain  saline  substances,  among  which  are  common 
salt  and  the  phosphates  and  sulphates  of  potash,  soda,  lime  and 
magnesia  in  solution,  are  filtered  out  of  the  blood,  carried 
away  by  the  little  tubules  (2,  2,  2)  to  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney, 
from  which  it  flows  through  the  ureter  into  the  bladder,  and 


Fig.  33.    A  I.ongitudinal  Section  of  the  Kidney. 

1,  2,  4,  Pyramids  of  Malpighi;  7,  cavity  of  the  pelvis;  5,  5,  mouths  of 
the  urinary  tubules;  8,  the  ureter. 

thence  out  of  the  body.  Thus  the  function  of  the  kidney  is  to 
purify  the  blood,  by  removing  those  poisonous  elements  of  waste 
which  cannot  be  removed  by  the  other  excretory  organs. 

DISEASES     OF     THE     KIDNEYS. 

The  kidney  is  liable  to  disease,  inflammation  and  degenera- 
tion, the  same  as  other  parts  of  the  body.  Anything  which 
interferes  with  the  proper  secretion  and  elimination  of  urea  by 
tlie  kidney  may  properly  be  considered  a  disease.  Sometimes 
irritation  of  the  nerves  of  the  kidney  is  sufficient  to  stop  the 
.secretion  of  urine  for  a  consideraljlc  time.  Mental  emotions 
may  diminish  or  increase  the  secretion.  It  has  long  been  ob- 
served that  the  urine  of  an  hysterical  patient  is  excessive  in 
amount  and  of  a  very  pale  color.  During  a  fever  the  urine  is 
small  in  amount  and  of  a  very  high  color.  This  is  due  to  the 
great  evaporation  which  takes  place  from  the  skin  in  conse- 
quence of  the  liigh  temperature.  Almost  all  the  diseases  to 
which  the  kidney  is  liable  have  been  classed  together  and  called 
Brig/it's  disease,  so  called  because   Dr.  Richard   Bright   first 


described  one  type  of  inflammation  of  the  kidney,  and  almost 
all  knowledge  subsequently  gained  regarding  diseases  of  the 
kidney,  in  which  albumen  is  excreted,  has  been  included  under 
that  name. 

An  inflammation  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic ;  may  be 
confined  to  the  pelvis  or  to  the  urinary  tubules,  or  the  sub- 
stance of  the  kidney  may  be  inflamed.  An  acute  inflammation 
may  cause  death  within  a  few  days,  or  it  may  become  chronic, 
or  complete  recovery  may  take  place  within  a  few  weeks.  A 
chronic  inflammation  may  last  for  many  years.     Where  the  kid- 


Fig.  34. 

1,6,5,  M.'llpighian  bodies:  2,2,2,  urinary  tubules;  3,  renal  artery; 
4,  4,4,  branches  of  renal  artery;  5,  5,  plexus  of  looped  capillaries;  7,  8,  9, 
veins  and  venous  plexus. 

neys  are  so  much  diseased  as  to  fail  in  removing  the  urea  from 
the  blood,  nervous  symptoms  and  convulsions  rapidly  super- 
vene, caused  by  uremic  poisoning.  The  kidneys  failing  in  their 
duty,  the  stomach  attempts  to  perform  the  work  of  the  kidney  ; 
urine  transudes  into  the  stomach,  and  vomiting  is  se*  .ip. 
The  vomited  matter  has  a  strong  ammoniacal  smell  like  urine. 
Treatment.  ■ —  Where  disease  of  the  kidney  is  suspected  a 
skilled  and  educated  physician  should  be  consulted.  By  an 
examination  of  the  urine,  he  can  ascertain  whether  or  not  a 


VL 


•«»  <a_ 


iV 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


651 


-7\ 


sufficient  amount  of  urea  is  being  eliminated,  whether  nutri- 
tive constituents  of  the  blood  are  being  lost  in  the  urine,  and 
by  the  use  of  the  microscoifc  can  Icll,  by  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  epithelial  casts,  whether  the  urinary  tubules  are  dis- 
eased or  not.  Do  not  begin  taking  quack  patent-medicines 
before  you  ascertain  whether  or  not  any  disease  exists.  If  dis- 
ease of  the  kidneys  is  suspected,  because  of  pain  in  the  back, 
the  chances  are  ten  to  one  that  no  disease  whatever  of  the 
kidneys  exists.  The  trouble  is,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  due  to 
the  muscles  of  the  back,  which  may  be  affected  with  rheuma- 
tism or  neuralgia,  or  simply  strained.  The  writer  lias  known 
a  number  of  ]>atients  who  supposed  they  were  suffering  from 
kidney  disease  because  of  backache,  which  was  in  reality  caused 
by  sleeping  in  an  uncomfortable,  sagging  bed.  With  a  new  bed- 
spring,  the  backache  and  supposed  "  Bright's  disease  "  disap- 
peared. Certain  quack  patent-medicines  have  obtained  a  pop- 
ular reputation  by  the  fact  that  many  people,  who  never  had 
any  di.sea.se  of  the  kidneys,  have  recovered  from  a  backache 
while  taking  the  medicine  ;  the  cessation  of  the  backache  being 
in  no  way  more  dependent  upon  the  medicine  taken  than  upon 
the  water  drunk  during  the  time.  Pain  in  the  back  is  not  a 
symptom  of  kidney-disease.  Swelling  of  the  feet,  dropsy  of 
the  face  or  loss  of  strength  is  most  often  the  first  symptom 
noticed  by  the  patient,  indicating  that  he  is  out  of  health.  Not 
unfrequently  failure  of  sight  is  the  first  symptom  observed. 
The  treatment  should  be  left  to  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

THE  SKIN. 

The  skin  is  a  hard,  firm,  elastic  membrane  which  covers 
the  body  and  serves  to  protect  the  soft  parts  from  injury.  It 
is  also  an  excretory  organ,  exhaling,  as  it  does,  a  large  portion 
of  the  fluids  given  off  from  the  body,  besides  being  the  chief 
means  of  maintaining  the  animal  heat  at  an  equable  point. 
The  skin  is  composed  of  two  layers.  The  deeper  one  is  called 
the  derma,  or  true  skin,  and  the  outer  layer  the  epidermis 
(Greek;  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  skin).  The  derma  is  composed 
of  strong  elastic  and  inelastic  fibres  interlaced  with  each  other; 
between  the  fibres  in  some  parts  is  found  much  adipose,  or  fat 
tissue.  In  its  substance  are  found  also  the  sweat  glands, 
sebaceous  glands,  hair  follicles,  lymphatics  and  nerves.  The 
epidermis  has  no  fibres,  but  is  composed  of  several  layers  of 
cells  placed  one  upon  another.  In  the  deepest  of  these  is  the 
pigment  or  coloring  matter  upon  which  depends  the  com- 
plexion. The  hair  and  nails  are  appendages  of  the  skin,  and 
are  but  a  modified  form  of  the  epidermic  cells. 

At  the  root  of  each  hair  is  a  little  gland,  sometimes  two  or 
more,  called  a  sebaceous  gland,  which  secretes  an  oily  substance 
which  lubricates  the  hair  and  surface  of  the  skin.  Coiled  up  in 
the  deepest  part  of  the  true  skin,  or  beneath  it,  are  little  tubes, 
which  pass  up  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  skin  and 
open  on  the  surface.  They  are  called  sudoriparous  or  sweat 
glands. 

There  is  a  constant  exhalation  from  the  skin,  generally  not 
visible,  when  it  is  called  insensible  perspiration.  When  visible, 
it  is  called  sensible  perspiration,  or  sweat.  The  skin  excretes, 
perhaps,  more  water  than  the  kidneys,  amounting  to  between 
one  and  two  pounds  daily.     Other  excretions  are  also  eliminated 


by  the  skin,  so  that  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  important  organs 
of  the  body. 

Diseases  of  the  Skin. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article  to  consider  the  rarer  dis- 
eases of  the  skin,  or  to  more  than  indicate  the  character  and 
simpler  means  of  treatment  of  the  more  common  affections. 

At  one  time  most  of  the  skin  diseases  were  thought  to  be 
constitutional,  and  that  the  eruption  was  caused  by  attempted 
elimination  of  the  poison.  It  is  now  known  that  most  of  the 
skin  diseases  are  of  local  origin.  A  certain  class  are  caused  by 
vegetable  parasites  ;  another  class  by  animal  parasites ;  others  by 
the  local  effects  of  heat  or  cold,  or  by  the  irritation  of  mechan- 
ical or  chemical  agents  ;  others  are  in  a  measure  dependent  upon 
the  general  health,  and  others  to  specific  poisons,  which  include 
syphilis  and  the  eruptive  fevers.  The  eruptive  fevers  will  be 
treated  under  the  head  of  fevers. 

Phthiriasis — Lousiness. 

There  are  three  distinct  forms  o(  pcdiculi,  or  lice,  which  in- 
festthe  human  body:  l\\e  pediculus  corporis,  or  body-louse ; /?<//'- 
cuius  capitis,  or  head-louse;  and  the  pediculus  pubis,  or  crab 
louse.  Low  and  filthy  people  may  be  infested  with  any  or  all 
of  these  forms.  Cleanly  and  respectable  people  are,  therefore, 
never  affected  hy  phthiriasis,  or  the  lesions  caused  by  these /<•</- 
iculi,  for  if  they  come  in  contact  with  filthy  people  infested 
with  either  variety,  and  should  by  accident  get  lice  upon  the 
body  or  head,  the  fact  is  soon  discovered,  and  the  body  rid  of 
them  before  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  produce  the  charac- 
teristic lesions  or  wounds.  The  favorite  seat  of  the  body-louse 
is  about  the  hips  or  shoulders.  They  are  seldom  found  upon 
the  body  when  the  clothing  is  removed,  but  maybe  found  in  the 
seams  of  the  uiider-garments,  where  they  also  lay  their  e"<'s. 
The  head-lice,  by  their  bites  and  by  the  excoriations  caused  by 
scratching,  not  infrequently  cause  an  eczema  of  the  scalp  which 
sometimes  eventuates  in  abscesses.  The  crab-louse  may  cause  a 
considerable  eruption  over  the  parts  of  the  body  infested  by 
it.  It  is  a  small  red  louse,  very  difficult  to  see.  It  clings  very 
firmly  to  the  roots  of  the  hairs  and  to  the  skin  by  means  of  crab- 
like claws.  Like  the  head-louse,  it  deposits  its  eggs  or  nits  upon 
the  hairs. 

Treatment.— In  the  case  of  phthiriasis  from  head  lice, 
the  hair  of  the  head  should  first  be  thoroughly  soaked  in  com- 
mon kerosene  oil,  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  wrapped  up  in 
cloth  for  the  first  twenty-four  hours.  This  will  kill  both  the 
lice  and  their  nits.  It  is  never  necessary  to  cut  the  hair.  At 
the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  the  hair  should  be  thoroughly 
washe<l,  and  the  excoriated  patches  may  be  treated  with  a  little 
oxKle  of  zinc  ointment.  When  caused  by  body  lice  the  treat- 
mjfit  is  very  easy.  The  clothing  is  to  be  removed  and  thor- 
oughly boiled  and  carefully  ironed,  and  a  thorough  bath 
given  the  body  with  soap  and  wann  water.  The  excoriations 
readily  heal. 

The  crab  louse  is  more  difficult  to  destroy.  By  a  thorough 
application  of  one  of  the  mercurial  ointments,  however,  the 
object  may  be  accomplished. 


^ 


-V 


"71 


652 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


The  Acarus  Scabiei,  or 


Scabies— The  Itch. 

The  Itch  is  quite  a  different  disease  from  phthiriasis, 
although  due  to  a  parasite.  It  is  caused  by  a  minute  insect,  the 
acarus  scabiei,  which  bores  into  and  underneath  the  epidermic 
layer  of  the  skin.  A  good  idea  of  its  appearance  under  the 
microscope  may  be  gained 
from  the  accompanying 
cut  (Fig.  25).  The  female 
causes  the  eruption  and 
itching  by  burrowing  be- 
neath the  epidermis  to  de- 
posit her  eggs.  The  male 
is  said  never  to  penetrate 
the  skin.  The  seat  of  the 
eruption  is  most  frequent 
between  the  fingers,  on  the 
inside  of  the  wrist  and  on 
the  soles  of  the  feet.  Itch- 
ing may  be  quite  severe. 
It  is  a  contagious  disease, 
and  is  frequently  contract-  j 

ed  at  school,  where  some 
unkept  child  introduces  it.     pjg_  gg^ 
The  disgrace  attending  it 
is  such  that  it  is  becoming  a  rather  rare  disease. 

Treatment.— Y\x-A  rub  the  patient  all  over  -ivith  strong  soap, 
and  follow  this  by  a  hot  bath,  lasting  an  hour  or  more,  after 
which  rub  him  thoroughly  with  a  sulphur  ointment.  The  clothes 
are  to  be  thoroughly  boiled  or  baked. 

Tinea  Trichophytina — Ringworm. 

Ringworm  is  caused  by  a  vegetable  parasite.  It  begins  by 
a  small  red  spot,  which  enlarges  with  rapidity.  As  it  increases 
at  the  border  it  heals  in  the  centre.  The  margin  is  red  and 
raised  above  the  healthy  skin.  The  centre  of  the  patch  is 
scaly  and  of  a  dirty  yellow  color.  There  may  be  several 
patches. 

Treatment. — Red  precipitate  or  citrine  ointment  well  rubbed 
in  will  usually  cure  the  disease. 

Acne. 
Acne  is  a  disease  of  the  sebaceous  glands  at  the  roots  of  the 
hairs.  There  are  several  varieties,  all  of  which  consist  of  an 
eruption  upon  the  face.  The  different  forms  are  due  to  differ- 
ent causes,  but  in  most  there  is  a  disturbance  of  the  general 
health,  frequently  attended  with  dyspepsia  and  nervous  de- 
rangements. A  very  common  variety  is  the«ir«3  puncta  nigra, 
or  little  black  specks  over  the  nose  and  face,  due  to  little  plugs  of 
sebaceous  matter  in  the  ducts  of  the  glands,  the  projecting  end 
becoming  blackened  by  a  collection  of  dust.  Another  variety 
consists  of  little  white  specks  in  the  region  of  the  eyes,  consol- 
ing of  sebaceous  matter  beneath  a  very  thin  layer  of  skin. 
Other  varieties  consist  of  inflammation  surrounding  the  gland, 
causing  hard  indurated  nodules  as  large  as  half  a  pea. 

Treatment. — The  general  health  should  be  built  up.  If  dys- 
pepsia and  constipation  e.\ist,  remedies  should  be  employed  for 
their  cure.  The  local  treatment  of  the  disease  should  be  left 
to  a  jjhysician. 


Eczema — Salt  Rheum. 

Eczema  is,  perhaps,  the  most  common  of  all  skin  diseases. 
It  occurs  at  all  periods  of  life.  It  is  non-contagious  and  may 
be  either  acute  or  chronic.  It  may  make  its  appearance  upon 
any  part  of  the  body,  although  it  is  most  common  upon  the 
hands,  feet  and  scalp.  Eczema  has  been  called  a  catarrh  of 
the  skin.  It  begins  generally  by  itching  and  burning,  redness 
and  congestion.  Vesicles  or  pustules  may  appear.  There  is, 
in  all  cases,  an  exudation,  and  crust  or  scales  are  formed.  In- 
filtration sometimes  takes  place,  followed  by  fissures  or  cracks. 
Itching  is  a  prominent  symptom.  The  most  varied  appearances 
present  themselves  in  different  cases,  but  the  essential  condi- 
tion is  a  moist  surface  upon  which  an  exudation  or  scabbing 
takes  place,  which  is  attended  by  an  unbearable  itching,  in 
comparison  with  which  the  itching  of  the  itch  is  a  most  pleas- 
ant sensation.  It  appears  upon  the  scalp  and  face  of  the 
infant,  and  spreads  until  sometimes  the  entire  scalp  and  face  are 
completely  covered  by  the  crust.  The  feet  and  hands  of  adults 
are  the  parts  most  affected. 

Treatment. — Many  cases  of  eczema  are  very  difficult  to 
treat.  In  acute  cases  the  most  soothing  applications  are  best. 
The  skin  must  be  protected  from  the  air.  Both  air  and  water 
are  very  irritating  in  cases  of  eczema.  The  oxide  of  zinc  oint- 
ment is,  perhaps,  as  soothing  and  valuable  a  dressing  as  can  be 
used.  In  chronic  cases  the  scales  must  be  removed,  and  some- 
times require  rather  severe  stimulating  treatment,  even  to  scrub- 
bing with  a  brush  and  soap.  If  this  is  done,  the  parts  must  be 
immediately  dried  and  covered  by  a  mild  and  soothing  applica- 
tion. Water  is  to  be  avoided  when  possible.  The  different 
preparations  of  tar  are  most  popular  in  the  treatment  of  chronic 
cases.  Attention  must  be  given  to  the  general  health.  Tonics 
are  always  required,  together  with  cod  liver  oil.  Starch  and 
sugar  should  be  avoided  in  articles  of  diet,  and  a  large  amount 
of  fats  taken.  Any  measure  that  will  promote  the  general 
health  is  in  the  right  direction. 

Erysipelas. 

A  disease  characterized  by  fever,  with  a  local  inflammation  of 
the  skin.  The  part  inflamed  is  very  red.  The  boundary-line 
dividing  the  healthy  from  the  diseased  skin  is  very  marked. 

Erysipelas  may  arise  from  two  circumstances.  It  may  be 
caused  from  a  specific,  contagious  virus.  When  so  arising  it 
is  called  idiopathic  erysipelas.  It  may  be  preceded  by  some 
wound,  from  which  the  inflammation  radiates.  Under  this  con- 
dition it  is  called  traumatic  erysipelas. 

At  times  this  disease  is  very  contagious  and  very  fatal.  The 
inflammation  may  extend  to  the  tissue  beneath  the  skin,  forming 
extensive  abscesses.  A  large  amount  of  connective  tissue  morti- 
fies. There  is  a  tendency  for  it  to  spread,  principally  on  the 
surface,  but  it  may  involve  internal  organs,  as  the  throat  and 
the  membrane  covering  the  brain. 

This  is  not  a  local,  but  a  constitutional  disease,  and  the  patient 
is  not  protected  against  but  rather  more  liable  to  future  attacks. 

A  puerperal  woman,  coming  in  contact  with  erysipelatous 
virus,  may  contract  some  form  of  puerperal  fever. 

Treatment. — An  erysipelatous  patient  should  be  kept  by  him- 
self, especially  away  from  wounded  and  puerperal  patients.    The 


.4. 


\ 


IV 


PHYSIOLOGY  AN'Il  MEDICINE. 


653 


/ 


inflamed  skin  may  be  bathed  in  copperas  water  or  painted  with 
the  tincture  of  iodine.  To  prevent  the  inflammation  from  spread- 
ing, make  a  ring  around  it,  upon  the  healthy  skin,  with  nitr.ate 
of  silver  or  collodion.  Internally  :  tincture  of  iron  in  twenty 
drops,  dose  in  water  every  two  or  three  hours,  and  two  grains  of 


quinine  every  hour  or  two.  If  the  inflammation  has  extended 
to  the  parts  beneath  the  skin,  and  the  skin  is  tense,  incisions 
should  be  made  to  relieve  the  tension  and  evacuate  the  pus. 
I'oultices  are  of  great  service  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  gan- 
grene. 


-jt-THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM.-h- 


In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  seen  how  new  matter,  in  the 
form  of  food  from  the  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  kingdoms, 
is  being  constantly  introduced  into  the  body  to  supply  the 
waste  which  is  constantly  taking  place  there. 

To  discover  and  appropriate  these  articles  of  food,  to  pro- 
vide clothing  necessary  to  sustain  the  temperature  of  the  body, 
and  to  secure  shelter,  it  is  necessary  that  man  be  provided  with 
power  o(  /oiomof  ion,  as  well  as,  pmuer  of  movement  of  one  part 
of  the  body  upon  another,  as  the  arms  upon  the  trunk  and  the 
fingers  upon  the  hands. 

This  power  of  motion  and  locomotion  is  resident  in  certain 
organs,  the  lean  meat  of  the  body,  called  muscles.  Muscles 
are  of  two  kinds,  voluntary  and  involuntary.  The  voluntary 
muscles  are  those  which  contract  in  response  to  the  will,  such 


;^ 


as  the  muscles  of  the  face,  arms  and  legs.  The  involuntary 
muscles  are  those  whose  contraction  does  not  depend  upon 
our  wishes,  such  as  the  heart,  which  goes  on  contracting  month 
after  month,  and  year  after  year,  sleeping  or  waking,  never 
stopping  while  we  live.  It  is  estimated  that  during  a  life  of 
eighty  years  it  propels  half  a  million  tons  of  blood!  Every 
muscle  is  a  bundle  of  tens  of  thousands  oi  fibres.  These  fibres 
are  from  jJ,^  to  -ntVn  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  are  made 
up  of  hundreds  of  fJbrill.T;  only  i;,\!iii  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  substance  of  these  fibrillar  presents  a  peculiar  striated 
appearance,  due  to  the  fact  that  thev  are  made  up  of  elongated 
bead-like  nuclei. 

Every  fibre  has  the  power,  under  certain  conditions,  of  shorten- 
ing its  length,  while  it  at  the  same  time  increases  its  thickness. 


Fig.  S6. 

v4,  a  muscular  fibre  breaking  up  inro  it.";  fibrillx;  C,  a  muscular  fibre 
breaking  up  into  disks;  D,  a  muscular  fibre  with  contractile  substance 
torn,  and  the  sarcolemma  still  intact 


Fig.  27.    Muscles  of  the  Arm. 

P,  the  power:  F,  the  fulcrum;   IV,  the  weight 

This  power  is  called  muscular  contractity,  and  when,  in  virtue 
of  this  power,  a  muscular  fibre  contracts,  it  tends  to  bring  its 
ends  together  w-ith  whatever  may  be  fastened  to  them. 

The  great  majority  of  the  muscles  are  attached  to  Ufers, 
which  are  the  bones  of  the  body.  Figure  27  f.'ll  illustrate  the 
different  kinds  of  levers  described  in  mechanics,  and  sufl'iciently 
explain  the  movements  of  the  dififerent  levers  of  the  body  upon 
each  other. 


A 


\ 


('54 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


■^•THE  BOHES.•?^- 


To  give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  body,  as  well  as  to  afford 
attachment  and  leverage  to  the  muscles,  by  which  locomotion  is 
made  possible,  an  essentially  different  tissue  from  any  yet  con- 
sidered is  necessary.  This  tissue  must  be  hard,  strong  and  un- 
yielding, and  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  frame-work  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  soft  parts. 

Such  a  frame-work  we  find  in  the  skeleton,  which  is  made  up 
of  bones  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  and  known  as  long,  short, 
flat  and  irregular  bones,  and  so  disposed  as  to  perfectly 
fulfil  the  offices  for  which  they  are  intended.  Some  of  the 
bones  are  designed  principally  for  the  protection  of  soft  and 
delicate  parts.  Such  are  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  which  are 
immovably  dovetailed  together  so  as  to  form  a  strong  box  for 
the  enclosure  and  protection  of  the  brain. 

Some  not  only  afford  protection  to  delicate  organs  and  aid  in 
preserving  form  and  symmetry,  but  at  the  same  time  afford  at- 
tachment for  muscles,  and  thus  aid  in  movements  essential  to 
life.  Thus  the  ribs  afford  protection  to  the  heart  and  lungs, 
maintain  the  form  and  symmetry  of  the  chest,  and  afford  attach- 
ment for  the  respiratory  muscles. 

The  long  bones  are  found  in  the  limbs,  where  they  form  a 
system  of  levers,  which,  in  the  lower  extremities,  have  to  sus- 
tain the  weight  of  the  trunk,  and,  besides,  confer  the  power  of 
locomotion.  In  the  upper  extremities  (Fig.  27)  they  are  essen- 
tial to  those  movements  necessary  in  all  manual  labor. 

The  short  and  irregular  bones  are  found  where  great 
strength  and  solidity  are  required.  They  are  shaped  also  for  the 
attachment  of  numerous  muscles  and  for  protection  of  certain 
delicate  organs. 


Fig.  as.  A  IVrfectly  Sliapprt  Foot. 
Bone  tissue  is  the  hardest  structure  of  tlie  animal  body,  and 
at  the  same  time  possesses  a  certain  degree  of  toughness  and 
elasticity.  Every  bone,  be  it  long  or  short,  is  composed  of 
what  is  called  fundatnetital  substance.  It  is  a  peculiar 
organic  animal  substance,  called  ostine,  in  combination  with 
various  inorganic  salts,  of  which  the  phosphate  and  carbonate 


of  lime  largely  predominate.  To  the  organic  substance  are  due 
its  toughness  and  elasticity,  while  to  the  inorganic  salts  must  be 
credited  its  hardness  and  solidity. 

If  a  bone  be  soaked  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  for  a  time, 
its  mineral  constituents  will  be  removed  and  the  organic  sub- 
stance will  remain  in  the  shape  of  the 
original  bone.  This  is  no  longer  hard 
and  unyielding,  but  is  soft,  pliable  and 
elastic ;  and,  if  a  long  bone,  it  may  be 
tied  in  a  knot,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29. 

.If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bone  be 
burned  for  a  short  time  in  an  open  fire, 
the  organic  substance  is  consumed,  and 
the  mineral  constituents  remain,  in 
which  case  the  bone  remains  hard  and 
in  its  original  shape,  but  has  lost  its 
elasticity.  It  is  now  very  brittle  and 
easily  broken. 

The  point  of  union  between  two 
bones  is  called  a  joint.  Here  the  sur- 
faces are  coated  with  smooth  cartilage 
and  covered  with  a  delicate  membrane 
which  secretes  a  peculiar  fluid  for  lubri- 
cating the  articular  surfaces. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BONES. 

In  children  and  young  people  the  or-     *^S-  *^-  ^  *"•""  ^"^ 

r   I     ,  ,        the  Inoreanic  Salts  Re- 

game  substance  of  the  bones  preponder-  ^^^^^  .j;^,,  j„  ^  ^jiot. 

ates.     The  bones  are,  therefore,  elastic 

and  very  difficult  to  break,  but  are  soft,  and  easily  bent  and 

deformed.     Bow-legs  may  be  caused  by   requiring  a  child  to 

sustain  the  weight  of  its  body  upon  its  legs  too  early. 

In  old  people  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the  bones 
preponderate,  and  therefore  their  bones  are  very  brittle  and 
easily  broken.  With  them,  great  care  against  falling  should  be 
observed. 

Rickets. 

There  is  a  disease  of  early  childhood  known  as  rickets,  in 
which  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  bones  are  not  deposited  in 
normal  quantity,  and,  as  a  result,  the  bones  become  very  soft; 
and,  by  action  of  the  muscles,  they  are  bent  into  all  sorts  of 
deformed  shapes.  Thus  result  bow-legs,  knock-knees,  pigeon- 
breasts  and  deformities  of  spine  and  pelvis.  Enlargement  of  the 
joints  takes  place  ;  the  head  gi'ows  too  fast  and  the  face  too  slow. 
The  disease  is  usually  caused  by  poor  food  and  damp, 
unhealthy  apartments.  The  little  patient  seldom  dies,  but  gen- 
erally becomes  more  or  less  deformed. 

Treatment. — Correct  diet,  plenty  of  good,  pure  milk,  suf- 
ficient animal  food,  and  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.     Give  the 


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PHYSrOI.OGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


655 


/ 


chiUl  cold  sponge  baths  of  short  duration,  and  rub  briskly  with 
a  towel.  The  child  must  be  kept  off  its  feet  and  required  to 
sleep  on  a  mattress.     The  limbs  may  retjuire  splints. 

Deformities  from  Clothing. 

Silly  young  girls — and  most  young  girls  are  silly  in  matters  of 
dress — deform  their  bodies  for  life  by  wearing  corsets  laced  so  as 
to  compress  the  lungs  and  heart,  and  force  downward  the  ab- 
dominal organs  into  unnatural  positions,  when,  by  the  compres- 
sion of  the  bloo<l  vessels,  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  and  pelvis 
become  congested,  and  conditions  are  developed  from  which 
they  can  never  recover.  The  great  regret  is  that  so  many  of 
them  remain  silly,  and  that  even  mothers  may  be  found  as  silly 
as  the  girls.  Corsets  which  are  used  to  destroy  the  vital  organs 
of  our  girls  are  capable  of  doing  vastly  more  harm  than  the 
little  iron  shoes  which  arc  used  to  destroy  the  feet  of  Chinese 
ladies,  because  of  the  greater  importance  of  the  organs  involved. 
A  young  American  girl  would  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that 
the  compressed  and  deformed  baby  foot  of  a  Chinese  lady  is  not 


handsome,  but  it  is  really  too  bad  that  she  cannot  be  made  to 
see  that  her  permanently  deformed  body,  with  her  ribs  all 
crushed  in  upon  her  vital  organs,  is  not  beautiful. 

Deformed  Feet. 
But  deformed  feet  are  not  alone  found  in  China.  American 
young  men  and  young  women  will  often  wear  shoes  one  or  two 
sizes  too  .short  and  with  narrow  toes,  which  pile  the  toes  of  the 
foot  one  on  the  top  of  another  until  the  most  terrible  perma- 
nent deformities  e.vist,  and  which,  with  corns  and  enlarged 
joints,  cause  the  ugly  shapes  which  we  see  in  men  and  women. 
Besides  the  deformity  and  the  excessive  pain,  the  young  lady  or 
gentleman  is  unable  to  walk  or  dance,  except  in  a  hopping, 
most  awkward  way.  The  motive  for  this  species  of  self- 
imposed  torture  is  to  be  handsome  and  admired,  but  they 
defeat  their  purpose  in  making  for  themselves  ugly,  deformed 
feet,  and  substitute  an  awkward  and  stumbling  gait  for  a  grace 
and  beauty  of  movement  possible  only  with  a  well-shaped  and 
unbound  foot. 


-**THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.^- 


The  parts  and  functions  of  the  body  which  we  have  thus  far 
considered  stand  in  subordination  to  the  wonderful  system  now 
to  be  examined.  "It  may  truly  be  said,"  are  the  words  of 
Draper,  "  that  the  position  of  any  animal  in  the  scale  of  life  is 
directly  dependent  on  the  degree  of  development  of  its  ner- 
vous system.  Through  this  it  is  brought  into  relation  with  the 
external  world,  deriving  sensations  or  impressions  therefrom. 
Through  this,  also,  all  voluntary  muscular  contractions  or 
movements  take  place. " 

Whatever  the  grade  of  intelligence  may  be,  the  degree  of 
development  or  expansion  of  the  nervous  system  is  in  close  cor- 
respondence thereto,  from  the  lowest  conditions  in  which  it  is 
first  making  its  appearance,  in  forms  of  animal  life  which  are 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  vegetable  forms,  up  to  its  highest 
elaboration  in  the  cerebro-spinal  .system  of  man. 

The  nervous  system  may  be  considered  as  of  two  portions, 
the  cerebro-spinal  system  and  the  sympathetic  system.  The 
cerebro-spinal  system  consists  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord, 
and  the  nerves  which  proceed  from  them,  together  with  their 
ganglia.  The  sympathetic  system  consists  of  a  series  of  ner- 
vous ganglia  placed  on  the  posterior  wall  of  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  cavities  upon  each  side  of  the  vertebral  column,  and 
of  nervous  threads  or  filaments  which  connect  these  together, 
and  supply  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  and  the  internal 
organs.  Comparatively  little  is  known  about  the  functions  of 
the  sympathetic  system,  except  in  so  far  as  it  may  regtdate  the 
size  of  the  blood-vessels  ;  and,  indeed,  this  action  appears  to 
depend  upon  the  filaments  received  from  the  spinal  nerves. 

In  both  divisions  are  found  two  kinds  of  structure — fibrous 
and  cellular.  The  latter  are  found  in  masses  of  greater  or  less 
size  and  of  various  shapes,  and  are  called  ganglia.  The  former, 
consisting  of  fibre,  serve  to  connect    the  ganglia  together  and 


to  put  them  in  communication  with  the  integument,  the  mus- 
cles and  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  function  of  the  ganglia  or 
nerve  centres  is  for  the  reception  of  impressions  and  for  the 
origination  of  motions.  The  cortex  of  the  brain  is  the  great- 
est of  these  ganglia  in  extent  and  in  function.  In  this  won- 
derful ganglion  originates  voluntary  motion  ;  here  also  are 
received,  through  the  special  senses,  the  impressions  of  exter- 
nal objects  and  circumstances,  and  from  it  originate  the  pro- 
cesses of  intellection. 

It  would  be  beyond  the  scope  and  ])urposes  of  this  article  to 
recite  the  more  minute  anatomy  of  the  nervous  system,  for  to 
be  of  service  to  the  reader  it  would  necessitate  .space  for  explan- 
ation and  illustration  beyond  the  compass  of  the  entire  article. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  position  and  character  of 
the  larger  organs  which  go  to  make  it  up. 

The  brain  is  that  part  of  the  nervous  system  contained  within 
the  cavity  of  the  skull  (Fig.  30).  It  consists  of  the  cerebrum, 
cerebellum,  pons  varolii  and  medulla  oblongata.  Besides  the 
protection  afforded  this  delicate  organ  by  the  strong  bony 
walls  of  the  skull,  the  brain  is  enveloped  by  three  distinct 
membranes.  The  outer  one,  called  the  dura  mater,  is  thick 
and  strong,  and  lines  the  bones  of  the  skull.  It  dips  down 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  brain,  forming  strong  parti- 
tions, so  that  one  part  shall  not  press  upon  and  injure  another. 
Next  beneath  are  two  layers  of  a  thin  membrane  called  the 
arachnoid,  or  spider's  iveb.  This  is  a  serous  membrane,  with 
functions  like  that  covering  the  heart  and  lungs  ;  it  is  covered 
with  epithelium,  and  secretes  a  fluid,  small  in  amount,  which 
lubricates  and  serves  in  a  measure,  perhaps,  as  a  kind  of 
cushion  to  protect  the  brain  from  jars  received  by  the  body. 
Beneath  this  is  a  very  delicate  membrane,  composed  principally 
of  minute  blood-vessels.   It  is  closely  adherent  to  the  substance 


\ 


656 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


"7T 


of  the  brain,  dipping  down  into  all  the  sitlci,  and  even  Imding 
its  way  through  the  posterior  fissures  into  the  ventricles  or 
cavities  occupying  the  centre  of  the  brain.  Its  use  is  to  nourish 
the  brain. 

The  cerebrum  ( C  C)  represents  the  principal  mass  of  the 
brain.  It  is  divided  by  a  deep  fissure,  from  before  backward, 
into  two  lateral  halves,  called  the  right  and  left  hemispheres. 
The  two  hemispheres  are  connected  together  at  the  bottom  of 
the  fissure  by  a  large  l^indle  of  white  fibres,  called  the  corpus 
callosiiin.  In  the  centre  of  each  hemisphere  is  a  large  cavity 
called  the  right  and  left  lateral  ventricles.  The  surface  of 
the  cerebrum  is  composed  of  cellular  gray  matter  and  presents 
a^convoluted  appearance,  as  shown  in  Figure  30.  This  gray 
cellular  matter  of  the  surface  of  the  cerebrum  is  the  anatomical 
suljstratum  of  the  intellect.  In 
that  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
hemisphere  mid-way  between 
the  forehead  and  the  back  part 
of  the  head  originates  volun- 
tary motion.  One  special  func- 
tion of  the  part  just  back  of 
this  seems  to  be  the  reception 
of  impressions  of  external  ob- 
jects, brought  hither  by  the 
nerves  of  special  sense.  The 
forward  part  of  the  hemi- 
spheres appears  to  be  wholly 
for  the  purposes  of  intellec- 
tion. By  reference  to  Figure 
30  the  reader  will  observe  a 
sharp  point  of  bone  in  contact 
with  the  brain  just  back  of  and 
a  lit  Je  above  the  eye.  P'rom 
it  extending  upward  and  back- 
ward is  a  deep  fissure,  the  Jis- 
siire  of  Syk'iiis.  Toward  the 
front  part  of  this  fissure,  and 
just  above  it,  is  a  small  convo- 
lution of  gray  substance  called 
the  third  frontal  convolution. 
The  back  portion  of  this  con- 
volution on  the  left  side  of  the 
brain  is  the  anatomical  substra- 
tum of  the  faculty  of  speech. 


Fig.  30.     The  Human  Brain. 

C,  C,  cerebrum;  cb.,  cerebellum;  in.  oh.,  medull 


ward  through  ^\\q  pons  varolii  into  the  medulla  oblongata  {m. 
oh. ),  as  the  oblong  body  at  the  top  of  the  spinal  cord  is  called. 

The  cerebellum  or  little  brain  {cb.)  is  situated  beneath  the 
posterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum.  It  measures  about  three  and 
a  half  by  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  is  about  two  inches  thick 
in  its  thickest  place.  It  weighs  about  five  ounces,  being  only 
about  one-eighth  as  large  as  the  cerebrum.  It  is  composed  of 
gray  and  white  matter,  and,  like  the  cerebrum,  is  divided  into 
two  lobes.  Its  functions  are  not  well  understood,  but  are, 
at  least,  related  to  the  co-ordination  of  movements. 

'VhQ  pons  varolii  is  a  bond  of  union  or  bridge  between  the 
cerebrum  above,  the  cerebellum  behind,  and  the  medulla  oblon- 
gata below — being  made  up  of  fibres  from  these  bodies  and 
passing  in  different  directions  from  one  to  another. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is 
the  upper  enlarged  part  of  the 
spinal  cord.  It  lies  within  the 
cranial  cavity,  and  is  connected 
with  other  parts  of  the  brain 
by  bundles  of  fibres  passing  up- 
ward through  the  pons  varolii. 
It  is  composed  of  gray  and 
white  matter,  but,  unlike  the 
cerebrum,  the  white  matter  oc- 
cupies the  surface,  while  the 
masses  of  gray  matter  are  in 
the  interior.  From  the  me- 
dulla are  given  off  all  of  the 
cranial  nerves  except  two  pairs, 
the  olfactory,  or  nerves  of 
smell,  and  the  optic,  or  nerves 
of  sight.  These  two  pairs  take 
their  apparent  origin  at  the 
base  of  the  cerebrum. 

'Y]\it spinal cordisihe  contin- 
uation of  the  nervous  matter 
from  the  medulla  down  through 
the  spinal  canal.  Were  it  not 
for  the  gray  matter  in  its  inte- 
rior, which  is  a  real  ganglionic 
centre,  it  might  be  considered 
a  great  nerve  trunk  from  which 
all  the  other  nerves  are  but 
branches.    The  spinal  cord,  like 


oblongata. 


When  this  part  is  destroyed  all  language  is  lost.       Language, 
moreover,  is  never  lost  except  by  disease  of  this  part. 

The  interior  of  the  hemispheres  is  composed  of  white  matter 
which  consists  of  fibres  connecting  together  different  parts  of 
the  brain,  and  of  fibres  passing  down  into  the  spinal  cord.  The 
fibres  are  probably  connected  with  the  cells  on  the  surface  of 
the  hemispheres,  and  after  being  gathered  into  a  bundle  pass 
down  to  other  ganglia,  there  to  be  put  in  communication  with 
the  skin,  muscles  and  viscera  of  the  body.  There  are  certain 
collections  of  gray  matter  at  the  base  of  the  hemispheres,  called 
the /'flja/ ganglia.  Fibres  from  these  ganglia  unite  with  the 
fibres  from  the  convolutions  in  two  triangular-shaped  bundles, 
the  crura  cerebri,  one  from  each  hemisphere,  and  pass  down- 


the  cerebrum,  is  divided  into  two  lateral  halves  by  a  deep  fissure 
in  front  and  behind.  The  two  halves  are  connected  together  in 
the  centre,  throughout  the  length  of  the  cord.  The  surface  of 
the  cord,  like  the  medulla  oblongata,  is  composed  of  white  mat- 
ter. In  the  interior  of  each  half  is  a  crescentric-shaped  coUec- 
sion  of  gray  matter  which  extends  throughout  the  length  of  the 
cord.  The  forward  horn  of  the  gray  crescent  is  broader  than 
the  posterior  horn,  and  contains  some  very  large  nerve-cells. 
These  horns  are  called  the  anterior  and  posterior  cornua. 
The  centre  of  the  crescent  to  which  they  belong  is  connected 
with  the  gray  crescent  of  the  opposite  side  by  a  band  of  gray 
matter.  The  white  matter  of  the  cord  is  m.ade  up  of  fibres 
which  connect  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain  with  the  gray  matter 


VL 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


657 


-7{ 


of  the  cord  and  with  the  gangha  mi  the  roots  of  the  spinal 
nerves. 

There  are  thirty-one  pairs  of  nerves  given  off  from  the  cord, 
one  pair  passing  out  at  each  vertebral  arch  enclosing  the 
spinal  canal. 

Each  nerve  arises  from  the  cord  by  two  roots,  the  anterior 
M\ii posterior  roots,  wliich  tlien  unite  to  form  a  single  trunk  or 
sjiinal  nerve. 

If  the  trunk  of  a  spinal  nerve  be  irritated  as  by  pinching, 
two  things  hai)]icn  :  in  the  first  place,  all  the  muscles  to  whicl; 
its  filaments  are  distributed  contract  ;  in  the  second  place, 
acute  pain  is  felt,  and  the  pain  is  referred  to  that  part  of  the 
skin  to  which  the  fibres  of  the  nerve  are  distributed. 

If  the  anterior  root  of  the  nerve  be  irritated  in  the  same  way, 
all  of  the  muscles  to  which  the  nerve  is  distributed  will  contract, 
but  no  pain  will  be  felt. 

So,  if  the  po,sterior  root  of  the  nerve  be  irritated  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  anterior  root  be  left  untouched,  acute  pain  will  be 
felt  and  referred  to  the  whole  area  of  the  skin  to  which  the 
nerve  is  distributed,  but  none  of  the  muscles  contract. 

It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  all  the  ])ower  for  causing  muscular 
contraction  which  a  spinal  nerve  possesses  is  centered  in  the 
fibres  which  comprise  its  anterior  roots,  while  all  the  power  of 
giving  rise  to  sen.sation  resides  in  its  posterior  roots.  The 
anterior  roots,  therefore,  are  commonly  called  motor,  and  the 
posterior  roots  are  called  sensory. 

If  the  anterior  roots  of  a  spinal  nerve  be  divided  in  a  living 
animal,  it  is  unable  to  move  or  contract  the  muscles  to  which 
the  nerve  is  distributed,  but  every  part  of  the  skin  remains  sen- 
sitive to  touch.  But  if  the  anterior  root  be  left  uninjured  and 
the  posterior  root  be  divided,  the  animal  will  be  able  to  move 
or  contract  all  the  muscles,  but  is  unable  to  feel  anything  over 
any  part  of  the  skin  to  which  the  filaments  are  distributed. 

Hy  these  experiments,  then,  it  is  clear  that  the  anterior  roots 
are  composed  of  fibres  which  convey  impulses  from  the  gang- 
lionic centres  in  the  brain  or  cord  to  the  muscles,  causing  the 
muscles  to  contract.  It  is  also  plain  that  the  posterior  roots 
are  composed  of  fibres  which  carry  impressions y>-w«  the  surface 
where  they  originate  to  the  centres  in  the  brain  and  cord. 

Those  nerves  which  carry  impulses  from  the  central  organ 
to  the  periphery  are  called  efferent  nerves,  while  those  which 
convey  impressions  yVow  the  outside  /y  the  central  organ  are 
called  afferent  nerves. 

If  similar  experiments  be  performed  upon  the  spinal  cord,  it 
will  be  found  to  act  in  many  respects  similar.  If  the  cord  be 
divided  in  the  back,  the  animal  will  lie  unalile  to  move  the  hind 
legs,  and  this  part  of  the  body  will  be  insensible  to  jiain,  while 
all  the  iiarls  forward  of  the  cut  will  retain  all  the  jiowers  of 
motion  and  sensation. 

If,  by  an  accident,  a  man  should  suffer  a  similar  injury,  all  of 
the  parts  below  the  wound  would  be  paralyzed.  The  ])atient 
would  be  unable  by  his  own  will-power  to  move  his  legs  ;  neither 
would  he  have  any  sensation  in  the  parts.  If  he  should  be 
blindfolded,  and  the  soles  of  his  feet  be  tickled  with  a  feather,  he 
may  jerk  up  his  legs  in  the  most  violent  manner,  still  he  will  not 
only  know  nothing  of  the  tickling,  but  will  have  no  knowledge 
of  the  jerking  of  his  legs,  for  the  reason  that  all  impressions 
made  upon  his  lower  extremities  are  cut  ofl"  from  his  brain. 


which  is  the  anatomical  basis  of  his  mind.  He  can  make  no 
intentional  or  voluntary  movement  of  his  legs  for  the  same 
reason  ;  his  brain  is  cut  off  from  the  muscles  of  his  legs  at  the 
point  where  the  cord  is  cut  in  two.  The  movement  in  response  to 
the  tickling  of  the  feather  is  very  easily  explained.  The  impres- 
sion from  the  sole  of  the  foot  passes  up  by  the  sensory  fibres 
to  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord,  which,  acting  as  a  centre,  origin- 
ates there  an  impulse  or  stimulus,  which,  passing  out  over  the 
motor  filaments  to  the  muscles,  causes  them  to  contract,  thus 
giving  the  violent  jerk  to  the  legs. 

The  above  is  but  an  illustration  showing  that  many  of  our 
common  movements,  such  as  walking,  or  any  habitual  and  oft- 
repealed  movement,  may  be  executed  without  requiring  the 
attention  of  the  mind  ;  some  of  the  basal  ganglia  of  the  brain 
acting  as  a  centre,  and  originating  the  motor  impulses. 

If  not  the  whole  cord,  but  only  the  anterior  part,  be  injured, 
a  paralysis  of  motion  below  the  injury  results,  while  sensation 
will  remain  perfect.  If  the  posterior  part  be  injured,  on  the 
other  hand,  sensation  is  lost  while  motion  is  unaffected. 

If  one  lateral  half  of  the  spinal  cord  be  divided,  say  on  the 
right  side  of  the  body,  the  patient  will  immediately  lose  all 
power  in  the  right  leg,  but  sensation  in  the  right  leg  will  be 
perfect.  lie  will,  however,  lose  all  feeling  in  the  left  leg, 
while  the  power  of  motion  in  this  leg  remains  good.  Hence, 
it  must  be  true  that  the  sensory  fibres  cross  over  from  the 
side  where  they  enter  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  cord  to  pass 
up  to  the  brain,  while  the  motor  impulses  sent  down  from  the 
brain  must  pass  down  on  the  same  side  of  the  cord  by  which 
they  pass  out  to  the  muscles. 


Fig:.  31.     Moflc  of  Termination  of  Motor  Ner^'es,  . 

f  llic  hum;tn  sul'jcct:  s.  nerve  tube: 
4.  (criiiiiiat  pt:icc  sttuutcd  beneath 


A,  primitive  fasciculus  of  a  tnuscli 
3.  tncdultary  substance  of  iiervc  tut 
llie  sarcolemma; 


If  this  be  true,  it  follows  that  .t  longitudinal  division  down 
the  centre  of  the  cord  throughout  its  entire  length  woukl 
destroy  sensation  on  both  sides  of  the  body,  without  interfering 
at  all  with  motion. 

If,  however,  the  longitudinal  incision  be  carried  up  through 
the  lower  part  of  the  medulla,  paralysis  of  motion  on  both 
sides  immediately  result.s,  for  at  this  point  all  of  the  motor 
fibres  from  the  right  side  of  the  brain  cross  over  to  the  left  side 
of  the  cord,  while  those  from  the  left  side  of  the  brain  cross 
over  to  the  right  side  of  the  cord. 


/ 


-Vj 


\ 


658 


HYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


Nerve  Endings. — The  motor  fibres  of  the  spinal  nerves 
originate  in  the  anterior  cornua  of  gray  matter  in  the  cord,  and 
are  believed  to  be  intimately  connected  there  with  certain 
nerve  cells,  which  are  capable  of  originating  motor  stimulus. 
The  distal  end  of  the  motor  fibre  passes  through  ihe  sarcoh-mma 
of  each  muscular  fibre  and  is  brought  into  the  closest  relation 
with  the  muscular  substance,  as  shown  in  Figure  31. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  possessed  by  all  parts  of  the  body, 
some  parts  more  perfect  than  others.  Wherever  the  sense  of 
touch  is  delicate,  the  deep  layer  of  the  skin  is  raised  up  into 
little  conical  papill<2.  Into  these  papillse  the  terminal  ends 
of  the  sensory  nerve  fibre  enters.  In  certain  localities,  as  the 
tips  of  the  fingers,  where  the  tactile  sense  is  very  acute,  the 


Fig.  33.    Taste-Biwls  From  the  Rabbit. 

nerve  ending  is  enlarged  in  the  papillae,  forming  a  little  oval 
swelling  called  a  tactile  corpuscle.  Filaments  of  the  nerve  of 
taste  terminate  in  a  similar  manner  in  papillce  upon  the  tongue. 
Surrounding  these  papilhe  are  peculiar  cells,  or  taste-buds,  in 
which  is  supposed  to  reside  the  sense  of  taste.  Figure  32 
shows  these  taste-buds  in  the  rabbit. 


Fig.  33.    Olfactory  Ganglion  and  Nerves. 

The  endings  of  the  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerve,  or  the 
special  nerve  of  smell,  upon  the  delicate  mucous  memljrane  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  nasal  cavity,  is  beautifully  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 33.  The  termination  of  the  auditory  and  optic  nerves  is 
explained  in  the  chapter  upon  the  special  senses  of  sight  and 
hearing. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Tile  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  as  might  be  expected 
from  its  delicate  anatomy  and  complicated  functions,  take  a 
wide  range,  from  the  slightest  twinge  of  pain  in  a  minute  nerve 
filament  to  total  paralysis  or  hopeless  insanity. 

In  all  the  graver  manifestations  of  nervous  disease,  the  advice 
of  a  physician  skilled  in  the  treatment  of  disease  is  naturally 
sought ;  this  will  render  discussion  of  the  more  serious  affec- 
tions unnecessary.  No  class  of  diseases  are  more  serious  than 
those  of  the  nervous  system,  and  while  it  may  be  true  that 
there  is  less  tendency  to  a  spontaneous  recovery  than  any  other 
class  of  diseases,  yet  it  is  also  true  that  no  class  of  diseases  are 
more  favorably  influenced  by  proper  treatment. 

The  chief  symptoms  of  nervous  disease  are  usually  manifested 
either  by /(?/«,  convulsions,  paralysis,  trembling,  sleeplessness, 
imbecility  or  insanity.  Two  or  more  of  these  conditions  may 
exist  in  the  same  patient.  Pain  is  a  symptom  common  to 
many  diseases.  The  disease  in  which  it  constitutes  the  only 
symptom  is 

Neuralgia. 

Pain  may  have  its  seat  along  the  course  of  any  nerve.  It  re- 
ceives different  names  corresponding  to  the  seat  of  pain.  Thus 
we  hear  of  yVjcw/  neuralgia,  inter-costal  xve\x\■^\'g\■^,  occipital 
neuralgia,  sciatica,  or  neuralgia  of  the  sciatic  nerve,  gastralgia, 
or  neuralgia  of  the  stomach,  etc. ,  etc. 

The  pain  of  neuralgia  varies  in  different  cases  and  at  differ- 
ent times  from  a  slight,  dull  ache  to  the  most  e.xcruciating  tor- 
ture. The  nerve  which  is  the  seat  of  the  pain,  in  many  instances 
at  least,  is  in  a  state  of  inflammation.  It  is  usually  tender, 
as  shown  by  examination,  at  points  where  pressure  can  be  made 
upon  the  nerve,  and  following  an  attack  there  is  usually  a 
certain  soreness  and  tenderness  over  the  seat  of  the  pain. 

Treatment. — It  is  impossible  in  this  article  to  give  the  space 
which  the  subject  demands.  The  treatment  embraces  a  large 
number  of  remedies  and  many  methods  of  procedure.  That 
which  has  affected  a  permanent  cure  in  one  case  may  have  no 
effect  in  another.  In  some  cases  the  pain  is  so  persistent  as  to 
tax  the  physician  to  the  utmost,  who  finds  a  remedy  after  hav- 
ing almost  exhausted  the  pharmacopoeia. 

Some  form  of  opium  will  always  afford  temporary  relief  if 
taken  in  sufficient  doses,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  cura- 
tive remedies  in  many  cases.  The  patient  is  apt  to  be  in  poor 
flesh.  In  such  a  case,  if  a  permanent  cure  is  to  be  anticipated, 
the  general  health  must  be  improved,  and  the  body  weight 
gieatly  increased.  A  method  has,  of  late  years,  been  very  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  sanitariums,  where  the  patient  is  reciuired 
to  take  the  necessary  amount  of  rest  in  bed,  to  take  a  large 
amount  of  the  most  nourishing  food,  at  intervals  of  only  a 
few  hours,  and  accompanied  with  baths,  massage  and  suitalite 
tonic  treatment.  By  this  means  the  body  weight  is  greatly 
increased,  the  general  health  built  up,  and  this  is  almost  always 
followed  by  entire  and  permanent  relief  from  pain. 
Convulsions. 

The  term  convulsion  may  be  applied  to  an  acute  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  whole  muscular  system,  as  in  infantile  con- 
vulsions, or  to  an  occasional  paroxysm,  as  in  an  epileptic  Jit,  or 
to  the  constant  irregular  contraction  of  certain  muscles,  as  in 
chorea  or  Saint  Vitus'  dance. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


659 


~7\ 


li 


■\ 


s\\ 


"^i'\  \ 


Treatment. — In  the  case  of  infantile  convulsions  the  child 
may  be  placed  in  a  tub  of  warm  water,  and  coUl  water  may  be 
poured  upon  its  head.  After  the  first  paroxysm  is  over,  the 
cause  of  the  convulsion  should  be  sought  out.  If  due  to  denti- 
tion, or  "  cuttinsj  teeth,"  or  to  worms  in  the  bowels,  the  proper 
remedy  for  such  conditions  should  be  applied.  Paregoric  or 
l>romide  of  potassium  will  quiet  the  system. 

In  case  of  chorea  the  general  health  must  receive  attention. 
(,)uinine  and  iron   will  be  found   to  be  most  valuable  Ionics. 
Malt    or  cod-liver  oil    is  called  for.     A   solution   of    arsenic, 
given  in  large  doses,  is  perhaps  the  most   valuable  of  all  medi- 
cinal substances  in  this  dis-  - 
case,  l)ut  should  be  given                                ^ 
only  under  the  observation                              y 
of  a  jihysician.                                          X, 

Epilepsy. 

Ei'iLErsY,  or  "fits," 
needs  no  description  here, 
since  there  is  no  difliculty 
in  recognizing  the  disease 
when  it  exists.  If  all  cases 
of  epilepsy  could  receive 
]>roper  and  thorough  treat- 
ment from  the  beginning, 
1  believe  that  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  it  could  be 
cured,  but  frequcntl)-  no 
physician  is  consulted  until 
after  a  large  number  of 
paroxysms  have  fi  n  al  1  y 
aroused  the  friends  to  the 
danger.  Even  when  ad- 
vice is  sought,  treatment 
is  seldom  thorough  or  car- 
ried on  for  a  sulTicient 
length  of  time.  In  few 
cases  should  treatment  be 
left  off  litfore  the  end  of, 
at  least,  two  years. 

Tile  treatment  of  benefit 
in  the  greatest  number  of 
cases  is  the  bromide  of 
potassium  or  sodium,  to- 
gether with  tonic  treat- 
ment and  a  generous  diet,  sleep,  rest  and  quiet.  The  bro- 
mide of  sodium  affects  the  stomach  less,  and,  therefore,  in 
most  cases  is  to  have  the  preference.  It  should  be  taken, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  patient,  in  doses  of  from  two  to 
ten  grains,  in  a  wine-glass  of  water,  three  times  a  day  after 
meals. 

Paralysis. 

Paralysis  may  occur  at  any  age,  and  is  due  to  many  causes. 
It  may  vary  in  extent  from  a  single  muscle,  or  group  of  muscles, 
to  a  loss  of  power  over  almost  the  entire  body. 

Paralysis  may  result  from  an  injury  to  a  nerve,  in  which  case 
only  the  muscles  supplied  by  that  particular  nerve  are  atTected. 
It  may  result  from  an   injury  to  or  a  disease  of  the  spinal  cord. 


'^N^ 


)%' 


\\ 


a. 


rti. 


Fig.  34.    Superficial  Bran.  Iic^ 

I,  Trunk  of  the  suvciitli  or  facial  nerve; 
ul'  tile 


In  such  a  case  the  paralysis  may  be  found  on  one  or  both  sides 
of  the  body,  or  in  only  a  single  group  of  muscles,  according  to 
the  seat  and  extent  of  the  injury.  But  in  every  case  the  par- 
alysis is  always  below  the  point  of  disease  or  injury  of  the  cord. 
It  may  result  from  injury  or  disease  of  the  brain,  in  which  case 
the  paralysis  usually  affects  one  entire  side  of  the  body,  when  it 
is  called  hemapUgia.  When  the  disease  or  injury  is  upon  the 
right  side  of  the  brain,  the  left  leg  and  left  arm  are  paralyzed  ; 
and  when  the  disease  is  upon  the  left  side  of  the  brain,  the  par- 
alysis is  upon  the  right  side  of  the  body.  This  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  the  motor  fibres  arising  from  one  side  of  the  brain 

cross  over  in  the  medulla 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
body. 

Infantile  paralysis  oc- 
curs usually  in  children  be- 
tween one  and  four  years 
of  age.  The  child  may 
be  fretful  and  troublesome 
for  a  day  or  two  previous, 
but  frequently  the  first 
symptom  noticed  is  the 
paralysis.  This  may  oc- 
cur in  the  leg  or  arm  on 
the  same  side,  or  the  leg 
on  one  side  and  the  arm 
on  the  other,  or  both  legs 
may  be  paralyzed  and  the 
arms  not  affected,  or  both 
arms  may  be  paralyzed  and 
the  legs  remain  well ;  or 
only  one  leg  or  one  arm 
may  be  the  seat  of  the 
paralysis.  The  paralysis 
is  due  to  an  inflammation 
of  the  anterior  cornu  of 
the  gray  matter  of  the 
spinal  cord,  and  the  extent 
of  the  paralysis  will  de- 
pend upon  the  extent  of 
the  inflammation.  The 
child  will  probably  not 
die.  Some  of  the  paralyzed 
muscles  will  regain  their 
power.  Others  never  will,  but  will  waste  away.  The  child 
will  grow  up  more  or  less  of  a  cripple.  The  treatment  should 
be  left  to  a  physician. 

In  paralysis  of  the  extensor  museles  of  the  hand,  due  to 
lead-poisoning,  recovery  will  take  place  under  proper  treat- 
ment. Remove  the  cause.  If  the  patient  be  a  printer  or 
worker  in  lead,  a  change  of  occupation  will  be  necessary. 
Iodide  of  potassium  may  be  taken  in  ten-grain  doses  three 
times  a  day  after  meals  in  half  a  glass  of  water. 

f/emaplegia,  or  paralysis  of  one  side  of  the  body  due  to 
injury  or  disease  of  the  brain,  may  be  caused  by  embolism  or 
thrombosis  (plugging  of  a  blood  vessel),  thus  cutting  off  nutri- 
tion from  a  portion  of  the  brain,  or  may  be  caused  by  a  hemor- 


►  r  tin-  l<'{i<-ial  and  the  Fifth  Nerves. 

18.  ly,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  branches 
fifth  nerve. 


/ 


/ 


66o 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


rhace  into  the  substance  of  the  brain  or  upon  its  surface,  and 
thus,  by  tearing  the  nerve  fibres,  or  by  pressure,  the  function  of 
the  organ  is  destroyed  ;  or  paralysis  may  result  from  a  tumor 
or  an  abscess  in  the  brain,  or  from  other  causes.  The  results  as 
regards  the  question  of  recovery  from  the  paralysis  will  depend 
upon  the  exact  seat  and  extent  of  the  injury.  The  treatment 
should  be  left  to  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  diseases  which  manifest  strange 
symptoms,  affecting  both   the    motor  and  sensory  nerves,  but 
which  would  require  the  attention  of  a  physician,  antl  which 
would  take  up  too  much  space  to  treat  here. 
Insomnia. 

Insomnia,  or  sleeplessness,  is  a  symptom  common  to  many 
nervous  diseases,  and  one  which  requires  prompt  attention,  as 
without  sleep  little  good  can  be  accomplished  in  other  directions 
by  treatment.  The  treatment  must  depend  very  much  upon  the 
age,  occupation  and  other  circumstances  of  the  patient.  If  in 
a  child,  out-door  play  at  games  requiring  exercise  sufficient  to 
produce  fatigue  should  be  encouraged. 

In  men  and  women  worried  by  business  or  domestic  cares, 
disappointments  or  anxieties,  the  case  is  much  more  serious. 
If  possible,  they  should,  for  a  time,  leave  home  and  business, 
when  they  will  often  leave  their  worries,  also,  behind  them. 
Mental  labor  should  be  abandoned  entirely,  and  physical  labor 
or  sports  requiring  little  thought,  of  a  kind  most  comform- 
ableto  the  tastes  of  the  patient,  and  affording  the  most  pleasant 
diversion,  should  be  chosen  and  followed  to  the  point  of 
fatigue.  A  generous  diet  of  llie  most  nutritious  food  should  be 
taken,  and  a  comfortable  spring-bed,  in  a  well-ventilated,  cheer- 
ful room,  should  be  provided.  One  of  the  bromides,  with  tonics, 
may  be  prescribed,  together  with  meat  and  milk.  In  severe 
cases  the  hydrate  of  chloral,  in  from  fifteen  to  thirty-grain 
doses,  may  be  given  at  bed-time. 

Insanity. 

Insanity,  the  most  dreaded  of  all  the  nervous  diseases,  Is  a 
mental  symptom  dependent  upon  a  disease  of  the  brain.     It  is 


commonly  classified  according  to  the  character  of  the  delusions 
and  conduct  of  the  patient.  Thus  we  have  mania,  melan- 
cholia and  dementia.  This  classification  is  further  divided 
into  the  acute  and  chronic  of  each  class. 

The  cause  of  the  disease  is  more  often  hereditary  tlian  other- 
wise. Aside  from  hered.itary  taint,  general  poor -physical 
health,  nervous  prostration,  anxiety  and  worry  will  rank  next 
as  causes  of  attack.  Where  a  predisposition  exists,  the  most 
trivial  disorders  and  circumstances,  which,  in  other  persons, 
would  be  unl'elt,  may  act,  in  those  individuals,  as  exciting  causes. 
Child-birth,  typhoid  fever,  bu.siness  failures,  disappointment  in 
love,  religious  or  other  excitement,  and  a  hundred  other  things, 
may  act  as  an  exciting  cause  in  a  jierson  of  an  unstable  nervous 
system. 

In  the  beginning  of  an  attack  there  is  usually  lack  of  aope- 
tite,  loss  of  weight,  sleeplessness,  constipation.  If  these 
symptoms  were  promptly  relieved  many  cases  of  insanity  might 
be  averted. 

Treatment. — .\fter  the  disease  is  fully  developed,  if  melan- 
choly delusions  are  present,  the  greatest  care  and  watchfulness 
should  be  observed  to  guard  against  suicide  or  self-injury.  In 
case  of  violent  mania,  care  is  to  be  taken  that  no  injury  is  done 
to  others. 

Prompt  attention  should  be  given  to  secure  a  movement  of 
the  bowels,  to  induce  the  patient  to  take  a  suitable  amount  of 
food,  and  to  secure  not  less  than  eight  hours'  sleep  during  the 
twenty-four.  If  this  cannot  be  secured  at  home,  the  patient 
should  be  sent  to  an  institution  where  he  can  have  the  proper 
care,  without  a  day's  delay.  The  choice  of  an  institution  will 
depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  patient  ;  if  possible,  an 
institution  should  be  chosen  where  there  are  not  too  many 
patients,  where  individual  care  is  certain  to  be  given  by  physi- 
cians skilled  in  the  treatment  of  such  cases.  If  the  patient  is 
poor,  he  will  have  to  be  sent  to  a  State  institution,  in  which 
case  avoid,  if  possible,  a  erow'ded  ward.  With  the  best  treat- 
ment, from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  patients  recover. 


-fSiT 


'^■^t- 


-t^THE  EYE.«t- 


Anatomy. 
The  eyeballs  and  nearly  all  of  their  accessory  parts  are 
securely  contained  in  two  bony  cavities  called  the  orbits.  These 
are  shap^.l  like  foar-sided  pyramids,  with  their  ba.ses  pointing 
forward  and  outward,  and  their  apices  backward  and  iinvard. 
They  are  about  \\  inches  deep,  and  ih.-ir  axes  are  inclined  to 
each  other  at  an  angle  of  42  degrees  (343  degrees.  Each  orbit 
has  a  roof,  flaor,  inner  and  outer  wall.  The  roof  is  very  thin 
and  separates  the  orbital  from  the  cranial  cavity.  At  its  outer 
angle  there  is  a  depression  for  the  lachrymal  or  tear  gland,  and 
another  at  its  inner  angle  for  the  pulley  of  the  superior  oblique 
muscle.  The  inner  wall  has  in  fro.it  the  lachrymal  groove  for 
lachrymal  sac.     The  base  or  facial  opening  of  the  orbit  has  a 


strong,  bony  edge,  and  is  about  i^  '"•  wide,  and  ij.;j  in.  high. 
The  apex  is  forme;l  by  the  optic  foramen  and  canal,  which  con- 
nects the  orbit  with  the  interior  of  the  skull,  and  through  w-hich 
the  optic  nerve  passes. 

The  orbits  are  lined  by  a  vasculir  membrane,  which  nourishes 
the  bony  walls,  and  which  is  continuous  at  fissures  and  sutures 
with  the  periosteum  of  facial  bones,  and  dura  mater  within  the 
skull.  It  also  forms  a  tendinous  ring  around  optic  foramen, 
giving  origin  to  the  ocular  muscles. 

Upon  this  membrane,  ax  periorbita,  and  filling  the  space  not 
occupied  by  the  eyeball  and  its  appendages,  is  found  connective 
tissue  and  loose  fat,  which  serve  as  a  support  to  the  globe  and 
facilitate  the  various   movements  of  which  it  is  capable.     The 


A 


PHVSIOLOr.V  AND  MEDICINE. 


66 1 


/ 


connective  tissue  is  thickciieil  in  places,  forming  sheaths  for  llic 
muscles,  vessels  and  nerves,  and  fascia  for  connecting  the  parts 
within  the  orbit  with  one  another,  and  with  the  periorbita. 

The  optic  nerves  originate  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  in  the 
thalamioptui  and  corporii  quadri^emina^  and  receive  ^laments 
from  other  portions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  From  their 
origin  they  run  forward  as  optic  tracts  until  they  unite  just  pos- 
terior to  the  optic  foramina  and  form  the  optic  chiasm,  in  which 
they  decussate.  The  fibres  of  the  inner  side  of  each  tract  cross 
overto  inner  side  of  opposite  nerve  and  supply  the  inner  half  of 
the  retina  on  that  side.  The  outer  fibres  of  each  tract  pass 
directly,  without  crossing,  to  outer  hall  of  nerve  and  retina  of 
same  side.  The  optic  nerves  proper  begin  at  the  outer  anterior 
edge  of  chiasm,  and,  rapidly  diverging  as  tliey  leave  the  cranial 
cavity,  pass  through  the  orbits  to  th^  eyeballs,  which  they  enter 
abi>ut  two  lines  within  and  half  a  line  bjlow  the  posterior  pole. 

The  eyeball  is  situated  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  orbit  a  lit- 
tle to  the  outer  side  of  its  axis,  and  about  equi-distaut  from  the 


1.  Optic  nerve;  2,  sclera:  3,corn(;;i:  4.  Sclilcnirii'sc.in.i! :  5.  choroid:  6. 
Imdy:  7.  iris:  8.  crystalline  lens:  9,  macula  1 11  tea  of  retina:  10,  retina;  11,  : 
&ury  ligament  and  canal  uf  Petit:   12,  vitreous. 

upper  and  lower  walls.  It  i^  maintained  in  position  by  the  ' 
optic  nerve  1)ehind  and  the  lids  in  front,  and  is  further  sup-  [ 
]iorted  behind  and  on  the  sides  by  a  cushion  of  fat.  It  is 
nearly  spherical  in  form,  but  aside  view  shows  it  to  be  com- 
posed of  segments  of  two  spheres  of  different  diameters.  The 
anterior  segment,  which  forms  the  transparent  cornea,  has  the 
shorter  diameter  and  is  therefore  more  prominent  than  the  pos- 
terior or  scleral  portion.  The  eye  is  longer  from  before  back- 
ward than  transversely,  and  is  shortest  vertically.  The  ante- 
rior pole  is  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  cornea,  and  the  pos- 
terior pole  is  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  bottom  of  the  eye. 
The  axis  is  an  imaginary  straight  line  extending  from  pole  to 
pole.  The  equatorial  plane  is  an  imaginary  plane  through  the 
centre  of  the  globe  perpendicular  to  the  axis.     The  equator  is 


the  line  where  the  efjuatorial  plane  cuts  the  surface  of  the  eye- 
ball. Meridianal  planes  are  imaginary  planes  coinciding  with 
the  axis.  Meridians  are  lines  where  meridianal  planes  cut  the 
surface. 

The  eyeball  has  three  investing  membranes  or  coals  which 
maintain  its  shape  and  enclo.se  three  transparent  humors.  The 
outer  coat  embraces  the  cornea  and  sclera,  the  middle  coal  the 
choroid,  ciliary  body  and  iris,  and  the  inner  coat  is'llie  retina. 
The  humors  are  the  aiiueous,  crystalline  and  vitreous. 

The  greater  part  (five-sixths)  of  the  outer  c<iat,  commonly 
known  as  the  "white  of  the  eye,"  is  called  the  sclera  (from 
Gr.  skUros,  hard).  It  is  very  firm  and  elastic,  nearly  one-half 
a  line  in  thickness  behind,  v.here  it  is  re-enforced  by  the  sheath 
of  optic  nerve,  and  gradually  becomes  thinner  toward  the 
anteritn-  border,  where  it  is  only  one-fifth  of  a  line  thick. 
The  sclera  is  continuous  in  front  with  the  cornea,  being 
joined  to  the  latter  by  licvelled  edges,  the  outer  overlapping  the 
cornea  more  than  the  inner  edge.  The  opening  in  the  sclera 
behind,  for  the  passage  of  the  optic  nerve  fibres,  is  pai 
tially  clo.sed  by  a  few  fibres  from  the  sclera,  which  arc 
joined  by  the  sheaths  of  the  nerve  fibres,  and  together 
form  a  sieve-like  membrane  called  the  lamitta  crihyosti. 
Near  the  inner  anterior  edge  of  the  sclera  is  a  circular 
channel  called  SchUinin^s  canal.  It  encloses  venous 
plexus,  receives  veins  from  sclera  and  ciliary  jilexus,  and 
communicates  with  the  anterior  chamber  aiul  anterior 
ciliary  veins. 

The  cornea  (Latin,  coritu,  horn)  forms  the  anterior 
one-sixth  of  the  outer  coal  and  is  also  very  dense  and 
elastic.  Il  fits  into  the  .sclera  very  much  as  a  watch 
crystal  does  into  a  watch.  It  is  made  up  of  five  layers, 
viz.:  the  outer  and  the  inner  epithelial  layers,  the  outer 
and  inner  elastic  meml)ranes,  and  the  corneal  substance 
proper.  The  latter  embraces  the  bulk  of  the  cornea,  as 
the  epithelial  and  elastic  layers  are  very  thin.  The  cor- 
neal substance  is  composed  of  ela.stic  fibres,  which  are 
arranged  into  bundles,  and  these  again  into  layers, 
whose  general  direction  is  parallel  to  the  corneal  surface. 
The  spaces  between  the  fibres,  bundles  and  layers  is  filled 
by  a  cement-like  .substance,  in  which  is  a  system  i>f 
canals  and  spaces  containing  serous  fluid,  lymph  cells 
and  corneal  corpuscles.  The  cornea,  unlike  the  other 
coats  of  the  eye,  has  no  blood-vessels,  except  al  its  edge, 
where  a  very  narrow  zone  of  capillary  loops  is  found. 
It  is  sustained  through  the  circulation  of  serum  in  the  lymph 
ch.innels.  Nerves  are  freely  distributed  throughout,  chieHy 
near  the  anterior  surface  in  epithelial  and  elastic  layers. 

That  portion  of  the  middle  coat  which  lines  the  inner  .sur- 
face of  the  sclera  is  called  the  choroid  behind,  and  the  ciliary 
body  in  front.  The  choroid  extends  from  the  optic  nerve 
entrance  to  a  line  just  anterior  to  the  e<|uator.  The  ciliary 
body  extends  from  the  anterior  termination  of  the  choroid  to 
that  of  the  sclera,  where  it  joins  the  iris,  with  which  it  is  con- 
tinuous. The  iris  hangs  like  a  curtain  from  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  ciliary  body,  floating  in  the  aqueous  humor.  The  cho- 
roid is  composed  chiefly  of  hi .lod- vessels  <vilh  connective  tis- 
sue, pigment  cells  antla  few  muscular  fibres.  The  ciliary  body 
may  be  considered  as  a  prismatic  ring  with  1  posterior,  anterior 


ciliary 
uspen- 


VL 


-\ 


and  inner  edge.  The  inner  edge  gives  attachment  to  the  sus- 
pensory ligament  of  the  lens.  In  the  anterior  outer  portion  is 
found  the  ciliary,  or  muscle  of  accommodation,  the  outer  fibres 
of  which  are  meridional  and  the  inner  are  circular.  The  inner 
posterior  surface  is  raised  into  from  seventy  to  eighty  folds,  the 
ciliary  processes.  The  iris  has  a  central  opening,  the  pupil, 
through  which  the  light  passes  to  the  interior  of  the  eye.  The 
amount  of  light  admitted  is  regulated  by  two  muscles  in  the  iris, 
one  of  which  dilates  and  the  other  contracts  the  pupil. 

The  retina  is  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  choroid, 
and  with  it  extends  from  the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve  to  the 
ora  serrata.  It  has  ten  layers,  but  only  two  are  of  special 
importance,  the  others  being  accessory.  The  layer  of  rods  and 
cones  receives  the  images  of  objects  viewed,  and  the  layer  of 
ticr'-e fibres,  which  is  an  expansion  of  the  fibres  of  the  optic 
nerve,  transmits  the  impressions  to  the  sensorium,  and  is  recog- 
nized as  vision.  The  most  sensitive  part  of  the  I'etina,  the 
macula  lutea,  corresponds  very  nearly  with  the  posterior  pole. 

The  aqueous  humor  is  a  walery  fluid  which  fills  the  place 
between  the  cornea  and  crystalline  lens.    This 
space  is  divided  by  the  iris  into  the  anterior 
and  posterior  chambers,  which  communicate 
through  the  pupil. 

The  crystalline  lens  is  a  transparent  double 
convex  lens,  situated  behind  the  iris  and  be- 
tween the  aqueous  and  vitreous  humors.  It 
is  enclosed  by  two  structureless  membranes, 
the  anterior  and  posterior  capsules,  which  are 
continuous,  near  the  peripheral  edge  of  the 
lens,  with  the  zonule  of  Zinn,  or  suspensory 
ligament.  Between  the  folds  of  the  zonule 
and  the  border  of  the  lens  is  a  triangular 
space,  canal  of  Petit,  which  is  closed  during 
life  by  the  folds  falling  together.  The  ante- 
rior capsule  supports  the  margin  of  the  pupil 
unless  the  pupil  be  dilated,  in  which  case  the 
iris  floats  freely  in  the  aqueous  humor.  The 
lens,  though  clear  and  apparently  homogene- 
ous in  structure,  is  composed  of  flattened  hex- 
agonal fibres  with  dentated  lateral  edges,  by 
which  they  are  firmly  joined  together.  The 
convexity  of  the  lens  is  greater  on  the  posterior  than  on  the 
anterior  surface. 

The  vitreous  body  (Lat.  -•itreuin,  glass)  fills  the  cavity 
within  the  retina  and  behind  the  lens.  It  is  a  structureless, 
gelatinous  substance,  possessing  a  refractive  power  less  than 
the  lens,  but  greater  than  the  aqueous  humor.  During  fcetal 
life  the  hyaloid  artery  runs  from  papilla  (optic  nerve  entrance) 
to  po.stcrior  surface  of  lens,  rudiments  of  which  sometimes  per- 
sist. The  canal  through  which  it  passes  is  the  canal  of  Cloquet, 
or  hyaloid  canal.  The  anterior  surface  of  the  vitreous  is  hol- 
lowed out  for  reception  of  the  lens,  forming  the  hyaloidea 
fossa.  The  vitreous  has  no  vessels  or  nerves,  and  receives  its 
nutriment  from  the  retina  and  uveal  tract  (middle  coat). 

The  eyeball  is  moved  by  six  muscles,  five  of  which  take  their 
origin  from  the  tendinous  ring  around  the  optic  foramen  at  the 
apex  of  the  orbit.     Four   are   called  the  recti  (straight)  mus- 


cles. They  pass  directly  from  their  origin,  over  the  globe,  and 
are  inserted  in  the  sclera  near  the  corneal  margin,  one  above, 
one  below,  one  on  the  inner  and  one  on  the  outer  side.  The 
fifth  muscle,  the  superior  oblique,  passes  to  the  upper  inner 
angle  of  the  orbit,  then  through  a  tendinous  ring — ihefiillcy — 
then  backward  and  outward,  beneath  the  superior  rectus,  to 
upper,  outer  and  posterior  quadrant  of  the  eyeball,  where  it  is 
inserted.  The  sixth  muscle,  the  inferior  oblique,  arises  at  the 
inner  lower  angle  of  the  orbit  and  passes  outward,  downward, 
backward,  beneath  the  inferior  rectus,  then  upward  and  back- 
ward between  external  rectus  and  globe,  and  is  inserted 
close  to  the  insertion  of  the  superior  oblique. 

The  superior  rectus  moves  the  eye  upward  and  inward,  and 
rotates  it  slightly  inward.  The  internal  rectus,  the  strongest, 
moves  the  eye  inward,  and  the  external  moves  it  outward.  The 
superior  oblique  moves  the  eye  downward  and  outward,  rotat- 
ing it  inward.  The  inferior  oblique  moves  the  eye  upward  and 
outward,  rotating  it  outward.  Three  of  the  recti,  the  superior, 
inferior  and  internal,  and  the  inferior  oblique,  are  controlled  in 


Fig. 

nferior  oblique:  2,  ext.  rectus; 
7,  pulley  of  sup.  oblique: 


3G.    Muscles  of  the  Eye. 

3,  int.  rectus:  4.  inf.  rectus:  5,  sup.  rectus 


6,  sup.  oblique: 
II,  optic  nerve. 


9,  10,  levator  palpebrse  superioris; 
their  action  by  one  nerve,  the  third,  or  oculo  motorius.  The 
superior  oblique  is  governed  by  the  fourth,  or  trochlear  nerve, 
and  the  external  rectus  by  the  sixth,  or  abdiieens.  The  third 
nerve  also  sends  a  brancii  to  the  ciliary  muscle  (muscle  of  ac- 
commodation). 

There  are  certain  appendages  of  the  eye  which  serve  either 
as  a  means  of  protection  or  aid  in  the  performance  of  its  func- 
tion. Of  these,  the  eyebrows,  eyelids  and  lachrymal  apparatus 
are  the  most  important.  The  eyebrows  are  arched  elevations  of 
skin  above  the  orbits,  covered  with  rows  of  short  hairs,  and  serve 
to  protect  the  eye  and  to  slightly  influence  the  amount  of  light 
admitted.  The  eyelids  are  two  movable  folds  of  skin  covering  the 
eyes  in  front  and  closing  the  orbital  entrance.  The  upper  lid 
is  the  larger,  measuring  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch  in  height 
upon  its  inner  surface.  The  lower  is  only  about  half  an  inch 
high.     The  outer  or  skin  covering  of  the  lids  is  continuous  at 


-M 


.1 


K~" 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


663 


their  edges  with  their  inner  mucous  lining  or  conjunctiva  (Lat., 
coiijiiiigfrc,  to  join  together),  wliich  is  reflected  from  the  lids 
on  to  the  eyeball,  forming  the  retrotarsal  fold  of  the  conjunc- 
tiva, a.nA  joining  the  lids  to  the  globe.  Between  the  skin  and 
conjunctiva  the  lids  are  composed  of  loose  connective  tissue, 
muscle,  cartilage,  ligaments,  glands,  blood-vessels  and  nerves. 
The  so-called  cartilages  of  the  lids  are  not  true  cartilage,  but 
consist  of  dense  fibrous  tissue.  They  are  two  in  number,  one  in 
each  lid.  The  upper  is  the  larger,  and  is  crescentric  in  shape. 
The  lower  one  is  elliptical.  They  serve  to  maintain  the  form 
of  the  lids  and  as  points  of  attachment  for  ligaments  which 
bind  the  lids  to  edge  of  the  orbit,  and  the  muscle  which  lifts 
the  upper  lid,  the  levator  palpebrie  superioris.  This  muscle 
arises  just  above  the  origin  of  the  recti  muscles  and  passes  for- 
ward along  the  roof  of  the  orbit  to  its  insertion  around  the 
upper  margin  of  the  cartilage  of  the  upper  lid.  It  is  supplied 
by  the  third  nerve. 

The  muscle  which  closes  the  lids,  orbicularis  palpebrarum, 
arises  from  the  edge  of  the  orbit,  near  the  inner  angle  of  the 
opening  between  the  lids,  and  its  fibres  pass  around  the  lids, 
between  the  skin  and  cartilage,  and  unite  at  the  outer  angle. 
It  is  supplied  by  the  facial,  supra-orbital  and  superior  maxillary 
nerves. 

The  eyelashes,  or  cilia,  are  rows  of  short,  thick  hairs  on  the 
free  margins  of  the  lids,  those  of  the  upper  lid  curving  upward 
and  those  of  the  lower  curving  downward.  Their  follicles  lie 
in  the  connective  tissue  upon  the  cartilage,  and  are  connected 
with  sebaceous  glands  which  lubricate  the  cilia. 

Imbedded  in  the  cartilages  are  blind  tubes  into  which  open 
secondary  follicles  (thirty  to  forty  in  upper  lid,  twenty  to  thirty 
in  lower).  The  tubes,  meibomian  glands,  lie  parallel  and 
open  in  a  row  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  free  border  of  the 
lid.  They  furnish  a  sebaceous  secretion  which  lubricates  the 
margin  of  the  lids. 

The  size  of  the  opening  between  the  lids,  palpebral  fissure, 
determines  the  apparent  size  of  the  eye  ;  a  large  opening  allow- 
ing the  globe  to  bulge  forward  and  become  prominent,  while  a 
small  fissure  prevents  much  of  the  eyeball  from  being  seen. 
The  angles  formed  by  the  margins  of  the  lids  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  fissure  are  called  the  internal  and  external  canthi. 

The  conjunctiva,  when  the  lids  are  closed,  form  a  shut  sac, 
with  its  palpebral  and  ocular  surfaces  in  contact.  It  forms  a 
crescentric  fold  at  the  inner  canthus — semilunar  fold,  or 
plica  semilunaris.  This  is  regarded  as  the  rudiment  of  the 
third  eyelid,  or  membrana  nictitans,  in  birds.  Lying  upon  the 
semilunar  fold  in  the  inner  canthus  is  a  small  red  body,  the 
caruncula  lachrynialis.  It  consists  of  hair  follicles,  sebaceous 
glands,  connective  tissue  and  fat,  is  covered  by  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  has  a  few  fine  hairs  on  its  surface. 

The  lachrymal  apparatus  consists  of  a  secreting  portion,  tlie 
lachrymal  gland  xnA  conjunctival  glands  ;  and  the  conduct- 
ing portion,  canaliculi,  sac  and  tiasal  duct.  The  lachrymal 
gland  is  almond-shaped  and  lies  in  a  depression  in  the  roof  of 
the  orbit  at  the  outer  angle.  Its  lower  surface  rests  upon  the 
outer  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  its  longest  diameter,  the  trans- 
verse, is  about  three-fifths  of  an  inch.  The  secretion  of  the 
gland  (the  tears)  is  conveyed  to  the  conjunctival  sac  by  six  to 
twelve  ducts,  which  open  in  a  row  at  the  outer  third  of  the 


superior  retrotarsal  fold.  The  accessory  glands  consist  of  a 
group  of  small  glands  arranged  in  a  row  just  above  the  con- 
junctival reflection.  The  secretion  of  the  lachrymal  and  acces- 
sory glands  is  composed  of  water,  albumen  and  salt,  and  is 
spread  over  the  front  of  the  eye  by  winking  of  the  lids,  lubri- 
cating its  surface.  The  excess  is  collected  in  a  triangular  space 
at  the  inner  canthus,  the  lacus  lachrymalis,  and  is  forced  into 
the  canaliculi  by  the  orbicularis  muscle,  or  flows  over  the  cheek. 
Ordinarily  the  lachrymal  gland  pours  out  very  little  secretion, 
and  its  removal  does  not  materially  affect  the  moisture  of  the 
eye,  the  secretion  from  the  accessory  glands  being  quite  suf- 
ficient for  this  purpose.  Under  the  same  circumstances  the 
tears  evaporate  from  the  surface  of  the  eyeball,  very  little  pass- 
ing into  the  nose. 

The  canaliculi  are  two  mucous  canals  about  one-quarter  of 
an  inch  long  and  half  a  line  in  diameter,  which  begin  in  the 
centre  of  a  small  elevation,  the  puncta,  about  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  from  the  angle  of  the  lids,  and  run  along  the  edge  of  the 
latter  (one  above  and  one  below),  to  the  lachrymal  sac.  The 
lachrymal  sac  lies  in  a  groove  in  the  upper  end  of  the  lachrymal 
canal,  oval  in  form,  and  flattened  from  before  backward;  is  about 
two-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and  one-sixth  of  an  inch  wide ;  is 
continuous  with  nrtj'a/ rfwf/,  sometimes  direct  and  sometimes 
interrupted  by  folds  of  mucous  membrane.  The  nasal  duct 
runs  in  a  bony  canal  downward,  backward  and  outward,  three- 
fifths  to  four-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  usually  opens  in  inferior  meatus  of  the  nose. 

Certain  changes  are  observed  in  most  of  the  tissues  of  the 
eye  in  old  age.  The  sclera  loses  its  elasticity  to  some  extent, 
and  presents  calcareous  deposits,  favoring  the  development  of 
the  disease  called  glaucoma.  The  cornea  diminishes  in  size 
and  thickness,  and  also  loses  tone ;  the  elastic  layers  become 
brittle  and  show  warty  elevations  at  margins.  Usually  after 
fifty  years  of  age  fatty  degeneration  begins  in  the  upper  and 
lower  margins  of  the  cornea,  forming  arcus  senilis.  These 
grayish,  crescentric  opacities  gradually  extend  until  their  ends 
join  and  form  a  ring.  The  choroid,  ciliary  body  and  retina 
undergo  degenerative  changes,  and  their  blood  vessels  become 
atheromatous.  The  lens  increases  in  density,  becomes  flatter, 
and  loses  its  elasticity,  the  nucleus  assumes  amber  color,  and 
small  opacities  appear.  The  zonule  of  Zinn  is  weakened, 
resulting  in  a  tendency  to  dislocations  of  the  lens. 
Physiology. 

The  eyeballs  may  be  considered  as  hollow,  spherical  boxes, 
blackened  upon  their  inner  .surfaces,  and  having  a  system  of 
convex  lenses  and  transparent  media,  which  unite  the  rays  of 
light,  forming  inverted  images  of  external  objects,  upon  a 
special  nervous  membrane — the  retma — which  appreciates 
both  intensity  and  color.  Each  eyeball,  therefore,  resembles  a 
camera  obscura.  Images  formed  in  the  bottom  of  the  eye  may 
be  seen  by  removing  the  sclera  and  choroid  behind  and  leaving 
only  the  retina. 

The  impressions  perceived  by  the  retina  are  conveyed  to  the 
brain  by  the  optic  nerves,  jiroducing  the  results  we  call  vision. 
The  exact  way  in  which  our  visual  perception  is  gained  of  an 
object,  single  and  erect  from  its  two  inverted  retinal  images, 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  explained.  We  know,  however,  that 
the  two  eyes  act  in  perfect  harmony,  and  that  the  images  are 


-^1 


^r 


^ 


664 


PHVSIOI.OGV  AND  MEDICINE. 


symmetrically  disposed  on  the  two  retinae,  and  are  combined 
into  a  single  impression.  The  two  retinal  images  are  slightly 
different,  the  eyes  being  separated  sufficiently  for  each  to  com- 
mand a  different  view.  Our  ideas  of  solidity  result  from  the 
union  of  the  two  images  ;  our  ideas  of  distance  from  the  mus- 
cular efforts  required  to  see  distinctly  and  from  experience. 

The  iris,  with  its  central  perforation,  acts  as  a  diaphragm  reg- 
ulatino-  the  amount  of  light  admitted  into  the  eye,  by  what  is 
known  as  the  reflex  movement  of  the  iris,  the  pupil  contract- 
ing in  a  strong  light  and  dilating  in  a  feeble  one. 

The  rays  of  light  coming  from  any  object,  when  entering  the 
eye,  pass  through  the  cornea,  aqueous  humor,  lens  and  vitreous 
before  they  reach  the  retina  at  the  bottom  (fundus)  of  theeye. 
As  the  light  rays  pass  through  these  media  they  are  bent  (re- 
fracted) from  their  original  course  and  united  (focused)  in  the 
perfectly  shaped  eye,  on  the  retina.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  they  be  focused  upon  the  retina  to  form  a  perfect  image 
upon  that  n>enibrane.  If  the  focus  be  at  any  point  not  on  the 
retina,  a  blurred  image  results,  and  vision  of  course  is  indistinct. 
To  see  perfectly,  it  is  further  necessary  that  the  focus  be  formed 
on  the  most  sensitive  part  of  the  retina  (macula  Ititea).  The 
retina  is  .sensitive  to  the  impressions  of  light  throughout,  but 
especially  so  near  the  posterior  pole,  and  therefore,  when  ac- 
curate vision  is  desired,  the  eyes  are  so  directed  by  the  ocular 
muscles  that  the  ligh'  is  focused  on  the  macula. 

Rays  of  light  coming  from  any  point  of  illumination,  how- 
ever distant,  are  divergent,  but  as  the  pupil  ordinarily  is  only 
about  two  lines  in  diameter,  rays  coming  from  a  distance  more 
than  twenty  feet  are  so  slightly  divergent  when  they  enter  the  eye 
that  the  divergence  is  not  recognized.  So,  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, rays  coming  from  a  distance  of  twenty  feet  or  more  may 
be  regarded  as  coming  from  an  infinite  distance,  and,  therefore, 
as  being  parallel.  In  the  ideally  perfect  eye  parallel  rays  are 
focused  by  its  refractive  media  upon  the  macula,  and  a  per- 
fect image  is  formed  upon  the  perceptive  layer  of  the  retina. 

When  rays  enter  the  eye,  coming  from  a  distance  less  than 
twenty  feet,  they  are  perceptibly  divergent,  and  the  shorter  the 
distance  the  greater  the  divergence.  It  will  therefore  be  seen 
that  the  refractive  media  must  undergo  a  change,  i.e.,  increase 
the  refractive  power  sufficiently  to  unite  the  divergent  rays  on 
the  same  place  that  the  parallel  rays  were  focused.  This 
change  the  eye  is  capable  of  making,  and  it  is  called  accommo- 
dation, because  the  eye  can  be  adjusted  or  accommodated  for 
different  distances.  The  change  is  brought  about  by  the  ciliary 
muscle  contracting.  The  suspensory  ligament  is  in  this  way  re- 
laxed, and  the  lens,  of  its  own  elasticity,  is  rendered  more  con- 
vex, chiefly  on  its  anterior  surface.  The  iris  is  at  the  same  time 
pushed  forward,  and  the  pupil  contracted.  The  changes  thus 
produced  in  the  refracting  media  greatly  increase  the  refrac- 
tive power,  accurately  focusing  divergent  rays.  There  is  a 
point,  however,  where  the  divergence  is  so  great  that  the  ut- 
most effort  at  accommodation  fails  to  unite  the  rays  on  the 
macula.  This  is  the  near  point  of  distinct  vision,  and  its  dis- 
tance from  the  eye  gradually  increases  with  age,  oiving  to 
physiological  changes  in  the  lens,  diminishing  its  elasticity.  By 
means  of  .accommodation  the  eye  sees  everything  distinctly, 
from  within  a  few  inches  to  fifteen  or   twenty  feet  away, 


beyond  which  it  is  unnecessary,  as  the  vision  is  jierfect  with 
the  media  in  a  passive  condition. 

While  viewing  distant  objects,  the  axes  of  the  eyes  are  par- 
allel, but  near  objects  require  a  certain  amount  of  convergence 
to  allow  the  focus  to  be  formetl  upon  the  macula  of  each  eye. 
The  interal  rectus  is  the  principal  muscle  concerned  in  the  act 
of  convergence,  but  the  other  ocular  muscles  are  more  or  less 
called  into  action  to  maintain  a  certain  position  or  change  the 
direction  of  the  eye.  When  we  consider  that  six  muscles  con- 
trol the  movements  of  each  eye,  and  while  viewing  near  objects 
each  eye  must  be  accommodated  and  converged  so  that  a  perfect 
image  may  be  formed  on  a  corresponding  point  in  the  retina  of 
each,  we  can  but  wonder  how  it  is  possible  for  this  complicated 
muscular  action  to  be  maintained  for  any  great  length  of  time 
in  a  normal  state  of  perfection,  much  more  when  some  portion 
of  the  delicate  mechanism  is  defective,  and  the  harmony  of 
action  is  seriously  disturbed. 

Errors  of  Refraction  and  Accommodation. 
Contrary  to  popular  opinion,  the  perfect  eye  is  the  excep- 
tion instead  of  the  rule.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  defect 
is  so  slight  that  the  eyes  give  very  little  trouble  unless  used 
excessively  for  close  work,  especially  by  artificial  light.  Very 
often  the  defect  so  materially  disturbs  vision,  and  requires  smch 
an  unnatural  strain  to  overcome  it,  that  a  variety  of  troubles 
result.  The  eyes  not  only  feel  fatigued  and  ache,  but  the  lids 
may  swell,  or  become  inflamed,  the  eyes  becoming  so  sensitive 
that  mere  exposure  to  light  will  bring  on  a  seveije  paroxysm  of 
pain.  Again  severe  attacks  of  headache,  dizziness  and  a  host 
of  nervous  disorders  may  follow. 

Emmetropia  is  the  term  applied  to  the  normally-shaped  eye- 
ball. 

Hypermetropia,  or  over-sight,  is  a  condition  where  the 
eye-ball  is  shorter  from  before  backward  than  it  should  be,  and 
as  a  consequence  parallel  rays  of  light  are  not  united  when  they 
reach  the  retina  unless  the  accommodation  be  called  into  play. 
A  hypermetropic  eye  never  sees  at  any  distance  without  mak- 
ing an  effort  at  accommodation ;  hence  it  is  never  at  rest 
except  during  sleep,  and  the  constant  strain  tends  often  to 
produce  very  serious  consequences.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
where  hypermetropia  exists,  one  eye  is  more  defective  than  the 
other,  and  thus  makes  the  defect  much  more  difficult  to  be 
overcome  by  accommodation.  The  muscle  of  accommodation 
is  under  the  same  nerve  control  as  the  muscles  of  convergence, 
and  hence  the  action  of  the  ciliary  muscle  calls  for  a  corre- 
sponding effort  on  the  part  of  the  converging  muscles,  and  I'ice 
versa.  When,  however,  one  or  both  eyes  are  hypermetropic, 
a  greater  effort  at  accommodation  is  required,  and  while  the  eyes 
are  focused  for  a  given  point  they  are  converged  for  a  nearer 
one,  and  double  vision  is  the  result.  The  double  vision  is  pro- 
duced by  the  images  being  formed  at  different  points  on  the 
retina  in  the  two  eyes.  Under  such  circumstances  distinct 
vision  is  only  obtained  when  the  image  of  one  eye  (the 
weaker)  is  suppressed.  If  the  difference  in  the'refractive  con- 
dition be  very  great,  it  will  be  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to 
suppress  the  image  formed  in  the  weaker  eye  ;  but  if  there  be 
but  littledifference,  one  will  turn  inward,  and  the  image,  being 
formed  on  a  less  sensitive  part  of  the  retina,  is  finally  ignored. 


k- 


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PHVSrOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


665 


In  the  former  case,  the  weaker  eye  may  remain  "  straight,"  but 
in  the  latter  the  eye  which  turns  in  will  soon  become  perma- 
nently "  crossed. "  In  this  way  nearly  all  cases  of  convergent 
squint,  or  strabismus,  are  produced. 

Treatment  of  Hypermetropia. — The  only  thing  that  can  be 
done  to  relieve  this  condition  is  to  correct  the  defect  by  hav- 
ing the  person  affected  wear  convex  glasses,  which  should  be 
adjusted  by  an  oculist  who  thoroughly  understands  the  subject. 
The  accurate  correction  of  refractive  defects  is  a  matter  of  such 
great  importance  that  no  one  but  a  competent  person  should 
undertake  to  do  it. 

PRF.siivori.\,  or  far-sightedness,  is  a  condition  that  is  the  result 
of  natural  changesdue  toage.  .At  about  forty  years  of  age  most 
people  find  that  they  are  compelled,  in  order  to  see  well,  to 
hold  their  newspaper  a  little  farther  from  their  eyes  than  for- 
merly. The  eyes  also  feel  fatigued  much  sooner,  especially 
when  artificial  light  is  used.  This  is  the  result  of  a  diminished 
power  of  accommcKlation,  and  can  be  easily  relieved  by  using 
properly  fitted  conve.x  glasses. 

MvoriA,  or  near-sightedness,  is  the  opposite  condition  from 
hypcrmetropia,  that  is,  instead  of  being  too  short,  the  eyeball 
is  too  long.  Parallel  rays  unite  before  they  reach  the  retina, 
and  divergent  rays  focus  without  the  aid  of  accommodation. 
In  hypcrmetropia  the  defect  exists  from  birth,  but  in  myopia  it 
is  usually  acquired,  although  a  predisposition,  as  a  weakened 
condition  of  the  coats  of  the  eye,  may  be  inherited.  Close 
work  favors  the  production  of  a  myopic  condition  in  the  eye. 
Straining  the  accommodation  and  convergence  increases  the 
tension  of  the  eye,  and  this  interferes  with  the  escape  of  the 
venous  blood  from  the  interior.  As  the  veins  pa.ss  through  the 
sclera  obliquely,  any  increase  of  pressure  from  within  would 
lend  to  obstruct  the  flow  of  blood  through  them.  The  retarded 
escape  of  venous  blood  tends  to  still  further  intensify  the 
intra-ocular  pressure,  and  this  to  increase  the  myopia.  The 
trouble,  once  begun,  therefore,  is  very  likely  to  become  pro- 
gressive, unless  proper  means  are  promptly  employed  to  stay  its 
further  development. 

Treatment. — As  a  myopic  should  be  considered  as  a  "sick 
eye,"  no  time  should  be  lost  in  having  it  cared  for  by  one 
skilled  in  the  treatment  of  such  difficulties.  Unless  checked, 
the  defect  is  liable  to  go  from  bad  to  worse  until  all  useful  vision 
is  irreparably  destroyed.  All  strain  should  be  removed  as  far 
as  possible,  and  close  work  abandoned  until  the  progress  of  the 
difficulty  has  been  checked.  Concave  glasses  carefully  selected 
should  be  worn  all  the  time.  A  full  correction  of  the  myopia 
should  be  made  by  glasses  for  distant  vision  ;  and,  if  the  defect 
be  great,  about  one-half  correction  for  near  objects. 

AsrioM.\TlSM  (Gr. :  a,  without,  and  sligma,  a  point). — In 
this  condition  the  rays  of  light  entering  in  one  meridian  are 
focused  at  a  different  point  from  those  entering  in  another 
meridian,  the  meridians  of  greatest  difference  being  at  right 
angles  with  each  other. 

In  simple  myopie  astigmatism,  one  meridian  is  emmetropic 
(normal)  and  the  meridian  at  right  angle  is  myopic.  Simple 
hypermetropic  astigmatism  has  one  meridian  emmetropic  and 
the  other  hypermetropic.  Compound  myopie  astigmatism  has 
both  meridians  myopic,  but  one  more  than  the  other.  Com- 
pound hypermetropic  astigmatism  has  both  meridians  h)'per- 


metropic,  but  one  more  than  the  other.      In  mixed  astigmatism 
one  meridian  is  myopic  and  the  other  is  hypermetropic. 

On  account  of  the  inability  to  focus  all  meridians  at  once  in 
astigmatism,  the  defect  is  a  soiurce  of  much  greater  difficulty, 
and  its  correction  is  far  more  important  than  either  hypcrme- 
tropia or  myopia.  Neither  convex  nor  concave  glasses  will  cor- 
rect astigmatism,  because,  the  surface  of  the  glass  being  curved 
equally  in  all  meridians,  when  a  glass  is  found  that  will  correct 
one  meridian,  the  other  is  either  corrected  too  much  or  too  lit- 
tle. A  glass  is  required  that  will  correct  one  meridian  and 
leave  the  other  unaffected.  This  is  found  in  what  is  called  the 
cylindrical  glass,  the  shape  of  which  shows  it  to  be  the  segment 
of  a  cylinder,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder 
the  glass  is  the  same  thickness  throughout,  but  its  surface  is 
curved  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  with  the  axis.  A  cylin- 
drical glass  may  be  either  convex  or  concave.  The  ordinary 
convex  and  concave  glasses  are  spherical  in  shape.  Compound 
astigmatism  is  corrected  by  using  a  lens  that  is  ground  spherical 
on  one  side  and  cylindrical  on  the  other.  Mixed  astigmatism 
is  corrected  by  one  ground  concave-cylindrical  on  one  surface 
and  convex-cylindrical  on  the  other,  with  the  a.xes  of  the  cylin- 
ders at  right  angles  with  each  other. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye  and  Their  Treatment. 

Diseases  of  the  eye  are  so  numerous  and  their  diagnosis  so  diffi- 
cult, that  it  requires  long  study,  s|x;cial  training  and  experience 
to  recognize  and  treat  them  with  .safely  and  success.  Simple 
troubles  will  usually  recover  without  treatment  if  not  meddled 
with,  but  may  ultimately  prove  serious  if  allowed  to  go  un- 
checked or  become  aggravated  by  harsh  or  improper  remedies, 
(jrave  difficulties  may  be  overlooked  as  such,  until  vision  has 
been  pcrm.inently  impaired  or  destroyed.  In  view  of  these 
facts,  it  is  considered  unnecessary  if  not  dangerous  to  outline 
the  .symptoms  and  treatment  of  the  various  eye  di.seases  in  this 
article.  Nevertheless,  a  few  hints  with  reference  to  the  hand- 
ling of  some  of  the  simpler  afTections,  conduct  in  emergencies, 
anil  the  care  of  the  eyes,  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

If  a  foreign  body  should  get  into  an  eye,  the  tears  will  quickly 
begin  to  flow  freely,  and,  in  many  cases,  will  wash  it  out.  Hut 
if  the  substance  be  rough  and  angular,  it  may  be  iinbeilded  in 
the  cornea  or  the  folds  of  the  conjunctiva.  When  a  foreign 
substance  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  eye,  the  cornea  should  be 
thoroughly  inspected  by  aid  of  a  convex  lens,  if  at  hand,  to 
concentrate  the  light  upon  the  eye.  The  bo<iy  may  he  so  small 
as  to  escape  detection  with  the  unaidetl  eye,  but  sufficient  lo 
cause  great  pain  and  dangerous  inflammation  The  best  methiKi 
of  removing  substances  from  the  cornea,  when  a  surgeon  can- 
not be  had,  is  to  sharpen  a  lead  i>encil  very  fine,  and,  standing 
behind  the  person  sealed  in  a  chair,  steady  the  eye  and  separate 
the  lids  with  the  left  hand,  and  gently  pick  it  out  with  the  point 
of  the  pjencil.  .\fter  removal  of  the  foreign  body,  the  eye 
should  be  restetl,  bathed  in  warm  water  if  irritable,  and  the  per- 
son instructed  not  to  rub  it.  In  case  nothing  be  found  in  the 
cornea,  the  lower  lid  should  be  drawn  down  by  placing  the  ball 
of  the  thumb  on  the  cheek  below,  and,  by  pressing  downward, 
the  inner  surface  of  the  lia  exposed.  This  should  be  carefully 
examined,  and,  if  nothing  is  found,  the  upper  lid  should  be 
everted,  as  sho«-n  in  Figure  37,  by  seizing  the  eyelashes  at  the 


666 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


middle  of  the  lid,  and,  directing  the  person  to  look  down, 
pvUling  the  lid  downward  and  outward,  then  placing  a  pencil 
or  match  on  the  lid  about  half  an  inch  from  its  edge  and  gently 
pressing  downward  while  the  edge  is  lifted  upward  and  over  the 
pencil  by  means  of  the  lashes.  If  anything  is  discovered  on 
the  upper  or  lower  lid,  it  can  be  readily  removed  by  the  corner 
of  a  handkerchief  being  twisted  to  a  point  and  used  as  a  swab 
to  brush  it  off. 


Ilg.  37.    :Metliocl  of  Turning  the  Upper  Lid. 

If  the  conjunctiva  becomes  reddened  from  any  cause,  it 
denotes,  if  long  continued,  that  inflammation  has  been  estab- 
lished ;  this  may  be  confined  to  the  conjunctiva  or  be  a  com- 
plication of  some  deep-seated  trouble.  It  is  not  safe  to  tam- 
per in  such  cases,  but  if  a  surgeon  cannot  be  had  at  once,  use 
nothing  but  simple  remedies  until  professional  advice  can  be 


secured.  Warm  salt  water  (one  quarter  teaspoonful  to  pint) 
is  a  safe  remedy  in  all  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  eye,  and 
if  used  for  ten  or  twenty  minutes  three  or  four  times  daily,  will 
relieve  most  acute  affections  of  the  lids  and  conjunctiva.  All 
patent  eye-washes  should  be  avoided,  because  most  of  them 
contain  acetate  of  lead,  and  if  this  is  employed  when  there  is 
an  abrasion  of  the  cornea  the  lead  will  be  deposited  and  a  per- 
manent opacity  remain. 

Should  the  warm  salt  water  not  prove  sufiicient  until  a  physi- 
cian can  be  seen,  bathe  the  eyes  in  a  weak  solution  of  alum  or 
boracic  acid  (two  to  five  grains  to  ounce). 

As  a  rule,  so  long  as  the  vision  remains  perfect  there  is 
nothing  dangerous  affecting  the  eye  ;  when,  however,  sight 
is  impaired,  an  oculist  should  be  consulted  as  quickly  as 
possible. 

For  the  first  twenty-four  hours  cold  applications  are  advisa- 
ble in  all  injuries  of  the  eye,  especially  of  the  lids  and  con- 
junctiva ;  but  after  that  time  has  expired,  warm  dressings  are 
usually  followed  by  the  best  results. 

When  mortar,  lime  or  an  alkali  by  accident  gets  into  the 
eyes,  they  should  be  quickly  washed  with  vinegar  and  water 
(one  part  to  eight  or  ten).  After  being  thoroughly  cleansed,  if 
any  part  of  the  conjunctiva  is  found  eroded,  fresh  castor  oil  or 
vaseline  should  be  applied  over  the  raw  surface,  and  care  taken 
not  to  allow  the  lids  to  "  grow  "  to  the  eyeball.  If  the  con- 
junctiva be  very  much  injured,  the  lids  should  be  kept  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  eyeball  by  a  piece  of  cotton  soaked 
in  oil.  In  cases  of  injury  from  acids,  the  eyes  should  be  washed 
immediately  in  bicarbonate  of  soda  (salaratus)  and  water  (one 
part  to  ten  >  i.nd  then  dressed  as  a  bum. 


^■THE   EAR.-^i- 


Anatoiny. 
The  anatomy  of  the  ear  is  usually  divided,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  into  that  of  the  external,  middle  and  internal. 
The  external  ear  embraces  the  auricle  and  exterior  auditory 
canal  ;  the  middle  ear  the  memiraira  lympaiii,  cavity  of  tym- 
panum, mastoid  cells  and  eustachian  tubes  ;  the  internal  ear 
the  vestibule,  semi-circular  canals,  cochlea  and  auditory  nerve. 
The  auricle  is  the  external  funnel-shaped  appendage  attached 
to  the  malar  and  temporal  bones  by  elastic  fibres.  It  consists 
of  filjro-cartilaginous  framework  closely  covered  by  perichon- 
drium and  skin.  From  the  lower  end  of  the  cartilage  a  pro- 
jection extends,  formed  principally  by  the  skin,  the  lobe  of  the 
ear.  The  outer  edge  of  the  auricle  is  called  the  helix  ;  within 
this  a  depression,  the  fossa  navicularis,  at  the  inner  edge  of 
which  is  another  ridge,  the  anti-helix.  In  front  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  auditory  canal  is  a  projection,  the  tragus ;  opposite 
this  on  the  other  side  of  the  canal  is  another  projection,  the 
anti-tragiis.  The  concavity  around  the  orifice  of  the  canal  is 
known  as  the  concha.  The  triangular  depression  above  the 
concha  is  the  fossa  triangularis. 


The  meatus  auditorius  externus,  external  auditory  canal, 
extends  from  the  auricle  to  the  membrana  tympani  forward  and 
inward,  by  a  crooked  course  ;  average  length  about  one  inch. 
The  outer  one-third  is  cartilaginous,  continuous  with  cartilage 
of  the  auricle.  The  inner  two-thirds  is  formed  by  the  bony 
canal  in  the  temporal  bone.  At  the  bottom  of  the  canal  the 
membrana  tympani  is  inserted  in  the  tympanic  groove,  sulcus 
tynipanicus.  The  membrane  is  placed  obliquely,  and  hence 
the  anterior  and  inferior  walls  of  the  canal  are  longest.  The 
canal  is  lined  by  integument  containing  soft  hairs,  sebaceous  and 
ceruminous  glands.  The  secretion  of  the  glands,  corumen 
(wax),  is  chiefly  fat  and  coloring  matter. 

The  membrana  tympani,  or  drum-head,  separates  the 
auditory  canal  from  the  tympanic  cavity.  It  is  so  obliquely 
placed  that  the  upper  border  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
neardr  the  entrance  to  canal  than  the  lower.  The  posterior 
border  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  nearer  than  anterior.  It  is 
ellipsoidal  in  shape,  with  its  long  axis  (one-third  of  an  inch) 
downward  and  forward.  At  the  upper  portion,  the  short  pro- 
cess of  the  malleus  shows   as  a  conical  protrusion,  from  which 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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extend  two  folds,  the  anterior  and  posterior.  The  membrane 
is  slightly  concave  externally.  The  deepest  concavity  surrounds 
the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  malleus,  and  is  called  the  umbo. 
The  mcmbr.inc  is  inelastic,  and  about  jin  inch  in  thickness. 
It  is  composed  of  three  laj'ers,  a  middle  fd>rous  layer,  covered 
externally  by  skin  of  auditory  canal,  and  mucous  membrane  of 
tympanum  internally.  The  middle  layer  has  two  layers  of 
fibres,  an  outer  r.idiating  and  an  inner  circular. 

When  viewed  through  the  auditory  canal,  the  healthy  mem- 
brane presents  a  delicate  bluish-gray  color  and  is  translucent. 
Tlie  short  process  of  the  malleus  appears  as  a  whitish  tubercle, 
near  upper  margin,  and  the  handle  of  malleus  as  a  light  stripe, 
running  from  this  downward  and  backward  to  centre  of  the 
membrane.  The  "light  spot  "  is  a  bright  triangular  reflection 
from  the  oblique  .surface  of  the  membrane.  Its  apex  ])oints  to 
end  of  handle,  antl  its  l)ase  toward  margin. 

The  cavity  of  tympanum,  or  drum  of  the  ear,  is  an  irregular- 
shaped  space,  linetl  by  mucous  membrane,  which  is  continuous 
with  that  of  eustachian  tube  and  ])harynx.  The  antero-jiosterior 
diameter  is  about  '/i  inch  ;  the  anterior-vertical,  %  inch,  and 
the  posterior-vertical,  three-fifths  of  an  inch  ;  transverse,  one- 
eighth  to  one-sixth;  opposite  drum-head,  one-twelfth  inch.  The 
eustachian  tube  opens  into  upper  part  of  anterior  wall.  Above 
the  tube  is  the  canal  for  the  tensor  tympani  muscle,  separated 
from  it  by  a  thin  plate  of  bone.  The  posterior  wall  separates 
the  tympanum  from  the  mastoid  cells,  the  openings  into  which 
are  found  at  the  upper  part,  clo.se  to  the  roof.  The  drum-head 
forms  most  of  the  outer  wall.  The  inner  wall  forms  outer  wall 
of  the  laliyrinth.  .\n  oval  opening  (fenestra  ovalis)  is  found 
opposite  su|)port  of  drum-head  in  the  inner  wall  which  leads 
into  the  vestibule.  The  opening  is  closed  by  a  membrane  upon 
which  rests  the  base  of  the  stapes.  A  smaller  opening  below 
(fenestra  roliindii )  leads  into  the  coclilea.  The  latter  opening 
is  closed  by  a  membrane  calle<l  the  membrana  tympani  secon- 
tJaria.  Anterior,  and  between  the  fenestras,  is  a  rounded  jjro- 
jection,  the proinotitory.  This  corresponds  with  the  first  whorl 
of  the  cochlea.  The  upper  wall  is  very  thin  and  separates  the 
tympanum  from  cranial  cavity. 

The  bones  of  the  ear  (ossicles)  are  three  in  number  —  mal- 
leus (Lat.  for  hammer^,  incus  (anvil),  and  stapes  (stirruj)). 
They  form  a  chain  across  tympanum  from  membrana  tympani 
to  membrana  ovalis.  The  malleus  presents  a  head,  neck,  short 
and  lung  process,  and  manubrium  (hamlle).  The  incus  has  a 
head,  long  and  short  process.  The  head  articulates  with  mal- 
leus, and  is  joined  to  roof  of  tympanum  by  a  ligament  ;  short 
process  runs  back  to  articulate  with  posterior  wall  of  tyni- 
panimi.  The  long  process  descends  parallel  with  and  behind 
the  handle  of  malleus  and  terminates  in  a  lenticular  tip  which 
articulates  with  the  head  of  the  stapes.  The  stapes  has  head, 
neck,  crura  and  base.     The  latter  rests  in  fenestra  ovalis. 

The  tensor  tympani  muscle  arises  from  the  periosteum  of 
the  upper  wall  of  its  canal  and  upper  wall  of  cartilage  of 
eustachian  tube,  and  from  border  of  sphenoid.  Before  leaving 
the  canal  it  becomes  tendinous,  and  as  it  enters  the  tymjianum 
turns  nearly  at  right  angle  and  is  inserted  into  the  anterior  half 
of  the  inner  side  of  malleus  between  short  process  and  begin- 
ning of  the  handle.  It  draws  tlie  handle  inward  and  makes  the 
membrana  tympani  and  the  ligaments  of  the  ossicles  tense  ;  at 


the  same  time  the  long  process  of  the  incus  rotates  inward  with 
the  malleus  handle,  and  presses  the  stapes  against  the  oval  win- 
dow and  the  fluid  of  the  labyrinth.  The  stapedius  muscle 
originates  in  the  cavity  of  the  pyramid  and  is  inserted  m  the 
neck  of  the  stapes.  It  is  supposed  to  depress  the  base  of  the 
stapes  and  compress  the  contents  of  labyrinth. 

The  mastoid  cells  consist  o""  a  number  of  irregular  cells  con- 
tained in  "the  mastoid  process  of  temporal  bone.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  process  a  single  large  cell  is  found,  the  mastoid 
antrum.  This  communicates  with  the  lower  cells  and  the 
tympanic  cavity.  The  eustachian  tube  is  about  a  line  in  diam- 
eter, and  extends  from  the  pharynx  upward,  outward  and 
backward  to  tympanum.  It  has  a  cartilaginous  and  bony  por- 
tion. The  tympanic  end  is  bony,  about  half  an  inch  long. 
The  narrowest  part  of  canal  is  at  isthmus,  the  juncture  of  car- 
tilaginous and  bony  parts.  The  pharyngeal  orifice  is  trumpet- 
shaped,  and  is  found  in  posterior  nasal  space  just  above  floor  of 
nostril.  Its  mucous  membrane  is  continuous  with  that  of  the 
pharynx  and  tympanum. 


Fig.  38. 

X,  Auricle:  2,  opening  of  ext.  .Tuditory  cinal;  3,  l>ony  part  of  canal:  4, 
cartilaginous  portion;  5,  ceniminous  glands;  6.  ntenibrana  tympani;  7, 
incus;  8,  malleus;  9.  manubrium:  10.  tensor  tympani  muscle:  11,  12, 
eustachian  tube:   13,  15,  .semi-circular  canals;   16, 'cochlea. 

The  internal  ear,  or  labyrinth,  contains  the  essential  parts 
of  the  hearing  apparatus,  the  ultimate  filaments  of  the  audi- 
tory nerves.  It  embraces  .several  bony  cavities  contained  in 
the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone.  Within  these 
osseous  chambers  are  membranous  sacs  which  receive  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  nerve.  The  sacs  and  intervening  spaces  are 
filled  with  a  clear  fluid.  The  bony  cavities  are  three  in  nuin- 
l)er,  the  vestibule,  semi-circular  canals  and  cochlea. 

The  vestibule  is  an  irregular  ovoid  cavity,  situated  internal 
to  the  tympanum.  Its  height  and  depth,  antero-postcriorly,  is 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch,  and  its  transverse  diameter  about 
one-tenth  of  an  inch.  The  semi-circular  canals  are  three 
C-shaped  canals,  starting  from  the  vestibule  and  returning  to  it 


rv 


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668 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


again.;  are  from  one-twentieth  to  one-fifteenth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Length  of  posterior  verticle,  eleven-twelfths  inch  ; 
anterior  verticle,  four-fifths  ;  horizontal,  one-ftfth  inch. 

The  cochlea  (snail)  is  a  tube  that  coils  around  a  central  pillar 
or  axis,  and  tapers  toward  one  extremity  where  it  ends  in  a 
blind  sac.  It  is  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long,  one-tenth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  beginning  and  one-twentieth  of 
an  inch  at  the  end  ;  makes  two  and  a  half  turns  from  below 
upward  from  left  to  right  in  right  ear,  and  vice  versa  in  the 
left.  The  cupola,  or  apex,  is  directed  forward  and  outward. 
A  thin  wall  separates  the  cochlea  from  the  carotid  canal  in 
front.  Internally  it  is  in  contact  with  the  blind  end  of  the 
internal  auditory  canal.  It  projects  slightly,  as  the  proiiwii- 
torv  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  tympanum.  Its  axis,  spindle  or 
modiolus,  is  made  up  by  the  inner  walls  of  the  tube  and  a 
central  spongy  bone  substance  ;  gradually  diminishes  in  size 
from  base  to  apex.  Diameter  at  base,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  ; 
at  apex,  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  ;  length,  one-sixth  of  an  inch. 
Base  rests  upon  the  bottom  of  the  internal  auditory  canal. 
The  apex  is  formed  by  the  inner  wall  of  the  last  half  whorl, 
ending  in  a  thin  section  of  funnel,  the  in/undtbulum.  The 
walls  of  the  cochlear  canal  are  lined  by  a  very  delicate  perios- 
teum. 

The  bony  cavities  of  the  vestiljule  and  semi-circular  canals 
contain  membranous  sacs  which  correspond  in  shape  to  the 
osseous  chambers  in  which  they  are  enclosed. 

The  utricle  (Lat.,  utriculus,  a  little  leathern  bottle)  is  a 
flattened  elliptical  tube  resting  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  vesti- 
bule. The  outer  wall  is  free  and  is  separated  from  the  outer 
wall  uf  the  vestibule  by  a  narrow  space  filled  with  endolymph. 

The  membranous  semi-circular  canals  are  of  the  same  shape 
as  (he  body  canals,  and  open  into  the  utricle  by  five  openings, 
the  same  as  the  osseous  communicate  with  the  vestibule.  The 
membranous  fill  the  osseous  canals  at  the  openings,  but  in  other 
parts  considerable  space  exists  between  the  two,  which  is  filled 
by  connective  tissue,  vessels  and  fluid.  The  walls  of  the  utri- 
cle and  canals  are  very  thin  and  delicate. 

The  auditory  nerve,  or  portio  mollis  of  seventh  nerve, 
begins  by  two  roots  in  the  medulla  oblongata.  One  nucleus  of 
ori<'in  is  in  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  ;  the  other  is  in  the 
ciKs  cerebelli  ad  medullma.  The  roots  are  in  communication 
with  the  gray  matter  of  the  cerebellum  and  border  o{  calamus 
scriptorius.  The  nerve  winds  around  therestiform  body,  from 
which  it  receives  filaments,  and  then  passes  forward  in  com- 
])any  with  the  portio  dura,  m  facial  nerve,  to  the  posterior 
border  of  crus,  and  enters  the  internal  auditory  canal,  where 
some  fibres  connect  them  together.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
canal  the  auditory  nerve  divides  into  two  branches,  one 
passing  to  the  vestibule  and  the  other  to  the  cochlea.  The 
nerve,  like  the  optic,  is  one  of  special  sense,  receiving  and 
transmitting  the  impressions  of  the  waves  of  sound. 

Physiology. 

The  ear,  as  a  whole,  is  a  very  complicated  structure.  The 
sound-waves  are  collected  by  the  auricle,  reflected  into  the 
auditory  canal,  are  received  upon  the  merabrana  tympani, 
which  is  thrown  into  corresponding  vibrations ;  these  are  car- 
ried by  the  chain  of  bones  across  the  tympanum  to  the  fluid  of 


the  labyrinth,  and  thence  to  the  auditory  nerves  and  through 
them  to  the  brain,  where  they  are  recognized  as  sound.  The 
membrana  tympani,  by  the  aid  ot  its  tensor  muscle,  can  be 
maintained  at  various  degrees  of  tension  adapting  it  to  differ- 
ent  kinds  of  waves. 

The  atmospheric  pressure  within  the  cavity  ot  the  tym- 
panum is  governed  by  its  communication  with  the  mastoid 
cells  and  pharynx.  The  elements  of  the  terminal  auditory 
apparatus  in  the  cochlea  are  supposed  to  be  tuned  to  vibrate 
in  harmony  with  all  the  different  notes  in  our  musical  scale. 
The  semi-circular  canals  are  thought  to  preside  over  the  equi- 
librium of  the  body,  and  to  be  concerned  little,  if  any,  in  the 
function  of  hearing.  There  are  still  a  number  of  points  in 
connection  with  the  physiology  of  audition  remaining  unsatis- 
factorily explained. 

Diseases  of  the  Ear  and  Their  Treatment. 

The  statements  made  in  the  article  on  the  eye  are  also  appli- 
cable to  the  ear.  The  apparatus  is  so  delicate  that  any  disturb- 
ance of  function  should  be  referred  to  a  skilled  specialist  for  cor- 
rection. Many  erroneous  ideas  still  exist  in  the  public  mind, 
which  seriously  interfere  with  the  work  of  theaurist.  The  ear  is 
regarded  by  some  as  so  "delicate  "  that  nothing  can  be  done  to 
alleviate  its  disorders,  and  cases  of  partial  deafness  are  allowed 
to  go  uncared-for  that  could  be  readily  cured. 

The  so-called  "  rising  "  in  the  ear,  followed  by  an  ofi'ensive 
discharge,  is  neglected  because"  it  is  dangerous  to  meddle  with 
the  ear"  or  stop  a  discharge  from  it.  Many  children  are  per- 
mitted to  go  in  this  manner  without  attention,  at  the  imminent 
peril  of  their  lives  and  with  a  serious  impairment  of  hearing. 
The  inflammation  which  causes  .such  a  discharge  is  located  in 
the  tympanic  cavity,  and  is  very  liable  to  extend  into  the  mas- 
toid cells  and  the  cranial  cavity,  resulting  fatally.  No  jiossible 
harm  could  result  from  stopping  the  discharge,  and  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  endeavoring  to  check  it. 

Children  often  put  beans,  coffee  grains  and  other  small  sub- 
stances into  their  ears,  and  the  friends,  in  attempting  to  remove 
the  foreign  body,  push  it  further  into  the  canal.  No  instru- 
ment should  ever  be  used,  except  by  an  aurist,  to  remove  any- 
thing from  the  ear.  The  only  thing  that  can  be  safely  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  is  a  syringe. 

In  case  an  insect  gets  into  the  ear,  water  should  be  jioured  in 
to  kill  it  or  cause  it  to  *)me  out.  If  this  should  fail  to  accjir.- 
plish  the  desired  result,  a  physician  should  be  called. 

If  the  ear  itches  or  attracts  attention  in  any  way,  it  sliould 
be  examined  by  a  surgeon,  or  washed  out,  or  a  little  vaseline 
applied  on  a  pleget  of  cotton  ;  and  on  no  account  should  it  be 
picked  at  with  a  hairpin,  ear-spoon,  or  other  hard  instrument. 

One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  deafness  is  caused  by  an 
extension  of  inflammation  from  the  throat  to  the  ear  through 
the  eustachian  tulic.  The  first  thing  noticed  by  the  person  is 
a  ringing  noise  in  the  ear  and  a  slight  impairment  of  hearing. 
These  symptoms  may  come  on  so  gradually  as  not  to  attract 
attention  for  some  time.  The  disease  can  be  checked  in  the 
early  stages,  and  it  is  therefore  important  to  attend  to  it  as 
soon  as  noticed. 

Children  frequently  suffer  with  "  earache,"  and  as  the  attacks 
often  occur  in  the  night  when  it  is  inconvenient  to  call  medical 


\^ 


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PHYSIOLOr.V  AND  MEDICINE. 


669 


/ 


aid,  every  family  should  know  how  to  render  prompt  relief.  The 
pain  is  usually  indicative  of  inflammation  in  the  middle  ear 
which  has  begun  in  the  pharynx  and  extended  to  the  ear.  Hot 
cloths  shoulil  l)e  ajiplied  to  the  throat  and  hot  water  poured  into 
the  ear.     The  water  should  be  used  as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  and 


if  it  fails  to  relieve,  a  small  quantity  (Ij  grain)  of  morphine, 
dissolvejl  in  a  few  drops  of  warm  water,  should  be  droppcti  into 
the  ear  while  the  head  is  inclined  .so  as  to  allow  it  to  run  in.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  use  oil  or  laudanum,  because  the  oil  may  clog 
up  the  canal,  and  the  alcohol  in  the  lauilanum  will  irritate  it. 


N<J%.  X-J%.  XO*.  XJ%. 


~^FEYERS.<^i 


Kkver  is  that  morbid  condition  of  the  body  characterized  by 
increased  heat,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  dryness  of  skin,  acceler- 
ated pulse,  hurried  respiration,  muscular  weakness,  more  or 
less  pain  and  wakefulness,  and  general  functional  disturljance. 

Fever  may  be  symptomatic — as  when  it  is  the  result  of  in- 
flammation in  some  part  of  the  body — or  it  is  said  to  be  ideo- 
pathic,  or  essential,  when  it  is  not  the  result  of  some  other  ail- 
ment, but  of  some  specific  poison  whi'ch  has  entered  the  body, 
as  measles,  typhoid  fever,  small-pox,  etc. 

The  temperature  of  the  body  in  fever  will  range  from  99  to 
108  degrees.  This  is  told  by  the  use  of  a  thermometer  made 
for  this  purpose,  called  a  clinical  thermometer,  which  may 
he  placed  in  the  arm-pit  or  under  the  tongtie,  and  allowed  to 
remain  there  for  about  three  minutes. 

The  temperature  may  run  higher  in  some  fevers  without 
alarm  than  in  others  :  105  degrees  is  a  high  fever  ;  106  degrees 
is  dangerous  ;  loS  degrees,  if  long  continued,  is  fatal.  For 
instance,  104  degrees  in  typhoid  fever  is  a  high  temperature, 
while  it  is  comparatively  low  for  scarlet-fever. 

Heat  is  a  stimulus,  whetlier  it  originates  within  or  without 
the  body  ;  hence  the  increased  action  of  the  heart. 

The  pulse  of  an  adult  in  health  ranges  from  70  to  80  beats 
per  minute.  In  fever  it  may  range  from  go  to  140  or  150.  A 
pulse  of  120  indicates  a  high  fever;  130,  if  long-continued,  is 
a  dangerous  symptom. 

In  a  normal  condition,  there  are  about  four  beats  of  the  pulse 
to  each  inspiration.  Hence,  the  respiration  in  all  fevers  is 
hurried  in  projiortion  to  the  increased  pulse,  and  the  pulse  rate 
should  go  up  and  down  with  the  temperature.  It  is  a  liad  omen 
to  fmd  a  high  temperature  with  a  low  pulse,  and  vice  versa. 
Also,  it  is  a  bad  symptom  to  find  a  rapid  pulse  with  a  low 
breathing  rate. 

I'ain  alone  may  produce  all  the  symptoms  of  fever,  and  upon 
the  removal  of  the  cause  of  pain  the  fever  will  subside.  The 
great  object  to  be  sought  in  the  treatment  of  fevers  is  the 
lowering  of  the  temperature,  which  can  be  accomplished  by  a 
free  use  of  cold  water.  If  not  advisable  to  use  the  pack — which 
consists  in  rolling  the  patient  in  a  sheet  lightly  wrung  out 
of  cold  water — frequent  sponge-baths  may  be  given  instead. 

The  higher  the  temperature,  or  body-heat,  the  greater  the 
evaporation.  The  water  of  the  body  is  carried  away  very 
rapidly.  Here  we  see  the  great  importance  of  free  use  of 
cold  water  as  a  drink,  which  not  only  replaces  the  water  lost, 


but  also  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Lowering  the 
temperature  lowers  the  pulse  in  force  and  frequency,  and 
also  diminishes  the  breathing  rate. 

The  heart's  action  may  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  the 
tincture  of  aconite  root  or  the  tincture  of  belladonna  in  doses 
of  about  five  drops;  or  the  tincture  of  veratrum  \iride  in 
doses  of  from  two  to  three  drops  every  three  or  four  hours. 
Some  prefer  snialler  doses  given  with  greater  frei^uency,  which 
can  and  must  be  done  when  the  stomach  is  at  all  irritable. 

If  there  is  much  nervousness,  the  aconite  should  be  given  ;  if 
pain,  belladonna  is  better;  if  at  all  desirable  to  produce 
nausea,  as  in  pneumonia,  veratrum  viride  may  be  given. 

In  all  fevers  there  is  more  or  less  increased  destruction  of 
tissue  ;  hence  the  importance  of  keeping  all  of  theemmelories, 
the  bowels,  kidneys  and  skin,  active  or  open  to  carry  out  all 
this  increased  debris  of  the  system,  thus  keeping  the  blood 
pure. 

It  is  also  of  vital  importance  that  the  patient  should  have  an 
abundance  of  cool,  fresh  air,  and  suflicient  nourishment  to 
keep  up  the  strength  of  the  organs,  especially  the  heart. 

Fevers  are  generally  divided  into  three  classes  :  those  in 
which  the  febrile  condition  continues  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end,  caWeiX  continued  fevers ;  those  which  come  and  go  with 
more  or  less  regularity,  called  periodical  fevers ;  and  those 
characterized  by  an  eruption  on  the  skin,  and  called  eruptive 
fevers. 

Typhoid  Fever. 

Typhoid  Fever  is  a  disease  caused  by  bad  sewerage,  the 
odor  from  old  privy  vaults,  or  drinking  water  coiitaminated 
with  human  excrement,  especially  from  typhoid-fever  patients. 
It  is  a  low  grade  of  fever,  which  attacks  a  person  but  once. 
It  comes  on  so  gradually  that  it  is  hard  to  say  when  the  disease 
began.  It  generally  runs  its  course  in  spite  of  treatment. 
Treatment  may  save  a  case  from  a  fatal  termination,  or  reduce 
its  duration  to  the  minimum,  which  is  three  weeks.  At  first 
the  patient  complains  of  fatigue,  loss  of  appetite,  mental  dul- 
ness  and  lack  of  interest  in  his  work.  There  may  be  diarrhcea. 
Pulse  ranges  from  90  to  no  per  minute;  temperature  from 
100  degrees  to  104  degrees.  The  skin  is  dry  and  of  a  bronze 
hue.  There  may  be  bleeding  from  the  nose.  The  tongue  will 
have  a  brown  coat,  which,  if  the  patient  is  not  given  an  abund- 
ance of  water,  will  become  very  dry.  The  lips  and  teeth  collect 
a  dark  brown  or  blackish,  gum-like  matter,  called  sordies.     In 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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the  second  week  the  patient  may  become  more  or  less  delirious, 
and,  if  not  closely  watched,  may  get  out  of  bed,  in  conse- 
quence of  delusions.  It  is  a  common  thing  for  the  patient  to 
imagine  himself  away  from  home.  Little  red  s]30ts,  like  flea- 
bites,  may  make  their  appearance  upon  the  abdomen.  If  there 
has  been  diarrhoea,  the  abdomen  may  become  distended  with 
gas.  Hemorrhage  from  the  bowels  may  take  place.  During 
the  third  week  any  or  all  of  these  symptoms  may  become 
aggravated. 

If  the  patient  does  well,  at  the  end  of  the  third  week  he 
will  begin  to  improve,  the  tongue  will  clean,  the  skin  become 
moist  or  wet  with  perspiration,  and  the  mind  perhaps  become 
clear.  He  has  not  asked  for  anything,  but  now  he  may  express 
a  desire  for  food  or  drink. 

The  treatment  for  this  disease,  in  a  mild  case,  is  simply  good 
hygienic  surroundings  and  care.  On  account  of  the  low  mental 
condition,  he  may  not  be  conscious  of  his  wants.  Hence  he 
may  never  call  for  water  or  food. 

He  .sliould  have  milk  and  other  nutritious  food  in  such  quan- 
tities as  he  can  digest,  at  short  but  regular  intervals. 

The  bo.vels  will  need  attention.  If  there  be  diarrhcea,  some 
mild  astringents  may  be  given,  as  fluid  extract  of  logwood. 
If  the  bowels  are  distended  by  gas,  spirits  of  turpentine  may  be 
given.  If  constipation  ensue,  some  mild  laxative,  as  castor-oil, 
syrup  or  tincture  of  rhubarb,  or  an  enema  of  tepid  water,  will 
relieve  the  symptoms.  The  temperature  and  circulation  can 
be  controlled,  as  laid  down  under  the  head  of  fevers  in  general. 

In  bad  cases  any  or  all  of  the  symptoms  may  be  aggravated, 
and  will  need  special  attention. 

Yoimg  persons  are  more  likely  to  recover  than  persons 
advanced  in  life.  They  are  also  more  liable  to  contract  the 
disease. 

Typhus  Fever. 

Typhus  Fever  is  a  disease  arising  from  the  crowding  of 
human  beings  into  a  small  space,  as  in  emigrant  ships,  in  prisons 
and  in  the  poorer  quarters  in  large  cities.  Typhoid  fever  is 
produced  from  human  eff'ete  matter  thrown  off  from  the  bowels. 
Typhus  is  liable  to  become  epidemic  after  famine  or  excessive 
privation  of  any  kind.  When  once  originated,  it  is  contagious 
in  densely  populated  districts  ;  thence  it  may  spread  to  cleaner 
and  more  healthy  parts  of  the  city. 

The  attack  is  more  sudden  and  its  duration  shorter,  and  the 
temperature  and  pulse  somewhat  higher  than  in  typhoid.  The 
eruption  on  the  skin  is  somewhat  like  measles.  Gangrenous 
spots  are  liable  to  appear,  and  may  assume  a  very  serious 
aspect.  The  tongue  becomes  contracted,  dry  and  black  ;  the 
bowels  are  constipated  ;  no  appetite  ;  delirium  is  present,  and 
is  followed  by  coma,  in  which  condition  the  patient  may  sink 
and  die,  or  gradually  pass  into  a  more  natural  sleep,  from 
which  he  may  wake  convalescent. 

Treattnent  similar  to  typhoid.  Personal  cleanliness;  perfect 
ventilation;  good,  easily-digested  food;  milk  in  its  various  forms; 
an  abundance  of  cold  water.  The  circulation  and  temperature 
are  to  be  controlled  as  directed  in  fevers  in  general. 

Malarial  Fever — Ague. 
Inter.mittknt  Fever  is  one  form  of  malarial   fever.     It 
has  cold,  hot  and  sweating  stages,  with  a  normal  interval  fol- 
lowing.    The  patient   may  go  through  these  stages  every  day, 


every  other  day,  or  every  third  day.  This  disease  is  caused  by 
decaying  vegetable  matter.  It  prevails  in  new  countries,  river 
bottoms,  districts  which  overflow,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of 
canals  or  mill-ponds.  It  may  prevail  in  houses  with  bad  cellars, 
or  w'here  the  sills  and  floors  are  in  a  state  of  decay.  It  does 
not  make  its  appearance  while  the  land  is  under  water,  but 
when  the  water  recedes  and  exposes  the  half-rotten  vegetable 
matter  to  the  sun.  Some  physicians  suppose  this  disease  to  be 
caused  by  a  microscopic  vegetable  germ  which  enters  the  sys- 
tem, contaminating  the  blood. 

Intermittent  fever  is  not  self-protecting  nor  self-limiting. 
Some  persons  are  never  free  from  it  while  they  reside  in  a 
malarial  district.  It  runs  an  indefinite  course  if  not  checked 
by  remedial  agents.  If  not  treated,  the  blood  of  the  patient 
becomes  impoverished,  the  lips  pale,  the  skin  sallow,  the  mus- 
cles weak  and  the  body  emaciated.  The  spleen  becomes  large, 
vulgarly  called  an  ague  cake.  Some  persons  may  become  accli- 
mated, improve,  and  finally  get  well  without  medicine,  but  the 
majority  would  go  from  bad  to  worse  and  die,  or  become  so 
weak  as  to  have  no  physical  endurance  or  resistance,  and  would 
finally  succumb  to  some  other  disease  which  they,  in  the  de- 
praved state  of  the  system,  are  not  able  to  withstand.  The 
system  may  become  so  surcharged  with  the  jioison  as  to  cause 
death  from  the  severity  of  the  chill  before  reaction  or  the  fever 
stage  comes  on.  This  is  what  is  called  a  "  congestive  chill. " 
Every  chill  is  in  reality  a  congestive  chill — that  is,  during  the 
chill  some  internal  organ  is  congested,  or  contains  an  abnormal 
amount  of  blood  ;  hence  the  variety  of  symptoms  during  this 
stage.  One  may  have  difficulty  of  breathing  because  of  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs  ;  another  may  have  pain  in  the  head  ; 
another,  in  the  stomach  or  heart. 

Instead  of  the  cold,  hot  and  sweating  stages,  the  patient  may 
have  severe  periodical  pains  along  the  course  of  a  nerve. 
This  constitutes  one  form  of  neuralgia.  At  another  time, 
or  another  patient,  instead  of  suffering  from  either  chills  or 
neuralgia,  may  have  a  periodical  diarrhoea,  or  there  may  be 
hemorrhage  from  some  part  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

Treatment. — The  night-air  contains  the  malarial  poison  in 
greater  abundance  than  that  of  the  day  ;  so  that  if  persons  must 
live  in  a  malarial  region,  they  can  lessen  the  liability  to  contract 
disease  by  being  in  the  house  before  sunset,  and  remaining 
there  until  after  sunrise  in  the  morning.  An  attack  may  be 
induced  in  some  persons  by  eating  anything  which  is  difficult  to 
digest.  It  becomes  tlipse  who  are  susceptible  to  the  influence 
of  this  virus  to  look  well  to  their  food. 

Some  preparation  of  Peruvian  bark  enters  into  almost  every 
formula  for  the  cure  of  intermittent  fever.  Sulphate  of  cin- 
chona is  the  cheapest,  but  it  is  more  likely  to  disturb  the  stom- 
ach. Cinchonidia  is  cheaper  than  quinine,  and  is  like  it  in  ap- 
pearance. It  is  not  as  likely  to  disturb  the  stomach  as  the  sul- 
phate of  cinchona,  but  more  so  than  quinine.  Quinine  is  more 
used  because  it  is  less  irritating  to  the  stomach,  though  it  is  of 
a  higher  price.  Quinine  is  the  king  in  this  realm  of  remedies. 
If  the  interval  between  the  paroxysms  is  short,  we  must  give 
larger  doses,  and  closer  together.  When  the  paroxysms  are 
farther  apart,  we  can  give  smaller  doses — three  or  four  grains 
every  two  hours.  We  believe  we  shall  have  better  effect  from 
small    doses   close  together   than  by   giving  doses  of   five  or 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


67. 


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ten  grains,  four  or  live  hours  apart.  We  need,  in  ordinary 
cases,  to  administer  from  twenty  to  thirty  grains  between  the 
paroxysms.  The  taste  of  quinine  can  be  disguised  by  jnitting 
it  in  cold  coffee  or  tea.  A  few  doses  of  bromo-hydric  acid 
will  prevent  the  disagreeable  effects  and  the  ringing  in  the  ears 
produced  by  quinine. 

Occasionally  we  meet  with  persons  who  cannot  take  quinine. 
We  can  use  salicine  in  the  same  doses  as  quinine,  or  a  little 
larger  doses  even. 

Arsenic  is  used  in  chronic  forms  of  the  disease,  and  may  be 
used  where  quinine  cannot  be  employed. 

Nux  vomica  or  strychnine  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
other  remedies. 

Remittent  Fever. 

Remittent  Fever  is  by  some  authors  treated  under  the 
head  of  intermittent  fever,  considering  it  simply  another  form 
of  the  same  disease.  Its  origin  appears  to  be  the  same  as  that 
of  ague,  but  the  disease  is  of  such  intensity,  and  the  stage  of 
febrile  excitement  lasts  so  long,  as  to  crowd  out  the  cold  and 
sweating  stages.  In  this  fever  the  hot  stage  is  severer  in 
intensity  as  well  as  longer  in  duration.  The  .stomach  is  so 
disturbed  that  it  demands  the  major  part  of  our  attention. 
Vomiting  is  very  distressing  to  the  patient  and  annoying  to 
the  physician.  Bile  is  vomited,  and  thirst  is  very  great.  The 
skin  and  the  white  of  the  eye  become  yellow.  This  is  a  more 
serious  disease  than  the  intermittent  type.  The  bile  may  be 
absorbed  and  the  urea  not  thrown  off.  Both  contaminate  the 
blood.  The  patient  may  sink  into  a  low  typhoid  condition 
and  become  delirious.  This  condition  is  called  typho-malarial 
fever. 

In  treatment  the  stomach  first  demands  attention.  Aro- 
matic sulphuric  acid  may  be  given  in  five-drop  doses  in  water 
every  hour  or  two.  Or  ten  drops  of  dilute  muriatic  acid  and 
five  drops  of  the  tincture  of  aconite  root  in  water  every  two  or 
three  hours  may  be  given. 

To  control  the  vomiting  it  is  at  times  advisable  to  apply  a 
mustard  poultice  over  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  Lemons  arc  also 
useful.  Either  let  the  patient  suck  the  juice  or  drink  a  little 
strong  lemonade.  After  we  have  controlled  the  stomach 
symptoms,  the  treatment  should  be  as  advised  in  intermittent 
fever. 

Yellow  Fever. 

Yellow  Fever  originates  in  hot,  low,  fdthy  localities. 
Having  once  originated,  it  may  spread,  as  other  contagious 
diseases — may  be  carried  a  great  distance  in  clothing  or  goods. 
Exposure  and  dissipation  are  strong  ]>rcdisposing causes.  Non- 
acclimated  persons  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked  than  natives. 
It  is  more  fatal  among  the  white  i)opulation.  The  death-rate  is 
high.  Patients  recoveretl  from  this  fearful  diseas_  enjoy  immu- 
nity from  attacks  in  future.  The  attacks  generally  begin  rather 
suddenly.  The  temperature  ranges  from  loi  to  107  degrees. 
The  symptoms  arc  a  dry  skin,  rajiid  pulse,  thirst,  frontal  head- 
ache, pain  in  the  back  and  calves  of  the  legs,  and  vomiting.  At 
first,  the  vomited  matters  consist  of  mucus  and  of  portions  of 
fond.  There  is  a  cream-like  coat  upon  the  tongue,  and  tender- 
ness at  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  After  a  day  or  two  the  pains 
abate,  but  the  vomiting  is  likely  to  increase,  and  the  skin  becomes 
yellow,     .\bout  the  fourth  day,  the  vomit  contains  blood,  hav- 


ing the  appearance  of  coffee-grounds,  and  known  as  "  the  black 
vomit."  The  urine  and  stools  also  contain  blood.  The  tongue 
becomes  dry  and  black,  the  pulse  rapid  but  feeble.  Delirium 
and  coma  now  set  in. 

Death  or  convalescence  may  take  place  at  any  time.  Con- 
valescence may  take  place  so  early  in  the  disease  as  to  leave 
some  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  diagnosis,  and  death 
may  strike  the  patient  down  before  any  of  the  characteristic 
symptoms  are  established.  .-Vt  times  blood  is  found  not  only 
in  the  stools  and  urine,  but  the  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  may 
bleed  profusely,  thus  rendering  the  patient  the  most  pitiable 
object  imaginable. 

This  disease  demands  the  highest  hygienic  skill.  It  can  be 
perpetuated  by  the  virus  contained  in  exposed  clothing  or  fur- 
niture. Treatment  should  be  according  to  general  principles. 
I'ain  and  vomiting  are  best  controlled  by  the  hypodermic  in- 
jection of  morphine.  Muriatic,  niuie  and  sulphuric  acid  and 
quinine  are  called  for. 

The  convalescence  is  generally  protracted.     The  yellowness 
of  the  skin  continues  for  a  long  time.     At  this  period  the  main 
thing  needed  is  good,  judicious  feeding  and  tonic  treatment. 
Rubeola — Measles. 

This  is  a  very  infectious  febrile  disease.  As  a  rule  it  is  ex- 
perienced but  once.  Children  are  more  frequently  altacketl 
then  adults,  partly  because  most  adults  have,  as  children,  suffereti 
from  an  attack,  and  thereafter  enjoy  immunity  from  the  disease. 
But  it  is  also  true  that  adults  unprotected  by  a  former  attack  are 
less  susceptible,  .'\bout  two  weeks  ela))se  from  the  time  of 
exposure  to  the  development  of  the  disease.  The  first  symptoms 
are  those  of  a  cold.  The  patient  coughs  and  sneezes  ;  the  eyes 
are  suffused,  and  a  thin  mucus  flows  from  the  nose.  There  is  a 
pink  appearance  of  the  eye,  and  during  the  catarrhal  period 
there  is  a  slight  fever.  On  the  third  or  fourth  day  the  fever  is 
increased,  and  an  eruption  begins  to  make  its  appearance  at  the 
roots  of  the  hair  and  upon  the  forehead  and  temples.  The 
eruption  is  of  minute  red  spots  scarcely  raised  above  the  surface, 
and  smooth  to  the  touch.  In  small-pox  the  eruption  has  a  sandy 
or  gritty  feel.  The  first  attack  of  small-pox  is  .somewhat  like 
remittent  fever — a  high  temperature  with  vomiting.  In  measles 
it  is  more  like  a  cold.  The  fever  rises  with  the  erupticm.  In 
small-pox  it  falls.  Two  days  are  required  for  the  eruption  to 
become  general,  and  in  about  three  or  four  days  more  it  begins 
to  disappear  in  the  order  in  which  it  came.  Now  the  tempera- 
ture suddenly  falls  to  the  normal,  or  very  near  it.  The  temper- 
ature seldom  rises  above  104  degrees.  | 

At  times  the  lungs  become  involved  to  -.mx  alarming  extent.  ' 
The  cough  from  the  beginning  is  very  annoying,  and  it  is  liable 
to  continue  for  a  long  time  after  every  other  symptom  has  dis- 
appeared. The  eyes  become  inflamed  during  the  catarrhal 
jieriod,  and  they  so  remain  long  after  the  |>atient  is  well  in 
every  other  respect.  At  times  the  eyelids  become  granulated. 
The  throat  symptoms  may  also  continue  for  .some  time,  but 
never  become  a  serious  complication,  such  as  that  occasionc<l 
by  scarlet  fever. 

Treatment. —  In  this  disease,  great  care  against  exposure 
is  required.  More  soldiers,  during  the  late  civil  war,  dicil  front 
measles  than  from  small-pox,  because  in  small-jrax  less  harm 
is  occasioned  by  exposure.     All  the  windows  and  doors  may  not 


V- 


be  permitted,  in  the  case  of  measles,  to  be  thrown  open,  unless 
it  be  summer  ;  but  from  experience  we  know  that  the  nurse  needs 
be  cautioned  more  against  keeping  the  room  too  warm,  against 
steaming,  sweating  and  stimuKating  the  patient.  If  it  is  an  ordi- 
naiy  case,  nothing  is  required  beyond  securing  the  greatest 
amount  of  comfort.  Sometimes  the  eruption  is  very  tardy  in 
coming  out.  In  such  cases,  a  warm  bath  is  useful  in  bringing  out 
the  eruption.  Hot  drinks  may  also  be  given.  Such  cases  are 
exceptions,  however,  and  not  the  rule.  A  few  drops  of  aconite 
and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  in  water,  may  lower  the  pulse  rate  and 
temperature,  but  are  generally  not  required.  Syrup  of  ipecacu- 
anha and  syrup  of  tolu  will  mitigate  the  cough.  The  bowels 
may  need  some  attention.  If  there  should  be  a  diarrhoea,  pare- 
goric may  be  added  to  the  cough  syrup.  If  constipation  exist, 
syrup  rhubarb  may  be  given. 

The  "  blnck "  measles  is  not  another  disease,  but  a  malig- 
nant form  of  the  same,  the  eruption  being  attended  by  small 
hemorrhages  under  the  skin,  analogous  to  that  in  the  malig- 
nant form  of  small-pox.  This  condition  is  attended  with 
danger. 

Variola — Small-Pox. 

.Sma:,i.-pox  is  a  highly  contagious,  specitic  fever,  which  makes 
its  appearance  in  about  two  weeks  after  having  been  exposed  to 
the  contagious  influence.  One  attack  secures  the  patient  im- 
munity from  the  disease  in  future.  The  attack  begins  with  a 
very  high  fever  and  intense  backache.  The  pain  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  back,  and  is  not  relieved  or  altered  in  the  least  by  any 
change  of  position.  There  may  be  vomiting  as  in  remittent 
fever.  At  first  there  is  no  eruption,  nor  anything,  except  the 
peculiarity  of  the  pain  in  the  back,  which  would  lead  any  one  to 
suspect  the  true  nature  of  the  disease.  On  the  second  or  third 
day  the  eruption  makes  its  appearance  at  the  roots  of  the  hair 
on  the  forehead.  The  eruption  is  raised  above  the  surface,  and 
gives  to  the  touch  a  gritty  or  .sandy  feeling.  If  this  is  looked  for 
diligently,  there  need  be  no  mistaking  small-pox  for  measles, 
since  the  eruption  of  measles  at  first  is  not  elevated,  but  is 
smooth,  while  that  of  small-pox  is  sharply  elevated.  This 
sharp,  papillary  eruption  develops  into  little  vesicles  or  blisters 
filled  with  a  watery  fluid.  About  the  seventh  day  these  little 
blisters  become  filled  with  pus,  hence  are  called  pustules.  A 
peculiarity  of  these  pustules  is  that  the  centre  is  depressed, 
forming  an  umbilicated  pustule.  About  the  tenth  or  eleventh 
day  the  pustule  is  fully  developed,  and  dries  into  a  crust  by  the 
fourteenth  day.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat,  and 
sometimes  the  trachea,  is  also  effected  by  the  eruption.  The 
patient  coughs  and  expectorates  a  very  tough  and  disagreealile 
mucu.s. 

On  the  appearance  of  the  eruption  the  fever  abates  and  the 
patient  feels  much  better,  while  in  scarlet  fever  the  temper- 
ature increases  with  the  eruption.  In  small-pox  the  reverse  is 
true.  About  the  eighth  or  ninth  day,  at  which  time  the  pustules 
are  developed,  the  fever  rises  again.  This  is  termed  the  second- 
ary fevei\  and  is  the  most  dangerous  period  of  the  disease.  The 
patijnt  is  weaker  and  has  less  power  of  resistance. 

The  pustules  are  very  likely  to  destroy  the  true  skin  beneath 
them,  hence  the  pit,  so  commonly  seen  after  this  disease. 
Where  the  pustules  are  not  so  numerous,  but  stand  alone,  the 
eruption  is  said  to  be  discrete.     When  they  are  so  numerous 


as  to  touch  each  other,  it  is  called  confluent.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  the  vesicle  filling  with  a  watery  material,  they  fill  with 
blood  ;  hemorrhage  also  takes  place  from  the  various  parts  of 
the  mucous  membrane.  This  form  is  called  hemorrhagic  or 
vialignant  small-pox. 

Treatment. — From  beginning  to  end  the  sufferer  needs  an 
abundance  of  cool,  fresh  air.  In  ordinary  weather  windows  and 
doors  should  be  open,  provided  the  wind  does  not  blow  directly 
upon  the  patient.  The  neighbors  need  not  object,  for  the  con- 
tagion of  small-pox  is  not  carried  through  the  air.  The  virus 
must  be  carried  from  the  sick  to  the  well,  and  whatever  can  be 
the  means  of  this  transfer  of  virus  (usually  in  clothing)  will 
communicate  the  disease,  and  it  cannot  be  communicated  in  any 
other  way.  An  abundance  of  bland  drinks  to  soothe  the  irritated 
throat — such  as  flax-seed  tea,  barley-water  and  milk.  Chlo- 
rate of  potassium  may  be  freely  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  temperature  must  be  treated  as  stated  under  the  liead  of 
fevers  in  general. 

When  the  pustules  are  formed,  the  skin,  especially  of  the 
face  and  hands,  may  be  covered  with  olive  oil.  It  soothes  the 
itching  and  prevents  a  too  hard  crust  forming.  Some  cover  the 
face  with  mercurial  ointment  for  the  same  purpose,  to  prevent 
pitting.  If  stimulants  are  needed,  it  is  not  until  the  secondary 
fever  sets  in.  This  is  looked  upon  as  a  critical  period.  The 
patient  needs  to  be  well  fed.  If  the  throat  is  sore,  solid  food 
may  be  out  of  the  question. 

The  eyes  will  need  at  times  special  care.  The  room  may  have 
to  be  darkened.  A  solution  may  be  made  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
two  grains  to  an  ounce  of  distilled  water.  A  few  minims  of  this 
solution  may  be  dropped  into  the  eyes  two  or  three  times  a  day 
to  control  the  inflannnation. 

Varioloid 
Is  a  modified  form  of  small-pox.  One  who  has  had  small-pox, 
or  has  been  vaccinated,  but  is  not  fully  protected,  if  exposed  to 
the  disease,  may  become  ill  with  all  the  symptoms  of  small-pox, 
but  in  a  modified  degree.  The  eruption  makes  its  appearance, 
there  being,  however,  but  few  pustules,  and  these  are  less  likely 
than  the  pustules  of  variola  to  leave  scars.  No  secondary  fever 
is  developed  in  varioloid.  But  little  treatment  is  needed,  and 
that  little  does  not  differ  from  that  of  small-pox. 

Vaccin  ation — Cow-  Pox. 

Cow-PO.'C  is  contracted  from  small-pox  in  the  cow.  If  matter 
be  taken  from  the  pustule  of  a  small-pox  patient  and  introduced 
into  the  cow,  in  due  time  the  eruption  will  make  its  appearance 
upon  the  udder.  Pus  taken  from  a  pustule  on  the  udder  of 
the  cow  and  introduced  under  the  skin  of  a  human  being  will 
produce  the  disease  of  kine  or  cow-po.x,  which  is  believed  lo  i)ro- 
tect  the  subject  against  an  attack  of  true  variola.  At  the  point 
where  the  virus  has  been  introduced,  a  vesicle  appears,  which  in 
a  day  or  two  develops  into  a  pustule.  This  pustule  is  depressetl 
in  the  centre. 

The  course  is  precisely  the  same  as  in  small-pox,  only  that 
the  pustules  are  confined  to  the  one  point  where  the  virus  was 
introduced  into  the  .system.  The  fever  is  insignificant  in  com- 
parison with  that  attending  small-pox.  Why  the  disease  should 
be  thus  modified  by  passing  through  the  cow,  we  do  not  know. 


K- 


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V 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


673 


I'.iU,  knowing  that  sniall-pox  protects  a  person  from  any  future 
attack,  and  knowing  that  cow-pox  is  small-pox,  we  can  readily 
understand  why  cow-pox  protects  against  small-pox. 

If  by  introducing  an  insignificant  disease  the  human  family 
can  be  protected  from  such  a  loathsome,  disfiguring,  deva.staling 
scourge  as  sriiall-pox,  he  who  opposes  it  should  be  considered  a 
misanthrope,  and  should  l>e  treated  as  such  by  all  intelligent 
citizens. 

Vericella — Chicken-Pox. 

Chicken-pox  is  a  contagious  but  an  insignificant  disea.se, 
generally  confined  to  children.  The  fever  is  so  mild  as  to  need 
no  attention.  The  eruption  at  first  consists  of  pimples  with 
inflamed  bases,  which  develop  into  blisters,  or  vesicles,  as  large 
as  split  peas,  or  even  sometimes  as  large  as  copper  coins. 
These  become  filled  with  a  milky  fluid,  and  finally  break  and 
tlry  up  into  crusts  or  scabs.  The  eruption  comes  out  in  suc- 
cessive crops,  so  that  in  a  well-marked  case  it  can  be  .seen  in  its 
various  stages  at  the  same  time.  The  eruption  lasts  about  a 
week,  and  in  about  another  week  the  crusts  fall  off.  This 
disease,  like  the  other  eruptive  fevers,  protects  against  itself. 
No  treatment  beyond  good  nursing  is  required. 

Scarlatina — Scarlet  Fever. 

Scarlet  Fever  is  a  highly  infectious  malady,  attacking 
children  chiefly ;  not  because  the  child  is  any  more  susceptible 
to  its  influence,  but  because  the  older  children  and  adults  have  all 
had  the  disease  or  are  not  susceptible  to  it.  Why  some  should 
pass  through  several  epidemics  without  taking  it,  and  then  some 
time  in  after  life  should  contract  the  disease,  we  do  not  know. 

The  beginning  of  the  di.sease  is  generally  sudden.  A  child 
exposed  a  week  ago  ha-s  been  in  perfect  health  until  now.  The 
attack  begins  with  a  high  temperature,  headache,  vomiting,  and 
sore  throat.  Young  children  may  have  convulsions  at  the 
very  beginning  of  the  attack.  Within  the  next  twenty-four 
hours  a  fine  re<l  rash  may  be  seen  over  the  chest.  Within  a  few 
hours  it  may  make  its  appearance  on  the  arms,  lower  part  of 
the  abdomen  and  upper  and  inner  ]mrt  of  the  thighs,  and  be- 
come general  within  the  next  twenty-four  hours.  It  will  take 
three  or  four  days  to  fully  develop.  The  temperature  increases 
with  the  ra.sh.  It  may  rise  to  one  hundred  and  six  degrees  with- 
out much  alarm — even  one  hundred  and  seven  or  one  hundred 
and  eight — but  if  this  temperature  long  continues  we  may  look 
for  an  unfavorable  issue.  The  eruption  begins  to  fade  about  the 
fifth  or  sixth  day,  and  the  temperature  and  pulse  should  fall 
as  the  eruption  fades.  We  may  expect  the  rash  to  disappear 
about  the  tenth  day  of  the  disease. 

This  disease  may  be  so  mild  as  to  demand  no  attention,  there 
being  nothing  but  a  red  rash  and  very  little  fever.  At  another 
time  the  throat  symptoms  are  the  only  ones  of  gravity.  The 
throat  trouble  may  be  of  secondary  consideration,  or  the  swell- 
ing may  threaten  suffocation.  Ulceration  of  the  throat  may 
become  serious.  This  form  has  been  called  malignant  or 
putrid  sore  throat. 

Treatment.  —  The  patient  should  Ix;  removed  from  all  unpro- 
tected persons.  Cold  water  may  be  used  to  sponge  the  patient. 
We  must  keep  down  the  temperature  to  the  lowest  point. 
Aconite  and  belladonna  may  be  used  to  lower  the  temperature. 
Chlorate  of  pota.sh  for  the  throat  (not  only  as  a  gargle,  but  we 


may  administer  from  forty  to  sixty  grains  in  twenty-four  hours). 
The  room  sliould  be  cool  and  well  ventilated.  A  small  <|uan- 
tity  of  carbolic  acid  may  be  put  into  the  water  used  in  bathing. 

When  the  skin  begins  to  scale  off,  it  will  l)e  well  to  anoint  the 
patient  with  vaseline  containing  five  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid. 
The  kidneys  will  need  attention,  a.s  well  as  the  cars.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  child  to  get  well  of  this  fever  and  die  of  dropsy. 
Many  deaf  persons  owe  their  misfortune  to  the  se(|uels  of  .scarlet 
fever.  Patients  convalescing  from  this  disea.se  need  a.s  much  if 
not  more  care  than  during  the  higher  stages  of  the  fever.  A  cold 
may  produce  irreparable  mischief 

Diphtheria. 

Diphtheria  is  a  contagious  febrile  disease,  during  which  an 
ash-colored  false  membrane  forms,  generally  in  the  throat.  It 
may  form  in  the  nose,  in  the  larynx  or  trachea.  The  first  symp- 
tom is  usually  a  chill,  followed  by  high  temixjrature  (105  or  106 
degrees  Fahrenheit),  and  more  or  less  swelling  of  the  parts  in- 
volved, threatening  death  by  suffocation  or  inability  to  swallow. 
There  is  a  jwculiar  odor  of  the  breath  of  the  patient.  The 
disease  may  l>e  communicated  by  the  matter  coughed  up  ;  lience 
the  necessity  of  es|jecial  care.  Handkerchiefs  and  towels  used 
by  the  sick  of  this  disease  should  be  properly  taken  care  of.  It 
is  better  to  use  old  cloths  and  bum  them. 

This  is  a  disease  of  all  countries,  persons,  ages,  sexes  and 
conditions,  but  children  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  it  is 
more  fatal  with  them.     The  mortuary  rate  is  high. 

This  disease,  in  a  particular  case,  may  be  so  mild  as  not  to 
occasion  inconvenience  to  any  extent  beyond  a  little  sore  throat. 
It  may  be  so  severe  and  the  swelling  so  great  as  to  threaten 
death  by  shock  or  by  suffocation  in  a  few  hours. 

The  sequels  may  be  serious ;  by  attacking  the  kidneys,  and 
interfering  with  the  proper  evacuation  of  urea,  the  patient  may 
die  of  uremic  poisoning.  The  throat  may  become  paralyzed, 
so  that  the  jiatient  cannot  swallow,  the  paralysis  extending  to 
the  organs  of  speech.  It  may  extend  also  to  the  limbs.  The 
])atient,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  recovers  from  the  paralysis 
within  four  months,  if  he  survives  the  acute  stages  of  the  disease. 
Diphtheria  is  not  to  be  treated  wholly  as  a  local  disease.  The 
tendency  is  to  loss  of  strength  and  death  from  exhaustion  ; 
hence  tonics  should  be  administered  from  the  beginning.  Qui- 
nine is  well  borne.  Two  grains  every  hour  or  two  may  be 
given,  or  tincture  of  iron  in  doses  of  ten  drops  every  two  or  three 
hours  in  a  tablespoonful  of  water.  It  will  be  well  to  have  the 
patient  drink  this  slowly  so  that  it  may  have  a  local  efTcct  upon 
the  throat.  If  the  throat  is  badly  swollen  a  gargle  of  tincture 
of  iron  and  water  may  be  used  every  three  or  four  hours.  In  all 
cases  of  dijihtheria  a  physician  should  see  the  patient  daily. 

Rheumatism. 

RllEt'MATlsM  is  a  constitutional  di.sease,  characterized  by 
certain  local  manifestations.  These  manifestations  arc  due  to 
inflammation,  acute  or  chronic,  of  the  synovial  membrane 
lining  the  joints,  of  certain  serous  membranes,  particularly 
those  of  the  heart,  and  of  fibrous  tissue  elsewhere  in  the 
body.  Kheumatism  is  classified  as  aeute  articular  rheuma- 
tism and  chronic  rheumatism. 

In  Acute  Articii.ar  Riii'IMatism  the  lining  membranes 
of  the  joints  are  inflamed.      In  the  course  of  the  disease  cer- 


/• 


^    " 


bIv 


K 


674 


PHVSIOLOOV  AND  MEDICINE. 


=t. 


A 


tain  complications  involving  internal  organs  are  liable  to  arise. 
The  parts  more  likely  to  become  affected  are  the  serous  mem- 
branes, the  endocardium  and  pericardium  lining  and  surround- 
ing the  heart. 

The  attack  usually  begins  suddenly.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
slight  amount  of  fever  for  a  day  or  two  preceding  the  joint 
affection  ;  sometimes  the  pain  and  tenderness  of  the  joints 
precede  the  fever,  but  usually  these  sjTnptoms  appear  together. 
The  disease  may  attack  any  joint  of  the  body,  and  is  indeed 
very  seldom  confined  to  one  or  two.  The  affected  joints  are 
swollen,  red  and  extremely  tender.  Pain  is  not  so  great  except 
when  attempting  to  move,  or  when  disturbed  or  jarred.  The 
slightest  movement  causes  the  most  excruciating  pain.  Swell- 
ing is  most  apparent  when  the  knees,  ankles  or  wrists  are  the 
joints  involved.  The  swelling  is  usually  in  proportion  to  the 
severity  of  the  inflammation.  One  joint  after  another  gen- 
erally becomes  involved.  Sometimes  upon  attacking  a  new 
joint  all  tenderness  and  swelling  disappear  from  the  joints  first 
involved.  The  fever  ranges  in  this  disease  between  102  and 
loS  degrees.     Profuse  sweating  is  a  common  symptom. 

The  disease  very  rarely  proves  fatal.  When  it  does  it  is  due 
to  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  heart,  and  the 
development  o( pericarditis.  Even  then  the  number  of  deaths 
during  the  acute  attack  is  very  small,  but  in  the  fact  that  the 
heart  is  so  frequently  attacked  lies  the  danger  of  the  disease,  for, 
as  explained  under  the  head  of  diseases  of  the  heart,  the  gieat 
majority  of  valvular  diseases  of  the  heart  are  due  to  eiidccardilis 
developed  during  an  attack  of  acute  rheumatism.  Usually, 
however,  the  lesion  of  the  valves  causes  ro  inconvenience  until 
a  number  of  years  afterward.  The  heart  is  more  likely  to 
become  involved,  the  more  intense  the  disease.  Other  organs, 
such  as  the  pleura,  the  peritoneum  and  the  membranes  envel- 
oping the  brain,  have  been  known  to  suffer  inflammation  during 
the  attack,  but  it  is  extremely  rare.     The  head  is  usually  free 


from  pain.  The  duration  of  the  attack  varies  from  ten  days  to 
five  or  six  weeks.  There  are  sometimes  relapses.  One  who 
has  once  suffered  from  acute  rheumatism  is  more  liable  to  sub- 
sequent attacks. 

Treatment. —  Notwithstanding  the  popularity  of  salicylic 
acid,  or  the  salicylate  of  soda,  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism 
during  the  last  few  years,  we  believe  that  as  much  or  more  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  w'hat  has  been  known  as  the 
alkaline  treatment.  The  alkali,  either  bicarbonate  of  potassa 
or  soda,  should  be  given  in  full  doses,  every  three  or  four 
hours.  Lemon  juice  may  be  added  to  the  dose  and  taken  while 
effervescing.  As  soon  as  the  urine  is  rendered  alkaline  (which 
may  be  told  by  testing  with  red  litmus  paper,  which  turns  to 
blue  if  dipped  into  an  alkaline  fluid),  the  dose  should  be  greatly 
diminished,  and  taken  thereafter  only  once  or  twice  a  day. 
Tonics  are  useful.  Quinine  in  two-grain  doses  may  be  given. 
Tincture  of  aconite  applied  to  the  swollen  joints  often  affords 
relief.  Chloroform  liniment  or  soap  liniment  is  also  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  salicylate  of  soda  is  much  employed — per- 
haps at  this  time  more  than  any  other  remedy. 

Chronic  Rheumatism  differs  from  the  acute  variety  in 
the  degree  of  severity  of  the  symptoms,  and  in  their  duration. 
In  mild  cases  the  patients  are  able  to  go  about  their  work,  but 
suffer  more  or  less  pain  in  the  affected  joints.  In  other  cases, 
more  severe,  the  patient  is  confined  to  his  bed,  and  frequently, 
with  those  about  their  avocations,  there  is  more  or  less  deform- 
ity of  the  joints. 

Treatment.  — The  alkalies  may  be  used  in  small  doses  ;  also 
the  salicylate  of  soda.  Iodide  of  potassium  is  sometimes  very 
useful,  and  in  malarious  districts  quinine  is  to  be  employed. 

The  local  applications  to  the  joints  here  are  of  more  impor- 
tance than  in  the  acute  variety.  Tincture  of  aconite,  tincture  of 
iodine  and  chloroform  liniment  are  very  useful. 


/ 


-VI 


^ 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


6/5 


-H-  EMERGENCIES.-^- 


Hemorrhage. 

A  rapid  loss  of  blood  is  one  of  the  most  alarming  eNperi- 
ences  in  life.  Nothing  is  more  startling  than  the  hemorrhage 
from  a  large  vessel,  in  the  case  of  wounds  made  with  a  sharp 
instrument.  If  the  wound  is  of  one  of  the  limbs,  the  bleeding 
may  be  easily  controlled  until  a  surgeon  can  arrive.  If  the 
blood  is  of  a  bright-red  color,  and  flows  in  spurts  with  the  pulse, 
the  wounded  vessel  is  an  artery,  and  the  blood  comes  directly 
from  the  heart.  The  artery  must  be  comjiressed  above  the 
wound.     The  best  way  to  do  this,  in  case  of  the  arm,  is  to  tie  a 


Fig.  39.    BaiMlage  Applied  on  Arm  to  .Stop  Rleediiig:. 

The  dotted  line  indicates  the  course  of  the  artery. 

hard  knot  in  a  handkerchief;  then  pass  the  ends  around  the  arm 
and  tic  firmly,  having  placed  the  knot  over  the  course  of  the 
artery  ;  then  insert  a  small  stick,  and  tighten  the  bandage  by 
twisting,  as  shown  in  Kig.  39.  If  the  wound  be  of  the  leg, 
apply  the  knotted  handkerchief  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  The 
bandage  thus  made  is  correctly  applied  if  the  bleeding  ceases. 
( )therwise  the  position  of  the  knot  must  be  changed  until  the 
bleeding  vessel  is  successfully  compressed. 

If  the  wound  is  of  the  trunk,  or  if  the  bleeding  is  not  severe, 
the  edges  should  be  brought  closely  together  with  adhesive  jilas- 
ter,  or  with  a  common  needle  and  thread,  and  the  wound  filled 
with  cobwebs,  or  any  substance  favoring  coagulation  of  the 
blood.  The  patient  should  be  laid  down  and  kept  perfectly 
quiet. 

Hi.F.F.niNn  FROM  THE  NosE  is  caused  by  the  rupture  of  a 
small  vessel  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane.  Generally,  the 
loss  of  blood  is  not  great,  and  soon  ceases  without  treatment. 
Occasionally  the  hemorrhage  is  so  profuse  as  to  greatly  weaken 
the  patient,  and  even  endanger  life.  Cold  applied  to  the  back 
of  the  neck,  by  means  of  a  piece  of  ice  or  iron,  is  u.seful. 
Plugging  the  nostrils  is  sometimes  of  benefit,  but  in  severe  cases 
the  blood  will  then  flow  backward  into  the  throat.  In  the  most 
severe  cases  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  plug  also  the  opening 


of  the  nose  into  the  throat.  This  last  measure  is  always  success- 
ful, but  a  physician  should  be  called  to  do  the  operation,  as 
a  person  without  experience  would  be  apt  to  fail. 

Bleedi.n'G  from  the  Lungs. — .\  small  amount  of  blood 
sometimes  takes  place  into  the  bronchial  tubes,  giving  rise  to 
"spitting  of  blood."  With  this  variety  there  in  no  immediate 
danger  from  loss  of  blood.  Sometimes,  however,  in  cases  of 
consumption,  rupture  of  vessels  of  considerable  size  takes  place, 
causing  a  copious  hemorrhage.  This  is  sometimes  so  severe  as 
to  cause  death.  The  patient  should  be  put  to  bed  at  once  and 
required  to  lie  quietly  upon  his  back.  Twenty  drops 
of  laudanum  may  be  given  every  two  hours.  Also  ace- 
tate of  lead  or  tannic  acid.  A  lemon  may  be  sucked, 
and  in  some  instances  has  a  most  excellent  effect.  A 
large  spoonful  of  common  salt,  dissolved  and  taken 
into  the  stomac'i,  is  said  to  be  very  useful  in  control- 
ling the  hemorrhage.  The  patient  should  be  kept  quiet 
for  several  days. 

Accidents. 

BRUISES,    SPRAINS,    DISLOC.VTIONS   .\ND   FRACTURES. 
.\  Bruise  should  be  dressed  with  a  cold  water  band- 
age and  kept  wet.     Perfect  rest  should  be  given  the 


FJgr-  40.     Randa^  Applied    on  Tliijjh  m»  as  to  Stop  lllofd- 
iiijj   troiii   a  WoiiikI    Hi-Uiw, 

The  black  line  indicates  the  course  of  the  artery. 

part.  In  case  of  a  bruise  aliout  the  face  or  eyes,  much  of  the 
discoloration  may  be  prevented  by  at  once  applyingacold  water 
dressing,  or  ice,  which  is  better. 


5r 


676 


-~   ~    " 


■^ 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


A  Sprain,  whether  it  is  of  the  ankle,  or  knee,  or  WTist, 
should  at  once  be  tightly  and  thoroughly  bandaged,  and  perfect 
rest  should  be  given  the  part.  A  speedy  recovery  by  this  means 
will  usually  result,  when  any  other  course  may  make  a  cripple. 
In  bandaging  the  knee  or  ankle  the  bandage  must  be  applied 
down  to  the  toes,  to  prevent  swelling  and  stoppage  of  the  cir- 
culation. 

In  case  of  either  Fractures  or  Dislocations  the  patient 
should  not  be  allowed  to  make  an  effort,  lest  he  may  do  himself 
additional  injury.  A  great  many  times,  by  attempting  to  walk 
with  a  broken  leg,  patients  have  thrust  the  end  of  the  fractured 
bone  out  through  the  flesh,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  danger 
of  a  serious  result.  The  injured  member  should  be  straightened 
out,  and  the  patient  placed  in  the  most  comfortable  position  to 
await  the  coming  of  the  surgeon. 

Bites  and    Stings. 

Bite  of  a  1I.\d  Dog. — The  wound  is  to  be  immediately 
sucked  either  by  the  patient  or  another  person.  No  harm  can 
result  if  there  are  no  abrasions  or  scratches  upon  the  lips,  and  it 
is  a  very  ready  and  effective  way  of  removing  the  poison  from 
the  wound.  Send  at  once  for  a  medical  man  to  cut  or  cauter- 
ize the  wound.  If  nojie  can  be  had  within  a  few  minutes,  any 
person  can  cauterize  the  wound  with  lunar  caustic,  or,  if  none 
be  at  hand,  the  wound  may  be  burned  to  the  bottom  by  a  small 
red-hot  iron.  The  bite  of  a  dog  not  mad  is  usually  very  pain- 
ful, and  is  attended  with  considerable  inflammation  and  swell- 
ing. Cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  may  be  applied.  Later, 
a  flax-seed  poultice,  with  a  half-teaspoonful  of  laudanum 
sprinkled  upon  it,  should  be  applied. 

Bite  of  a  Venomous  Serpent  should  be  treated  in  the 
same  way  as  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog.  Brandy  or  whisky  should 
be  given  in  considerable  quantity. 

Stings  of  Wasps  and  Bees  may  be  treated  by  bathing 
the  parts  with  ammonia  or  hartshorn,  diluted  with  an  equal 
amount  of  water.  In  case  of  the  honey-bee  sting,  if  there  is 
much  swelling,  a  poultice  of  flaxseed  should  be  applied. 

Burns,  Scalds  and  Frost-Bites. 

In  case  of  Burns  or  Scalds  the  parts  should  be  protected  from 
the  air  at  once.  If  a  quantity  of  white  oil-paint  is  at  hand, 
cover  the  bum  at  once  by  applying  gently  a  very  thick  coat 
of  the  paint.  In  a  little  while  another  coat  is  to  be  given.  If 
no  paint  is  to  be  had,  apply  olive  oil  and  cover  with  flour.  If 
no  sweet  oil  is  to  be  had,  lard  will  do.  If  no  oil  of  any  sort  is 
to  be  had,  then  cover  the  part  with  dry  flour.  The  patient 
should  be  given  a  full  dose  of  laudanum  or  paregoric,  or  opium 
or  morphine.  If  the  bum  has  been  very  extensive,  a  physician 
should  now  be  sent  for. 

In  case  of  Frost-Bite,  the  circulation  must  be  slowly  restored; 
hence  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  bring  the  patient  into  a 
warm  room.  The  frozen  part  may  be  rubbed  with  snow  in 
a  cold  room,  or  immersed  in  very  cold  water,  and  kept  there 
for  two  or  three  hours,  until  the  circulation  has  been  fully 
restored. 

Suffocation. 

Suffocation  takes  place  whenever  the  air  is  shut  out  of  the 
lungs ;  this  may  be  done  by  compressing  the  windpipe,  as  in 
choking  or  hanging;  or  lllling  the  lungs  with  water,   as  in 


drowning  ;  or  with  poisonous  gases,  as  charcoal  gas  from  burn- 
ing charcoal,  or  by  the  escape  of  illuminating  gas  into  the 
sleeping-room  ;  or  by  the  poisonous  gas  in  mines  and  old 
wells. 

In  case  of  strangulation,  as  by  hangings  the  pressure  upon  the 
windpipe  is  to  be  instantly  removed,  and  the  bands  about  the 
neck  and  body  loosened.  In  the  case  of  inhalation  of  a  poisonous 
gas  the  patient  is  to  be  at  once  removed  into  the  open  air  ;  while 
the  drowning  person  is,  of  course,  to  be  removed  at  once  from 
the  water,  and  movements  made  for  emptying  the  water  out  of 
the  lungs.  The  wet  clothes  should  be  stripped  off  and  the 
body  wrapped  in  a  warm  shawl,  blanket  or  dry  coat  ;  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  changing  the  clothing,  but  efforts  at  artificial 
respiration  should  be  made  at  once,  and  the  clothing  can  be 
gotten  off  while  these  efforts  are  in  progress.  Artificial  respir- 
ation should  be  employed  in  all  cases,  whether  of  hanging, 
drowTiing,  or  suffocation  by  a  poisonous  gas.  The  following 
method  of  Marshall  Hall  is  as  good  as  any  other  : 

1.  Treat  the  patient  instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the  open  air, 
freely  exposmg  the  face,  neck  and  chest  to  the  breeze,  except  in 
severe  weather 

2.  In  order  to  clear  the  throat,  place  the  patient  gently  on  the 
face,  with  one  wrist  under  the  forehead,  that  all  fluid,  and  the 
tongue  itself,  may  fall  forward,  and  leave  the  entrance  into  the 
wind-pipe  free. 

3.  To  excite  respiration,  turn  the  patient  slightly  on  his  side, 
and  apply  some  irritating  or  stimulating  agent  to  the  nostrils,  as 
vetratrine,  dilute  am'monia,  etc. 

4.  Make  the  face  warm  by  brisk  friction  ;  then  dash  cold 
water  upon  it. 

5.  If  not  successful,  lose  no  time ;  but,  to  imitate  respira- 
tion, place  the  patient  on  his  face,  and  turn  the  body  gently, 
but  completely,  on  the  side,  and  a  little  beyond  ;  then  agam  on 
the  face,  and  so  on,  alternately.  Repeat  these  movements 
deliberately  and  perseveringly,  fifteen  times  only  in  a  minute. 
(When  the  patient  lies  on  the  thorax,  this  cavity  is  compressed 
by  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  expiration  takes  place.  When 
he  is  turned  on  the  side,  this  pressure  is  removed,  and  insjiira- 
tion  occurs.) 

6.  When  the  prone  position  is  resumed,  make  a  uniform  anil 
efficient  pressure  along  the  spine,  removing  the  pressure  immedi- 
ately, before  rotation  on  the  side.  (The  pressure  augments  the 
expiration;  the  rotation  commences  inspiration.)  Continue 
these  measures. 

7  Rub  the  limbs  upward,  with  firm  pressure  and  with 
energy.  (The  object  being  to  aid  the  return  of  venous  blood 
to  the  heart.) 

8.  Substitute  for  the  patient's  wet  clothing,  if  possible, 
such  other  covering  as  can  be  instantly  procured,  each  bystander 
supplying  a  coat  or  cloak,  etc.  Meantime,  and  from  time  to 
time,  to  excite  inspiration,  let  the  surface  of  the  body  be 
slapped  briskly  with  the  hand. 

g.  Rub  the  body  briskly  till  it  is  dry  and  warm,  then  dash 
cold  water  upon  it,  and  repeat  the  rubbing. 

Avoid  the  immediate  removal  of  the  patient,  as  it  involves  a 
dangerous  loss  of  time  ;  also,  the  use  of  bellows,  or  any  forc- 
ing instrument  ;  also,  the  warm  bath,  and  all  rough  treatment. 


VL 


^ 


Poisoning. 

In  cases  of  poisoning  something  must  be  clone  at  once,  before 
a  physician  can  have  time  to  reach  the  patient.  The  first  effort 
should  be  to  get  the  poison  out  of  the  stomach.  This  can  be 
done  by  inducing  vomiting.  This  should  lie  done  in  every 
case,  no  matter  what  poison  has  been  swallowed. 

Endeavor  to  wash  out  the  stomach  in  the  following  manner  : 
a  tablespoonful  of  common  dry  mustard  is  to  be  added  to  about 
two  quarts  of  warm  water;  stir  well  and  give  to  the  patient  by 
the  tumblerful  until  he  vomits  freely.  In  some  cases,  half  the 
mixture  will  be  required  before  vomiting  is  induced.  If  no 
mustard  is  at  hand,  then  use  the  warm  water  alone. 

The  patient  should  be  undressed  and  put  to  bed.  If  the  skin 
becomes  cold  and  the  breathing  rapid,  stimulants  are  required, 
such  as  bottles  of  hot  water  placed  at  the  feet  and  in  contact 
with  the  Iwdy,  always  taking  care  not  to  burn  the  skin. 

In  the  case  of  known  opium  or  morphine  poisoning,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  above  the  victim  should  be  walked  rapidly  by  a 
strong  person  on  either  side. 

Acids  (Oxalic,  Sulphuric,  Nitric). — Give  large  draughts  of 
cooking  soda  in  water,  then  wash  out  the  stomach  as  directed 
in  general  rules. 

Carbolic  Acid  kills  very  rapidly.  Pour  oil  into  the  victim's 
mouth  freely.  Apply  friction  to  the  surface.  Inject  diluted 
whisky  into  the  bowels.  Children  have  been  seriously  poisoned 
by  carbolic  acid  injected  into  the  bowels  to  destroy  pin  worms. 
In  such  cases  empty  the  bowels  completely  by  warm  soap  suds 
injected  into  the  bowels,  and  stimulate  the  victim  by  whisky 
and  water  in  the  stomach. 

Aconite. — Wash  out  the  stomach.  Rul)  the  entire  surface  of 
the  body  with  a  coarse  towel.  Inject  a  tablespoonful  of  whisky 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water  into  the  bowels. 

Antimony  (Hive  Syrup). — A  draught  of  sweet  oil  or  milk, 
followed  by  washing  out  the  stomach.  Give  diluted  whisky  by 
the  mouth  and  inject  it  into  the  bowels. 

Arsenic  (Fowler's  Solution). — Draughts  of  milk  or  starch, 
followed  by  washing  out  the  stomach.  Stimulants  injected  into 
the  bowels. 

Alkalies  (Potash,  .Vmmonia). — Pour  sweet  oil  or  milk  into 
the  mouth  freely;  afterward  wash  out  the  stomach. 


Belladonna. — Wash  out  the  stomach,  .'\pply  friction  to  the 
surface.     Stimulate  with  whisky. 

Chloral. — Empty  the  stomach.  Artificial  heat  to  the  sur- 
face.    Stimulants  by  injection. 

Chloroform. — If  taken  into  the  stomach,  wash  it  out.  If 
respiration  threatens  to  cease,  use  artificial  respiration  and  ap- 
ply heat  and  friction  to  the  surface.  If  inhaled,  the  victim 
should  be  placed  head  down  while  efforts  are  being  made  to 
maintain  respiration  artificially.  Keep  the  body  warm.  All 
persons  should  make  themselves  familiar  with  methods  of  in- 
ducing artificial  respiration,  and  remember  to  employ  them  with 
steady  persistency  in  cases  of  drowning. 

Mercury  (Corrosive  Sublimate). — White  of  eggs,  or,  if  not 
at  hand,  give  milk  freely.     Wash  out  the  stomach  afterward. 

Opium  (Morphine). — The  greatest  difficulty  will  be  experi- 
enced in  emptying  the  stomach,  which  may  be  facilitated  by 
tickling  the  front  portions  of  the  throat  with  a  feather.  Com- 
pel the  patient  to  walk  rapidly  if  possible.  If  not,  use  the  most 
vigorous  friction  to  the  surface  without  ceasing.  If  necessary, 
severe  pain  should  be  produced  by  sharply  pinching  the  thumb 
nail  until  the  patient  responds.  Hot  black  coffee.  Artificial 
respiration.  Children  are  frequently  killetl  by  soothing  syrups. 
These  should  never  be  given  except  by  medical  advice. 

Fainting. 
The  cause  of  Fainting  is  lack  of  blood  in  the  brain  ; 
hence,  the  patient,  in  case  of  a  faint,  should  be  phaccd  in  a  posi- 
tion favoring  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The  patient  should 
be  laid  at  once  flat  down  upon  a  bed,  a  sofa,  or  the  floor,  with- 
out any  pillow  under  the  head  ;  then  cold  water  can  be  dashed 
in  the  face,  which  will  have  the  desired  effect. 

Sunstroke. 

In  case  of  Sunstroke,  unfasten  and  remove  all  excess  of  cloth- 
ing and  dash  pails  of  cold  water  over  the  head  and  chest  of  the 
patient.  As  soon  as  ice  can  be  procured  make  an  ice-cap  of 
towels,  and  cover  the  head  with  ice  broken  in  small  pieces. 
This  treatment  of  cold  to  the  head  is  to  be  kept  up  for  many 
hours,  or  even  for  days  in  some  cases.  A  physician  should  lie 
called  as  soon  as  possible,  but  treatment  should  go  vigorously 
forward  until  his  arrival. 


Al 


^    - 


•^.POSOLOGICAL  TABLE.-si- 


Medicines,  ■with  Doses  for  Adults. 


For  patients  over  20  years  of  age,  the  full  dose ;  from  14  to  20  years,  Y^  of  full  dose  571014  years,  yi  dose  ;  4  to  7  years,  y\ 

dose  ;  3  years,  \  dose  ;  2  years,  '•:;  dose  ;   i  year,  1^2  dose. 


MecUcine.  Dose. 

Arsenic,  Fowler's  Solution  of 2  to  10  drops. 

Aconite,  Extract  of. B  to  ><  grain. 

Aconite,  Tincture  of i  105  drops. 

Aloes,  Purified i  to  5  grains. 

Pills  of I  to  4  pills. 

Pills  of  Asafoetida  and 1104  pills. 

Asafcetida,  Mixture  of >^  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

"  Tincture  of >2  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

"  Pills  of I  to  4  pills. 

Atropia,  Sulphate  of 2u„  to  /„  of  a  grain. 

Belladonna,  Extract  of X  to  I  giain. 

"  Fluid  Extract  of I  to  5  drops. 

"  Tincture  of 5  to  30  drops. 

Bismuth,  Subnitrate  of 10  to  30  grains. 

Bromide  of  Ammonia 5  to  20  grains. 

"  of  Potassium 5  to  20  grains. 

"  of  Sodium 5  to  20  gi-ains. 

Buchu,  Fluid  Extract  of 10  to  60  drops. 

Calibar  Bean,  Extract  of K  to  i  grain. 

Calomel i  to  10  grains. 

Camphor,  Spirits  of 5  to  15  drops. 

Camphor  Water i  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 

Capsicum,  Tincture  of 10  to  20  drops. 

Castor  Oil X  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Chloral,  Hydrate  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Cinchona,  Sulphate  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Cinchona,  Compound  Tincture  of i  104  teaspoonfuls. 

Cod  Liver  Oil /4  to  i  tablespoonful. 

Copper,  Sulphate  of s  to  >^  gi-ain. 

.Corrosive  Sublimate (i^i  to  ^  grain. 

Cream  of  Tartar 5  to  60  giains. 

Croton  Oil »  to  2  drops. 

Digitalis,  Extract  of >^  to  2  grains. 

Digitalis,  Tincture  of 5  to  60  drops. 

Dover's  Powder 5  to  lo  grains. 

Epsom  Salts .J^  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Ergot,  Fluid  Extract  of >2  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Gentian,  Extract  of i  to  5  grains. 

Gilsemium,  Fluid  Extract  of 5  to  10  drops. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  dilute i  to  5  drops. 

Hyosciamus,  Fluid  Extract  of 5  to  20  drops. 

Hyosciamus,  Tincture  of K  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Iodine,  Compound  Tincture  of 2  to  5  drops. 


Medicine.  Dose, 

Iodide  of  Potassium 5  to  30  grains. 

Ipicacuanha,  Fluid  Extract  of 2  to  30  drops. 

Ipicacuanha,  Syrup  of i  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 

Ipicacuanha,  Troches  of  Morphine  and i  to  10  troches. 

Iron,  Reduced i  to  2  grains. 

Iron,  Pyrophosphate  of 2  to  5  grains. 

Iron,  Tincture  of  the  Chloride  of 5  to  30  drops. 

Lactic  Acid 15  to  30  drops. 

Laudanum 15  to  40  drops. 

Lead,   Sugar  of .J^to5  grains. 

May  .\pple.  Resin  of yi,  to  %  grain. 

May  Apple,  Extract  of 3  to  S  grains. 

.Muriatic  Acid,  dilute 5  to  10  drops. 

Morphine yi  to  ]A,  grains. 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of ^  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Mustard,  Ground I  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Nitre,  Sweet  Spirits  of ^  to  i  teaspoonful. 

Nitro-Muriatic  Acid,  dilute 2  to  10  drops. 

Nux  Vomica,  Tincture  of 10  to  25  drops. 

Opium,  Extract  of /^  to  2  grains. 

Opium,  Tincture  of 15  to  40  drops. 

Opium,  Camphorated  Tincture  of ^  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Paregoric ^'4  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Potassium,  Bicarbonate  of. 5  to  20  grains. 

Potassium,  Bitartrate  of 5  to  60  gr.iins. 

Potassium,  Bromide  of 5  to  20  grains. 

Potassium,  Chlorate  of 5  to  20  grains. 

Potassium,  Iodide  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Potassium,  Liquor  of % 2  to  20  drops. 

Pepsin 5  to  10  grains. 

Quassia,  Tincture  of 5  to  60  drops. 

Quinine 2  to  10  grains. 

Salicin 5  to  20  grains. 

Senna,  Confection  of i  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Senna,  Fluid  Extract  of i  tablespoonful. 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Soda,  Salicylate  of 10  to  30  grains. 

Squill,  Syrup  of ^  to  I  teaspoonful. 

Strychnia,  Sulphate  of j^,  to  j^^  of  a  grain. 

Turpentine,  Spirits  or  Oil  of 5  to  10  drops. 

Valerian,  Tincture  of. . .  .    ^  to  2  teaspoonfids. 

Veratrum  Viride,  Tincture  of ....i  to  4  drops. 

Zinc,  Oxide  of /4  io  $  grains. 


X 


.V 


'V 


\ 


MODERN    ARCHITKCTUKK. 


J79 


With  Plans  and  Estimates. 


the  aim  of  this  department  is  to  give  a  practical  ex- 
n  of  the  science  of  Architecture  as  modified  by 
1  thought  and  necessity,  and  more  especially  in  its 
relation  to  the  building  of  country  homes,  a  brief  introductory  al- 
lusion may  be  made  to  the  general  principles  of  architectural  beauty,  which, 
though  founded  upon  ideas  evolved  and  matured  by  the  ancients,  are  to-day 
the  main  sources  of  inspiration  for  the  builder  who  seeks  to  render  what  he 
builds  beautiful  as  well  as  convenient  and  comfortable.  Many  as  may  be  the 
styles  of  architecture,  the  science  is  divided  into  five  great  original  divisions, 
known  as  the  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  Tuscan  and  Composite  orders.  Of 
these,  the  three  first  named  arc  of  (ireeU  origin;  the  last  two  are  Roman 
adaptations  of  the  former,  the  Composite  order  being  a  rich  and  glowing  union 
of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  while  the  Tuscan  is  merely  an  elaboration  of  the 
Doric.  With  the  political  partition  of  the  Roman  Empire  came  a  division  of 
its  architecture  into  tlie  Byzantine,  which  became  tinged  with  orientalism,  indicate.l  in  its  richness  of  color  and  decoration,  and 
the  Early  Christian  and  Romanesque,  both  of  which  are  more  simple.  Among  other  styles  which  strongly  influence  modem 
building  are  the  Gothic,  and  the  Renaissance,  which-is  a  revival  of  Grecian  architecture  adapted  to  modern  requirements.  Other 
styles,  which  are  very  seldom  resorteil  to,  are  the  Eg>-ptian,  marked  by  sloping  walls,  great  solidity,  and  ornamentation  in  hiero- 
glyphics and  the  lotus-flower  j  the  Assyrian,  of  fantastic  design,  with  huge  flights  of  stairs  and  lengthy  terraces;  the  Chinese,  char- 
acterized by  curling  eaves  and  a  succession  of  roofs  tapering  one  above  the  other;  the  Indian,  exemplified  by  temples  cut  from 
the  solid  rock,  and  the  Moorish,  richest  of  all  in  its  combination  of  light  colors  and  elaboration  of  minute  and  beautiful  details. 


PRACTICAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

A  commendable  tendency  of  the  limes  is  to  combine  in  all  things  beauty  and  utility.  A  house  is  the  physic.al  exponent  of  the 
standing  and  character,  the  tastes  and  aspirations  of  its  owner,  and  nothing  is  more  worthy  of  a  man's  thought  and  at- 
tention than  the  structure  and  its  surroundings  which  he  calls  his  home.  In  building  a  modern  home  in  the  countr)',  it  being  al- 
ways understood  that  harmony  of  outline  and  jiroportion  is  sought  in  connection  with  more  indispensable  requirements,  the  follow- 


/■ 


-^, 


^ s> 


6So 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


ing  excellencies  must  be  constantly  aimed  at :  Convenience  of 
arrangement;  facility  of  construction  and  repair;  protection 
from  heat  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter;  means  of  ventilat- 
ing and  warming ;  conformity  with  the  surrounding  scenery. 
These  are  the  leading  ideas  which  should  guide  the  builder, 
and,  as  the  question  of  convenient  arrangement  has  an  external 
as  well  as  an  internal  application,  the  first  matter  to  receive  con- 
sideration will  be 

The  Choice  of  a  Site. 

In  making  the  selection  the  things  to  be  avoided  should  re- 
ceive attention.  Among  these  are  a  location  on  the  north  or 
west  side  of  a  hill,  and  proximity  of  sluggish  streams,  marshes, 
bcs,  swamps,  the  miasma  from  which  will  poison  the  at- 
mosphere and  certainly  entail  liability  to  disease  upon  those 
breathing  it.  The  steep  side  of  an  evenly  rising  hill  offers  an 
objectionable    posi- 


tion when  other  hills 
of  equal  height  and 
like  conformation 
surround  it,  cutting 
off  the  necessary 
amount  of  sunlight. 
The  principal  rooms 
of  the  house  should 
be  so  located  as  to 
be  well  exposed  to 
the  sun's  rays.  The 
dining-room  should 
get  the  benefit  of  the 
morning  sun ;  the 
principal  chamber 
and  the  sitting-room 
should  be  located  so 
as  to  invite  the  sun- 
shine through  both 
the  morning  and  the 
afternoon.  Either 
the  morning  or  the 
afternoon  sun  should 
be  secured  for  the 
other  rooms,  parlors, 
etc.,  while  the  kitch- 
en, bath-room,  store- 
rooms, etc.,  can  be 
given  the  locations  which  are  least  favored  with  solar  rays. 

An  elevated  site  presents  many  great  advantages.  It  m- 
vitss  the  s:;nlight  to  come  early  and  stay  late.  It  places  at  com- 
mr.nd  a  sweeping  view  of  the  surrounding  country.  It  insures 
the  presence  of  pure  and  salubrious  atmosphere,  and  gives  the 
best  facilities  for  draining.  With  such  a  site,  protected  from 
the  western  and  northern  winds  by  belts  of  timber  or  thatches 
of  higher  ground,  as  near  an  approach  as  is  possible  to  absolute 
comfort  and  healthfulness,  as  far  as  location  can  govern  them,  will 
be  secured. 

Conformity  with  the  surrounding  scenery  is  an  object  that 
should  not  be  overlooked.  When  possible  place  the  house 
so  that  the  occupant,  no  matter  which  way  he  will  direct  his 
glance,  may  be  greeted  by  a  pleasant  landscape,  whose  natural 


A   KUKAL    IIuML. 


advantages  can  be  greatly  improved  by  the  planting  here  and 
there  of  trees  or  shrubs.  These,  too,  may  be  advantageously 
employed  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  actual  site  of  the  build- 
ing, care  being  taken  that  they  should  not  be  placed  too  near 
the  building  so  as  to  swell  the  volume  of  dampness  to  an  un- 
healthy extent. 

Building  a  Home. 

After  the  farmer  has  made  up  his  mind  that  he  will  build  a 
home,  the  next  thing  to  be  definitely  settled  is  the  kind  of  a 
house  he  intends  to  erect.  WTiatever  changes  in  the  main  plan 
are  to  be  made  are  accomplished  easily  and  at  no  expense  be- 
fore the  actual  building  has  been  begun.  Therefore  let  the 
builder  thoroughly  embody  in  his  plans  what  he  wants  in  his 
house,  where  he  wants  it  and  how  he  wants  it,  before  he  even 
goes  so  far  as  to  stake  out  the  foundation.     In  this  preliminary 

work,  which  will  be 
found  to  be  full  of 
pleasure,  an  inval- 
uable adviser  will  be 
found  in  the  wife 
who  is  to  preside 
over  the  home  when 
it  is  finished.  Her 
keen  intuition  and 
ready  inventive  fac- 
ulty will  find  a  quick 
solution  for  any  of 
the  agreeable  puz- 
zles which  arise  from 
time  to  time  in  plan- 
ning a  house.  Con- 
venience of  arrange- 
ment, which  is  the 
creator  of  home 
comfort,  must  be 
studied  at  every 
point  when  the  work 
of  building  the  home 
on  paper  is  in  prog- 
ress. These  desid- 
erata should  in  no 
instance  be  made 
subordinate  to  ap- 
pearance.  With  the 
exercise  of  a  httle  ingenuity  both  comfort  and  beauty  may  be  pre- 
served in  combination.  In  the  question  of  facility  of  construc- 
tion and  repair  many  local  issues  will  of  course  take  part. 
Availability  and  cost  have  a  good  deal  to  say  on  this  subject. 
Other  tilings  being  equal,  stone  provides  the  handsomest  and 
most  durable  building  material,  as  well  as  the  most  artistic, 
its  unembellished  surface  always  harmonizing  with  the 
scenery  which  surrounds  and  the  foliage  which  enfolds  it. 
Next  comes  brick,  which,  though  lacking  the  lasting  power  and 
beauty  of  stone,  presents  points  of  utility  and  permanence  of 
great  value.  Lastly,  wood  claims  attention,  and  on  its  behalf 
are  urged  its  cheapness  and  dr)-ness,  its  general  healthfulness. 
Its  facility  of  ventilation,  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  worked, 
and  its  pronounced  capability  of  ready  ornamentation.     The 


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MODERN    ARCHITECTUKE. 


68l 


only  olTset  to  all  these  ailvantagcs  is  supplied  in  its  perishable 
nature  ;  but  \s  ilh  care  this  may  be  greatly  moditied.  No  home 
presents  a  more  cheerful  exterior  than  that  of  wood  painted  in 
tlie  bright  and  cheerful  tints  now  in  vogue.  A  propos  of  paint- 
>"gi  3.  great  mistake  is  occasionally  made  by  the  owners  of 
wooden  buildings  when  they  seek  to  have  the  surfaces  con- 
verted into  a  supposed  imitation  of  stone  or  brick.  At  a  dis- 
tance the  imposture  may  succeed,  but  a  closer  \iew  dispels  the 
thin  illusion,  and  the  cheap  effect  creates  anything  but  the  im- 
pression which  has  been  aimed  at  so  awkwardly. 

As  a  general,  a  very  general  rule,  the  publishers  of  such 
Iiooks  as  have  hitherto  attempted  to  handle  the  question  of 
modern  architecture  in  a  practical  way  have  been  content  to 
supplj  their  readers  with  some  good  general  advice  on  the  sub- 
ject o  the  selection  of  the  location  and  material  of  a  house, 
aftei  wnich  they  bring  the  subject  to  a  sudden  and  unsatisfactory 
ending,  by  advising  the  intending  builder,  when  he  has  got  thus 
far,  to  employ  an  architect  and  entrust  to  his  judgment  and  dis- 
cretion, paid  for  by  a  large  percentage  on  the  actual  cost  of  the 
house,  the  completion  of  the  structure.  Such  is  not  the  inten- 
tion of  this  book.  It  has  given  the  house-builder  advice  on  the 
subjects  mentioned,  and,  having  led  him  up  to  the  point  where 
planning  ends  and  construction  begins,  it  will  not  there  leave 
him.  In  the  plans  and  specifications  to  be  found  further  on  are 
provided  clear  and  comprehensive  data,  by  following  which 
any  farmer,  with  the  assistance  of  one  or  more  competent  car- 
penters, will  be  able  to  construct  the  house  which  he  has 
planned. 

Before  these  are  brought  under  consideration,  an  estimate, 
showing  just 

How  the  Money  is  Applied 

in  the  building  of  a  $1,500  house,  will  provide  an  idea  of  the 
cost  of  the  various  materials  used  in  its  construction,  and  will 
form  a  reliable  basis  of  calculation  for  houses  of  less  or  greater 
cost: 

Excavation,  45  yards  at  15  cents $    6.75 

Brick -wo-k.  13,600  at  ^.00 loS.So 

Joists 63.00 

Flooring,  i,ooo  feet, So.oo 

I?:iftcrs, 57>oo 

Stiiddinjj;  and  framing loS.oo 

Sheathing,  4,500  feet 103,50 

Weather-boarding,  2,500  feet, I-5.00 

Shingles  and  shingling,  i,t;oo  at  fS-oo 95.00 

Gutters  and  cornices,  196  feet  feet  at  30  cents 5S.S0 

Doors,  with  hardware,  13  at  $S.oo 104.00 

Windows,  complete,  14  at  $7.50 105.00 

Bases,  460  feet  at  6  cents 27.60 

Porches  and  stairs, 5S.00 

Painting  and  gla/.ing, > 39.00 

Galvanized  iron  and  tin  work 63.00 

I-athing  and  plastering,  S6S  yards  at  20  cents 173.60 

Grates  and  mantels 30.00 

Sundries, 33-00 

Total,  including  labor,  etc ?i,539»o5 

Water. 

A  full  supply  of  water  is  of  essential  importance,  and  the  near- 
er it  can  be  brought  to  the  house  the  better ;  and  best  of  all  if  it 


can  be  introduced  right  into  the  house.  In  hilly  localities  a 
spring  may  be  found  whose  elevation  will  enable  its  waters  to 
flow  through  the  whole  house.  Failing  such  a  convenient  ally 
of  domestic  comfort,  a  hydraulic  ram  may  be  employed  to  forc« 
the  water  through  the  system  of  pipes  with  which  the  house  is 
supplied.  The  ventilation  of  water  is  essential,  and  for  this 
purpose  cisterns  should  be  left  exposed  and  uncovered.  With- 
out good  drinking-water  good  health  will  be  unattainable.  Sev- 
eral simple  but  reliable  tests  of  its  qu.ility  are  given,  among 
which  the  following  are  worthy  of  attention:  Good  dnnking 
water  cooks  vegetables  well,  especially  the  dry  kind,  such  as 
peas  and  beans.  To  the  eye  it  should  be  limpid  ;  to  the  nose, 
scentless ;  to  the  taste,  insipid.  After  dnnking  in  moderation 
no  sensation  of  weight  should  be  felt  in  the  stomach.  If  the 
water  fulfils  all  these  conditions  it  may  be  relied  upon  as  excel- 
lent. Avoid  the  use  of  rain-water  caught  on  the  roof  and  saved 
in  cisterns,  as,  being  impregnated  with  dust,  soot,  and  other 
impurities,  it  is  necessarily  impure.  liy  filtration  it  can  be  ren- 
dered drinkable,  aru:l  it  is  a  good  plan  to  build  your  cistern  in 
two  compartments,  separated  one  from  the  other  by  a  water- 
tight wall  of  brick,  with  a  space  left  in  the  bottom  for  a  box  fill- 
ed with  alternate  layers  of  gravel,  sand  and  powdered  charcoal. 
The  water  will  be  filtered  by  passing  through  this  box,  and  be 
made  safe  and  pleasant  for  use. 
Wlien  it  is  decided  to  have  a 

Cellar 

care  should  be  taken  to  so  construct  it  that  the  dangers  arising 
from  foul  air,  through  bad  ventilation  and  lack  of  the  purifying 
sunlight,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  A  cellar  which  is 
intended  for  the  storage  of  vegetables  through  the  winter  should 
not  be  connected  with,  certainly  never  directly  beneath  the 
dwelling.  In  any  case  it  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  as 
the  foul  gases  given  olT  by  decomposing  vegetables  are  highly 
detrimental  to  health. 

A  few  dollars  expended  on  an 

Ice-House 

will  be  found  to  be  one  of  the  best  investments  the  farmer  ever 
made.  Up  to  within  comparatively  few  years  ice  was  invariably 
stored  underground,  but  recently  it  has  been  found  that  the 
crystal  coldness  can  be  as  well  preserved  in  a  house  built  above 
ground,  provided  only  that  it  is  constructed  on  a  plan  which 
secures  non-conduction  of  heat  into  the  interior.  A  ver)'  good 
plan  for  an  efficacious  ice-house,  to  cost  only  $25,  can  be  given : 
It  should  be  built  of  boards  with  double  walls  filled  with  s,aw- 
dust,  or  chaff,  or  fine  straw.  A  large  ventilating  window  is 
placed  at  each  end  at  the  top;  these  windows  should  always  be 
open.  Care  should  be  taken  that  all  the  saw-dust  is  pressed 
solid,  so  that  no  cavities  are  left.  An  ice-house  with  one  apart- 
nent,  8  by  10  feet,  and  6  feet  high,  will  keep  ice  enough  for  a 
moderate  family.  To  build  such  a  house  will  be  required  2l6 
scjuare  feet  of  inch-thick  weather-boar.ling,  $3.60;  132  feet  of 
rafters,  10  feet  long,  4  by  2  inches,  $1.80;  103  feet  of  slats,  7 
feet  long,  $2.10;  two  doors,  $2.00;  shingles,  1,150,  $2.90. 
Total,  $25.  The  employment  of  materials  which  are  non- 
conductors of  heal  and  the  securing  of  proper  drainage  are  the 
great  points  to  be  looked  after  in  building  an  ice-house. 


/■ 


^^ 


682 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


'BEAUT1FUL+  HOMES.-;^iit* 


>^^r:^-^-' 


-^ 


THE    LATEST    DESIGNS    FOR    COTTAGES    AND    DWELLINGS. 


^m^ 


THE  principal  motive  in  this  work  is  to  give  moderate- 
priced  dwellings,  ranging  from  $1,000  to  $6,000,  one 
or  two,  however,  touching  figures  considerably  higher. 
We  realize  that  the  architecture  of  the  future  will  be  more  quiet 
and  less  florid  than  it  has  been  for  several  years  past ;  we  have, 
therefore,  endeavored  so  to  treat  the  designs  that  they  will 
always  look  well.  Careful  study  has  also  been  given  to  the 
planning,  the  arrangement  being  comfortable  and  convenient. 
We  consider  it  better  taste  to  avoid  flnnsy  and  trashy  details  in 
the  construction  of  our  homes ;  the  study  should  be  more  for 
repose  and  harmony  and  less  for  ostentatious  display.  The 
picturesque  roof  is  the  principal  feature  in  modern  cottage  archi- 
tecture, and  is  coming  to  be  treated  more  simply  than  formerly. 
Many  people  raise  the  objection  to  the  picturesque  roof,  that  it 
will  get  out  of  repair  easily.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  a  steep 
roof  need  get  out  of  repair  sooner  than  a  flat  one,  providing  it  is 
properly  constructed. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  in  looking  over  the  designs, 
"  How  much  would  such  a  house  cost  ?  "  This  question  we 
anticipate,  and  in  some  cases  estimates  are  given.  But  it  is 
possilile  to  do  so  in  a  general  way  only,  as  the  expense  of  a 
building  depends  entirely  upon  the  specificatio(is  and  details, 
and  on  the  cost  of  materials  and  labor  in  the  location  where  the 
building  is  erected. 

It  does  not  pay  to  attempt  to  build  too  cheaply,  although 
economy  .should  b^  carefully  considered.  Take,  for  instance, 
plate  A.  This  cottage  might,  by  leaving  out  a  good  foundation 
wall,  the  cellar,  cistern,  etc.,  be  built  for  $600  or  $800.  This 
would  necessitate  setting  the  house  upon  cedar  posts,  boarding  up 
the  under-pinning,  and  otherwise  "skinning"  it,  thus  making  a 
trap  for  infectious  diseases,  not  fit  for  a  beast  to  inhabit,  instead 
of  a  comfortable  home  for  a  family  to  dwell  in.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  same  cottage  is  built  witli  a  good  foundation  wall, 
the  cellar  well  drained,  the  frame  warmly  sheathed  and  other- 
wise specified  to  be  in  good  condition,  comfortable  and  healthful, 
it  will  cost  from  JiS  1,200  to  $1,400. 

The  designs  and  plans  immediately  following,  numbered  A  to 
L,  are  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Kirby,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  are  selected 
from  a  series  of  twenty-four  designs  published  by  him  in  1885. 
and  constituting  a  "  Portfolio  of  Cottages "  which  does  credit 
even  to  an  architect  of  Mr.  Kirby's  reputation.  These  designs 
are  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern  taste,  and  represent  that 
union  of  comfort  and  artistic  beauty  which  is  now  demanded  in 
the  better  cl.iss  of  home  architecture. 


Design  A  shows  a  small  frame  cottage  suitable  for  a  family 
of  modest  means,  but  possessed  of  culture  and  refinement.  By 
reference  to  the  floor  plans  it  will  be  seen  that  the  arrangement 
of  rooms  consists  of  a  living-room,  dining-room,  a  small  bed- 
room and  a  kitchen  on  the  first  floor.  The  stairs  connect  the 
living-room  with  the  second  story,  and  are  what  are  known  as 
box  stairs.  The  cellar  is  reached  by  stairs  immediately  under 
the  main  stairs.  This  general  arrangement  is  usually  quite 
economical.  The  house  is  approached  tlirough  a  commodious 
porch,  which  sweeps  down  from  the  main  roof,  and  seems  to 
invite  you  to  come  under  its  shelter.  The  balcony  at  the  left  is 
entered  through  a  window  extending  to  the  floor  of  the  parlor. 
The  kitchen  is  reached  through  a  side  porch.  The  second  floor 
contains  three  chambers,  with  closets  from  each.  This  cottage 
gave  excellent  satisfaction  when  built. 

Design  B. — This  cottage  seems  to  suggest  to  us  a  home — a 
home  where  the  little  child  basks  in  the  sunshine  of  a  mother's 
love,  and  where  the  broad,  sheltering  roof  seems  a  guarantee  of 
comfort  within.  This  cottage  is  also  arranged  so  that  the  cost 
may  be  kept  at  the  lowest  limit.  On  entering  the  hall  the  stairs 
mount  to  the  second  story.  From  the  hall  we  enter  the  parlor, 
or  living-room,  which  contains  in  one  corner  a  cheerful  fireplace. 
A  kitchen  and  bed-room  take  up  the  remaining  space  allotted  to 
the  first  floor.  The  cellar  is  reached  by  a  stairway  under  the 
hall  stairs.  The  second  floor  has  a  small  hall  and  three  chambers 
with  accompanying  closets.  The  entire  exterior  surface  is  covered 
with  sheatliing  or  matched  boards,  to  make  it  warm  in  winter 
and  cool  in  summer.  Upon  this  sheathing  in  the  first  story  are 
placed  feather-edge  clapboards  showing  about  three  inches  to  the 
weather.  The  upper  part  or  second  story  is  shingled.  The 
general  effect  of  this  cottage  when  painted  with  warm,  harmoni- 
ous colors  is  very  pleasing. 

Design  C. — This  design  has  an  individuality  about  it  which  at 
once  recommends  it.  While  it  is  comparatively  ornate,  it  is  free 
from  any  of  the  flimsy  detail  which  many  associate  with  the  so- 
called  Queen  Anne  style.  The  broad  veranda,  extending  across 
the  entire  front  of  the  house,  leads  us  into  the  vestibule  or  small 
1..-'  ,  --It  of  which  ascend  the  stairs  to  the  second  floor.  The 
sides  of  the  stairs  are  neatly  wainscoted, and  have  a  rail  attached 
to  same.  The  dining-room  and  living-room  are  connected  by 
an  archway.  At  the  left  of  the  dining-room  is  a  small  bed-room, 
which  the  architect  has  not  placed  there  to  please  himself,  but 
because  most  people  building  a  country  house  seem  to  demand 
something  of  the  kind.    ".So  nice  in  case  of  sickness,"  they  say. 


*f 


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MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


683 


It  usually  turns  out,  however,  that  they  seldom  use  this  little 
rooni  for  a  bed-rooui,  Imt  turn  it  into  a  sewing-room,  or  some- 
thing of  that  sort. 

Dfsign  D. — This  design  is  somewhat  more  extensive  than 
any  of  the  foregoing.  The  house  itself  is  even  more  pleasing 
than  the  jwrspectivc  drawing  of  it.  In  this  building  we  gel  the 
soft,  harmonious  combination  of  colors,  which,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  gener.il  outlines,  makes  an  attractive  appear- 
ance. In  this  example,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  others,  the 
porch,  or  veranda,  is  a  special  feature.  The  hall  staircase  has 
an  ample  landing,  which  is  always  desirable,  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  principal  rooms  and  hall  can  be  easily  thrown 
together.  The  living-room  contains  a  fireplace,  and  between  the 
kitchen  and  dining-room  there  are  two  doors,  each  double-hung, 
to  swing  either  way.  This  feature  prevents  steam  and  the  smells 
of  cooking  from  passing  to  the  dining-room.  A  bed-room  is 
arranged  on  the  first  floor.  The  kitchen  is  connected  with 
second  story  by  a  back  stairway.  In  the  second  story  we  get 
five  chambers,  with  bath-room,  having  bath-tub,  hand-basin  and 
water-closet.  The  balcony  to  the  right,  on  second  floor,  is 
reached  through  the  chamber  window.  The  staircase  window 
has  cathedral  glass  laid  in  lead  muHions. 

Design  E. — The  exterior  of  this  design  is  perhaps  more  re- 
markable for  oddity  than  anything  else.  The  lower  part  is  clap- 
boarded,  and  the  upper  part  is  shingled.  The  interior,  though 
small,  has  the  benefit  of  quite  a  spacious  hallway,  with  a  nice 
landing  staircase.  A  corner  fireplace  is  also  a  feature  of  the 
interior. 

Design  F. — This  design  embodies  the  usual  arrangement 
of  rooms,  the  hall  having  a  landing  .staircase.  The  hall,  parlor 
and  living-rooms  are  connected  by  means  of  sliding  doors.  The 
exterior  is  plentifully  supplied  with  verandas,  balconies,  etc. 
The  rooms  are  nearly  all  of  very  fair  size,  and  are  all  conven- 
iently located. 

Design  G  was  arranged  for  a  summer  cottage,  and  was  in- 
tended to  accommodate  two  or  three  families.     The  living-room 


is  made  large  enough  to  be  used  in  common,  out  of  which  the 
open  staircase  connects  with  the  upper  floor.  Back  of  the  living- 
room  is  a  kitchen.  The  house  is  well  supplied  with  bed-rooms, 
and  has  a  wide  veranda  extending  all  around  it.  On  cither  side 
above  the  veranda  are  two  large  balconies.  The  interior  is  de- 
signed to  be  left  unfinished. 

Design  H. — This  cottage  is  attractive  on  the  exterior,  ar.d 
desirable  in  the  interior.  The  large  reception  hall  forms  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  inner  arrangement.  Its  connection 
with  all  the  other  principal  rooms  is  such  that  by  means  of  slid- 
ing doors  all  of  the  rooms  can  easily  be  thrown  together.  This 
cottage  would  cost  about  Slo,ooo,  much  depending,  however, 
upon  the  manner  and  style  of  finish. 

Design  I. — As  a  frame  dwelling  design  I  has  given  most 
excellent  satisfaction.  A  broad  veranda  spans  the  entire  front, 
from  which  we  enter  the  large  reception  hall.  This  hall  has  a 
fireplace,  and  is  connected  by  archways  with  the  landing  stair- 
case, hall  and  parlor.  The  staircase  is  a  beautiful  feature  in  this 
house.  A  vei-y  desirable  arrangement  is  the  connection  of 
kitchen  with  front  door  by  means  of  a  second  hall.  The  sec- 
ond floor  contains  chambers  of  good  size,  with  spacious  closets, 
and  good  bath-room  and  water-closet. 

Design  K  is  a  brick  dwelling,  and  adjoins  design  C.  It  will 
be  seen,  by  reference  to  floor  plans,  that  the  hall  enters  the  cen- 
ter of  the  house,  and  communicates  with  a  cross  or  transept  hall, 
which  is  lighted  by  means  of  an  elegant  cathedr.-.l  glass  staircase 
window.  A  back  hall  with  an  open  staircase  is  a  good  feature. 
The  rooms  are  so  arranged  that  all  are  pleasant  and  commodious. 

Design  L  gives  us  a  brick  building  of  .semi-detached  dwellings. 
This  house  is  three  full  stories  high,  besides  the  attic  and  cellar. 
The  reception  hall  fonns  a  desirable  feature,  and  the  staircase  is 
reversed  from  the  usual  order.  The  rear  part  of  the  house  h.Ts 
no  stairs,  but  is  furnished  with  an  elevator,  extending  from  cellar 
to  attic.  On  the  second  floor  is  a  large  bath-room,  which  takes 
the  place  of  one  of  the  rooms  marked  as  bed-room.  The  first 
floor  is  finished  in  cherry,  the  second  in  oak,  and  the  third  in  pine. 


^■■'. 

r       ^ 

^.>-.  „-- 

'-•^-v 

p 

V'  ■'     ' 

'S*¥" 

^'   1 

.■'i.'<^sfr-'V  ■•« 

J.KK.r^ 


--  sr^^'^*.  ■  ■ 


/ 


-VJ 


K 


684 


J.H.KcVliy-      'i^^^-'^fi'  — ' 


-jiimi^^^^W^^^^^ 


Design  A.     A  SMALL  COTTAGE.     To  cost,  complete,  about  $1,400. 


Porch. 


xi-iMr 


Livin^TJ.     I 

lo'x  n: 


E 


oof 


^ 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR. 


SECOND  FLOOR. 


A 


\ 


685 


Design  B.     SMALL  COTTAGE.     To  cost,  complete,  about  $1,500. 


Ho  or. 


R 


OOF 


Bed"R.     I 


9x13 


Roor. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


6S6 


Design  C.     A  SMALL  FRAME  COTTAGE.     To  cost,  complete,  about  $2,000. 


Kitchen. 
lOkH. 


Eantryjcios. 


JBedR 


8xJ0G 


Dinin^R. 
13x14-. 


Hall. 


-J 


I'       I 


Chamber. 


Clos 


Chamter. 
Hxis'. 

Rooj 


Clos. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


VL 


Pnnc.ptI  rloor"-Fl.s 


687 


r&:^  ■%« 


18"  i:;: 


"J.HXii-ay   pt'l.' 


^^/.^ 


i^?^- 


Design  D.     A  SUMMER  COTTAGE.     To  cost  about  $2,000. 


BedR. 
lOxlO' 


Bed  R. 

lOx  zo. 


f       Livin^.R.     I    B^^j^ 
Ij           15x20'  lOklo: 

1— ^^ ' 


Vferanda. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN 


^ 

/ 

BedP 

10x10 

OP 

BedR. 

lO'xlO'. 

1 

li    1 

jL. 

BedR. 

8xio: 

BaJ. 

Bal. 

BedR 

1 

8x  10.        1 

Bed  R. 
8xl6." 

BedR. 

Bal. 

Roof 

-^^ 


"Tff 


688 


Design   E.      A   SMALL   FRAME   COTTAGE.     To  cost,   complete,   about  $2,500. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR   PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


/\ 


Design  F.     A  FRAME  COTTAGE.     To  cost,  complete,  about  $3,500. 


Roof. 


Store  R. 
12x  20! 


Vferauola 


r 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN 


Design  G.     FRAME  COTTAGE.     Cost,  complete,  about  $4,500. 


Chamber. 
n'xl2.' 


m 


Chamber. 
12'xl4-'. 


1      Hall.      Iciosjciosl 


Chamber. 
13x15:     !:  CI03 


Design  H.     A  FRAME  DWELLING. 


Bal 


Clos.  I  Clcs. 


Chamber. 
11x12'. 


Chamber. 
-I        llxl?" 


Oiamben 
15'xie.' 


^Balh.  I 


CIos  lew   I  Hnll. 

Chamber    -»-  ^^°^- 

15x15.'        ^   Chamber. 
13xll' 


Ul 


Principal  Floor. 


eoond  Floor. 


\ 


691 


K" 


y\ 


692 


Design  I.     A  1  KA'VlE  DWELLING.     To  cost  about  $6,000. 


Bath. 


■Roof. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


Iv 


693 


Design  K.     A  BRICK  DWELLING. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


/ 


K" 


694 


.  ^^-->^'''' 


Design  L.     SEMI-DETACHED  BRICK  DWELLINGS 


S^^SsftSfe»»- 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


<<I\  $3,000  PRIZE  COTTAGE.  t> 


695 


4t* 


A  1.5,000  PRIZE   COTTAGE.— ELEVATION. 


The  American  Architcit,  in  18S3, ofifered  a  prize  for  the  best 
original  plan  of  a  cottage  approximating  in  cost  $3,000.  .\  large 
number  of  architects  entered  the  competition,  but  the  jur)' de- 
cided that  the  accompanying  designs,  by  W.  E.  Chamberlain, 
of  Cambridgeport,  Mass.,  were  incontcstably  worthy  of  the  first 
place.  While  there  is  nothing  that  can  be  called  eccentric  in 
the  architecture,  it  is  a  fresh  and  unexpected  conception.  There 
is  a  certain  distinction  which  removes  the  design  from  the  or- 
dinary type,  suggesting  that  the  occupant  of  this  cottage  has 
more  social  prestige  than  his  neighbors. 

The  plan  provides  a  piazza  which  is  partially  roofed  for  sum- 
mer, while  a  vestibule  to  the  hall  answers  the  requirements  of  a 
winter  dwelling.  The  parlor  and  dining-room  communicate 
with  each  other  and  with  the  hall.  The  kitchen  has  an  ample 
porch,  which  would,  perhaps,  better  have  been  utilizcil  for  a 
shed  or  wash-room.  There  is  a  cellar  under  the  whole  house. 
A  furnace  is  dependeil  upon  to  heat  the  various  rooms,  except 
the  parlor  and  dining-room,  which  have  open  fireplaces.  By 
changing  the  position  of  the  back  stairs  in  the  second-floor 
plan  to  the  left  side  of  the  kitchen,  some  valui.ble  space  might 
be  gained.  The  main  stairs  continue  up  in  a  tower  to  the  attic, 
Nvhere  another  room  is  obtained. 


The  house  is  supposed  to  be  built  in  Allston,  Mass.,  near 
Boston.  Labor  is  as  cheap  there  as  anywhere.  The  Itoston 
market  is  at  hand,  railroad  .accommodation  easy,  and  stone- 
work cheap. 

The  cellar  walls  are  of  18-inch  rough  stone  up  to  grade,  and 
then  18-inch  brick  wall  up  to  sill. 

Walls  of  first  story  covered  with  pine  "siding,"  broad  hori- 
zontal sheathing  10  inches  wide. 

Above  second-story  floor-beams  shingles  everywhere,  left 
untouched  by  paint  or  stain,  to  become  gray  with  time. 

Rough  boarding  and  lower  floors  of  hemlock.  Frame  of 
spruce.  Plaster,  two-coat  work.  No  wainscoting  or  hard-wood 
finish.     Mill  windows  and  doors. 

Sizes:  Sills,  4  inches  by  6  inches;  plates,  4  inches  by  6 
inches;  wall-studs,  2  inches  by  4  inches.  16  inches  on  centres; 
partition-studs,  2  inches  by  3  inches,  16  inches  on  centres;  first- 
floor  beams,  2  inches  by  9  inches ;  second-floor  beams,  2  inches 
by  10  inches  (ihc  reason  for  this  is  that  the  second  story  pro- 
jects in  two  places,  and  has  many  unsupported  partitions  to 
carry) ;  third-floor  beams,  2  inches  by  8  inches ;  rafters,  2  inches 
by  8  inches. 


696 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


Childa       ^\   C>,iU 


Room 


Second  FIooi"- 


Attic. 


Cellar- 


Estimate  of  Cost. 

Except  for  stone  and  brick  work,  the  prices  quoted  for  material  are  casf  prices,  not  counting  labor  or  builder's  profit,  which 
will  be  found  added  at  the  end.  On  the  lower  floor,  without  including  piazzas,  there  are  817  sq.  ft.  At  $3.50  per  sq.  ft.,  the 
house  would  cost  $2,859.50.  This,  with  piazza-work  and  the  architect's  commission,  would  bring  the  figure  very  near  $3,055.55, 
as  computed. 


Excavation,  5,500  cii.  ft.  ==204  cu. 
yds.,  to)  2itp  —  ^ $  44.SS 

Cellar  Wall  (stone)  40  perch,  (3) 
$3.50  (laid) 140.00 

Bkick  Foundation  (S  in.  thick)  with 
vault,  piazza  piers,  and  2  cellar  piers, 
15S  cu.  ft.  (24  bricks  to  a  foot) ;  3,792 
bricks,  %zo  per  M.  (laid) 75.84 

Chimneys, 9,380  bricks,®  $20  (laid)..  187.60 

Frame.                  sq.ft. 
Sills,  plates,  outer  walls    and  in- 
ner partitions 2,790 

First  floor I,2SS 

Second  floor 1,480 

Third  floor 300 

Second -floor  ceiling- joists 648 

Attic  ceiling-joists 220 

Roof i,ifj6 


Total,  ®  $16 7,892 

Rough  Outside  Boarding,  go  tt 

First  floor 1,311 

Second  floor 1,107 

Third  floor 3S4 

Roof 1 ,405 


26.27 


Outs,  Windows. 
First    floor,  14 
Second   "      12 
Third      "       4 

30  fa)  22  .sq.  ft. 
Total,  ®  $13 


4,.;97 


•3,637     47-2S 


K- 


Rough  Lower  Floors,     gq  ft 

First  floor hoS 

Second  floor ~oo 


Attic. 


.250 


Total,  (2)  $13 1,55s 


20.25 


Outer  Covering.        qq  p.j. 

First  floor,  siding  fffi  $30 964    28.92 

Second  floor,  shingles Si6 

Third  and  gables,  shingles 424 


Roof. 


■1,40s 


Total 2,64s 

120  ft.  to  1,000  shingles,  22  M,,  (cb  $3.75.     S2.50 

Windows,  24  Iarp;e,  including  sash, 
glazing,  weights,  line,  sash -fast, 
frame  architraves  and  blinds,  ©  $5.50  132.00 

7  small  ones,  'a)  $3.25 22,75 

Doors,  2S,  including  hardware,  thresh- 
olds and  architraves,  ®  $6.50 182.00 

Stairs,  all  told 140.00 

Nails 3-.00 

Upper  Floors.  1,611  ft.,  ®  $30 4^-33 

None  in  garret. 

Plaster  (including  lathing). 

^^'^''^-  sq.ft. 

First  floor ^.473 

Second  floor 3,353 

Third  floor 712 

Total ..6,537 


C"''"-  sq.  J-t. 

Lower  floor,  3  outer  doors 85 

**  "       II  inside  doors 4S4 

**  "       13  windows 195 

Second  "       10  doors 440 

"  "       12  windows iSo 

Third      "         3  doors 133 

"  "         3  windows 45 

Total 1 ,561 

6,537— 1. 561  =4.976  sq.  ft.=  553sq.yds.. 

®  'SjJ $99-54 

Ceilings 30-25 

Plumbing  (bath-room  and  sink  only)  150.00 

Gutters,  75  ft.,  ®  12^ 9.00 

Conductors,  60  ft.,  ©  io0 6.00 

Plaster  Band  on  exterior  (architect 

to  do  the  *'  scratch-work  ") S.oo 

Furnace 150.00 

Painting  (on  outside,  the  lower  story 

and   all   mouldings  will  be  painted; 

shingles  left  as  put  on) 125.00 

Labor 700.00 

Two  Fireplaces  (owner  already  has 

tiles) .' 50.00 


Total $2,641.14 

Builder's  Profit,  10  ^ 264.14 

Architect's  Commission,  5  ?t 150.00 

Other  Expenses 150.00 


Total $3,055-55 


Al 


\ 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


697 


y 


<AK  $2,500  HOUSE.  D>- 


This  structure  is  in  the  Queen  Anne  style,  now  becoming  so 
popular,  and  presents  a  neat  and  attractive  appearance.  The 
conventional  main  hall 
and  stairway  are  dis- 
pensed with,  and  in- 
stead there  is  provided 
a  vestibule  entrance  out- 
side the  house,  from  a 
part  of  the  veranda. 
This  makes  the  stairs 
less  conspicuous,  with 
approaches  at  the  foot 
from  two  directions,  in 
that  way  serving  well 
for  general  use  from  the 
main  house  and  as  a 
private  stairway  from 
the  rear  extension. 

The  exterior  presents 
an   angular  and  pictur- 
esque appearance.    Pro- 
tection  from   storms  is 
afforded     the    windows 
and    entrances    by    the 
extensive   veranda    and 
other   projections.     De- 
sirable shade  is  also  fur- 
nished by  the  same  means.     The  roofs  are  of  dark  slate,  and  a 
cresting  of  ornamental  iron  along  the   main  ridges,  properly 
connected    with     ground 
rods,  serves  as  a  protec- 
tion    against     lightning. 
The     window    openings, 
having   a   single  light  of 
plain  glass  in  the   lower 
sash,  contain  in  the  upper 
one  several  smaller  tinted 
lights,  which,  ii)  a  variety 
of   pleasing  colors,   pro- 
duce a  most  cheerful  ef- 
fect. 

In  the  first  story  the 
height  of  ceilings  is  ten 
feet.  There  are  four  good- 
sized  rooms,  each  with 
outlooks  at  their  sides  and 
ends.  The  main  entrance 
is  from  the  front  veranda, 
through  a  good-sized  ves- 
tibule, which  is  lighted  at 
the  side  by  a  cluster  win- 
dow of  tinted  glass,  and 
has  side  and  end  doors 
opening  to  the  parlor  and 
sitting-room.  The  parlor  has  four  windows,  facing  three  direc- 
tions, each  protected  from  storms,  and  agreeably  shaded  by  the 


FKONT    ELEVATION. 


SIDE  ELEVATION. 


veranda.  There  is  a  large  open  fire-place,  and  doors  commun- 
icating with  the  sitting  and  dining-room;;.  The  sitting  and  din- 
ing-rooms adjoin  each 
other  through  sliding 
doors,  which  admit  of 
their  being  used  togeth- 
er, as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. The  kitchen  is 
convenient,  well-lighted, 
has  a  large  fire-place, 
with  range,  and  adjoins 
a  jiantry.  The  rear  en- 
trance, or  porch,  is  also 
reached  through  a  door 
from  the  sitting-room. 
The  stairs  to  the  cellar 
and  to  the  second  story 
are  jilaced  between  the 
dining-room  and  kit- 
chen, and  may  be  reach- 
ed from  each  direct. 

In  the  second  story  the 
height  of  ceiling  is  nine 
feet.  This  storj'  has  a 
central  hall,  three  cham- 
bers, three  closets  and 
a  trunk-room.  The  stairs 
to  the  attic  are  placed  above  those  of  the  first  story. 

The  height  of  ceiling  in  the  attic  is  three  feet  at  the  plates  or 

sides,  and  follows  the  raf- 
ters to  the  full  height  of 
seven  feet.  \  hall  and 
three  chambers  may  be  fin- 
ished on  this  floor,  with  the 
doors  and  window  s  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  ends 
of  each. 

The  cellar  efpials  the 
first  story  in  area.  It  has 
an  outside  entrance,  five 
windows,  and  stairs  lca<l- 
ing  to  the  first  stor)-. 
Height  of  ceiling,  6j  feet. 
The  foundations  and 
chimneys  of  this  house 
are  of  hard  brick,  laid  in 
good  mortar.  The  frame 
is  of  sawed  spruce,  wi(.h 
siding,  for  the  body,  of 
clapboards  laid  on  thick- 
ncssed  sheathing  and 
building  felt.  The  gables 
and  frieze  courses  are  of 
red-wood  shingles,  also 
on  sheathing.  The  main  roof  is  of  dark  slate,  laid  on  sheathing 
and   tarred   felt.     The   veranda  roofs   are   also   slate,   laid  on 


"^  V 


"Tf 


698 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


inverted  pine  flooring.  The  flooring  outside  is  of  i  J  by  4j-inch 
T  and  G  pine;  inside,  of  is  by  7-inch  T  and  G  spruce.  The 
windows  have  plank  frames,  with  1.5-inch  sasli,  glazed  with  sec- 
ond quaUty  French  glass.  The  doors  are  of  seasoned  pine, 
panelled  and  molded.     The  inside  finish  is  clear  pine,  reeded. 


with  blocks.  The  inside  walls  and  ceilings  are  hard-finished 
on  two  coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  the  principal  rooms  of  the 
first  story  have  neat  stucco  cornices.  The  painting  is  two-coat 
work,  of  selected  colors.  The  designs  for  this  stiaicture  are 
from  the  AfiwUan  Agriculturist. 


-rv^A?"- 


1 WL  r 


MAIN    FLOOK. 


SECOND    FLOOK. 


Estimate  of  Cost. 


160  yards  excavation,  at  25^'  per  yard $  40.00 

15,000  brick,  foundation  and  chimneys  (complete),  at  $15  pcrM.  225.00 
32  feet  blue  stone,  steps  and  sills,  at  30(?  per  foot 9.60 

1,000  yards  plastering,  at  30J?  ycr  yard 300.00 

210  stucco  cornices,  at  20{?  per  foot. 42.00 

5,000  feet  timber,  at  $20  per  M 100.00 

100  joists,  at  16!?  each 16.00 

250  -wall  strips,  at  1  i(f  each 27  50 

4,500  feet  sheathing,  at  3(?  per  foot i35-°o 

450  clapboards,  at  irt^  each 72.00 

21  bunches  shingles,  at  .I1.50  per  bunch 3i-oo 

24^  squares  slate,  at  ?g  per  square 220.50 

950  feet  outside  flooring,  at  5^  per  foot 47'5o 

2,650  feet  inside  flooring,  at  4(?  per  feet 106.00 

5  cellar  windows,  at  $3  each >5.oo 


23  full -sized  windows,  at  $S  each , 

II  half -windows,  at  $5  each 

29  doors,  at  $7  each 

3  stairs,  at  $10  each , 

"N'cranda  and  porch  finish 

5  kegs  nails,  at  $4  each 

4  closet  flnish 

Mantels 

Tin  gutters  and  leaders 

Carting 

Painting 

Carpenters'  labor  (not  included  above)., 
Pump,  sink  and  incidentals 


$184.00 

S5-00 
203.00 
30.00 
50.00 
20.00 
20.00 
30.00 
20.00 
20.00 
iSo.oo 
240.00 

6j3.00 


Total,  complete $2,499.60 


/ 


\ 


\ 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


699 


Tl 


DWELLING-HOUSE.— Design  I. 


'/^ 


I»KSM.N   I. — El.i;\V\TI(JN. 


As  long  as  the  argument  is  indisputable  that  there  is  in  a 
square  house,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  outside  covering, 
more  room 
than  in  one 
of  almost  any 
other  form,  a 
large  major- 
ity who  are 
about  to 
build  seem  to 
have  deter- 
mined to  a- 
dopt  that 
shape.  The 
dwelling  here 
illustrated 
was  built  on  a  slight  elevation. 

PLAN  OF  PRINXIPAL  STORY. 

J,  veranda,  6  by  25 ;   B,  hall,  10.6  by  15;  C,  parlor,  15  by 
19.6;  /),  sitting-room,   15  by   I9.6;   /;,  book-closet;   /",   bed- 


room, 10.6  by  15;  C,  G,  closets;  H,  dining-room,  12  by  22;  /, 
/,  china-closets ;  _/,  back  porch,  6  by  7.6 ;  A',  veranda,  5  by  22  ; 

/,  kitchen,  1 1 

^Sr       ™"  I .      by  12.6;  M, 

sink ;  A',  cis- 
tern -  pump  ; 
O ,  cup- 
board; /*, 
p  a  n  t  r  y ,  7.6 
by  8;  (?,stair- 
w  a y  to  cel- 
lar ;  R,  stair- 
way to  back 
chambers ;  S, 
wood  -  room. 


CROL'ND    FLOOR. 


THE  SECOND  STORY. 
The   upper   floor   of  this  structure  comprises   a  hall,  three 
chambers,  four  closets,  stair\vay  to  attic,  two  bed-rooms,  bath- 
room, store-room  and  balcony. 


/ 


\ 


700 


MODERN    ARCfllTECTURE. 


A  RURAL  GOTHIC  FARM-HOUSE— Design  2. 


In  tliis  plan  for 
a  rural  home,  with 
the  exception  of 
the  cornice  on  the 
gables  and  a  few 
cheap  brackets, 
there  is  no  orna- 
mentation  to 
cause  an  unneces- 
sary  outl  ay  of 
money,  and  noth- 
ing likely  to  get 
out  of  repair,  as 
is  often  the  case 
with  the  flimsy 
ornaments  attach- 
ed  to  so  many 
modern  cottages. 

This  house  is  in 
the  Rural  Gothic 
style,  a  style 
which,  with  its 
broken  outline,  its 
verandas  and  bay  "^"^ 
windows,  ex- 
presses no  small 
amount  of  domestic  and  h 


monotonous  a  p  - 
pearance  of  that 
side  of  the  build- 
ing, and  balancing 
in  a  degree  the 
mass  of  the  other 
side. 

The  main  roof 
rises  at  an  angle  of 
45  °  ;  the  w  o  o  d  - 
house  part  is  one- 
story;  roof,  one- 
fourth  pitch.  The 
inside  is  finished 
appropriately, 
plain  and  neat. 
Tlie  lower  stoiy  is 
nine  feet  high  in 
the  clear;  the  up- 
per story,  finished 
to  collar-beams,  is 
eight  feet  six 
inches.  The  cellar 
under  kitchen  and 
dining-room  is 
well  lighted,  and 


FIRST    rLOOR. 

r.    Parlor;    Z>,   Dining-Room;    I\,  Kitchen;  /?,  B.  Iltd-Rooms;   C, 
Closet;  E,  Bath;  /",  Pantry;  V,  F, Verandas;  IC,  Wood-house. 

The  house  was  planned  for  a  family  who  aim  to  do  their  own 
work;  therefore  utility,  compactness  and  economy  of  labor  were 
first cons'dered.  Yettheexternal  appearance  is  quite  picturesque 
and  truthful.  The  part  containing  tlie  two  bed-rooms,  bathing 
and  clothes-room  is  quite  economically  obtained,  it  being  a  lean- 
to  addition,  one  story  high,  with  a  flattish  roof.  Above  this  is  a 
gabled  window,  with  its  stool  resting  on  this  roof.  This  gable 
rises  to  the  height  of  the  main  roof,  thus  breaking  the  otherwise 


SECOND    FLOOR 

^,  ^,  i7,  Bed -Rooms;  C.Chambcr,  r,  c ,  Closets;  /'.Passage, 
the  chimney,  standing  in  the  centre,  is  furnished  with  open- 
ings for  ventilation.  With  this  arrangement  the  cellar  can  be 
kept  sweet  and  wholesome.  The  rooms  are  warmed  by  stoves. 
Fire-places  may  be  easily  built  in  the  dining-room  and  kitchen, 
if  desired.  The  bathing-room  is  easily  accessible,  it  being  con- 
nected with  the  kitchen  bed-room,  which  renders  it  a  convenient 
and  useful  apartment. 

The  cost  of  this  house,  with  a  light  timber  frame,  clapboarded, 
lined  on  the  inside  with  inch  lumber,  then  furred  with  strip  lath, 
lathed  and  plastered  with  two  coats  finish,  is  about  $i,ioo. 


V 


V 


MODERN    ARCIHTIiCTUKE. 


701 


A  RURAL  GOTHIC  COTTAGE— Design  3. 


KL'KAL   (.oIIlIC   CDITAGE. 


This  is  an  admirable  de- 
sign for  internal  conven- 
ience. The  plan  of  the 
first  floor  shows  the  kit- 
chen and  one  bed-room  on 
the  same  floor  with  the 
living-rooms.  The  kitchen 
is  a  wing  added  to  the 
rear,  and  is  one  stor)'  in 
height.  The  situation  on 
which  this  dwelling  is 
placed  has  a  prospect  in 
one  direction  only,  and 
the  front,  shown  in  the 
elevation,  commands  this 
view,  the  rear  being  nearly 
hidden  by  trees.  On  this 
front  are  situated  two 
pleasant  apartments,  each 
1 7  liy  20  feet,  opening  from 


GKOUND   PLAN. 


the  vestibule  or  entrance 
hall  by  large  double  doors, 
which,  when  fully  opened, 
w  ill  throw  these  two  rooms 
and  the  vestibule  into  one 
large  apartment.  Some  ele- 
gance is  conferred  on  the 
parlor  by  the  bay-window, 
which  is  balanced  by  a 
double  window  opposite, 
in  the  dining-room.  The 
living-room,  or  librar)', 
commands  a  pantry  of 
convenient  size,  in  the  rear 
of  which  is  a  closet  open- 
ing into  the  hall.  This 
hall  is  of  ami)le  size  to 
ser>*e  as  a  dining-room. 
There  is  a  glazed  back 
door  opening  to  the   rear 


702 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  house,  and  a  door  opening  into  the  l<itchen  passage,  b,  on 
the  right.  The  hall  also  receives  light  from  the  window  over 
this  door,  in  the  second  story.  This  passage  is  formed  by  run- 
ning a  solid  partition  across  the  kitchen  building,  so  as  to  admit 
of  two  doors,  in  order  to  prevent  smells — one  an  ordinary  door 
opening  into  the  hall,  and  the  other  a  fly  or  spring  door  opening 


into  the  kitchen.  This  partition  also  gives  room  for  two  closets, 
one  for  the  kitchen  and  another  for  the  bed-room.  The  eleva- 
tion of  this  cottage  will  admit  of  great  irregularity  and  pictur- 
esqueness  of  outline,  and  is  productive  of  beautiful  effects.  A 
very  pleasing  mode  of  covering  the  roof  is  shown  in  the  eleva- 
tion.    This  cottage  should  be  built  of  brick. 


RURAL  COTTAGE— Design  4. 


The  accom- 
panying plan  of 
a  rural  cottage 
was  awarded  a 
premium  which 
was  offered  some 
few  years  ago. 
The  outside  ap- 
pearance is  at- 
tractive, light 
and  pleasant, 
and  is  not  over- 
ornamental,  a 
great  fault  with 
many  modern 
houses.  The 
rooms  are  large 
and  most  con- 
veniently arrang- 
ed, every  room  of 
the  ground  floor 
being  pleasant 
enough  for  a 
parlor  or  a  liv- 
ing-room. 

GROUND   PLAN. 
D.  ^., dining-room,  18  feetginches  by  15  itt\.;Parlor,  18  feet  9 


inches  by  14  feet 
6  in.  ;  Library, 
15  feet  by  14  feet 
6  inches ;  Kitch- 
en, 12  feet  6 
inches  by  13  feet 
6  inches;  Wash- 
Room,  12  feet  by 

8  feet;  Hall,  6 
feet  5  inches  in 
width. 

SECOND  STORY. 
A,  bed -room, 
14  feet  5  inches 
by  n  feet  9 
inches;  B , 
chamber,  18  feet 

9  inches  by  15 
feet;  C,  C, 
halls;  D,  bed- 
room, 9  feet  6 
inches  by  11  feet; 
E,  bed  -  room, 
14  feet  6  inches 

by*  I  feet;  F,  servants'  bed-room,   12   feet  6  inches  by  14  feet 
6  inches ;   G,  passage,  3  feet  5  inches  in  width. 


GROUND   PLA^f. 


SECOND    STORY. 


/ 


V 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


703 


A  SOUTHERN  COTTAGE— Design  5. 


A   SOUTHERN   COTTAGE. 

This  design  is  intended  to  be  built  of  frame,  and  the  roof  to  be  shingled.  It  should  stand  at  such  a  distance  frum  the  road  as 
to  afford  sufficient  space  for  ornamental  shrubbery,  walks,  etc.  The  cost  of  the  building  should  fall  within  the  limits  of  $2,000. 
Upon  the  principal  floor  the  porch  gives  access  to  the  hall.  \^iich  opens  into  the  parlor  and  dining-room ;  the  kitchen  is  well 
placed,  and  ample  in  size.  The  second  floor  contains  a  hall  and  three  liber.al-sized  chambers.  Kirst  floor:  /,  porch;  .?,  hall, 
lO'j  by  15  feet;  j>,  parlor,  122  by  20  feet;  4,  dining-room,  15  by  18  feet;  5.  kitchen,  12  by  12  feet;  6,  back  porch.  Second  floor— 
7,  hall,  10^  by  15  feet;  S,  chamber.  I2i  by  20  feet,  9,  chamber,  15  by  18  feet;  10,  chamber,  12  by  12  feet 


^ 1 

r-      A 

' 

V- 

i 

—J 

• 

1 

• 

• 

FIKST    FLOOR. 


SECOND    I'LOOR, 


\ 


-^■.^-^-  ~-^.. .  ^.■,.      — 


704 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


AN  ORNAMENTAL  COTTAGE— Design  6. 


/ 


AN    ORNAMENTAL    COTTAGE. 


This  is  a  good  design  for  a  lodge  or  a  seaside  or  summer  cottage,  and  looks  extremely  well  among  the  trees  of  a  camp-ground. 
The  porch  is  large  and  roomy;  the  living-room  is  of  good  size,  well  lighted  by  a  square  bay  window.  The  kitchen  is  well  supplied 
with  closets.  The  second  floor  contains  three  bed-rooms,  very  conveniently  arranged,  and  each  provided  with  a  closet.  The  two 
down-stairs  rooms  and  the  large  front  bed-room  are  supplied  with  open  fire-places.  The  estimated  cost  is  from  $1,200  to  $1,600, 
according  to  locality  and  style  of  finish. 


GROUN'D    FLOOR. 


— S 


IV 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


/ 


1^1 


COTTAGE— Design  7. 


The  elevation  and  ground  plan  here  given  of  this  cottage  fully  explain  it.  The  upper  story  consists  of  four  bed-rooms  and  a 
bath-room.  Cost,  $i,8oo.  Ground  plan:  7,  porch;  ^,  lobby ;  j,  drawng-room ;  ^,  library  or  boudoir;  ^,  outside  porch ;  b, 
dining-room ;  7,  kitchen  ;  S,  scullery.     Note — No.  j'  might  be  used  as  a  conservatory. 


U5 


09 


ee 


ed 


ui 


V^mm  I 


GROVND    FLOOR. 


sr 


IV 


7o6 


V 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


A  CHEAP  FARM  COTTAGE— Design  8. 


A   CHEAP    FARM    COTTAGE. 


This  plan  is  appropriate  for  a 
hilly  or  mountainous  region.  It  is 
in  the  French  style  of  roof,  and  al- 
lied to  the  Italian  in  its  brackets 
and  gables  and  half-terraced  front. 
The  body  of  the  cottage  is  22  by 
20  feet,  with  12-foot  posts ,  the  roof 
has  a  pitch  of  50°  from  a  horizon- 
tal line,  in  its  straight  dimensions, 
curving  horizontally  towards  the 
eaves,  which,  together  with  the 
gables,  project  3  feet  over  the 
walls.     The   terrace  in  front  is   5 


INTEKIOR    ARKANGEMENT, 


feet  wide.  On  the  rear  is  a  wood- 
house  iS  by  16  feet  in  area,  open 
at  the  house  end  and  in  front,  with 
a  roof  in  the  same  style  as  the  main 
house,  and  posts  8  feet  high, 
standing  on  the  ground,  2  feet  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  cellar-wall, 
which  supports  the  main  building. 
The  plan  of  the  interior  arrange- 
ment any  builder  can  follow.  The 
construction  of  this  cottage  may  be 
of  stone,  brick  or  wood,  either 
producing  a  fine  effect. 


M 


V 


r 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


707 


A  SUBURBAN  COTTAGE.— Design  9. 


A  SUBCRBAN  COTTAGE. 

A,  front  veranda,  lo  by  i6  feet; 
S,  hall,  7  by  20  feet ;  C,  parlor, 
12  by  18  feet,  with  bay  window,  4 
by  9  feet;  D,  dining-room,  15  by 
20  feet;  ^,  library',  12  by  15  feet, 
with  square  bay  window,  4  by  8 
feet;  F,  kitchen,  11  by  12  feet;  C, 
pantry,  8  by  8  feet ;  JI,  store-room, 
10  by  12  feet;  /,  coal-room,  7}  by 

8  feet;  A"  wash-room,  7i  by  8 
feet;  Z,  veranda,  8  by  16  feet;  J/, 
veranda,  4  by  30  feet;   iV,  cistern, 

9  feet  in  diameter;  O,  well;  r,  <-, 
closets ;  s,  s,  shelves;  /',  bath  ;  /, 
back  stairs;  /,  sink;  /,  pump. 
Second  floor— Hall,  7  feet  wide; 
C,  C,  C,  C,  closets ;  D,  linen 
closet;  E,  attic  stairs;  F,  ser- 
vants' bed-room,  Ti  by  20  feet; 
G,  garret;  B,  bed-room,  15  by  15 
feet;  H,  bed-room,  12  by  15  feet; 
A",  bed-room,  12  by  18  feet  Cost 
of  this  building,  $2,500. 


FIKST   FLOOR, 


SECOSD   FLOOR. 


!r_ 


^ 


T 


7o8 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


HORSE  AND  CARRIAGE  HOUSE— Design  10. 


HORSE  AND  CARRIAGE   HOI  SE. 


^ 
^ 


This  is  to  be  built  of  brick,  with  stone  basement  eight  feet 
deep.  It  is  therefore  designed  for  a  side  hill,  unless  the  base- 
ment IS  dispensed  with,  which  would  be  poor  economy, 

S  is  the  stabW  part,  with  double  stalls  for  six  horses.  C  is 
carriage-room  for  three 
or  four  light  wagons  or 
carriages,  /)  is  a  cir- 
cular drive  eight  feet 
wide,  /"  is  an  octagonal 
fountain  eight  feet  in 
diameter  //,  //,  are 
harness-rooms,  C  L, 
C  L,  closets,  L  is  lad- 
der to  loft 

The  hay  is  cut  and 
fed  from  the  second 
story.  A  circular  pine 
cistern,   surrounded   by 

sawdust,  occupies  one  comer  of  the  second  story,  and  supplies 
the  fountain  through  a  small  iron  pipe.  The  orifice  of  this 
should  be  drawn  down  to  a  minute  hole  in  order  to  save  the 
water   and  yet  keep   it    changing  continually.     There   should 


e 


also  be  a  stop-cock  near  the  cistern  to  shut  off  the   water   in 
cold  weather. 

The  dimensions  are :  Main  part,  24 by  26  feet ;  wings,  16  by  24 
I   feet;  height  of  basements,  8  feet;  first  stoiy,  10  feet;  second 

story,  8  feet  to  plates,  A 
cupola  with  double  win- 
dows and  fiat  roof,  with 
staff  in  the  centre,  will 
be  an  elegant  feature. 
Eaves  should  project 
two  and  a  half  feet. 
Roof  not  more  than 
quarter  pitch.  Cost, 
about  $1,000, 

This  is  designed  more 
especially  for  city  resi- 
dents, and  those  farmers 
in  villages  and  near 
large  towns  who  can  af- 
ford ample  accommodations  for  man  and  beast.  Many  would 
object  to  the  drive  and  fountain,  and  yet  the  small  space  on  a 
single  floor  that  they  occupy  does  not  make  them  a  costly  luxury^ 
while  the  air  of  elegance  that  they  convey  could  ill  be  dispensed 
with  by  one  who  has  a  generous  regard  for  taste. 


FIRST    FLOUR, 


/' 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


709 


A  SUBSTANTIAL  FARM  BARN.— Design  1 1 


A   SUBSTANTIAL   VAKM    UAKN. 

This  plan  is  a  convenient  as  well  as  a  substantial  one.   As  seen  I  plan  of  second  floor. 

in  the  elevation,  the  bam  is  built  upon  a  side  hill  which  slopes  |      This  is  used  for  horses,  vehicles,  etc  Along  the  whole  length  of 


to  the  east.  There  are  three 
distinct  floors.  The  main 
building  is  50  by  80  feet,  and 
one  wing  40  by  40  feet.  The 
basement  floor  is  divided  in- 
to several  departments,  each 
well  furnished  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  designed. 
B  is  the  manure  pit ,  C,  a 
small  cistern ;  D,  a  root  cel- 
lar ;  E,  a  pen  for  calves ;  F, 
under  the  wing  at  the  south 
end  of  the  main  building,  is 
fitted  up  with  a  number  of 
roomy  stalls  for  cows.  Each 
of  the  departments  has  a 
door,  g,  g,  g,  g,  opening  to 
the  stock  yard. 


— 9 


y  " 


B 

Z6XS0 


r\: 


12X12  ?_ 


-t  3 


D 

21X.50 


PLAN  OF  UASEMENT  FLOOR. 


U-,  11-  II  "nm..  ,  n  ,iL 


^Trri  1111  TTrm 


■□-- 


L 
ZOXIO 


L      „, 


;i\, 


H 


I      30KIO         [MMHl     ^   .  Jll 


PLA.N   OF  SECO.VD  STORY. 


the  east  side  are  stalls  for 
horses  provided  with  hay- 
racks, K,  K,  K,  K,  K.  L,  L, 
f^  are  two  finished  rooms,  which 
are  used  as  harness-rooms; 
M,  a  large  room  for  putting 
away  all  the  machinery  and 
tools  used  about  the  farm ; 
O,  P,  loose  horse-boxes ;  K, 
a  stairway  leading  to  the 
b.isement  or  ground  floor; 
S,  a  stairway  leading  up  to 
third  story ;  T,  V,  trap  doors. 
The  structure  is  well  sup- 
plied with  windows,  and  is 
light  and  comfortable  for 
both  man  and  beast. 


■K  e_ 


-7\ 


710 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


GRAIN  AND  STOCK  BARN— Design  12. 


GRAIN  AND    STOCK  BARN. 

This  plan  is  a  combined  grain  and  stock  barn.  The  grain  bins  are  next  north  of  the  stables  and  form  part  of  the  partition 
between  the  stables  and  main  floor.  They  are  four  feet  in  width  and  have  a  capacity  for  500  bushels.  The  bottom  of  the  bins  slopes 
towards  the  main  floor,  and  is  ten  inches  above  it.  The  bins  have  a  free  circulation  of  air  on  every  side.  The  excavation  for  the 
structure,  including  that  in  the  yard,  is,  at  the  southwest  corner,  about  three  feet  in  depth,  and  graded  to  a  slope  of  one  foot 
in  forty  feet,  the  natural  slope  being  one  in  ten.  A  trench  is  dug  three  feet  wide  and  one  foot  below  the  grade,  and  filled  with 
broken  stone,  that  serves  as  a  drain,  upon  which  the  foundation  rests.  The  foundation  walls  are  built  of  stone.  The  first  floor  is 
divided  into  stables.  A  stairway  leads  to  floor  above,  and  there  is  also  a  place  for  harness.  The  forage  for  horses  is  put  into 
tubes  above.  The  floor  is  double  and  is  made  tight.  The  manure  is  dropped  through  a  trap-door  to  shed.  The  cost  of  the  en- 
tire structure  is  about  $1,200. 


&:-  '   '.    'j,,'  -j'so.  *!;!■: 5- 


--'T^SSf^-^'i.f..  . . 


DESIGN  13 — A  CONVENIENT   BARN. 


;^^ 


IV 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


711 


A  CONVENIENT  BARN.-Design  13. 

This  is  the  plan  of  a  very  convenient  barn.  The  stone  wall  is  laid  in  mortar  and  painted.  The  frames  are  all  made  of  square 
timber  and  joists.  The  basement  is  dry,  sills  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Grain  bins  so  arranged  that  you  can  get  to  anyone  of  them 
capable  of  storing  over  3,000  bushels,  and  four  root  bins,  which  w  ill  store  800  bushels,  where  they  can  be  seen  at  any  time.  The 
basement  story  is  S  feet;  bam  posts  18  feet  long.  The  long  shed  is  25  feet  v^ide  and  64  feet  long ;  posts,  20  feet  East  shed  posts 
9  feet  long.     Enter  the  barn  from  the  north,  with  team  on  upper  floor. 


The  necessity  of 
fiimishing  shelter  for 
sheep  in  a  northern 
climate  is,  we  sup- 
pose, universally  ac- 
knowledged, but  how 
much  is  necessary  for 
the  comfort  and 
health  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  how  this  is 
best  obtained,  is  an 
open  question.  The 
accompanying  en- 
graving of  a  sheep 
barn   is  taken   from 


A  SHEEP  BARN  AND  SHEDS— Design  14. 


A   SHEEP    BARN    AND    SHEDS. 


Randall' s  Shttp 
Husbandry.  With 
those  open  ends 
closed,  it  seems  to  be 
a  very  convenient  ar- 
rangement.  The 
bam  proper  is  used 
mainly  for  storing 
hay,  and  the  wings 
should  be  made  of 
sufficient  size  to  af- 
ford the  necessary 
room. 


-^icNOTEWORTHY  SUGGESTIONS.:]^^ 


Having  introduced  to  the  reader  the  specific  plans,  etc.,  which 
will  guide  him  in  ..ne  erection  of  a  home,  a  few  general  words 
of  advice  and  suggestion  will  be  in  order. 

It  will  be  well  to  remember  that  no  architect  allows  himself,  when 
planning  a  house,  to  be  guided  by  any  cast-iron  set  of  rules. 

A  house  is  a  good  deal  like  a  suit  of  clothes,  of  which  a  fair  fit  may 
be  obtained  at  the  ready-made  store,  while,  if  close-fitting  and  stylish 
garments  are  wanted,  the  man's  measure  is  taken  and  the  articles 
made  to  order.  In  the  country  care  should  he  taken  not  to  make  the 
house  too  high.  Ground  is  cheap,  and  a  home  in  the  country  which 
spreads  over  a  goodly  extent  of  ground  has  a  certain  air  of  elbow- 
room  and  capacity  about  it  that  the  most  magnificent  four-story  city 
dwelling  fails  to  possess. 

When  building  projections,  window  sills,  etc.,  take  care  to  provide 
a  "  deep  molding'"  imderneath,  so  that  rain-water  will  drip  off.  Oth- 
erwli,c  it  will  gather  up  the  dust  upon  them  and  run  down  the  walls, 
leaving  mouldy  streaks  behind. 

\\*lierc  there  is  no  plumbing  in  the  house,  the  best  place  for  the 
bath-room  is  next  to  the  kitchen.  Have  the  range  placed  against  the 
bath-room  partition  anJ  jilacc  a  large  tin  boiler  on  the  back  of  the 
range.  From  the  back  of  the  boiler  carr\'  a  faucet  through  the  parti- 
tion to  open  over  a  bath-tub.  By  this  means  the  carrying  of  water  to 
and  fro  is  dispensed  with.  To  discharge  the  water  from  the  bath,  run 
a  small  pipe  to  a  distance  of  twenty  leet  from  the  house  and  let  it  end 
there  in  a  large  hole  filled  in  with  loose  stones  and  covered  with  earth. 
The  water  when  discharged  into  this  hole  will  soak  away  into  the 
ground  and  do  no  harm,  as  it  is  not  polluted. 

To  avoid  rats  or  fire  spreading  through  a  house  it  is  advisable  to 
put  one  course  of  bricks  in  mortar  at  each  floor  level  in  .all  the  fur- 
rings  and  partitions. 

Kor  the  finest  effect  of  foliage  use  trees  and  shrubbery  as  a  back- 
ground and  flanking  for  the  principal  building.  Too  many  large  trees 
in  the  foreground  cut  off  the  view;  besides,  they  keep  out  the  sun- 


shine, prevent  free  atmospheric  circulation,  and  injure  the  house  by 
concentrating  upon  it  dampness  and  shade. 

When  a  low  site  for  a  dwelling  cannot  be  avoided  be  careful  to  have 
a  thorough  system  of  under-draining.  See  that  the  cellar-wall  is 
raised  considerably  above  the  ground  and  that  enough  soil  is  spread 
around  the  house  to  make  a  yard  which  will  shed  the  water  readily. 
In  a  case  of  this  kind  every  sanitary  advantage  offered  by  sun,  soil, 
shelter  and  prospect  should  be  carefully  improved. 

A  square  house  includes  more  space  within  a  given  length  of  wall 
than  any  rectangular  shape. 

Of  the  whole  house  the  front,  and  of  the  front  the  main  entrance, 
should  show  the  most  pains  in  the  direction  of  ornamentation. 

Care  in  the  disposition  of  rooms  will  save  thousands  of  steps  to 
those  who  do  the  house-work.  Kitchen  and  dining-room  should  al- 
ways be  adjoining  apartments.  The  dining-room  is  the  place  for  the 
china  closet.  A  wood-shed  connecting  with  the  kitchen  by  a  covered 
way  is  a  great  convenience  in  inclement  weather. 

A  multiplicity  of  closets  is  an  invaluable  boon  to  the  housewife. 

Frame  houses  exclude  the  cold  much  better  if  the  studding  is 
covered  with  tongued  and  grooved  sheathing,  and  this  in  turn  by 
tarred  paper,  the  weather-boarding  being  placed  over  the  whole.  The 
sheathing  and  weather-boarding  should  be  fitted  closely  around  door 
and  window  frames,  and  the  tarred  paper  allowed  to  lap  over  a  little 
where  a  crack  is  likely  to  occur. 

Where  ingrain  carpets,  usually  a  yard  wide,  arc  to  be  used,  the  ccc 
nomical  cutting  will  be  helped  by  having  either  the  length  or  breadth 
of  each  room  some  multiple  of  the  width,  as  fifteen  feet,  eighteen  feet, 

etc. 

The  difference  bet\vecn  slate  roofing  and  shingles  is  about  two  cents 
per  square  foot,  and  where  the  former  is  used  the  difference  in  outlay 
purchases  practically  everlasting  durability,  a  fire-proof  roof,  and 
purer  rain-water  in  the  cistern. 

If  free  from  sap,  shingles  will  last  from  t^vcnty  to  thirty  years. 

An  attic,  running  the  full  length  of  the  house,  with  windows  at  both 
ends,  will  prove  a  fine  dr>ing-room  in  bad  weather. 


V^ 


13 «^ 


KT 


712 


THE  LAWS  OF  ETIQUETTE. 


•4-«»£"«<4''l 


t'iiCii|ig>iI>il<(t'(ii'IiiIiil»li^r»^li'I''l'iltlii't<M4'tr'»#<&O^O^a''I'iI'i»OtODa'iIiIiit«'(8'lt'(!t 


r-^i      ^ 


fSSTJ      o:S?     l^^V-        t®^  oST^i        ?5?')  ^S^J  <^^i 


i^J         a^J 


Vli'  n'*=s^L.X^  •**  ♦*♦  ***  ♦^  ♦•*  ♦** 


110  |;o^^m'Ue-HC>>  -itt  -fieci-UCVV  or  cattfl,    — Hawthorne. 


On  manners,  refinement,  good  breeding,  and  even  the  forms 
of  Etiquette,  we  are  forever  talking.  We  judge  our  neighbors 
severely  by  the  breach  of  written  or  traditional  laws,  and  choose 
our  society,  and  even  our  friends,  by  the  touchstone  of  courtesy. 
The  importance,  therefore,  of  a  thoroughly  systematized  code  of 
manners,  in  this  day  of  rapidly  widening  circles  of  society,  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated.  Men  are  continually  rising  from  the 
workshop  to  that  position  of  prominence  which  great  wealth,  in 
this  country  particularly,  invariably  insures.  A  few  words  as  to 
the  value  of  good  manners  may  not  be  out  of  place,  since  it  is 
too  often  the  habit  of  those  who  have  most  need  of  them  to 
undervalue  their  importance. 

The  true  spirit  of  good  manners  is  very  closely  allied  to  that 
of  good  morals.  No  stronger  proof  of  this  assertion  is  required 
than  the  fact  that  the  Messiah  himself,  in  His  great  moral 
teachings,  so  frequently  touches  upon  mere  manners.  He 
teaches  that  modesty  is  the  true  spirit  of  decent  behavior,  and 
openly  rebukes  the  forward  manner  of  His  followers  in  taking 
the  upper  seats  at  banquets  and  the  highest  seats  in  the  syna- 
gogues. In  condemning  the  habits  of  the  Pharisees,  it  was  not 
their  scrupulous  cleanliness  that  He  objected  to,  but  their  attach- 
ing too  much  importance  to  mere  form.  As  to  the  philosophers, 
although  they  were  seldom  distinguished  for  fine  manners  them- 
selves, they  did  not  fail  to  teach  the  importance  of  them  to 


others.  Socrates  and  Aristotle  have  left  behind  them  a  series  of 
ethics  that  might  easily  be  turned  into  a  "  Guide  to  the  Com- 
plete Gentleman;"  and  Lord  Bacon  has  written  an  essay  on 
manners,  in  which  he  reminds  us  that  a  stone  must  be  of  very 
high  value  to  do  without  a  setting.  Johnson  doubtless  con- 
sidered himself  one  of  these  unset  gems  when  he  made  such  a 
speech  as  "  Sir,  you  are  a  fool,"  and  unfortunately  Johnson  has 
too  many  imitators  among  those  of  greatly  inferior  value. 

The  motive  in  cultivating  good  manners  has  too  often  been 
misrepresented  by  writers  upon  this  subject.  Chesterfield  states 
the  motive  for  politeness  to  be  a  desire  to  shine  or  to  raise  one's 
self  into  a  society  supposed  to  be  better  than  one's  own.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  state  that  Lord  Chesterfield's  good  manners,  fine 
as  they  appear,  have  not  the  ring  of  the  true  metal  about  them. 
Another  and  very  excellent  definition  of  Etiquette  is  :  "A  shield 
against  the  intrusion  of  the  impertinent,  the  improper  and  the 
vulgar."  But  a  man's  best  and  only  right  motive  in  the  culti- 
vation of  good  manners  should  be  to  make  himself  better  than 
he  is,  to  render  himself  agreeable  to  every  one  with  whom  he 
has  to  do,  and  to  improve,  if  necessary,  the  society  in  which  he 
is  placed.  With  these  objects  in  view,  it  is  plainly  as  much  a 
moral  duty  to  cultivate  one's  manners  as  one's  mind,  and  no  one 
can  deny  that  a  man  is  a  better  citizen  for  being  a  gentleman  in 
the  sense  that  true  courtesy  makes  the  gentleman. 


THE  ART  OF  CONVERSATION. 


~A 


713 


iiijftaxD^iiKiiamaaniiiiiiiKnartiiirniiritrf  Titii.,^.>^,i,r ..,.,... T  T  r  1 1 1 1 1 1  n  i  im 


j\p\:  V  oF  •>  Co 


.«,  ;^,l^^,^.,T.^.^»,^,»^T  j  -  t  .  .  ,t, -■  t  t,  ,i>  r  .  .  t  ,r  t,  i  v  ^  ,t.......  ,, ,.  ^  ....l..  ,.  ^tt'TfltlllUlHHIUmiH]!, 


I* 

m 

® 


/ti 


I^hHE  art  of  expressing  one's  thoughts  in  clear,  simple,  elegant 
English  is  one  of  the  first  to  be  attained  by  those  who  would 
mix  ingood  society.  You  must  talk,  and  talk  fairly  well,  if  you 
would  not  altogether  fail  of  producing  some  kind  of  impression 
upon  society.  To  have  something  good  to  say,  and  to  say  it  in 
the  best  possible  manner,  is  to  ensure  success  and  admiration. 

The  first  thing  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  this  valuable  accomplish- 
ment is  a  good  education.  An  acquaintance  with  the  current  literature  of 
the  day  is  absolutely  essential  to  a  good  talker.  A  perfect  familiarity  with 
the  English  language,  its  grammar,  pronunciation,  etc.,  is  indispensable. 
Those  who  have  to  contend  with  a  lack  of  early  advantages  in  this  respect  can 
supply  the  deficiency  by  private  study,  and  close  observance  wherever  good 
English  is  spoken.  Above  all  should  they  avoid  associating  with  those  who 
express  themselves  incorrectly  and  vulgarly. 

Nothing  is  so  infectious  as  a  bad  accent  or  incorrect  form  of  speech. 

All  affectations  of  foreign  accent,  mannerisms,  exaggerations  and  'ismg 
are  detestable. 

Equally  to  be  avoided  are  inaccuracies  of  expression,  hesitation,  and  undue 
use  of  French  or  other  foreign  words,  and  anything  approaching  to  flip- 
pancy, coarseness,  triviality  or  prevarication. 

The  voice  should  never  be  loud,  no  gesticulation  should  accompany  the 
speech,  and  the  features  should  be  under  strict  control.  Nothing  is  more 
ill-bred  than  a  half- opened  mouth,  a  vacant  stare,  a  wandering  eye  or  a 
smile  ready  to  break  into  a  laugh  at  any  moment.  Absolute  suppression  of 
emotion,  whether  of  anger,  laughter,  mortification  or  disappointment,  is  one 
of  the  most  certain  marks  of  good-breeding. 

Next  to  unexceptionable  grammar,  correct  elocution,  and  a  frank,  easy 
bearing,  it  is  necessary  to  be  genial.  If  you  cannot  be  animated,  sympathetic 
and  cheerful,  do  not  go  into  society.  Dull  and  stupid  people  arc  but  so 
many  clogs  to  the  machinery  of  social  life. 

The  7nattLr  of  conversation  is  as  important  as  the  manner.  Tact  and 
good  feeling  will,  in  people  of  sound  sense,  indicate  the  shoals  and  quick- 
sands to  be  avoided  in  conversation,  but  for  safety's  sake  it  will  be  best  to 
enumerate  a  few  of  them. 

Complimenuiry  speeches  should  be  avoided,  unless,  indeed,  so  delicately 
put  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  Flattery  is  suggestive  of  snobbery,  partic- 
ularly if  it  be  paid  to  people  of  great  wealth  and  high  position.  It  induces 
disgust  on  the  part  of  the  receiver,  and  insincerity  on  that  of  the  giver. 

The  habit  of  "  fishing"  for  compliments  is  notably  vulgar,  and  it  is  one 
in  which  a  certain  class  of  vain  young  people  are  very  apt  to  indulge,  espe- 
cially among  themselves  in  private.  It  indicates  vanity  in  the  angler  and 
begets  contempt  on  the  part  of  the  one  who  from  interested  motives  nibbles 
gently  at  the  bait. 

All  "  sbng"  is  vulgar.  This  fact  cannot  be  too  forcibly  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  the  young  people  of  this  day,  as  the  alarming  prevalence  of 
slangy  conversational  phrases  is  enough  to  cause  our  decorous  forefathers 
and  mothers  to  rise  in  their  graves. 


Many  of  the  daughters  of  our  most  wealthy  and  influential  citizens  have  an 
idea  that  their  position  will  excuse  or  gloss  the  vulgarity  of  a  "  cant "  phrase 
now  and  then.  Nothing  was  ever  more  erroneous.  No  position,  however 
high,  can  cxciLse  the  vulgarity  of  this  practice,  and  it  is  a  grand  mistake  also 
to  imagine  slang  to  be  a  substitute  for  wit.  I  refer  particularly  to  this  habit 
among  young  ladies,  as  it  is  more  reprehensible  in  them  than  in  the  opposite 
sex,  although  it  indicates  b.id  breeding  on  their  part  as  well. 

Scandal  should  be  avoided  above  all  things.  It  is  a  sin  against  morality 
as  well  as  good  t.istc. 

Punning  is  a  most  objectionable  habit  in  society.  An  inveterate  punster 
is  an  intolerable  bore,  and  unless  a  pun  amounts  to  a  positive  w>uicism  it 
should  never  be  propounded  in  company. 

Long  arguments  should  be  avoided  in  general  company.  They  become 
tiresome  to  the  hearers.  Always  endeavor  to  change  the  subject  after  it  h.-is 
continued  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 

Religion  and  politics  are  two  subjects  to  be  avoided  in  general  conversa- 
tion. People  usually  have  strong  prejudices  on  both  these  points,  and  it  is  a 
rule  of  good  breeding  to  respect  the  prejudices  of  those  about  you. 

Never  interrupt  the  speech  of  another.  This  is  an  unpardonable  sin 
against  g-i-od  breeding. 

A  good  listener  is  more  to  be  desired  than  a  good  conversationalist.  In 
order  to  be  a  good  listener  you  must  appear  to  be  interested,  answer  appro- 
priately, briefly  and  to  the  point,  and  give  your  companion  generally  (he 
impression  that  you  are  in  perfect  sympathy  with,  «nd  highly  entertained 
by,  what  he  is  saying. 

Avoid  pedantic  displays  of  learning. 

All  topics  specially  interesting  to  gentlemen,  such  as  the  farm  and  business 
matters  generally,  should  be  excluded  in  general  society. 

The  expression  of  immature  opinions  is  always  in  bad  taste.  Pcrsoa-t, 
young  or  old,  should  not  attempt  to  criticise  books  or  art  unless  positively 
certain  that  their  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  criticism. 

Be  very  careful  of  introducing  long-winded  anecdote  into  the  conversation. 
Nothing  is  more  awkward  than  to  find  an  array  of  bored  faces  when  one  is 
not  more  than  half  through  a  long  story. 

Repartee  should  be  indulged  in  only  moderately.  Otherwise  it  may 
degenerate  into  flippancy,  a  habit  much  to  be  condemned  in  a  certain  class 
cl  young  ladies  who  think  themselves  unusually  clever,  or,  as  our  American 
word  goes,  **  smart." 

In  using  titles,  such  as  "General,"  "Doctor,"  etc.,  you  must  always 
append  the  surname  if  you  are  a  stranger  or  any  other  than  a  most  intimate 
friend.  For  example,  you  should  say,  "What  did  you  observe,  Doctor 
Gray?  "  not,  "  What  did  you  observe.  Doctor?"  Names  should  be  used  as 
little  as  possible,  and  never  familiarly.  Few  solecisms  give  greater  offense 
than  a  liberty  taken  with  a  name. 

In  addressing  a  person  of  title  in  England,"  My  Lord"  and  "  My  Lady" 
are  seldom  used  except  by  servants.  The  Prince  of  Wales  may  be  addrcssc! 
as  "Sir,"  and  the  Queen  as  "  Madame."  A  Frenchman,  however,  what- 
ever his  rank,  is  addressed  as  "Monsieur,"  and  a  Frenchwoman,  whether 


/ 


^- 


^r 


714 


RULES  OF  PRESENTATION. 


^ 


~A 


duchess  or  dressmaker,  as  "Madame."  It  would  be  as  ill-bred  to  omit  to 
say  Monsieur,  Mein  Herr,  and  Signor,  in  France,  Germany  and  Italy, 
respectively,  as  it  would  to  say,  Sir,  Ma'am  and  Miss,  as  the  servants  do  in 
this  country. 

The  great  secret  of  talking  well  is  to  adapt  your  conversation  to  your 
company  as  skillfully  as  may  be. 

People  take  more  interest  in  their  own  affairs  than  in  anything  else  which 
you  can  name.  A  wise  host  or  hostess  will,  then,  lead  a  mother  to  talk  of 
her  children,  an  author  of  his  book,  an  artist  of  his  picture,  etc.  Having 
furnished  the  topic,  you  have  but  to  listen,  and  acquire  a  reputation  for  being 
amiable,  agreeable,  intelligent  and  well-bred. 

If  you  would  not  be  unpopular,  do  not  always  be  witty,  no  matter  what 
your  natural  abilities  may  be  in  that  line.  People  do  not  like  to  be  always 
outshone. 

Do  not  too  officiously  supply  a  word  or  phrase  if  a  speaker  hesitate  for  a 
moment;  he  will  think  of  the  one  he  wants  or  supply  another  in  good  time. 

Never  correct  a  fault  in  pronunciation  or  in  facts,  in  company  or  in  pri- 
vate, if  you  wish  to  retain  a  friend. 

Avoid  such  colloquialisms  as  "  says  I,"  "you  know,"  and  other  senseless 
repetitions  that  might  be  mentioned.  Never  speak  of  a  person  as  "  a  party," 
nor  refer  to  absent  persons  as  "  he  "  or  "  she."  Give  the  name  of  the  lady 
or  gentleman  referred  to. 

In  telling  a  joke,  do  not  laugh  yourself  before  the  point  is  reached.  If  the 
joke  be  original,  do  not  laugh  at  all. 

In  tite-a-tite  conversation  it  is  ill-bred  to  drop  the  voice  to  a  whisper. 

Egotism  is  always  in  bad  taste.  Allow  others  the  privilege  of  proclaiming 
your  merits. 

Never  speak  of  personal  or  private  matters  in  general  company. 

Avoid  as  much  as  possible  beginning  a  conversation  with  stale  common- 
places, such  as,  "It  is  a  fine  day,"  "The  weather  is  charming,"  etc. 


Do  not  speak  slightingly  of  the  city  or  neighborhood  in  which  you  may  be 
visiting.  By  offending  the  prejudices  of  those  about  you,  you  render  your- 
self extremely  disagreeable. 

Avoid  all  excitability  and  dogmatism  in  conversation.  Nothing  is  more 
annoying  than  to  converse  with  an  arrogant,  loud-speaking  person. 

Always  yield  the  point  in  conversation  if  you  find  the  argument  is  likely 
to  become  violent. 

Avoid  lavishing  praise  on  the  members  of  your  own  family.  It  is  almost 
as  bad  as  praising  yourself 

It  is  exceedingly  bad  taste  to  parade  the  fact  that  you  have  travelled  in 
foreign  countries,  or  that  you  are  acquainted  with  distinguished  or  wealthy 
people,  that  you  have  been  to  college  or  that  your  family  is  distinguished  for 
gentility  and  blue  blood. 

In  speaking  of  husband  or  wife,  do  not  use  the  surname  alone.  To  say 
"  I  was  telling  Brown,"  is  extremely  vulgar.     Always  prefix  the  Mr. 

Always  endeavor  to  contribute  your  quota  to  the  general  conversation.  It 
is  as  much  your  duty  to  entertain  as  to  be  entertained.  Bashfulness  is  as 
much  to  be  avoided  as  too  much  assurance.  - 

Never  ask  questions  of  a  personal  nature,  such  as  what  a  certain  article  cost, 
or  why  so-and-so  did  not  go  to  the  opera.     They  are  decidedly  impertinent. 

Look  at  the  person  with  whom  you  are  conversing,  but  do  not  stare. 

Avoid  loud  laughter  in  society. 

If  you  carry  on  the  thread  of  a  conversation  after  the  entrance  of  a  visitor, 
you  should  always  recapitulate  what  has  been  said  before  his  or  her  arrival. 

Remember  that  "  an  excellent  thing  in  woman  is  a  voice  low  but  sweet," 
and  cultivate  a  distinct  but  subdued  tone. 

Emerson  says;  "You  cinnot  have  one  well-bred  man  without  a  whole 
society  of  such."  Elsewhere  he  says:  "It  makes  no  difference,  in  looking 
back  five  years,  how  you  have  dieted  or  dressed;  but  it  counts  much 
whether  we  have  had  good  ciampanions  in  that  time  —  almost  as  much  as 
what  we  have  been  domg." 


^^^ 


eDf^G^entahion 


^  White  House,  at  the  English  Court  and  the  Papal  Court. ' 

\3 1 


1 


^. 


^y  HERE  is  very  little  ceremony  about  a  presentation  to  the  Chief 
Executive  of  the  United  States.     On  public  occasions  you  will 
":*    simply  be  presented  by  the  master  of  ceremonies,  while  at  any 
other  time,  by  sending  in  your  card,  you  will  secure  the  desired 
interview. 


THE  COURT  OF  ENGLAND. 


The  wives  and  daughters  of  the  clergy,  of  military  and  naval  officers,  of 
physicians  and  barristers,  can  be  presented.  The  wives  and  daughters  of 
general  practitioners,  and  of  solicitors,  of  merchants,  and  of  all  business 
men,  with  the  exception  of  bankers,  are  not  entitled  to  be  presented.  No 
divorced  woman  can  be  presented  to  the  Queen. 

A  lady  must  be  presented  by  another  lady,  and  a  gentleman  by  a  gentle- 
man. In  seeking  a  lady  for  a  sponsor,  it  should  be  remembered  that,  the 
higher  her  rank  and  social  standing,  the  better  for  the  one  presented. 

Any  lady  who  has  once  been  presented  at  court  can  present  others. 

All  wraps  are  left  in  the  carriage  before  entering  the  palace. 

As  her  name  is  called  by  the  Lord  Chamberlain  the  lady  advances  toward 


the  throne.  If  a  peeress,  the  Queen  kisses  her  forehead ;  if  a  commoner, 
she  kisses  the  Queen's  hand. 

On  leaving  the  royal  presence,  you  must  back  out. 

A  stranger  must  have  the  credential  of  the  American  Ambassador  in  order 
to  be  presented  at  the  English  court. 

THE  PAPAL  COURT. 

Foreicners  obtain  access  to  the  Pope  through  their  Ambassador. 

Ladies  very  seldom  have  private  audience  of  the  Pope. 

The  lady's  toilette,  be  the  audience  public  or  private,  must  always  consist 
of  black  dress,  long  black  veil  and  white  gloves. 

When  the  Pope  enters  the  gallery  where  those  to  be  presented  are  collected, 
they  fall  on  their  knees,  and  do  not  rise  until  bidden. 

Gentlemen  kneel  on  one  knee,  and  do  not  rise  until  desired  to  do  so. 

The  proper  form  of  address  in  English  is  "  Your  Holiness." 

It  is  best  to  consult  some  local  authority  upon  the  etiquette  of  many  petty 
courts,  as  the  rules  are  frequently  much  complicated. 

The  lady  must  always  be  in  full  dress,  and  the  gentleman  in  black  clothes, 
white  cravat  and  gloves. 


V- 


^ 


K 


ETIQUETTE  OF  SALUTATION. 


/ 


7'5 


-^Tfe^- 


M^^^^?t#T^' 


Eti^Liette  •  of  •  S^abtatioQ, 


--^w- 


jrN  a  rude  sLite  ol  society  every  salutation  was  an  act  of  worship.     The 
commonest  act-;,  phrases  and  signs  of  courtesy  with  which  wc  are  now 
familiar,  date  from  those  earlier  times  when  the  inferior  demonstrated 
his  allegiance  by  acts  of  servility.     Our  modern  bow  is  a   modified 
_^  prostration.     Rising  and  standing  are  acts  of  homage.     Removing  the 
^"^    glove  on  shaking  hands  is  a  custom  handed  down  from  feudal  times. 

FORMS   OF  SALUTATION. 

Theforms  of  salutation  common  in  America  are  bowing,  hand-shaking,  kiss- 
ing, and  words  of  address. 

Acquaintances  of  every 
degree  of  intimacy,  from 
theclosest  to  the  slightest, 
are  entitled  to  a  bow. 
It  is  an  act  of  discourtesy 
to  refuse  any  one,  no  mat- 
ter how  lowly  his  station, 
the  recognition  of  a  bow. 

When  recognizing  their 
gentlemen  acquaintances, 
ladies  should  make  a 
graceful  inclination.  It  is 
the  privilege  of  a  lady  to 
recognize  the  gentleman 
first. 

To  a  casual  acquaint- 
ance it  is  not  necessary 
to  do  more  than  bow,  but 
an  intimate  friend  should 
be  more  cordially  greeted. 

Never  fail  to  return  a 
bow.  It  is  extremely  rude 
to  refuse  to  recognize  a 
salutation  of  this  kind. 

A  pleasant,  cordial  man- 
ner, without  undue  fa- 
miliarity, in  recognizing 
acquaintances,  conduces 
greatly  toward  a  genial 
and*  friendly  feeling,  and 
is  therefore  worthy  of  cul- 
tivation. The  custom  of 
nodding  to  every  one  you  meet,  in  thinly  settled  neighborhoods,  is  a  very 
pleasant  one,  as  it  evinces  kindliness  of  feeling,  and  should  be  generally 
followed  out. 

If  a  gentleman  is  smoking  when  he  meets  a  lady,  he  should  remove  the 


SALUTATION  IN  THE  STRKET. 


cigar  from  his  mouth   in  bowing.    None  but  a  boor  will   puff  a  cloud  of 
tobacco  smoke  in  the  face  of  a  lady  who  is  honoring  him  wiih  a  salutation. 

Etiquette  requires  a  gentleman  to  niisc  his  hat  from  his  head  in  bowing  to 
a  lady.  If  passing  on  the  street,  the  hand  farthest  from  the  lady  should  be 
used  in  removing  the  hat. 

If  on  horseback,  the  gentleman  seizes  whip  and  reins  in  the  left  hand 
and  uses  the  right  for  making  the  salute. 

When  a  gentleman,  accompanied  by  a  friend,  meets  a  lady  acquaintance, 
the  friend  should  bow  also,  whether  acquainted  with  the  lady  or  not. 

A  gentleman  should  return  a  bow  made  him  on  the  street,  even  if  he  doe* 

not  recognize  the  person 
saluting  him.  It  maybe 
a  mistake,  but  it  is  only 
courteous  to  spare  the  per- 
son saluting  as  much  em- 
barra&smcnt  as  possible. 

On  meeting  a  number 
of  persons  together,  with 
some  of  whom  you  are 
slightly,  with  others  inti- 
mately, acquainted,  you 
should  greet  all  alike.  To 
gusl.  exuberantly  ovcronc 
and  bow  stiffly  to  another, 
would  be  making  a  dis- 
tinction that  could  not  fail 
to  be  remarked,  and  might 
wound  the  feelings. 

A  gentleman  should  not 
^  :\v-  from  a  window  to  a 
,  .  ly,  but  if  a  lady  recog- 
nize him  from  a  window, 
he  should  return  the  salu- 
t.ttion.  It  is  best,  how- 
■  <  r,  for  a  lady  to  avoid 
.  -li  recognitions  as  much 
;>05<iiblc.  It  is  not  in 
best  taste  for  a  lady  to 
iit  sufficiently  ncir  her 
windo\^-s  to  recognize  and 
be  recognized  by  those 
passing  on  the  street. 
A  gentleman ,  if  brought 
into  close  proximity  with  a  lady  in  a  hallway,  on  a  8tairw.iy.  or  anywhere 
of  the  kind,  should  recognize  her  presence  by  a  bow.  In  going  up  stairs, 
the  gentleman  should  precede  the  l.idy.  In  coming  down,  the  gentleman 
should  give  the  lady  precedence  with  a  bow. 


V^ 


K" 


716 


CARDS  — WHEN,  WHERE  AND  HOW  TO  USE  THEM. 


/ 


>'+<+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+xx+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x 


H®l  )}^  C-ei-R-D- 


/l\ 


■^ 


.(>  v  +  v+x+x+v+x+y+x+x+xy+x+v+v+v+v+v+y+x+x 


©Y^ftea,  ©yv^ftere  al^^  JToco  fo  U^e  Uftem, 


O  a  refined  and  cultivated  person  the  visiting-card  is  indicative  of 

riff     the  personal  characteristics  of  the  person  whose  name  it  bears. 

Its  quality  should  be  of  the  finest ;  in  color  white  (not  cream), 

and  in  shape  it  should  be  long  and  narrow.      Gilt  bevel  and  col- 

ored  designs  are  never  used  by  refined  society. 

^^-^  The  visiting  card  of  a  married  lady  should  be  in  size  a  little 

larger  than  that  of  "  Miss,"  and  engraved  in  pure^rich  script : 

Or,  with  reception  days: 

For  young  ladies  the  cards  should  be  engraved  in  a  lighter  script  than  that 
of  "  Mrs."     For  the  eldest  daughter  the  last  name  only  should  be  used : 

With  or  without  the  address. 
For  other  than  the  eldest  daughter,  the  full  name;  as  : 

,iK/vt^L/  CLwv^v  (^/ywj/. 

Mother  and  daughters  calling  together,  the  engraving  is  on  a  card   in  size 
between  the  "  Mr.  and  Mrs."  and  '*  Miss"  : 


Or: 


The  form  "  Mr.  and  Mrs."  is  used  only  a  short  time  after  marriage. 
The  engraving  should  be  in  bold,  rich  script : 

On  all  formal  occasions,  married  ladies  should  leave  their  husbands'  cards 
with  their  own  when  calling. 

The  handsomest  style  of  cards  is  that  which  is  engraved,  but  it  is  permis- 
sible for  persons  to  write  their  own  cards  if  they  can  write  prettily. 

A  gentleman's  cards  should  be  small,  fine  in  texture,  and  of  five  or  six  ply, 
and  always  white  in  color.  The  "Mr."  should  be  prefixed  in  every 
instance  ;   as  : 


Or,  with  club  address: 


VV§)  <2^Wv  ^K. 


A  physician  may  have  his  professional  title;  as  : 
Officers  of  the  army  and  navy  may  have  their  titles  : 


Or: 


K~ 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  TABLE. 


717 


V  Eti^aethe  •>  of  v  hbe  <•  iakle  v  ^^^ 


*im 


-l-^i^ 


I^HE  etiquette  of  the  dinner-table  should  be  mastered  by  all  who 
aspire  to  the  etitrie  of  good  society. 

Ease,  savoir-faire    and  good   breeding  are  nowhere    more 
indispensable  than  at  the  dinner-table,  and  the  absence  of  them 
is  nowhere  more  apparent.     How  to  eat  soup  and  what  to  do 
with  cherry-stones  are  weighty  considerations  when  taken  as  the 
Index  of  social  status. 

No  greater  test  of  the 
culture,  refinement  and 
good  breeding  of  a  person 
can  be  found  than  the 
dinner  hour.  In  the  fol- 
lowing rules,  therefore, 
will  be  found  a  brief  com- 
pendium of  the  most  ap- 
proved etiquette  of  the 
table,  which  those  who 
have  not  had  the  educa- 
tional advantages  of  po- 
lite society  will  do  well 
to  read  and  "inwardly 
digest." 


•>RULE2<- 

r:)F — 

Coudnct  at  TaWe. 


EAT   yourself   in 

an   upright   posi- 

\  tion~not  too  close 

to  nor  yet  too  far 

from  the  table. 

Take  your  napkin,  par- 
tially unfold  it  and  lay  it 

across  your  lap.     It  is  not  the  correct  thing  to  fasten  it  in  your  button- 
hole  or  spread  it  over  your  breast. 

Do  not  trifle  with  your  knife  or  fork,  or  dnim  on  the  table,  or  fidget  in 
any  way,  while  waiting  to  be  served. 


CORRECT  DINNER  TABLE. 


Keep  your  hands  quietly  in  your  lap,  your  mind  composed  and  pleasantly 
fixed  upon  the  conversation.  Let  all  your  movements  be  easy  and  delib- 
erate.    Undue  haste  indicates  a  ncr\'ous  lack  of  ease. 

Should  grace  be  said,  you  will  give  the  most  reverent  attention  in  respect- 
ful silence  during  the  ceremony. 

Exhibit  no  impatience  to  be  served.     During  the  intcrx'als  between  the 

courses  is  your  opportu- 
nity for  displaying  your 
conversational  abilities  to 
those  sitting  near  you. 
Pleasant  chat  and  witty 
remarks  compose  the  best 
possible  sauce  to  a  good 
dinner. 

Eat  slowly;  it  will  con- 
tribute to  yourgood  health 
a>  well  as  your  gtxKi  man- 
ners. Thorough  mastica- 
tion of  your  food  is  neces- 
sary to  digestion.  An 
ordinary  meal  should  oc- 
cupy from  thirty  minutes 
(o  nn  hour. 

You  may  not  desire  the 
soup,  which  is  usually 
the  first  course,  but  you 
should  not  refuse  to  take 
it.  You  can  eat  as  much 
nr  as  little  as  you  please, 
but  you  would  look  awk- 
ward sitting  with  nothing 
bcforeyou  while  the  others 
arc  eating. 

When  eating  soup,  take 
it  from  the  side  of  the 
spoon,  and  avoid  making 
any  noise  in  so  doing. 
Should  you  be  .'Lskcd  by 
the  host  what  part  of  the  fowl  you  prefer,  always  have  a  choice,  and 
mention  promptly  which  you  prefer.  Nothing  is  more  annoying  than  to 
have  to  serve  two  or  three  people  who  have  no  preferences  and  will  take 
"  anything." 


/ 


K" 


718 


ETIQUETTE   OF  THE  TABLE. 


«> 


Never  place  waste  matter  on  the  table-cloth.  The  side  of  your  plate,  or 
slde-disVie5  that  have  contained  sauces  or  vegetables,  will  answer  as  a  recep- 
tacle for  bones,  potato  skins,  etc. 

You  will  use  your  fork  to  convey  all  your  food  to  your  mouth,  except  it 
may  be  certain  sauces  that  would  be  more  conveniently  eaten  with  a  spoon. 
For  instance,  yon  should  not  attempt  to  eat  peas  with  a  fork.  If  you  are 
not  provided  with  a  spoon,  ask  for  one. 

The  knife  is  used  only  for  cutting  meat  and  other  articles  of  food,  for 
spreading  butter  upon  the  bread,  etc. 


-t  HOW  TO  SET  THE  TABLE  ^ 

OUR  dining-t.ible  should  be  round  or  oblong. 

Use  only  the  whitest  and  finest  of  linen.      Let  your  silver  and 
cutlery  be  highly  polished,  and  your  glass  and  china  rubbed  until 
they  fairly  shine.     Your  table  will  then  present  a  brilliant  and  ele- 
gant appearance. 

For  ordinary  home  oc- 
casions you  will  put  at 
each  person's  place  a 
knife  and  fork,  napkin, 
salt-cup  and  goblet.  The 
order  of  arrangement  is 
accoilJing  to  one's  taste. 

The  plates,  if  not 
brought  in  afterward  by 
a  servant,  are  piled  up 
at  the  right  hand  of  the 
host.  The  gentleman  of 
the  house  occupies  the 
seat  at  the  side  of  the 
table  in  the  center ;  op- 
posite him  is  seated  his 
wife  or  whatever  lady 
occupies  the  position  as 
head  of  his  household. 
In  front  oi paterfamilias 
is  placed  the  joint  for 
carving.  In  front  of  the 
mistress  of  the  house  is 
the  tray  containing  the 
tea  and  coffee  cups.  The 
side-dishei  are  disposed 
around  the  table  accord- 
ing to  taste. 

In  the  centre  is  usually 
placed  the  caster,  con- 
taining bottles  filled  with 
various  condiments,  such 
as  red  and  black  pepper, 
vinegar,  oil,  etc.  A  good 
housekeeper  will  see  that  these  bottles  are  always  kept  well  filled. 

Fashion,  however,  who  is  at  best  but  a  fickle  jade,  has  decreed  of  late 
that  the  old-time  caster  be  abolished,  and  in  place  thereof  you  shall  stand 
at  each  person's  place  a  small  ornamental  pepper-bottle  in  addition  to  the 
salt-cup  and  other  articles,  while  the  oil  and  vinegar  shall  be  placed  in 
handsome  pitcher-shaped  bottles  of  cut-glass  and  disposed  at  each  end  of 
the  table. 

In. arranging  the  table,  too,  whether  for  the  family  alone  or  for  ceremonial 
occasions,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  individual  taste  of  the  lady  of 
the  house  may  be  brought  into  play  with  excellent  effect.  General  rules,  of 
course,  will  he  followed  ;  but  results  of  one  who  has  naturally  an  artistic 
eye  for  those  things  will  be  very  different  from  the  work  of  one  whose  eye 
has  never  been  trained  to  harmonizing  lines  and  colors. 

As  it  is  customary  at  the  mere  family  dinner  to  have  the  carving  done 
upon  the  tabic,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  master  of  the  house  should  thor- 
oughly understand  how  to  carve  meat;    and  expeditious  carving  may  be 


acquired  only  by  practice.  It  would  be  well,  therefore,  if  young  ladies  and 
gentlemen  were  more  frequently  initiated  into  the  art  while  at  home,  so  that 
they  might  find  it  less  awkward  when  obliged  to  do  it  at  their  own  tables. 


DINNER-GIVIHG 


^*- 


INCORRECT  DINNER  TABLE, 


N  invitation  to  dinner  is  the  highest  social  compliment,  and  should 
be  so  received  and  treated. 

While  nearly  all  other  social  invitations  are  given  in  the  name  oi 
the  hostess  alone  the  invitation  to  dinner  is  given  in  the  joint  name 
of  host  and  hostess. 

I'he  host,  in  this  case,  occupies  the  position  of  chief  entertainer.  It  is 
his  duty  to  go  first  to  the  dining-room,  taking  the  principal  lady  guest  on 
his  right  arm  and  giving  her  the  seat  of  honor  on  his  right  hand.  He  is 
expected,  too,  to  contribute  much  to  the  entertainment  of  the  guests. 

A  good  dinner  does  not  consist  alone  of  the  meat  and  drinks,  although 

they  must  also  be  con- 
sidered, but  of  the  prop- 
er seating  of  the  guests 
at  table,  of  the  etiquette 
to  be  observed  toward 
them,  and  the  perfection 
of  arrangement  in  gen- 
eral. 

Many  ladies  who  give 
dinners  observe  the  habit 
of  keeping  a  book  in 
which  they  record  the 
name  of  every  guest 
whom  they  have  dined, 
the  names  of  their  neigh- 
bors at  other  dinner  par- 
ties, and  the  names  of 
hosts  to  whom  they  owe 
return  dinners;  for  this 
is  an  attention  which 
mustbe  returned  by  those 
who  pretend  to  go  in 
society.  This  record  is 
convenient  for  reference 
in  arranging  for  guests  at 
another  dinner. 

The  hostess  attends  to 
the  writing  and  sending 
out  of  invitations.  The 
form  of  invitation,  which 
should  be  printed  from 
engraved  plates  on  square 
cards  with  stamped  or 
illuminated  crest  on  the 
top  centre,  is  as  follows  : 


V 


K 


ETIQUETTE  OP  THE  TABLE. 


"Tt 


719 


The  spaces  containing  guest's  name  and  date  are  left  blank  on  the 
engraved  card  and  are  filled  out  in  writing.  When  the  dinner  is  given  in 
honor  of  some  distinguished  guest,  the  fict,  with  the  guest's  name,  is  also 
placed  upon  the  card  of  invitation. 

Invitations  to  dinner  should  be  accepted  or  declined  immediately.  Never 
let  more  than^a  day  pass  before  writing  a  note  of  reply,  in  which  you  posi- 
tively accept  or  decline  the  invitation.  There  is  no  greater  rudeness  than 
neglecting  to  observe  this  rule.  The  form  of  acceptance  ot  an  invitation  to 
dinner  is : 


'WiAv'^      'irV\/yV\^^    .}^*^yV^O^U/     -VS^VWVVW/.. 

Or,  declining,  the  form  is: 

'W  S-vvw^vr.,  .}^voN^<LoAV  uavAA^v\/i/.,  ^jO^w- 


These  should  be  written  on  square  cards,  with  monogram  or  crest  stamped 
on  the  top  centre. 

The  hostess  having  selected  the  ladies  whom  the  gentlemen  are  to  escort 
to  dinner,  their  names  are  written  on  a  small  card,  with  crest  or  monogram 
in  the  upper  left-hand  corner;  the  card  is  enclosed  in  envelope  of  appropri- 
ate size,  and  superscribed  with  the  gentleman's  name  who  is  to  be  the  lady's 
escort.    These  cards  are  placed  on  a  table  in  the  gentlemen's  dressing-room. 

Dinner  cards,  with  guest's  name  placed  at  each  plate,  designate  the  scats 
at  the  table. 

The  dinner  card  is  kept  as  a  souvenir  of  the  occasion,  and  each  hostess 
endeavors  to  procure  the  most  unique  and  beautiful  designs  in  decoration. 
Hand-painted  cards  are  very  popular.  There  should  be  no  two  alike,  and 
each  should,  as  near  as  possible,  represent  some  personal  characteristic  of 
the  guest  whose  name  it  bears. 

The  invitations  should  be  sent  a  fortnight  in  advance.  Many  ladies  drive 
to  the  hnuscs  of  the  guests  and  have  the  fuoiman  deliver  the  invitations,  to 
be  certain  that  they  reach  their  destination  properly.  The  English  transmit 
theirs  through  the  mail,  but  that  plan  is  not  usually  adopted  on  this  side 
of  the  water. 

It  is  not  best  to  invite  too  many  members  of  one  family,  but  it  is  highly 
improper  to  ask  the  husband  without  the  wife,  or  the  wife  without  the  l»us- 
band.  • 

Punctuality,  always  a  necessary  courtesy,  is  specially  required  at  a  dinner 
party.  One  aathor  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  if  you  do  not  reach  the  house 
luitil  dinner  is  served,  it  is  better  to  retire  and  send  an  apologj-  than  to 
interrupt  the  harmony  of  the  courses  by  awkward  excuses  and  cold  accept- 
ance. 

Within  five  minutes  of  the  dinner  hour  is  a  good  time  for  arriving. 


Husband  and  wife  should  not  enter  the  reception -room  arm-in-arm,  as 
that  is  considered  vulgar.  The  wife  should  go  first,  and  the  husband  follow 
her  into  the  room,  A  servant  is  stationed  near  the  door  »o  open  it  for  the 
lady  and  announce  her  to  the  host  and  hostess,  who  sund  near  each  other 
ready  to  receive  their  guests.  If  necessary  the  host  introduces  the  guests  to 
his  wife,  as  it  often  happens,  particularly  at  official  dinners  at  Washington, 
that  she  is  not  acquainted  with  them. 

The  gentleman,  having  read  on  his  card  the  name  of  the  lady  whom  he  is 
to  escort,  if  he  does  not  know  her,  will  request  the  hostess  to  introduce  him, 
and  will  begin  a  little  conversation  with  her  before  dinner  is  announced. 

The  hostess  will  shake  hands  with  each  guest  upon  his  or  her  arrival. 

As  there  is  no  question  o(  rank  to  determine  precedence  in  America,  the 
lady  to  be  taken  in  first  is  the  one  to  whom  the  dinner  is  given.  In  case 
there  is  no  guest  of  honor,  the  oldest  lady  in  the  room  is  the  one  chosen  for 
the  honor. 

If  a  dinner  party  be  short  of  gentlemen,  there  should  be  no  effort  to  go  in 
in  order;  but  the  host,  offering  his  arm  to  some  lady,  will  request  the  others 
to  follow,  which  they  will  do  without  regard  to  order,  the  hostess  bringing 
up  the  rear. 


-Mtfhs  Duties  of  a  Hostess  at  a  Dmr.er:N- 

HE  should  use  a  woman's  tact  in  placing  her  guests  so  that  those 
who  may  prove  agreeable  to  each  other  shall  be  placed  in  the  same 
neighborhood.  She  shall  also  adroitly  start  the  conversation  for 
them,  and  by  well-directed  remarks  :is!fist  the  diffident  and  remind 
the  selfish  glotiton  that  she  is  observant  of  him.  The  hostess'  man- 
ner should  present  a  simple  dignity  and  an  equal  interest  in  all  her  guests. 
If  she  observe  some  one  lingering  over  his  plate,  she  shall  appear  to  be 
eating,  so  that  he  may  not  make  the  mortifying  discovcr>'  that  he  is  the  last 
to  be  eating. 

A  ready  wit  and  a  merry  laugh  are  great  aids  to  a  hostess  in  entertaining 
a  party  of  this  description. 

Ceremonious  dinners  in  the  large  cities  arc  all  served  now<J  la  Russf :  that 
is,  nothing  is  put  on  the  table  but  the  dessert,  and  all  the  other  viands  are 
served  in  courses  by  waiters.  This  mode  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
old  method  of  putting  the  meats  and  vegetables  on  together,  as  it  does  away 
with  the  .awkwardness  and  confusion  of  carving  and  serving,  and  keeps  the 
table  in  a  much  neater  condition. 

The  modern  dinner  table  is  made  very  attractive  by  an  elaborate  display 
of  cut-flowers,  which,  taken  with  the  requisite  cut-glass  and  beautifully 
decorated  china  now  in  use,  give  an  aesthetic  aspect  to  what  might  be  otlicr- 
wisc  merely  the  gratification  of  a  sensual  appetite. 


.6^  Habits  to  be  Avoided  at  Table  ^i^, 

DO  not  eat  fast. 
Do  not  make  noise  with  mouth  or  throat. 
Do  not  fill  the  mouth  too  full. 
Do  not  open  the  mouth  in  mxsticating. 
Do  not  leave  the  tabic  with  food  in  your  mouth. 
Be  careful  to  avoid  soiling  the  cluih. 
Never  carry  anything  like  food  with  you  from  the  table. 
Never  apologize  to  the  waiters  for  making  them  trouble;  it  is  their  bast- 
ness  to  serve  you.     It  is  proper,  however,  to  treat  them  with  courtesy,  and 
say  •*  No,  I  thank  you,"  or  "  If  you  pIcLsc."  in  answer  to  their  inquiries. 
Do  not  introduce  disgusting  or  unpleasant  topics  of  conversation. 
Do  not  pick  your  teeth  or  put  your  finger  in  your  mouth  at  the  table. 
Do  not  come  to  ublc  in  yourshirt-slccvcs,  or  wiih  -i.iil.-.l  li:.n.k  or  t,m<le.l 
hair. 

Do  not  cut  your  bread  ;  break  it. 

Do  not  refuse  to  take  the  Ixst  piece  of  bread  or  cake ;  it  looks  as  though 
you  imagined  there  might  be  no  more. 

Do  not  express  a  preference  for  any  part  of  a  dish  unless  asked  lo  do  so. 


V 


Al 


K" 


720 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL  AND  PARTY. 


g.ii. f.iii.Li,;  f  :  » ji.j..i  .jitiii  Si  i'c;  a  5'  i'  i  s  3  [♦ :  i  ..  i*  ■  1  L'  :'»'£" i  i  i  !;"r»ii':  i  :  '.  :  *  -■  3 ■:■■;'■:';' ^ 


■% 


4» 


oP  tl7e(^all  ^(^apty.  fe 


^»&aHii!Iiiltii!iiiitii»qCH|iiiqDti<iiIi®iIiil[i<rijtiaai1IiIiiI  lIlii|l^IllIlIlIli»l!in^^#f!^ltgll!ll'»^||ll'<|l®||llIl^Sl^|||lilll^■^£jl 

^Pi.^ : : : .^_^ J^.L^^t-L  - -- 1.         '^     %   -:__ _ ^4%^ 


-f*^-'^'^"*" — 


^['■^  N'  invitation  to  a  ball  signifies  that  the  entertainment  is  exclusively 


r      /  \         for  dancin; 


J//  t/r\\C  '^^^  invitations  to  a  ball  should  be  delivered  by  a  footman  at 
/ff  iv^y  \n  least  two  weeks  before  the  evening  appointed,  and  should  receive 
^JLY^  \  an  immediate  answer. 

"  ■^\>  "  These  invitations  are  from  engraved  plates,  on  note  sheets,  and 
white  in  color.     They  are  worded  thus  : 

Ov'v 

The  form  of  acceptance  or  declination  is  much  the  same  as  In  the  dinner 
invitations,  substituting  "ball  "  for  "  dinner." 

The  first  requisites  for  a  pleasant  ball  are  good  rooms,  good  music  and 
plentj-  of  good  company.  No  one  should  attempt  to  give  an  entertainment 
of  this  sort  without  being  fully  prepared  for  considerable  expenditure  of 
time,  money  and  patience.  If  you  wish  your  friends  to  enjoy  the  dancing, 
you  must  give  them  good  music,  a  good  floor,  and  plenty  of  good  and  suit- 
able partners.  The  supper,  to  be  enjoyable,  must  be  well  served  and 
abundant  in  quantity. 

As  you  wish  your  ball  to  be  the  event  of  the  season,  you  must  have  your 
rooms  handsomely  decorated.  An  abundance  of  cut  flowers  should  be 
artistically  scattered  around,  with  here  and  there  a  tropical  plant  in  hall  and 
ball-room,  on  the  stairs,  in  recesses,  and  wherever  they  can  conveniently  be 
placed  with  good  effect  and  not  be  in  the  way.  The  fire-places  should  be 
screened  by  flowers  in  summer  and  by  guards  in  winter,  unless  heaters  are 
in  use,  in  which  case  the  latter  precaution  is  unnecessary.  By  the  help  of 
screens  and  flowers  it  is  easy  to  arrange  a  small  gallery  for  the  musicians,  so 
that  ihey  shall  be  heard  and  not  seen. 

A  refreshment-room ,  a  dressing-room  for  the  ladies,  and  one  for  the  gentle- 
men, should  be  provided. 


Ladies  will  attend  a  ball  in  elegant  and  elaborate  evening  dress.  Gentle- 
men will  appear  in  full  evening  dress. 

A  prudent  hostess  will  limit  her  invitations  to  the  size  of  her  ball-room,  in 
order  not  to  overcrowd  her  rooms  and  spoil  the  pleasure  of  the  dancers.  It 
is  safe  to  issue  a  few  more  invitations  than  you  can  accommodate,  on  the 
chance  of  a  number  not  appearing  on  the  arrival  of  the  evening. 

The  most  favorable  room  for  dancing  is  one  which  is  nearly  square,  but 
rather  longer  than  wide.  Such  a  room  will  admit  of  two  quadrille  parties 
at  once. 

The  top  of  a  ball-room  is  the  part  nearest  the  orchestra.  It  is  well  to 
know  this,  as  in  dancing  the  lop  couples  always  lead  off. 

A  good  floor  is  highly  important.  In  private  houses  nothing  is  better  than 
a  good  Holland  floor-cloth  well  stretched  over  the  carpet. 

Let  there  be  an  abundance  of  light  and  good  ventilation  in  your  ball-room. 

Good  music  is  as  essential  at  a  ball  as  good  wine  at  dinner,  and  no  hostess 
should  ta.\  her  guests  for  this  entertamment.  Verj'  few  amateurs  can  play 
dance  music  well.  Besides  that,  no  one  wants  to  be  tied  to  the  piano  all  the 
evening  playing  while  others  are  dancing.  For  this  reason,  a  hostess  should 
provide  skilled  musicians  to  play  for  her  guests. 

It  is  customary  to  provide  three  pieces  for  dancing:  a  piano  and  two 
violins,  or  piano,  comet  and  violin.  Sometimes  the  harp  and  violins  only 
are  used. 

The  ladies*  toilet-room  should  be  well  supplied  with  mirrors,  pins,  needles 
and  thread  for  repairing  rents,  and  plenty  of  attendants  to  assist  the  fan:  ones 
at  their  toilets.  It  is  well  to  check  wraps  and  give  a  duplicate  check  to  each 
lady. 

The  supper  hour  is  nsually  from  12  to  i  o'clock,  and  the  hour  of  departing 
from  2  to  3  A.M.  The  style  of  the  supper  is  apt  to  be  regulated  by  the 
wealth  of  the  host.  If  he  have  ample  means  it  is  customary  to  put  the 
whole  thing  in  the  hands  of  a  caterer,  and  have  it  served  up  in  good  stj-le, 
with  all  the  extra  appliances  of  salads,  oysters,  fancy  ices,  coffees,  wines 
and  fruits,  and  cakes  of  every  description. 

If  the  supper  be  home-made,  coffee  and  sandwiches,  with  fruit,  and  two  or 
three  kinds  of  ices  and  cake,  are  all-sufficient.  There  should  always  be  an 
abundance  provided,  however,  as  dancers  are  usually  hungry-  people. 

No  one  sits  down  to  a  ball  supper.  If  seats  are  ranged  around  the  room 
for  the  ladies,  the  gentlemen  stand. 

Carpet  should  be  laid  from  the  edge  of  the  pavement  to  the  doorway,  and 
if  the  evening  be  wet,  a  temporary  covering  should  be  erected  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  ladies  in  passing  from  their  carriages  to  the  house. 

A  gentleman  should  not  accept  an  invitatron  to  a  ball  if  he  does  not  dance, 
as  it  is  an  act  of  positive  neglect  for  gentlemen  to  hold  themselves  aloof  when 
ladies  are  waiting  anxiously  for  an  invitation  to  dance,  and  attempt  to 
dance  without  a  knowledge  of  the  art  is  not  only  to  make  yourself  ridicu- 
lous, but  your  partner  as  well. 


R- 


r^'" 


'? 


ETIQUETTK  OF  THE  GERMAN,  RECEPTIONS,  ETC. 


721 


^Ic GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS:}:-^ 

IT   is   folly  to  attempt  to  dance  a  figure  wiih  which  you  arc  unac- 
quainted.    In  round  dances,  hold  the  lady's  hand  easily  at  the  side, 
but  do  not  place  it  behind  you,  nor  raise  it  high  in  the  air.     In  quad- 
rilles, a  knowledge  of  the   French  terms  employed   is  necessary  in 
only  the  very  choicest  circles.    These  are  : 
Balancez. — Swing  partners. 
Ba.'ancez  aux  coins. — Swing  corneis. 
Balancez  qtmtre  en  ligne. — Set  four  in  a  line. 
Chaine  Anglaisc—  Head  couples  right  and  left. 
Chatne  Anglaise  double.—  Double  right  and  left. 
Chaine  Anglaise  demi.—  Half  right  and  left. 
Chaine  des  datnes. —  Ladies'  ch  jin. 

Chaine  des  dames  double. —  Ladies'  chain  beginning  together. 
Chaine  la  grande.~Qxd.n^  right  and  left. 


Ckassez, —  Move  to  right  and  left  or  to  left  and  right. 

Chassez  croisaz.—  Ladies  and  gentlemen  chassez  In  opposite  directions. 

Caz'alier  seul. —  Gentlemen  advance  alone. 

Demi  promenade.—  All  half  promenade. 

Dos-d-dos. —  Back  to  back. 

Glissade. —  A  gliding  step. 

Lagrande  ronde. —  Alt  join  hands  at.d  advance  and  retire  twice. 

La  grande  tour  du  rond. —  Join  hands  and  dance  round  figure. 

La  grande  promenade . —  All  promenade  round  figure. 

Le  mottlinet. —  Hands  across. 

Demi-moulinet. —  Ladies  advance  to  cenicr,  give  right  hand  and  retire. 

TVrtZ't'rjcs.— Opposite  persons  change  places. 

Re-traverses. —  Cross  back  lo  place. 

yis-d-vis. —  Face  to  face. 

Be  not,  while  dancing,  confined  to  observations  concerning  the  weather 
or  the  number  of  people  present ;  but  having  asked  a  lady  lo  dance,  be  a» 
agieeable  to  her  as  possible. 


■^ 


m^  Etiquette  of  ^lie  German,  Receptions 

•••tj 


-^;^    AND   PARTIES   IN   GENERAL   j 
— J -.,- 


■••THE  GERMAN  ^-^ 


jJ'USTOM  decides  that  no  lady's  series  of  entertainments  are  com- 

li/rW   ^   plete  without  "  the  prime  favorite." 

splrTjiT^  Young  ladles  are  now  much  accustomed  to  forming  social  clubs, 
AWV'i^yll  with  pretty,  suggestive  names,  which  meet  at  the  houses  of  the 
different  members. 
The  Informalliles  of  the  German  necessitate  great  care  in  the 
inviting  of  the  guests.  It  is  necessary  that  all  shall  have  been  formally  in- 
troduced, as  no  lady  can  refuse  lo  dance  with  a  gentleman  whom  she  may 
have  received  as  a  partner  so  long  as  she  remain  in  the  circle. 

Favors  arc  given  in  most  of  the  figures,  some  of  them  being  very  elegant 
and  cvpcnsive,  while  others  are  comparatively  inexpensive,  but  uiiiciuc  in 
design.  The  principal  point  Is  to  have  a  set  of  favors  differing  in  design 
from  those  presented  at  any  other  entertainment. 

Invitations  to  the  German  should  be  sent  at  least  ten  days  in  advance. 
They  should  be  from  engraved  plates,  and  in  the  following  form  : 


^  RECEPTIONS  or  AT  HOMES  •#► 

HE  full-dress   reception  is  an  event  of  considerable  importance  in 
the  social  world. 

Invitations  should  be  issued  at  least  two  weeks  beforehand,  as 
for  balU  or  dinner^.    It  prevents  previous  engagement.  They  should 
be  engraved  on  heavy  white  card  uf  the  finest  texture.     The  form  is: 

S'WUxLoAv  -VM/WvvvO^.,  ^''\/i^j>^\\Javr  ^-vcv.. 

The  invitations  should  be  dehvcrcd  by  the  footm.in,  as  arc  wedding  and 
dinner  invitations,  etc. 

A  serving-man  should  be  provided  to  open  the  carriage  door,  another  lo 
receive  the  cards  and  show  the  guests  to  their  dressing-room. 

The  gentlemen  escort  their  ladies  to  the  host  and  hostess.  If  there  i*  to 
be  dancing  it  is  mentioned  on  the  card  of  invitation. 


722. 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  GERMAN,  RECEPTIONS.  ETC. 


In  New  York  it  is  quite  the  custom  to  present  each  guest  with  some  ele- 
gant little  souvenir  of  the  occasion,  something  similar  to  the  favors  of  ihe 
"  German." 

When  the  daughter  is  receiving  with  her  mother,  her  name  is  placed  on  the 
card  of  invitation  heluw  her  mother's,  thus  : 


^■^^Xo^^ 


%Kk^ 


Young  ladies  are  permitted  to  d.ince  during  the  evening,  the  mother 
remaining  at  her  post  of  reception;  but  the  daughter  should  return  to  her 
place  as  soon  as  the  dance  is  over. 

A  young  lady  should  not  dance  more  than  once  with  the  same  gentleman 
at  her  own  reception. 

You  should  attend  receptions  in  full  evening  dress,  and  good  breeding 
demands  that  you  do  not  present  yourself  at  the  beginning,  nor  remain  until 
the  close  of  the  evening. 

When  your  name  is  announced,  look  for  the  lady  of  the  house  and  pay 
your  respects  first  to  her.  She  will  usually  be  found  stationed  near  the  door, 
particularly  if  the  party  be  large.  You  are  at  liberty,  however,  to  salute 
such  fritinds  and  acquaintances  as  you  may  meet  in  making  your  way 
through  the  crowd. 

It  is  well  to  throw  open  as  many  rooms  as  possible,  and  to  have  tables 
scattered  around  here  and  there,  covered  with  choice  engravings,  photo- 
graphic views,  valuable  scrapbooks,  etc.,  for  the  entertainment  of  the  guests. 

If  some  eminent  person  be  among  the  company,  it  is  not  in  good  taste  for 
every  one  to  follow  him  around,  hanging  on  his  words  and  striving  for  an 
introduction. 

The  hostess  should  see  that  her  company  does  not  break  up  into  cliques  of 
twos  or  threes,  as  such  a  plan  leaves  a  number  out  who  do  not  possess  any 
great  conversational  powers. 

Should  any  guest  be  invited  by  the  hostess  to  play  the  piano,  she  should 
not  v/ait  to  be  urged,  offering  excuses,  but  rise  quietly,  proceed  to  the  piano 
and  play  something  short  and  suitable  to  the  gathering. 

A  natural  tact  will  suggest  what  to  play.  In  a  company  of  musical  con- 
noisseurs a  sonata  of  Beethoven  would  not  be  out  of  place,  but  in  a  general 
company  something  lighter  and  shorter  would  be  more  appropriate. 

Never  play  upon  the  invitation  of  any  one  but  the  hostess.  Should  any  one 
else  make  the  request,  turn  it  off  as  gracefully  as  you  can,  but  do  not  comply. 


-^  PARTIES  IN  GEHERAL  *^ 

[  HE  guests  should  be  more  intimate  acquaintances  than  at  a  h.dt  or 
'  full-dress  reception.     The  hours  before  supper  are  spent  in  social 
conversation.     After  supper,  which  is  ser\'cd  much  earlier  than  at 
a  ball,  dancing  is  usually  the  order  of  the  cvcnint,'. 
The  time  for  departure  is  not  later  than  i  o'clock. 

A  call,  or  leaving  of  the  card,  should  always  precede  an  invitation  to  a 
party. 


A  call  in  person  or  by  card  is  required  by  etiquette  after  the  party,  from  all 
those  who  have  been  the  recipients  of  invitation. 

The  same  general  rules  of  etiquette  apply  in  the  case  of  parties  as  at  full- 
dress  receptions  and  balls. 

The  laws  of  courtesy  and  good  breeding  will  be  observed  by  gentlemen 
and  ladies  wherever  they  may  be,  whether  on  the  croquet  ground,  at  the 
informal  picnic,  or  at  the  formal  dinner  party.  And  the  code  is  much  the 
same. 


/ 


^@:  JUVENILE  PARTIES  :@#- 

IT  is  now  quite  fashionable  to  give  entertainments  for  the  younger 
members  of  the  family.  These  birthday  and  doll  parties  are  fre- 
quently the  source  of  as  much  amusement  to  the  elders  as  to  the  little 
ones  who  attend  them.  A  regularly  engraved  card  is  sent  out  after 
this  design  : 

-}Lo^i>'Wr  ^^^<\f^\Xfij'y  ^OA.wx\/iy 
OAjv^o/^uj  /V^av/^VvO/^  D'V<v'!AwJa-vr  VO'Vcv., 

Another  form  is  : 

iVi-VJv   i<>\^'V   \>/.v'OW   'VvV^My. 


K" 


"71 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  GERMAN,  RECEPTIONS,  ETC. 


723 


-^^5^..  BAL  MASQUE  •••^^H 


Invitations  to  a  bitl  tnasque  should  be    elegant    in    design    and  read    as 


follows ; 


>}^^. 


o-w 


TWENTY^FIRST  BIRTHDAY  PARTIES. 

A  grand  celebration  is  usually  given  in  honor  of  a  son's  attainment  to  his 
majority.     The  form  of  invitation,  on  engraved  cards,  is: 

^AJ.'i./i/lo^   V3VAA/^A/5/^  ^/^^MAJiO^W   'S'VCV^ 


-j^-"  BREAKFASTS  •♦^^^^ 

Invitations  to  breakf:isls  and  suppers  should  be  informal  and  written 
on  correspondence  cards,  with  crest  or  monogram  on  top  left  corner.  The 
form  is : 

D-U/VUJvWr  Lvcv. 


♦^AFTERNOON  RECEPTIOKS  ^ 

VERY  popular  entertainment  for  ladies  exclusively  is  the  tea  or 
rtA\  afternoon  reception.  The  hours  are  from  4  to  6  p.m.,  and  if 
IV  continued  later  these  affairs  partake  of  the  nature  of  more  formal 
-i/l_j3*Ki  entertainments.  The  refreshments  are  light,  and  all  ostentatious 
display  is  avoided. 

The  hostess  receives  her  guests  at  the  table,  and  dispenses  tea  and  the 
otlier  delicacies  to  them,  which  they  receive  from  the  tray  borne  by  domes- 
tics, and  eat  or  drink  standing.  On  leaving  they  can  dispense  with  the  for- 
mality of  bidding  the  hostess  adieu.  The  form  of  invilatton,  printed  on 
large-sized  visiting  cards  from  engraved  plates,  is  : 


«4^YQUKG  LADIES'  DEBUT -^-s-* 


^||"^4  TIQUETTE    decides   that  in  this  country,  as  in  England,  young 

"  '>f  ladies  shall  seldom  be  seen,  except  at  family  gatherings,  imtil  their 
*  >  school  life  shall  be  terminated,  and  then  they  shall  be  formally  in- 
ji     troduced  into  society. 

Three  weeks  previous  to  their  debut,  cards  are  left  for  those  acquaintances 
who  are  to  receive  invitations.  A  week  or  ten  days  previous  engraved  invi- 
tations are  sent, 

Durin,i^  the  reception  the  young  lady's  position  is  to  the  right  of  her 
mother  or  chaperon,  where  she  receives  the  congratulations  of  her  friends. 
The  guests  should  make  their  congnxtulations  brief,  and  pass  on  to  make 
room  for  others. 

The  first  dance  should  he  accorded  only  to  some  intimate  friend  of  the 
family,  and  the  d^btttante  should  dance  but  once  with  the  same  gentleman 
in  the  course  of  the  evening. 

For  one  year  the  young  lady  is  allowed  to  make  calls  only  with  her 
mother  or  other  suitable  chaperon.  After  that  time  she  can  receive  or  call 
at  her  pleasure. 


■fW 


724 


ETIQUETTE  OK  RiniNG  AND  DRIVING. 


ii_ 


^  Eti^aette  •  oP  •  Riding  •  ^QgI  •  DHVin^.^ll- 


If 


^ 


RIDING  is  an  accomplishment  in  which  all  ladies  and  gentlemen 

^lij)  should  be  proficient.     Riding,  like  swimming,  cannot  be  taught 

by  precept ;  it  must  be  taught  early  and  practiced  constantly — as 

,'^\\^   little  in  the  school  and  as  much  upon  the  road  as  possible, 

;.!_!  l,/\\\       A  lady's  riding-habit  should  be  simple,  close-fitting,  and  made 

"^-'.Ai  by  a  first-raie  tailor.     The  later  habit  is  much  shorter  and  nar- 
rower than  the  old  style, 
and  is  always  worn  with 
pantaloons    of    the    same 
material  underneath. 

A  lady  can  indulge  her 
love  of  luxury  only  in  her 
riding-whip.  This  may 
be  jewelled,  and  as  ele- 
gant as  she  may  wish. 
Her  gloves  must  always 
be  unexceptionable. 

The  art  of  mounting 
must  be  properly  acquired, 
since  in  riding,  as  in  other 
things,  it  is  proficiency  in 
trifles  that  proclaims  the 
artist. 

The  lady,  having  mount- 
ed the  riding-steps,  places 
her  left  foot  in  the  stirrup, 
rises  into  her  seat  and  lifts 
the  right  leg  into  its  place, 
taking  care  to  let  the  habit 
fall  properly. 

If  no  riding-steps  are 
at  hand,  her  escort  or 
groom  must  assist  her  to 
mount.  Hence  she  must 
learn  to  mount  in  both 
ways.  In  the  latter  case 
she  places  her  left  foot 
in  the  right  hand  uf  the 
gentleman  or  s'irvant ;  he 
lifts  it  vigorously  but  gen- 
tly, and  she  springs  lightly  into  the  saddle, 

A  lady  who  rides  much  and  wishes  to  keep  her  figure  straight   should 
have  two  saddles,  and  change  from  one  to  the  other. 


LADY  AND  GENTLEMAN  RIDING. 


The  great  point  in  riding  is  to  sit  straight  in  the  middle  of  your  saddle,  to 
know  the  temper  of  your  horse,  and  to  be  able  to  enjoy  a  good  galop  in 
moderation. 

Ladies  should  not  lean  forward  in  riding. 

They  should  not  rise  in  the  saddle  in  trotting. 

They  should  know  how  to  hold  the  reins  and  the  different  uses  of  each. 

A  gentleman,  in  riding, 
as  in  walking,  gives  the 
lady  the  wall. 

In  assisting  a  lady  to 
mount,  hold  your  hand 
at  a  convenient  distance 
from  the  ground,  that  she 
may  place  her  foot  in  it. 
As  she  springs,  assist  her 
with  the  impetus  of  your 
arm.  Practice  only  will 
enable  you  to  do  this 
properly. 

A  gentleman  should  be 
able  to  mount  on  either 
side  of  his  horse.  He 
places  his  left  foot  in  the 
stirrup,  his  left  hand  on 
the  saddle,  and  swings 
himself  up,  throwing  his 
right  leg  over  the  horse's 
back.  Nothing  is  more 
awkward  than  to  see  a 
man  climb  into  a  saddle 
with  both  hands. 

The  correct  position  is 
to  sit  upright  and  well 
back  in  the  saddle ;  to 
keep  the  knees  pressed 
well  in  against  the  sides 
of  the  saddle,  and  the  feet 
parallel  to  the  horse's 
body ;  to  turn  the  toes 
The  foot  should  be  about  half-way  in  the  stirrup. 

th^  art  ot  riding  is  plenty  of  confidence.     A 


in  rather  than  out 

The  great  desideratum 
timid  person  can  never  be  a  good  rider 


Al 


K" 


ETIQUETTE  OF  RIDING  AND  DRIVING. 


725 


^ 


-vi 


When  escorting  a  lady  be  sure  that  her  horse  is  quite  safe,  every  part  of 
its  harness  in  perfect  condition,  and  keep  on  the  alert  to  assist  her  on  tlie 
slightest  sign  of  danger. 

A  gentleman  riding  with  two  ladies  will  keep  to  the  right  of  both,  unless  it 
be   necessary  for  him  to 
riJebetwccn  them  in  order 
t'l  render  some  assistance, 

Indismounting,  thcgen- 
tLmnn  will  take  the  lady's 
kft  hand  in  his  right,  re- 
move the  stirrup  and  place 
her  foot  in  bis  left  band, 
lowering  her  gently  to  the 
ground. 

Keep  on  the  right  or  o(T 
side,  and  never  presume 
lo  touch  her  mount  any 
more  than  you  would  that 
of  a  gentleman  friend. 


ETIQ 


UETTE 

OS' 

5l  HE  art  of  driving 
is  simple  enough, 
butrequires  prac- 
tice. No  one 
should  pretend  who  does 
not  understand  every  part 
of  the  harness  and  be  able 
to  harness  or  unharness  a 
horse  himself. 

A  good  driver  will  use  his  horse  well,  whether  it  b  ■  his  own  or  another's. 
>i  ■  will  turn  corners  gently,  and  know  when  to  drive  fast  antl  when  lo 
eas.  him  up. 

In  \e  carriage,  a  gentleman  places  himself  with  his  back  to  the  horses, 
leavin^    the  best  seat   for   the  ladies.      Only   very   elderly   gentlemen  are 


LADY  ALIGHTING. 


privileged  to  take  the  backseat  to  the  exclusion  of  young  ladies.  No  geni'.e- 
man  driving  alone  with  a  lady  should  sit  beside  her,  unless  he  is  her  hus- 
band, father,  son  or  brother.  Even  an  affianced  lover  should  remember  this 
rule  of  etiquette. 

To  get  in  and  out  of 
a  carriage  gracefully  is 
q-.iite  an  accomplishmtnt. 
If  there  is  but  one  step, 
and  you  are  going  to  face 
the  horsts,  put  your  kft 
f  "A  on  the  step  and  the 
■'her  in  the  carriage,  so 
ili.it  you  can  drop  at  once 
into  your  seal.  If  you 
are  to  sit  the  other  way, 
reverse  the  process.  Be 
careful  to  turn  your  back 
the  way  you  intend  sitting, 
<in  as  to  avoid  turning 
.rnund. 

A  gentleman  should  be 
careful  to  avoid  stepping 
on  the  lady's  dress  in  gel- 
ling into  the  carriage.  He 
•  liould  be  careful  also  not 
1"  catch  it  in  the  door  as 


'•■■•:  closes  it. 

A  gentleman  should  al- 
ways get  out  of  a  carriage 
first,  in  order  to  assist  the 
lady  in  alighting. 

When  a  gentleman  in- 
tends taking  a  lady  driv- 
ingin  aone-seated  vehicle, 
he  should  always  l.e  sure 
his  horse  is  a  safe  one  be- 
fore trusting  himself  with 
it,  as  he  is  obliged  lo  get 

out  to  assist  the  lady  in  and  cut  of  the  vehicle.     When  helping  her  in  he 

should  be  careful  always  to  hold  the  reins  so  that  he  can  check  the  animal 

in  case  it  should  start  suddenly. 

The  dress  should  never  be  lifted  in  alighting  from  a  carriage,  but  left  lo 

trail  upon  the  ground. 


K  'i j>- 


--Hr-*- 


V  Ehi^Liette  •:•  of-:-  [.lie  •:•  ®tf®eet  •:• 


^^^r^^^"^— S^-5-«- — ^"'^ 


+|^|-if. 


LADY  will  bow  first  if  she  meets  a  gentleman  acquaintance  on 
the  street. 

A  lady  will  not  stop  on  the  street  to  converse  with  a  gentle- 
man. If  he  wishes  to  chat  with  her  he  will  turn  and  walk  by 
her  side  until  he  has  finished  his  conversation,  then  raise  his  hat 
and  leave  her. 

It  is  not  etiquette  for  a 
lady  to  take  the  arm  of  a 
gentleman  on  the  street 
in  the  day  time,  unless  he 
bealover  or  husband,  and 
even  then  it  is  seldom 
done  in  America. 

In  England  it  is  per- 
missible for  a  lady  to  ac- 
cept the  arm  of  even  an 
ordinary  acquaintance  on 
the  street.  In  foreign 
cities  it  is  not  comme  il 
faut  for  ladies  to  appear 
on  the  street  at  all  with- 
out a  gentleman. 

A  gentleman  escorting 
two  ladies  may  offer  each 
an  arm,  but  a  lady  should 
never  under  any  circum- 
stances walk  between  two 
gentlemen  holding  an  arm 
of  each. 

On  meeting  friends  or 
acquainLinccsonthestreet 
or  in  public  places,  you 
should  be  careful  not  to 
call  their  names  so  loudly 
as  to  attract  the  attention 
of  those  around. 

Never  call  across  the 
street,  and  never  carry  on 
a  conversation  in  a  public 
vehicle  unless  you  arc  seated  side  by  side. 

Gentlemen  should  never  stare  at  ladies  on  the  street. 

In  walking  with  a  lady  a  gentleman  should  take  charge  of  any  small  par- 
cel, book,  etc.,  with  which  she  may  be  burdened. 


STREET  PROMENADE  SCENE. 


Never  recognize  a  gentlemen  unless  you  are  perfectly  sure  of  his  identity. 
Nothing  is  more  awkward  than  a  mistake  of  this  kind. 

A  well-bred  man  must  entertain  no  respect  for  the  brim  of  his  hat.  Tnie 
politeness  demands  that  the  hat  be  removed  entirely  from  the  head.  Merely 
to  nod  or  to  touch  the  brim  of  your  hat  is  a  lack  of  courtesy.    The  body 

should  not  be  bent  at  all 
in  bowing. 

A  gentleman  will  always 
give  a  lady  the  inside  of 
the  walk  on  the  street. 

Ladies  should  avoid 
walking  rapidly  on  the 
street,  as  it  is  ungraceful. 
A  gentleman  walking 
with  a  lady  should  ac- 
commodate his  step  to 
hers.  Itlookse.\ceedingly 
awkward  to  see  a  gentle- 
man two  or  three  paces 
ahead  of  a  lady  with 
whom  he  is  supposed  to 
be  walking. 

Staring  at  people,  ex- 
pectorating, looking  back 
on  the  stieet,  c;dllng  in  a 
loud  voice,  laughing,  etc., 
are  very  bad  manners  on 
the  street. 

A  gentleman  attemling 
a  lady  will  hold  the  door 
open  for  her  to  pass.  He 
will  also  perform  the 
same  service  for  any  lady 
passing  in  or  out  unat- 
tended. 

A  gentleman  may  assist 

a  lady  from  an  omnibus, 

or  over   a  bad  crossing, 

without   the  formality  of 

an  introduction.     Having  performed  the  service,  he  will  bow  and  retire. 

No  gentleman  will  smoke  when  standing  or  walking  with  a  lady  on  the  street. 

A  quiet  and  unobtrusive  demeanor  upon  the  street  is  the  sign  of  a  true 

lady,  who  goes  about  her  own  affairs  in  a  business-like  way  and  has  always 

a  pleasant  nod  and  smile  for  friends  and  acquaintances. 


V 


FT 


ETIQUKTTE  OF  TRAVELLING. 


727 


^'Ww^^ 


«^ 


V  V  Eti^Liethe  •:•  oFv  ^raVellin^  •:•  •:•  --3 


aO  class  of  people  carry  with  them  so  many  distinguishing  marks 

I  as  the  experienced  and  the  iiicxperienced  traveller.     The  former 

If/KFI   is  always  cool  and  collected,  occupies  the  best  seat  in  the  middle 

///   of  the  car  on  the  shady  side  and  next  to  the  window,  and  is 

_  \lr-   especially  remarkable  for  a  total  lack  of  flnrry  and  anxiety. 

^zJ\^  All  this  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  has  had  a  long  and  varied 
experience  as  a  traveller,  and  in  that  way  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  minor 
points  ill  travelling  which  go  far  toward  begetting  that  state  of  peaceful  con- 
fidence which  is  the  source  of  much  envy  lo  the  uninitiated. 

The  experienced  traveller  is  always  on  time  ;  he  keeps  a  time-table  of  the 
trains  at  hand  for  refer- 
ence and  never  fails  to 
have  his  watch  going  cor- 
rectly. His  baggage  is 
always  properly  checked 
andhls  ticket  safely  stowed 
away  in  his  inside  pocket. 
Being  certain  that  he  is 
on  the  right  train,  with 
everything  in  order,  his 
mind  is  serene  and  a  smile 
of  benignant  complacency 
illumines  his  coimtenance  '^***'*^iL 
as  he  unfolds  his  evening 
paper  or  reviews  the  faces 
of  his  fellow  passengers. 
The  inexperienced  travel- 
ler comes  hurrying  on  the 
train  at  the  last  moment, 
all  in  a  heat  and  flurry, 
and  is  scarcely  seated  on 
the  last  seat  in  the  car, 
where  he'll  catch  all  the 
drafts  from  the  opening 
door,  when  he  discovers 
that  he  has  lost  his  tickc. 
or  forgotten  to  check  his 
baggage.  Then  ensue;  a 
storm  of  anxious  enquiries 
and  qucndcnis  complain- 
ings, and  before  he  has 
reached  his  destination  he 
is  voted  a  bore  by  all  his 
fellow  passengers. 

*^  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TRAVELLERS^ 

JONSIDER  what  route  you  intend  taking  when  you  arc  contemplat- 
ing a  journey,  and  decide  definitely  upon  it.     Go  to  the  ticket-office 
of  the  road  and  procure  a  time-table,  where  you  will  find  the  hour 
for  leaving,  together  with  names  of  stations  on  the  road,  etc. 
When  you  intend  taking  a  sleeping-berth,  secure  your  ticket  for  same  a 
day  or  two  before  you  intend  starting,  so  as  to  obtain  a  desirable  location. 


RAILWAY  CAR  SCENE.  PROPER. 


A  lowtr  berth  in  the  centre  of  the  car  is  always  the  most  comfortable,  as 
you  escape  the  jar  of  the  wheels  and  drafts  from  the  opening  door. 

Take  as  little  baggage  as  possible,  and  see  that  your  trunks  are  strong  and 
securely  f:istcned.  A  good,  stout  leather  strap  is  a  safeguard  against  bursting 
locks. 

In  checkmg  your  baggage,  look  to  the  checks  yourself,  to  make  sure  the 
numbers  correspond.     Having  once  received  your  check,  you  need  not  con- 
cern yourself  further  about  your  baggage.     The  company  is  responsible  for 
its  safe  delivery. 
It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  have  your  name  and  address  carefully  written 

up   n  any  small  article  of 

ba^jgage,  such  as  satchel, 

umbrella,  duster,  etc.,  so 

that   in    case    you    leave 

thtm  in  the  car  the  rail- 

vyi    way  employes  may  know 

where  to  send  them. 

An  overcoat  or  package 

'^  ly  ng  upon   a  seat   is   an 

indication  that  the  seat  is 

taken  and  the  owner  has 

only  left  temporarily.     It 

wo  lid,  therefore,  be  rude 

in     you    to    remove     the 

J   -irt  cics    and   occupy   the 

seit. 

It  is  only  courteous  for 

a  gentleman, secingalady 

looking  for  a  seat,  to  offer 

the    one    beside   him,   as 

i      scarcely  likes  to  seat 

clfbeside  him  without 

1  invitation,  although 

will,  of  course,  if  there 

no    entirely    vacant 

(.    s,  do  so  in  preference 

t       tanding. 

\  courteous  geniknian 
II    also    relinquish    his 
e  to  two  ladies,  or  a 
leman  and  lady  who 
re     together,    and     seek 
other      acconunodations. 
Such   a  sacrifice    always 
receives  its  reward  in  grateful  admiration  of  his  character. 

Ladies  travelling  alone,  when  addressed  in  a  courteous  manner  by  gentle- 
men, should  reply  politely  to  the  remark  ;  and  in  long  journeys  it  is  even 
allowable  to  enter  into  conversation  without  the  formality  of  an  introduction. 
But  a  true  lady  will  always  know  how  to  keep  the  conversation  from  bor- 
dering on  familiarity,  and  by  a  quiet  dignity  and  sudden  hnuteur  will  effect- 
ually check  any  attempt  at  presumption  on  the  part  of  her  strange  acquaint- 
ance. 


VL 


>\^ 


728 


LADIES  TRAVELLING  WITHOUT  ESCORT. 


Always  consult  the  comfort  of  others  wh:n  travelling.  You  should  not 
open  either  door  or  window  in  a  railway  coach  without  first  ascertaining  if 
it  will  be  agreeable  to  those  near  enough  to  be  affected  by  it.  Ladies,  in 
[larticul-ir,  should  remember  that  they  have  not  chartered  the  whole  coach, 
but  only  paid  for  a  small  fraction  of  it,  and  be  careful  not  to  monopolize  the 
drcs:.!ng-room  for  two  or  three  hours  at  a  stretch,  while  half  a  dozen  or 
more  are  waiting  outside  to  arrange  their  toilets. 


Genteel  travellers  will  always  carry  their  own  toilet  articles,  and  not  depend 
on  the  public  brush  and  comb. 

A  lady  will  avoid  over-dressing  in  travelling.  Silks  and  velvets,  laces  and 
jewelry  are  terribly  out  of  place  on  a  railroad  train.  The  appointments  of 
the  traveller  may  be  as  elegant  as  you  please,  but  they  should  be  distinguished 
by  exceeding  plainness  and  quietness  of  tone.  Some  ladies  have  an  idea 
that  any  old  thing  is  good  enough  to  travel  in,  and  so  look  exceedingly 
shabbv  on  the  train. 


3SC 


j^J#!iis4= 


m  kadie^  ^raVellin^  v/itl^oLih  E^eopt.B 


-^^nm^' 


N  America  the  liberty  of  action  accorded  women  is  so  much  greater  than 
that  allowed  in  any  other  country  in  the  world  that  a  special  code  of 
etiquette  on  some  points  is  necessary  in  order  to  inform  them  how  to  act 
f  I        under  all  circumstances. 

r_/\  In  England,  the  land  of  greatest  liberty  after  ours,  no  lady  of  much 
"v  genlility  makes  a  journuy  witliout  a  male  escort  or  at  least  the  company 
of  her  maid.  Here  it  is  quite  common  for  ladies  of  ihe  best  families  .ind 
greatest  refinement  to  make  journeys  of  length  without  the  attendance  of  a 
male  relative.  Very  young  ladies  are  not  allowed  to  travel,  however, 
without  the  attendance  of  some  ol  ler  pers  e'tl  er  m  le  or  f  m  le 
The  directions  for  travel- 
ling having  been  given 
elsewhere,  we  will  confine 
our  directions  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  an  unattended 
lady  shall  behave  at 

THE  HOTEL 

LADY  should   en- 

t.  ter  a  hotel  by 
4*  way  of  the  ladies' 
t^entrance.  A  ser- 
vant is  always  in  attend- 
ance at  the  door  to  show 
her  to  the  parlor,  where 
she  will  be  waited  upon 
by  the  proprietor  or  clerk, 
to  whom  she  should  pre- 
sent her  card  and  stale 
how  long  she  intends  re- 
maining. 

A  simple  request  to  the 
waiter,  particularly  if  it 
be  backed  by  a  slight  re- 
muneration, will  ensure 
his  meeting  her  at  the 
dining-room  entrance  and 
preceding  her  to  her  seat, 
thus  obviating  the  slight 
awkwardness  of  crossing 
a  full  dming-room  with- 
out an  escort. 

All  conversation  at  a  hotel  table  should  be  conducted  in  .i  low  tone  of  voice 
so  as  not  to  attract  attention,  and  especially  should  care  be  taken  that  no  re- 
marks of  a  personal  nature  are  overheard  by  others.  A  lady  will,  of  course, 
not  enter  into  conversation  with  any  but  friends  at  a  public  table. 

While  waiting  to  be  served  it  is  permissible  to  read  a  paper  at  a  hotel 
table.  All  orders  should  be  given  in  a  low  but  clear  and  distinct  tone  of 
voice.  Never  ask  any  one  at  the  table  to  pass  you  anything.  That  is  the 
duty  of  the  waiter. 

Never  point  to  any  article  wanted;  a  glance  at  the  dish,  with  a  quiet  request 
or  a  mere  look  at  the  waiter,  is  usually  sufficient. 


RAILWAY  CAR  SCENE    IMPROPER 


AH  loud  and  ostentatious  dressing  is  out  of  place  in  a  hotel  dining-room.  A 
quiet,  unassuming  dress  of  clolh  or  plain  black  silk  is  the  most  ladylike. 

When  a  lady  is  without  escort  it  would  be  best  for  her  not  to  take  her  sup- 
per in  the  dining-room  late  in  the  evening.  She  can  have  a  me.d  sent  lo  her 
room  at  a  trifling  extra  cost. 

A  lady  should  never  loiter  in  the  halls,  nor  stand  alone  at  a  hotel  window. 
She  should  never  hum  to  herself  while  going  through  the  halls,  nor  play  on 
the  piano,  nor  sing  in  a  hotel  parlor  unless  invited  to  do  so. 

It  is  desirable  when  stopping  at  a  hotel  to  secure  a  pleasant,  comfortable 
roon      V  "th  plentj  of  a'r  and  sunshine  and  a  good  outlook. 

~  Be  sure  to  lock  your 
trunk  and  the  door  of  your 
room  whenever  leaving  it. 
If  your  have  valuables, 
such  as  diamonds  and 
much  money,  it  is  safer  to 
leave  them  with  the  pro- 
prietor to  be  locked  in  the 
safe.  They  can  easily  be 
obtained  whenever  wan  ted 
by  ringing  for  them. 

It  is  never  the  act  nf  a 
lady  or  gentleman  to  be 
scolding  at  servants.  If 
their  conduct  gives  yuu 
dissatisfaction,  compl.iin 
to  the  proprietoi .  Always 
tender  your  requests  in  a 
pleasant  and  courteous 
manner,  and  you  will  usu- 
ally find  them  promptly 
attended  to. 

As  a  lady  without  escort 
is    apt    to    require    more 
service  than  one  who  has, 
it  is  only  riglit  to  tender 
a  little  extra    fee    to   the 
servant  who  has  been  es- 
pecially attentive.     A  re- 
taining fee,  that  is,  a  small 
sum  given  at  the  outset,  is 
very  apt  tosecure  all  the  at- 
tention that  can  be  desired. 
A  lady  should  always  avoid  all  hurry  and  bustle  in  travelling  by  securing 
her  ticket  beforehand  and  having  her  trunk  packed  and  ready  to  express  in 
good  time. 

In  order  to  secure  herself  positively  against  all  impertinence  and  intrusion 
when  unattended,  a  lady  has  need  of  a  great  deal  of  dignity  and  quiet  re- 
serve :  if  she  be  naturally  of  a  lively  and  chatty  disposition,  she  must  beware 
how  she  indulge  these  innogent  propensities,  lest  they  be  misunderstood. 
An  intelligent  and  thoroughbred  lady,  however,  can  travel  alone  anywhere 
in  America  without  experiencing  the  slightest  lack  ol  respect  or  courteous 
attention. 


HOME   ETIQUETTK. 


729 


♦♦(g)**®-*-*-®^-^®**©**®** 


•:•)!(•:•   Home  •:•  Ehi'^jLiette.   •:•);(■:■ 


gjy^  0'Hi>@*^@'M^^.^M^\ 


J'V'&\t,  ^*V*V' 


-4-+l-^<^f-(^- 


^^S^  HILDREN  should  speak   respectfully   lo   parents  and   obey  the 
(i^rAf    L    slightest  command  immediately. 
~       |T^/~         Parents  should  address  a  child  In 


mild,  pleasant,  but  firm 
manner.     Issue   no  orders  but  those   of  a  just   and  reasonable 
_  nature,  and  then  see  that  they  are  obeyed. 

-/^i-^  '       Govern  with  justice  and  kindness  and  home  will  be  indeed  a 


little  heaven  on  earth. 


4-- 
-f — 1=^ 


THE  LADY'S  TOILET^ 


-Hr 


Cleanliness  is  the  outward  sign  of  inward  purity.  Cleanliness  is  health, 
and  health  is  beauty. 

The  first  business  of  the  dressing-room  is  the  bath,  and  this  should  be  a 
complete  bath,  and  not  simply  a  hasty  washing  of  the  face.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  a  lady  washes  to  become  clean,  but  simply  to  remain  clean. 
A  bathing  of  the  entire  body  at  least  once  a  day  is  essential  to  health.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  have  a  bath  tub  for  this  purpose,  but  merely  an  ordinary 
basin  of  tepid  water,  with  soap,  sponge  and  clean  towels. 

The  whole  body  may  be  quickly  sponged  off,  or  the  sponge  may  be  dis- 
penscil  with  and  the  hands  alone  used  to  convey  the  water  to  the  body, 
after  which  dry  the  body  thoroughly  with  a  soft  towel,  and  then  use  a  coarse 
Turkish  towel  vigorously  until  the  skin  is  red  from  the  friction.  In  lieu  of 
the  coarse  towel,  a  libenil  use  of  the  flesh-brush  may  be  made,  but  either 
one  or  both  must  be  regularly  used,  as  nothing  tends  to  keep  the  complexion 
in  good  condition  so  much  as  the  daily  use  of  the  flesh-brush. 

Persons  living  in  cities  where  Turkish  baths  are  established  will  find  a 
baih  of  this  kind  once  a  week  very  beneficial  to  their  health.  Oftcner  than 
this  the  baths  would  be  apt  to  have  an  enervating  effect.  But  an  occasional 
Turkish  bath  is  the  most  effectual  cleanser  in  the  world. 

Early  rising  contributes  not  only  to  the  preservation  of  health,  but  the 
proper  condition  of  the  mental  faculties.  Too  much  sleep  induces  minor 
ailments  both  of  the  body  and  mind.  Fresh  air,  moderate  exercise  and 
good  ventilation,  together  with  the  daily  bath,  are  the  great  health-preservers. 

THE  TEETH. 

Scnipulous  care  is  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the  teeth-  Tlic  teeth 
shotild  be  carefully  brushed,  not  only  every  night  and  morning,  but  after 
every  meal. 

The  best  and  only  needful  tooth  powder  is  a  simple  preparation  of  chalk. 
The  numerous  dentifrices  advertised  are  most  of  them  worthless  and  many 
of  them  positively  injurious. 

A  good  tooth-brush,  not  too  stiff,  is  necessary.  Vcrj'  hot  and  very  cold 
things  and  a  great  deal  of  sweets  are  injurious  to  the  teeth. 


Upon  the  first  indication  of  decay,  a  good  dentist  should  be  consulted  ; 
cheap  dentistry  is  bad  economy. 

THE  BREATH. 

It  goes  without  saying  ihatasweet  breath  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  happi- 
ness, and  should  therefore  be  carefully  looked  to.  The  principal  causes  of 
a  bad  breath  are  a  disordered  stomach,  decaying  teeth  and  catarrhal  affec- 
tions. In  the  latter  case  a  good  specialist  should  be  consulted.  When  it 
arises  from  digestive  difficulty,  the  diet  should  be  changed  to  one  better 
suited  to  the  system. 

The  eating  of  anything  that  will  give  an  unpleasant  odor  to  the  breath  i-. 
to  be  avoided, 

THE  NAILS. 

Much  care  and  attention  is  given  to  the  nails  by  those  who  are  particular 
in  matters  of  the  toilet.  Of  late  years  the  care  of  the  nails  h;is  been  elevated 
to  a  profession,  and  persons  calling  themselves  '*  manicures  "  make  it  their 
business  to  dress  the  nails  of  ladies  of  fashion. 

It  is  sufficient,  however,  if  you  keep  the  nails  carefully  and  evenly  trimmed 
— great  care,  however,  being  required  to  preserve  the  correct  shape,  and 
keep  all  superfluous  skin  entirely  removed.  Plenty  of  warm  water.  Windsor 
soap  and  a  nail-brush  are  all  that  is  required  to  keep  the  hands  in  good 
condition. 

THE   HAIR. 

Th2  hair  should  be  regularly  brushed,  morning  antl  evening,  with  a  clean 
hair-brush.  It  is  important  that  the  brushing  be  frequent;  it  is  also  im- 
portant that  the  brush  be  quite  clean. 

The  brush  should  be  washed  every  day  with  hot  water  and  soda,  in  order 
to  preserve  a  glossy  appearance  to  the  hair.  Occasionally  the  hair  may  be 
cleansed  with  a  mi.vture  of  glycerine  and  lime  juice.  Pomades  and  oil 
should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Never  attempt  to  change  the  color  of  your  hair  by  means  of  dyes  and 
fluids.  Your  own  hair,  as  nature  colored  it,  is  apt  to  be  the  only  shade  that 
will  correspond  with  your  eyes,  eyebrows  and  comple.vion.  Practices  of 
this  kind  are  much  to  be  condemned.  They  indicate  a  sensekss  desire  for 
fashion,  and  an  equally  unladylike  desire  to  attract  attention.  The  use  of 
hair  dyes,  false  hair,  etc.,  is  almost  as  much  to  be  condemned  as  painted 
cheeks  and  pencilled  brows. 

THE  COMPLEXION. 

As  to  the  art  of  ul>taining  a  good  complexion,  all  the  recipes  in  the  world 
can  have  but  little  effect  compared  with  the  excellence  of  early  rising, 
reg\ilar  habits,  carefiil  diet  and  absolute  cleanliness.  The  various  lotions 
recommended  by  Madame  Rachel,  and  others  of  her  ilk,  the  milk  bath,  pearl 
powders  and  washes  of  every  kind,  would  never  be  needed  if  ladies  were 
always  careful  to  take  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air,  wear  broad-brimmed 
hats  in  the  sun  and  veils  in  the  wind. 

The  face  should  never  be  washed  when  heated  from  exercise.  Wipe  the 
perspiration  from  the  skin  and  wait  until  it  is  sufficiently  cool  before  ytm 
bathe  even  in  w^rm  water.  Rain-wa*-;r  is  the  best  for  bathing  purposes.  If 
an  eruption  break  out  on  the  skin,  consult  a  physician. 


FT 


730 


/ 


HOME    ETIQUETTE. 


CRESS 


IN  dress,  as  in  other  things,  society  has  passed  under  that  wave  of  new 
impulse  which  has  so  much  changed  the  appearance  of  our  houses, 
the  arrangement  of  our  interiors,  and  even  the  texture  and  fashion  of 
manufactures. 
That  which  we  wore  placidly,  and  even  with  a  little  complaisance  and  sense 
of  superior  good  taste,  twenty  years  ago,  would  fill  us  with  alarm  and  horror 
now.  The  change  which  has  taken 
place  is  more  than  a  change  of  fash- 
ion :  it  is  a  change  of  principle.  The 
differences  of  shape  and  form,  which 
vary  from  one  three-months  to  an- 
other, are  but  fluctuations  of  the 
standard,  but  the  alteration  which 
we  have  recently  arrived  at  is  fun 
damental.  It  has  affected  not  only 
the  cut,  but  the  color,  the  fabric,  the 
kind  of  our  garments,  and  has  re 
lieved  the  severity  of  rule  and  left 
such  a  margin  for  individual  fancy 
as  was  not  dreamed  of  twenty  years 
ago. 

The  change  is  chiefly  visible  in 
feminine  apparel  Where  are  now 
the  fine  full  tones  of  blue  and  of 
green,  the  bright  pinks,  the  orange 
yellow,  in  which  we  once  flaunted  in 
happy  ignorance,  knowing  no  better 
and  believing,  with  some  show  of 
reason,  that  we  were  imitating  the 
tints  of  nature,  the  color  of  the  flowersj  /^^ 
and  of  the  birds?  Where  are  now 
our  appie-green  gowns  and  our  silk 
shawls  "shot"  with  blue  and  yellow  '    /    ^^ 

The  world  has  paled  since  those 
favored   days  ;     even   the  vaporous 
tarlatan  of  the  ball-room  has  sunk 
into  softer  tints,  and  in  daylight  no  color  affronts  the  eye  of  heaven  that  is 
not  neutral. 

The  result  of  the  new  impulse  is  to  make  Art  the  guide  in  matters  of  dress  ; 
but  with  all  due  respect  to  that  divine  Priestess  of  the  r.cautiful,  we  cannot 
but  believe  that  she  would  prove  a  dangerous  guide  in  a  matter  that  involves 
so  many  practical  features  and  so  many  individual  peculiarities. 

Whatever  painters  may  think,  there  are  many  costumes  effective  in  a 
picture  which  would  not  be  at  all  beautiful  upon  a  living  woman,  and  indis- 
criminate following  of  the  fancies  of  Art  would  not  be  much  less  fatal  than 
the  usual  indiscriminate  following  of  fashion. 

No  drejfS  can  be  good  which  is  not  useful  and  into  which  the  elements  of 
individuality  do  not  enter.  The  garments  adapted  for  the  slim  and  the  tall 
and  the  graceful  will  never^  however  admirable  in  themselves,  agree  with  the 
dowdy,  the  dumpy  or  the  ordinary. 

Fashion,  indeed,  throughout  all  its  vagaries,  has  this  one  principle  if 
humanity  in  it,  that  it  is  almost  always  designed  to  help  those  who  want 
help,  to  cover  deficiencies  of  nature,  to  conceal  the  evils  wrought  by  time, 
and  to  make  those  look  their  best  to  whom  no  special  charms  have  been 
given. 

Beautiful  persons  are  free  of  all  such  bonds.  Whatever  they  wear  becomes 
them  —  they  confer  grace,  they  do  not  receive  it ;  therefore  fashion  is  imma- 
terial to  them.  The  time  has  never  been  when  they  were  not  allowed  to 
flout  it  at  their  will.  What  saying  is  more  general  than,  "  She  can  wear 
anything?"  It  is  said  in  admiration,  in  enthusiasm,  in  envy,  and  in  spite, 
hut  still  it  is  said  constantly  of  these  favorites  of  Nature.  And  youth,  even 
when  not  beautiful,  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  same  privilege. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  dress  is  by  no  means  an  unimportant  item  in  human 
wcU-t'cing,  and  it  may  fairly  claim  to  be  considered  in  thehght  of  a  fine  art. 
To  dress  well  requires  something  more  than  a  full  purse  and  a  pretty  figure. 
It  reqi'ires  t.aste,  good  sense  and  refinement. 


^i^si"^^^ 


A   NEATLY   DRESSED    LADY. 


A  woman  of  taste  and  good  sense  will  neither  make  dress  her  first  nor  her 
last  object  in  life.  She  will  remember  that  it  is  her  duty  to  her  husband  and  to 
society  to  always  appear  well  dressed. 

Dress,  to  be  in  perfect  taste,  need  not  be  costly,  and  no  woman  of  right 
feeling  will  adorn  her  person  at  the  expense  of  her  husband's  comfort  and 
her  children's  education. 

The  toilet  of  a  well-dressed  woman  will  be  as  well-chosen  at  the  breakfast- 
table  as  at  ball  or  reception. 

If  she  loves  bright  colors  and  can  wear  them  with  impunity,  she  will  com- 
bine them  as  harmoniously  as  an  artist  does  his  colors.  If  she  is  young  her 
dress  will  be  beautiful;  if  she  is  old  she  will  not  affect  simplicity. 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  ON  DRESS. 

The  golden  rule  in  dress  is  to  avoid  extremes. 

Always  follow  rather  than  lead  the  prevailing  fashion  in  dress. 

Do  not  be  so  original  in  dress  as  to  be  peculiar,  and  do  not  affect  fashions 
that  are  radically  unbecoming  to  you. 

Ladies  who  are  neither  very  young  nor  very  striking  should  wear  quiet 
colors. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  be  rich  in  order  to  dress  well,  A  little  care  in  the 
choice  and  arrangement  of  materials  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

Be  sure  that  your  dressmaker  is  a  woman  of  taste  and  perfectly  mistress  of 
her  art.  Do  not  trust  to  any  ordinary  sewing-woman  who  may  know  nothing 
about  harmony  of  colors  and  grace  of  outlines. 

A  faultless  morning  toilet  in  summer  should  consist  of  the  freshest  of  mus- 
lins, white  or  of  delicate  tints,  with  a  tasteful  arrangement  of  fresh,  new 
ribbons,  and  plain  linen  collar  spotlessly  laundered.  These,  however,  are 
better  suited  to  young  unmarried  or  married  ladies. 

Ladies  of  more  advanced  years  may  wear  dark  silks  iu  the  morning,  but 

all  jewelry,   hair  ornaments  and 


fine  laces  should  be  eschewed  for 
morning  wear. 

Street  costumes  should  always 
be  quiet  in  tone.  Fine  woolen 
materials,  in  some  shade  of  brown, 
gray,  olive,  dark  green  or  dark 
blue,  make  the  most  suitable  and 
natty  street  costumes.  Any  lady 
of  taste  who  has  once  seen  herself 
in  some  such  costume,  well-made 
and  fitting  to  perfection,  with  hat 
and  gloves  to  correspond,  will 
never  sigh  for  anything  richer  or 
more  expensive  for  street  wear. 

A  lady  of  refinement  will  never 
wear  a  very  expensive  toilet  of 
velvet  or  of  silk  or  brocade  of  any 
light  and  conspicuous  shade  upon 
the  street.  Such  costumes  are  ex- 
clusively for  the  carriage,  for  call- 
ing or  for  receptions. 

Much  jewelry  is  out  of  place  in 
the  daytime,  whether  on  the  street 
or  for  indoor  wear.  It  is  particu- 
larly out  of  place  in  church.  A 
handsome  brooch  and  small,  un- 
pretending ear-rings  are  the  only 
jewelrypermissiblc  in  the  daytime. 
Heavy  bracelets,  necklaces,  a  pro- 
fusion of  diamonds  and  finger-rings 
should  be  reserved  for  evening 
wear. 

F.nglish  ladies  are  much  more 
strict  in  this  matter  than  American  ladies.  According  to  their  code  it  is 
never  allowable  to  wear  diamonds,  pearls  and  other  precious  stones  in  the 
daytime.  Custom,  however,  supports  the  wearing  of  a  pair  of  solitaires  in 
the  ears  at  any  time  and  in  any  place  in  America. 

Young  ladies  should  not  wear  much  jewelr>'  at  any  time. 


AN  OVER-DKESSED   FEMALE. 


u: 


\ 


HOME   ETIQUETTE 


731 


Mere  costliness  in  jewelry  is  not  always  the  best  test  of  value.  A  rare 
intaglio  or  finely-wrought  cameo,  being  a  work  of  art,  is  a  more  desirable 
possession  than  a  large  diamond  which  any  one  might  purchase. 

A  stone  of  exquisite  loveliness  and  by  no  me.-\ns  common  is  the  opal. 

Ball  dresses  may  be  composed  of  any  Tich  materials,  either  silk  or  satin, 
cashmeres,  velvets  or  diaphanous  materials,  but  they  are  usually  of  some 
light  shade.  It  is  not  customary  in  America  to  go  decoletti  to  balls.  In 
England  court  etiquette  prescribes  bare  neck  and  arms  for  full-dress. 

Dinner  and  reception  dresses  should  be  as  rich  and  elegant  as  you  can 
afford.     Natural  flowers  are  appropriate  for  dinners  ;  artificial  ones  for  balls. 

In  dressing  the  hair,  be  careful  not  to  adhere  too  closely  to  the  prevailing 
fashion  if  it  is  not  becoming  to  you. 
Considerable    latitude    is    always   al- 
lowed in  this  respect. 

The  dressing  of  the  neck  affords 
much  opportunity  for  the  display  of 
taste.  If  the  shoulders  are  broad, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  enlarge  the 
effect  by  too  much  trimming. 

Short  persons  should  be  careful  not 
to  diminish  their  height  by  numerous 
flounces,  horizontal  stripes  or  much 
trimming  of  any  description.  Stripes 
(perpendicular)  have  a  tendency  to  in- 
crease the  height  and  should  therefore 
be  worn  by  short  and  avoided  by  tall 
people. 

Every  lady  will  pay  especial  atten- 
tion to  her  gloves  and  shoes.  Nothing 
more  emphatically  marks  the  lady 
than  to  be  well  shod  and  immaculately 
gloved.  Both  gloves  and  shoes  should 
fit  closely,  but  not  be  loo  tight.  For 
evening  wear  the  gloves  cannot  be  too 
light,  nor  for  street  wear  too  dark. 
Slippers  should  never  be  worn  upon 
the  street.  Black  boots  of  soft  French 
kid  are  the  most  genteel  for  all  oc- 
casions except  parties  and  balls. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  a  refined 
lady  will  give  as  much  atleniion  to  the 
quality  and  finish  of  those  garments 
which  are  not  visible  as  to  those  which  are. 

Dark  shades  are  best  adapted  to  stout  people. 

Light  shades  and  delicate  tints  are  suited  to  the  thin  blonde  type. 

The   complexion,  however,   must  always  decide  the  question  of  color. 


THE  BRUNETTE'S  COLORS. 

carlct,  orange  and  yellow  are  the  brunette's  colors  par  excellence,  but 
she  also  looks  well  in  glossy  black  and  white.  The  tasteful  brutie^-V\  always 
manage  to  have  a  scarlet  blossom  deftly  twisted  in  her  dark  hair,  or  an 
orange  knot  looped  at  her  throat.  Dark  green  also  sets  off  a  dark  com- 
plexion. 

Dark  green  and  red  will  improve  a  sallow  complexion,  while  those  rich, 
creamy  complexions  one  sees  occasionally  are  set  off  by  a  reflection  of 
yellow. 

THE  BLONDE'S  COLORS. 

The  golden-haired  blonde  is  charming  in  a  setting  of  dark  violet  which  may 
shade  off  into  lilac  or  blue.  Either  light  or  dark  shades  of  green  look  well 
with  the  ruddy  face  of  the  blonde,  but  the  delicate,  shell-pink  complexion 
and  fair  hair  of  the  very  light  blonde  are  exquisiie  in  a  dress  of  pale  Nile 
green. 

The  blonde  may  also  wear  all  the  neutral  colors,  such  as  gray,  drab,  fawn, 
and  the  russets  and  browns  as  well ;  in  fact,  there  is  very  little  except  bright 
reds  that  blondes  cannot  wear. 


NliATLV    UltiiSSKD    GENTLEMAN. 


CONTRAST  AND  HARMONY  IN  COLORS. 

Ladies  should  be  particularly  carefid  in  selecting  contra.sting  colors  for  the 
same  costume  that  they  will  harmonize  as  well  ;  else  the  beauty  of  the  gar- 
ment is  utterly  destroyed.  We  iiave  often  heard  it  said,  "  The  color  of  that 
feather  absolutely  kills  the  rest  of  the  dress."  This  is  when  the  wearer 
knows  nothing  of  the  rules  which  govern  the  harmony  of  colors,  and  for 
the  benefit  of  such  we  affix  the  following  brief  table  of  harmonizing  colors  : 

Black  and  orange  :  black  and  white  ;  black  and  maize;  black  and  scarlet ; 
black  and  lilac;  black  and  pink;  black  and  slate  color;  black  and  buff; 
black,  white,  yellow  and  crimson  ;  black,  orange,  blue  and  yellow. 

Green  and  gold  ;  green  and  yellow  ;  green  and  orange ;  green  and  crimson  ; 
green,  yellow  and  scarlet ;  green,  yellow  and  crimson. 

Blue  and  gold  ;  blue  and  orange  :  blue  and  salmon  color ;  blue  and  drab  ; 
blue  and  stone  color  ;  blue  and  white  ;  blue  and  gray  ;  blue  and  straw  color ; 
blue  and  maize  ;  blue  and  chestnut ;  blue  and  brown  ;  blue  and  black. 

Crimson  harmonizes  with  purple,  with  gold,  with  orange,  with  maize,  with 
black  and  with  drab. 

Lilac  harmonizes  with  gold,  with  maize,  with  cherr>%  with  scarlet,  with 
crimson. 

Purple  harmonizes  with  gold,  with  orange  and  with  maize. 

Yellow  harmonizes  with  red,  with  brown,  with  chestnut,  with  violet,  with 
crimson  and  with  black. 

Red  harmonizes  with  gold,  with  green  and  orange,  with  black  and  yellow, 
with  white  or  gray,  and  with  yellow,  black  and  white. 


PERFUMERY 


WjT  N  the  use  of  perfumery  ladies  must  be  extremely  moderate. 

Perfumes  should  properly  be  used  only  in  the  evening,  and  then 
they  should  be  of  the  most  recherche  kind. 

Many  ladies  have  a  .special  perfumcrj*,  such  as   violet,  or  white 
rose,  which  they  use  invariably  in  a  very  delicate  manner,  so  that  it  becomes 

individualized,  and  tlicir  friends 
come  10  associate  them,  insensibly, 
with  the  flower  whose  perfume 
they  exhale. 


THE  GENTLEMAN'S 

DRESSmG-RQQM. 


T 


''.I  HE  first  requi>iie  of  the 
^  male  tttilet  is,  of  course, 
the  bath ,  and  this  should 
be  as  bracing  as  the  con- 
stitution will  allow. 

The  cold-water  bath  the  year 
round  is  the  best  where  the  con- 
stitution will  endure  it,  but  there 
are  very  few  physiques,  espe- 
cially among  Americans,  that  wilt 
admit  of  it. 

A  sponge  bath  once  a  day,  with 
a  liberal  use  of  the  flesh-brush  and 
a  coarse  huckaback  towct,  will 
answer  every  purpose. 

A  sun  and  air  bath   after  the 
water  bath  is  an  excellent  thing, 
and  is  freiiuently  recommended  by 
physicians.      A  fresh-waicr   bath 
should  always  be  taken  after  bathing  in  the  sea. 

The  teeth  should  be  cleaned  at  least  twice  a  day,  and  smokers  should  rinse 
the  mouth  well  after  smoking. 


THE   DUDE. 


f^ 


732- 


ETIQUETTE  OF  ENGAGEMENTS  AND  MARRIAGE. 


Keep  the  nails  clean  and  short.      Long  nails  are  vulgar. 

The  beard  should  be  kept  well -trimmed  and  well-combed,  and  plenty  of 
warm  water  and  soap  are  necessary  to  keep  them  thoroughly  clean. 

Do  not  i  iidulge  in  long  hair,  thinking  it  gives  you  an  artistic  look .  Painters 
and  poets  of  eminence  may  be  excused  for  wearing  flowing  locks,  but  in  men 
of  less  degree  it  is  a  ridiculous  affectation. 

The  mustache  should  be  neat  and  not  over-large.  A  mustache  d  V Em- 
pereiir  is  absurd  and  smacks  of  the  fop. 

The  dress  of  a  gentleman  should  be  perfectly  unobtrusive,  in  entire  ha.- 
mony  and  becoming. 

Above  all  things  should  he  avoid  the  extremes  of  fashion,  such  as  wearing 
his  coat  extremely  or  absurdly  short.  When  fashion  dictates  tight  pantaloons 
let  him  not  have  his  so  tight  that  he  cannot  bend  in  them  ;  nor,  if  broad 
on:J  be  the  mode,  shall  he  have  them  so  wide  as  to  resemble  his  wife's  gown. 

Loud  patterns  in  cloth  and  glittering  trinkets  on  the  watch-chain  are  indi- 
cations rather  of  the  gambler  than  the  gentleman. 


A  gentleman  will  have  his  clothes  made  by  a  good  tailor,  easy  uf  fit  and 
excellent  in  quality,  but  subdued  and  quiet  in  tone,  and  neither  too  much  in 
nor  too  far  behind  the  prevailing  style.  Bulwer  says,  "  A  gentleman's  coat 
should  not  fit  too  well,"  and  he  is  right,  as  no  self-respecting  man  wants  to 
be  taken  for  a  tailor's  dummy. 

The  regulation  dress  for  evening  wear — but  it  should  never  be  worn  before 
sundown,  no  matter  how  ceremonious  the  occasion — is  black  swallow-tail 
coat,  black  trowsers,  black  vest,  cut  low  to  show  the  shirt-front,  thin  patent- 
leather  boots,  a  white  cravat,  and  light  kid  gloves. 

A  gentleman  should  wear  no  jewelry  but  such  as  has  a  use,  except  it  may 
be  a  handsome  ring.  His  sleeve-buttons  and  collar-studs  should  be  of  plain 
gold,  but  genuine.  False  jewelry  is  vulgar,  and  elaborate  ornamentation  is 
foppish.  It  is  more  genteel  even  to  dispense  with  a  gold  watch-chain  and 
wear  only  a  plain  black  guard. 

If  a  ring  is  worn,  good  taste  would  suggest  that  it  be  a  fine  antique  intaglio 
rather  than  an  expensive  diamond. 


^^iQUET^FEv.©^ 


'^ 


w^ 


En^a^ement^  •:•  and  •:•  [Dapf^ia^e.  1 


JIO  lay  down  a  set  ot  rules  for  the  regulation  of  courtship  would 

ffl    prove  as  hopeless  a  task  as  Mrs.  Partington's  attempt  to  mop  up 

'^^  the  Atlantic  Ocean.     The  best  and  only  reliable  counsellors  at 

j  ^V*  this  crisis  of  a  young  man's  or  young  woman's  life  are  feeling 

and  good  sense. 

^^'^  No  wise  man  will  intrude  himself  upon  the  presence  of  a  lady, 

nor  risk  being  regarded  as  a  bore,  neither  will  a  modest  woman  receive  the 
attentions  of  a  man  too  eagerly,  however  agreeabV  she  may  regard  them. 

A  woman  of  tact  can  let  a  gentleman  see  that  his  attentions  are  not  dis- 
agreeable tn  her  without  actually  encouraging  him.  It  is  equally  possible  for 
a  man  to  be  quite  dczwie  without  becoming  a  lover. 

Unless  a  woman  i.s  a  downright  coquette,  a  man  of  sense  ought  to  be  able 
to  judge  whether  his  proposal  will  be  favorably  received  or  not.  It  is 
exceedingly  dishonorable  for  either  a  man  or  a  woman  to  trifle  with  the  affec- 
tions of  the  other. 


S— sT 


^THS  PRQPOSAL.-;^T^ 


V^ 


her  liberty,  her  obedience,  her  very  life,  and  he  should  comport  himself  with 
suitable  humility  and  accept  her  acquiescence  with  becoming  gratitude. 


The  manner  of  making  the  offer  of  marriage  must  always  be  regulated 
hy  circumstances.  If  the  case  be  a  genuine  love  affair,  the  time  and  place 
and  language  of  the  proposal  are  apt  to  be  the  result  of  chance  and  impulse, 
rather  than  of  premeditation  on  the  part  of  the  lover. 

If  the  gentleman  be  ready  of  speech  and  attractive  in  person,  it  is  besi.  for 
him  tn  i»lead  his  cause  in  pcrsomi  propria,  and  receive  his  acceptance  with 
the  added  sweetness  of  smile  and  blush  and  love-lit  glance,  or  his  rejection, 
if  such  it  must  be,  with  the  tender,  saving  grace  of  sadly-murmured  regrets. 

If  the  suii(ir,  however,  be  of  a  nervous  temperament,  or  "  fears  his  cause 
too  much"  to  risk  a  personal  interview,  he  should  make  his  proposal  in 
writing. 

In  making  his  offer  of  marriage,  however,  a  man  should  always  bear  in 
.nind  that  he  is  a  petitioner,  that  he  is  begging  of  the  woman  to  gnint  him 


DEPORTMENT  OF  THE  EHGAGED. 

""PON  the  conduct  of  brth  parties  during  the  preparatory  stage  of 

the  engagement  depends  in  a  great  measure  the  probability  of  its 

being    carried    to    the  desired  consummation    of  marriage.      I'he 

gentleman  in  particular  should  be  careful  to  observe  the  following 

directions  : 

He  should  be  tender  and  devoted  to  his  bride-elect. 

He  should  treat  her  family  with  the  greatest  respect. 

He  .should  particularly  guard  against  acting  as  though  he  were  already  a 
member  of  the  family  by  taking  liberties  that  he  is  not  justified  in  taking. 

He  should  be  always  on  the  alert  to  do  any  member  of  his  /frtwtv^-'i-  family 
a  service;  in  fact  he  should  play  the  devoted  friend  to  his  betrothed  and 
all  her  relatives. 

He  should  conform  to  all  the  rules  of  the  household,  being  punctual  at 
meals,  never  intruding  at  unseemly  hours  ;  kind  to  tlie  children  and  courteous 
toward  the  servants. 

He  should  not  compromise  the  reputation  uf  his  future  wife  by  keeping  her 
up  until  a  late  hour.  His  visits  may  be  as  frequent  as  he  pleases,  but  should 
always  be  short.  The  custom  of  lovers  staying  until  a  late  hour  of  th:; 
night  is  no  longer  permitted  in  genteel  society. 

He  should  be  attentive  and  gallant  toward  other  ladies,  but  not  sufficiently 
so  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  his  betrothed. 

He  should  not  monopolize  her  company  ir  general  society,  but  should 
always  be  accorded  the  first  place  as  her  escor.  by  the  lady,  and  should  be 
watchful  of  all  her  wants. 


.\^ 


I 


K 


/ 


ETIQUETTE  OF  ENGAGEMENTS  AND  MARRIAGE. 


7  -»  -1 


He  may  send  her  few  or  mnny  presents,  as  she  seems  disposed  to  accept 
ihem.  If  tlic  lady  (ir  her  family  object  to  her  receiving  costly  gifts  he  may 
keep  her  supplied  with  flowers,  with  books,  and  with  sweetmeats  if  she 
have  a  taste  for  bon-bons. 

An  engagement  is  usually  sealed  by  the  wearing  of  a  ring.  If  the  accepted 
lover  be  wealthy  a  brilliant  of  rare  value  is  the  correct  thing  for  the  engage- 
ment ring,  and  should  be  worn  upon  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  If, 
however,  his  means  are  limited,  a  less  expensive  ring  will  answer  the 
purpose. 

In  the  matter  of  gifts,  too,  a  sensible  man  will  not  give  more  than  he  can 
3lTt>rd,  nor  run  into  debt  in  order  to  procure  them. 

The  lady  must  be  careful  not  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  hei  lover  by  flirting 
with  other  men. 

She  must  carefvilly  avoid  any  undue  familiarity  and  effectually  check  anj' 
attempt  toward  such  on  his  part. 

She  should  remember  that  nothing  so  soon  disgusts  a  man  with  a  woman 
as  any  indications  of  untidiness  or  unclcanliness  on  her  part.  She  should 
therefore  be  exceedingly  neat  and  clean  in  his  presence,  and  have  her  dress 
always  chosen  with  taste. 

Let  their  conduct  generally  toward  each  other  be  such  as  to  inspire  con- 
fi  lence,  and  in  case  of  a  misunderstanding  let  her  not  hesitate  to  make  the 
advance  toward  reconciliation. 


-n^^/e) 


IT  is  not  usual  for  the  lady  to  visit  any  but  her  intimate  friends  after 
the  announcement  of  the  engagement.     She  should,  however,  leave 
her  visiting-card  at  the  residence  of  her  friends  just  previous  to  the 
sending  of  the  invitations,  which  should  be  sent  at  least  two  weeks 
prior  to  the  wedding. 

The  invitations  should  be  engraved  in  a  rich,  heavy  script,  and  should  be 
of  such  shape  as  to  fold  in  a  long,  narrow  envelope,  not  square,  for  the  latter 
shape  is  now  somewhat  out  of  date. 

The  quality  and  tint  of  ihc  invitations,  "At  Home"  and  church  cards 
should  be  uniform  with  the  envelopes,  as  the  slightest  difference  would 
spoil  their  beauty. 

J'he  invitations,  the  "At  Home"  cards  and  the  church  cards  are  all 
placed  in  one  envelope,  bearing  the  name  only  of  the  parties  to  whom  sent. 
The  full  address  is  placed  on  the  outside  envelope. 

Invitations  should  be  delivered  by  the  footman  at  the  residence  of  the 
parties  for  whom  intended.  The  footman,  too,  should  always  be  in  full  livery. 
The  invitation  shovdd  be  in  this  form : 

'W 


/ 


If  a  reception  be  given  at  the  residence  of  the  bride's  parents,  a  card  tu 
those  whose  presence  is  desired  should  be  ^inclosed  in  the  envelope  with  the 
invitation  :  thus  : 

Or: 

WiAU/  ^tvowlX  .oXWr  loA,vr  \,vwUA/  Kam>. 

It  is  quite  customary  at  large  weddings  to  issue  usher  or  churcli  cards, 
thus  avoiding  the  crowd  of  curious  sight-seers  who  cause  nuich  annoyance 
by  filling  all  the  best  seats.  This  card  should  be  small  and  engraved  in 
script,  with  crest  or  monogram.     In  form  : 

In  case  of  the  reception  being  given  on  the  return  of  the  bridal  party  the 
card  should  read  : 

Should  the  bride's  parents  decide  to  give  her  a  reception  on  her  return  to 
the  city,  the  "At  Home"  card  will  contain  the  bride's  name  below  her 
mother's ;  in  all  other  respects  the  same  as  model  given. 

When  the  wedding  is  at  the  house,  the  form  of  invitation  is  same  as  at 
church,  except  that  the  number  of  residence  is  substituted  for  name  of 
church. 

For  "At  Home"  weddings,  combining  ceremony  and  reception,  the  form  is: 

oX  hjoJX  A^ix^v  Ic^Wv., 
^2)^0  ^^  ^^. 


Jj■A^^v•v•^^A^^■•"^^v^^•9^•T^■^vv^g\■^^\•v^•\■^•v'^^■5 

I  *  Jr  -*.  if  A  If  A  ii  A  i  A  ;f  A  rf  A  if  A  !f  A  it  A  ii  A  if  A  i\  A  ;ir  A  !^  A  ;f  A  !f  A  if  A  it  A  Jt  A  5i"  A  S  A  ;*■  A  ".i  A  X  .*    ; 

Geneml-iHinh^-oQ-Eti^aethe. 


-•^•^l-^* 


S??li^^HERE  are  a  number  of  the  minor  points  of  etiquette  which,  not 

\\um  \\M     coming  directly  under  any  of  the  preceding  heads,  might  other- 
wise be  omitted,  and  which,  therefore,  we  propose  touching  upon 
in  this  chapter. 
^_^  The  art  of  giving  and  receiving  presents  is  not  always  an  in- 

'v^  tuition.  A  generous  person  may  unwittingly  wound  where  he 
intends  to  please,  while  a  really  grateful  person  may,  by  want  of  tact, 
appear  to  deprecate  the  liberality  of  his  friends. 

A  gift  should  always  be  valuable  for  something  besides  its  price.  It  may 
have  been  brought  by  the  giver  from  some  famous  place;  it  may  have  a 
valuable  association  with  genius,  or  it  may  be  unique  in  its  workmanship. 
An  author  may  offer  his  book  or  an  artist  his  sketch,  and  any  one  may  offer 
flowers,  which  are  always  a  delicate  and  unexceptionable  gift. 

A  rich  person  should  be  careful  how  he  gives  to  the  poor,  lest  he  hurt  their 
pride,  while  a  poor  person  can  only  give  to  those  of  greater  wealth  some- 
thing that  has  cost  only  affection,  time  or  talent. 

Never  allude  to  a  present  which  you  have  given  ;  do  not  even  appear  to 
see  it  if  you  are  where  it  is. 

Do  not  give  a  present  in  hopes  of  a  return. 

If  you  present  a  book  to  a  friend,  do  not  write  the  name  In  it  unless  It  is 
requested.  By  doing  so  you  are  taking  for  granted  that  your  present  will  be 
accepted,  and  also  that  a  specimen  of  your  penmanship  will  give  additional 
value  to  the  gift. 

It  is  in  bad  taste  to  undervalue  a  gift  which  you  have  yourself  offered.  If 
it  is  valueless,  it  is  not  good  enough  to  give  to  your  friend ;  and  if  you  say 
you  do  not  want  it  yourself,  or  that  you  would  only  throw  it  away  if  they 
did  not  take  it,  you  are  insulting  the  person  whom  you  mean  to  benefit. 

Married  ladles  may  occasionally  accept  a  present  from  a  gentleman  who 
visits  frequently  at  the  house,  and  desires  to  express  his  gratitude  in  that 
way. 

An  unmarried  lady  should  not  accept  presents  from  any  gentleman  to 
whom  she  is  not  engaged,  or  who  Is  not  a  relative. 

Never  refuse  a  gift  unless  you  have  a  very  good  reason  for  so  doing.  How- 
ever poor  the  gift,  you  should  show  your  appreciation  of  the  kindness  of 
heart  which  prompted  it.  All  such  deprecatory  phrases  .is  "  I  fear  I  rob 
you,"  or  "  I  am  realty  ashamed  to  take  it,"  etc.,  are  in  bad  taste,  as  they 
seem  to  Imply  that  you  think  the  giver  cannot  afford  it. 

Do  not  quickly  follow  up  .i  present  by  a  return.  It  looks  too  much  like 
payment.  Never,  however,  fail  to  make  an  immediate  acknowledgment  of 
the-  receipt  of  a  gift. 

Remember,  when  you  are  prone  to  give  In  charity  to  the  sick  or  the  needy, 
that  "  he  who  gives  quickly  gives  double." 

Never  indulge  in  egotism  In  the  drawing-room.  The  person  who  makes 
his  family,  his  wealth,  his  affairs  or  his  hobby  the  topic  of  conversation  Is 


not  only  a  bore  but  a  violator  of  good  taste.  Wcdo  not  meet  in  society  to 
display  ourselves,  but  to  give  and  take  as  much  rational  entertainment  as 
our  own  accomplishments  and  those  of  others  will  afford. 

The  man  or  woman  who  engrosses  the  conversation  Is  unpardonably 
.selfish. 

\Vc  should  not  neglect  very  young  people  in  our  drawing-rooms.  If  we 
wish  our  children  to  have  polished  manners,  and  to  express  themselves  wull, 
we  must  lead  them  to  enter  into  the  conversation  that  is  going  on. 

All  irritability  and  gloom  must  be  thrown  off  when  we  enter  society. 

It  is  a  duty  to  always  look  pleased.  It  is  likewise  a  duty  to  appear  inter- 
ested in  a  story  that  you  may  have  heard  a  dozen  times  before,  to  smile  on 
the  most  inveterate  proser ;  In  short,  to  make  such  minor  sacrifices  of  sin- 
cerity as  one's  good  manners  and  good  feelings  may  dictate. 

In  conversation  the  face  must  be  pleasant,  wearing  something  that  almost 
approaches  to  a  smile. 

Always  look  at  the  person  who  is  conversing  with  you,  and  listen  respect- 
fully. In  answering  try  to  express  your  thoughts  In  the  best  manner.  A 
loose  manner  of  expression  injures  ourselves  much  more  than  our  hearers, 
sinceit  is  a  habit  which, once  acquired,  is  not  easily  thrown  off,  and  when  we 
wish  to  express  ourselves  well  it  is  not  easy  to  do  so. 

A  good  bit  of  advice  is  the  saying,  "  Think  twice  before  you  speak  once," 
as  thus  only  can  you  learn  to  always  speak  to  the  point. 

The  young  of  both  sexes  would  find  it  an  inestimable  advantage  through 
life  to  cultivate  from  the  outset  a  clear  intonation,  a  well-chosen  phraseology, 
a  logical  habit  of  thought,  and  a  correct  accent. 

A  well  educated  person  proclaims  himself  by  his  simple  and  terse  lan- 
guage. Good  and  clear  Saxon  is  m'uch  to  be  preferred  to  high-sounding 
phrases  and  long  words;  It  is  only  the  half-educated  who  imagine  such  a 
style  is  elegant. 

Never  employ  extravagance  in  conversation.  Always  employ  the  word 
that  will  express  your  precise  meaning  and  no  more.  It  is  absurd  to  say  It 
Is  "Immensely  jolly,"  or  "disgustingly  mean."  Such  expressions  show 
neither  wit  nor  wisdom,  but  merest  flippancy. 

Avoid  awkwardness  of  attitude  as  well  as  awkwardness  of  speech. 

No  man  or  woman  is  well-bred  who  is  continually  lolling,  gesticulating  or 
fidgeting  in  company. 

No  lady  of  good  breeding  will  sit  sideways  on  her  chj  ir,  or  with  her  legs 
crossed  or  stretched  apart,  or  hold  her  chin  in  her  hands,  or  twirl  her 
watch  chain,  while  she  Is  talking  ;  nor  does  a  well-bred  gentleman  sit  astride 
of  his  chair,  or  bite  his  nails,  or  nurse  his  leg.  A  man  is  always  allowed 
more  freedom  than  a  woman,  but  both  should  be  graceful  and  decorous  in 
their  deportment. 

Never  indicate  an  object  by  pointing  at  it.  Move  the  head  or  wave  the 
whole  hand. 


X 


-N 


Sneezing,  coughing  and  cle:»ring  the  throat  must  be  done  quietly  whtn  it 
cannot  possibly  be  avoided  ;  but  sniftling  and  expcctoniting  must  never  be 
indulged  in  in  decent  society. 

Physical  training  is  neccssarj*  to  both  men  and  women  who  aspire  to  be  of 
the  best  society.  Every  gentleman  shouhl  know  how  to  fence,  to  box,  to 
shoot,  to  swim,  to  ride,  to  dance,  and  how  to  carry  himself.  Calisthenic 
exercises  and  dancing  should  be  t.iught  every  young  woman.  Even  though 
she  may  not  intend  to  dance,  the  acquirement  of  the  art  tends  to  produce 
that  gnice  of  movement  which  is  so  beautiful  in  woman.  Swimming,  rid- 
ing, driving,  archery  and  all  suitabb  outdoor  amusements  strengthen  the 
mu'icles  and  give  beauty  and  suppleness  to  the  human  form  divine. 

A  good  niemor>'  for  names  and  faces,  and  a  self-possessed  manner,  are 
necessary  to  every  one  who  would  m:ikc  a  good  impression  in  society. 
Nothing  is  more  delicately  flattering  to  another  than  to  find  you  can  readily 
call  his  or  her  name,  after  a  very  slight  acqu.iinlancc.  The  most  popular  of 
great  men  have  gained  their  popularity  principally  through  the  possession  of 
this  faculty. 

Shyness  is  ver>'  ungraceful,  and  a  positive  injury  to  any  one  afflicted  with 
it.  It  is  only  allowable  in  very  young  people.  A  person  who  blushes,  stam- 
mers and  fidgets  in  the  presence  of  strangers  will  not  create  a  vcrj'  good 
impression  upon  their  minds  as  to  his  personal  worth  and  educational  ad- 
vantages. Shyness  may  be  overcome  by  determined  mixing  in  society. 
Nothing  else  will  have  an  effect  upon  it. 

In  conversing  with  a  person,  do  not  repeat  the  name  frequently,  as  it  im- 
plies one  of  two  extremes,  that  of  familiarity  or  haughtiness. 

If  you  are  talking  to  a  person  of  title,  do  not  keep  repeating  the  title. 
You  can  express  all  the  deference  you  desire  in  voice  and  manner  ;  it  is  im- 
necessary  and  snobbish  to  put  it  in  words. 

A  furcigner  should  always  be  addressed  by  his  full  name;  as,  Monsieur  de 
Moiumorcnci,  never  as  Monsieur  only.  In  speaking  of  him,  give  him  his 
title,  if  he  have  one*  For  example,  in  speaking  to  a  nobleman  you  would 
say,  Monsieur  le  Marquis  ;  in  speaking  of  him  in  his  absence,  you  would 
say.  Monsieur  le  Marquis  deMontmorenci.  Converse  with  a  foreigner  in  his 
own  language.  If  you  are  not  suflTiciently  at  home  in  the  language  to  do  so, 
apologize  to  him,  and  beg  permission  to  spe;ik  English. 

Married  people  are  sometimes  guilty  of  the  vulgar  habit  of  speaking  of 
each  other  by  the  initial  letter  of  their  first  name,  or  the  wife  of  her  hiLsband 
as  "Jones,"  omitting  the  "Mr."  This  denotes  very  ill  breeding,  and 
should  be  strenuously  avoided. 

Never  speak  of  absent  persons  by  their  Christian  names  or  their  sur- 
names ;  always  refer  to  them  as  Mr. or  Mrs. . 

Gentlemen,  when  with  ladies,  are  expected  to  defray  all  such  expenses  as 
car  fares,  entrance  fee  to  theatre,  refreshments,  etc. 

In  entering  an  e.'chibition  or  public  room  where  ladies  are  present,  gentle- 
men should  always  I'.fi  their  hats.  In  France  a  gentleman  lifts  his  hat  on 
entering  a  public  omnibus,  but  that  is  not  necessary  according  to  the  English 
code  of  etiquette. 

To  yawn  in  the  presence  of  others,  to  put  your  feet  on  a  chair,  to  stand 
with  your  back  to  the  fire,  to  take  the  most  comfortable  seat  in  the  room,  to 
do  anything  in  fact  that  displays  selfishness  and  a  lack  of  respect  for  those 
about  you,  is  luiequivocally  vulgar  and  ill-bred. 

If  a  person  of  greater  age  than  yourself  desire  you  to  step  into  a  carriage 
or  through  a  door  first,  it  is  more  polite  to  buw  and  obey  than  to  decline. 
Compliance  with,  and  deference  to,  the  wishes  of  others,  is  always  the 
finest  breeding. 

A  compliment  that  is  palpably  insincere  is  no  compliment  at  all. 

Boasting  is  one  of  the  most  ill-bred  habits  a  person  can  indulge  in. 
Travelling  is  so  imivcrsal  a  custom  now  that  to  mention  the  fact  that  you 
have  been  to  Europe  is  to  state  nothing  exceptional.  Anybody  with  wealth, 
health  and  leisure  cin  travel ;  but  it  is  only  those  of  real  intelligence  that 
derive  any  benefit  from  the  art  treasures  of  the  Old  World. 

When  in  general  conversation  you  cannot  agree  with  the  propositi()n  ad- 
vanced, it  is  best  to  observe  silence,  unless  particularly  asked  for  your 
opinion,  in  which  case  you  will  give  it  modestly,  but  decidedly.  Never  be 
betrayed  into  too  much  warmth  in  argument  ;  if  others  remain  uncon- 
vinced, drop  the  subject. 

Gentlemen  precede  a  lady  in  going  up  stairs,  but  follow  her  in  going  down. 

In  walking  with  a  lady  through  a  crowd,  precede  her,  in  order  to  clear  the 


In  walking  on  a  public  promenade,  if  you  meet  the  same  friends  and  ac- 
quaintances a  number  of  times,  it  is  only  necessary  to  salute  them  once  in 
passing. 

Never  speak  of  your  own  children  as  "Master"  and  "Miss"  except  to 
servants. 

Nevercorrect  any  ^light  inaccuracy  in  statement  or  fact.  It  is  better  lo 
let  it  pass  than  to  subject  another  to  the  mortification  of  being  corrected  in 
company. 

No  one  can  be  polite  who  does  not  cidtivate  a  good  inemor)-.  There  is  a 
class  of  absent-minded  people  who  arc  to  be  dreaded  on  account  of  the 
mischief  they  are  sure  to  create  with  their  unlucky  tongues.  They  always 
recall  unlucky  topics,  speak  of  the  dead  as  though  they  were  living,  talk  of 
people  in  their  hearing,  and  do  a  hundred  and  one  things  which,  in  slang 
parlance,  is  "  treading  on  somebody's  toes."  Carelessness  can  be  carried  to 
such  a  pitch  as  lo  almost  amount  to  a  crime.  Cultivate  a  good  memory*, 
therefore,  if  you  wish  to  say  plcisant  things  and  to  avoid  disagreeable  ones. 

People  must  remember  that  they  must  give  as  well  as  take  in  this  life,  and 
that  they  must  not  hesitate  to  go  to  a  little  trouble  in  those  small  observ- 
ances which  it  is  so  pleasant  to  accept. 

When  entrusted  with  a  commission,  do  not  fail  to  perform  it.  It  is  rude  to 
"forget," 

On  entering  a  room  filled  with  people,  do  not  fail  to  bow  slightly  to  the 
general  company. 

If  you  accept  favors  and  hospitalities,  do  not  fail  to  return  the  same  when 
the  opportunity  offers. 

The  most  contemptible  meanness  in  the  world  is  that  of  opening  a  private 
letter  addressed  to  another.  No  one  with  the  slightest  self-respect  would  be 
guilty  of  such  an  act. 

Never  betray  a  confidence. 

Never  question  a  child  or  a  servant  about  the  private  affairs  of  the  family 

Do  not  borrow  money  and  neglect  to  pay.  If  you  do,  you  will  soon  find 
that  your  credit  is  bad. 

When  offered  a  seat  in  the  street  car,  accept  the  same  with  audible  thanks. 

It  is  very  awkward  for  one  lady  to  rise  and  give  another  lady  a  seat  in  a 
streetcar,  unless  the  lady  standing  be  very  old,  or  evidently  ill  and  weak. 

Never  fail  to  answer  an  invitation,  either  personally  or  by  letter,  within  a 
week  after  its  receipt. 

Do  not  fail  to  return  a  friend's  call  in  due  time. 

Never  play  practical  jokes.  The  results  are  frequently  so  serious  as  lo 
entail  life-long  regret  on  the  joker. 

Avoid  any  familiarity  with  a  new  acquaintance.  You  never  know  when 
you  may  give  offence. 

Always  tell  the  truth.  Veracity  is  the  very  foundation  of  character. 
Without  it  a  man  is  a  useless  and  unstable  structure. 

When  writing  to  ask  a  favor  or  to  obtain  information,  do  not  fail  to  enclose 
postage  stamp  for  a  reply. 

When  an  apology  is  offered,  accept  it,  and  do  so  with  a  good  grace,  not  in 
a  manner  that  implies  you  do  not  intend  changing  your  opinion  of  the 
offence. 

It  is  rude  to  examine  the  cards  in  a  card-basket  unless  you  have  an  invita- 
tion to  that  effect. 

Never  look  at  the  superscription  on  a  letter  that  you  may  be  requested  to 
mail. 

Never  seal  a  letter  that  is  to  be  given  to  a  friend  for  delivery.  It  looks  as 
though  you  doubted  his  or  her  honor  in  refraining  irom  examining  the  con- 
tents 

When  walking  with  a  lady,  it  is  etiquette  to  give  her  the  wall,  but  if  she 
have  your  arm  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  be  changing  at  every  corner  you 
come  to.     After  one  or  two  changes  the  habit  becomes  ridiculous. 

Always  adopt  a  pleasant  mode  of  address.  Whether  you  are  speaking  to 
inferiors  or  lo  your  equals,  it  will  alike  give  them  a  kindly  and  happy  im- 
pression of  you. 

Long  hair  and  a  scrawling  signature  do  not  constitute  genius.  Be  careful, 
then,  how  you  draw  upon  yourself  the  ridicule  of  being  a  shallow  pretender 
by  adopting  either  or  both. 

Never  fail  to  extend  every  kindly  courtesy  to  an  elderly  person  or  an 
invalid. 

Never  ridicule  the  lame,  the  hall  or  the  blind.  You  never  know  when 
misfortune  may  be  your  own  lot. 


^. 


736 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  HOUSE. 


Do  not  make  promises  that  j'ou  have  no  intention  of  fulfilling.  A  person 
who  is  ever  ready  with  promises,  which  he  fails  to  execute,  is  soon  known 
as  a  very  unreliable  party. 

Punctuality  is  a  most  admirable  quality.  The  man  or  woman  who  pos- 
sesses it  is  a  blessing  to  his  or  her  friends.  The  one  who  lacks  it  is  wanting 
in  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  good-breeding. 

It  is  extremely  rude  to  look  over  the  shoulder  of  one  who  is  reading  or 
writing.  It  is  also  rude  to  persist  in  reading  aloud  passages  from  your  own 
book  or  paper  to  one  who  is  also  reading. 

Do  not  appear  to  notice  any  defect,  scar  or  peculiarity  of  any  one.  It  is 
the  height  of  rudeness  to  speak  of  them. 

Never  presume  to  attract  the  attention  of  an  acquaintance  by  a  touch, 
unless  you  are  extremely  intimata.  Recognition  by  a  simple  nod  or  spoken 
word  is  all  that  can  be  allowed. 

Do  not  be  quick  to  answer  questions,  in  general  company,  that  are  put  to 
others. 

You  should  not  lend  an  article  that  you  have  borrowed  without  first  ob- 
taining permission  from  the  owner. 

Avoid  ail  exhibition  of  excitement,  anger  or  impatience  when  an  accident 
happens. 


Neither  a  gentleman  nor  a  lady  will  boast  of  the  conquests  he  or  she  has 
made.  Such  a  course  would  have  the  effect  of  exciting  the  most  profound 
contempt  for  the  boasters  in  the  breasts  of  all  who  heard  them. 

If  you  cannot  avoid  passing  between  two  persons  who  are  talking,  never 
fail  to  apologize  for  doing  so. 

Never  enter  a  room  noisily.  Never  enter  the  private  bed-room  of  a  friend 
without  knocking.     Never  fail  to  close  the  door  after  you,  and  do  not  slam  it. 

Temper  has  much  more  to  do  with  good-breeding  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. The  French  are  allowed  to  be  the  most  polite  people  in  the  world, 
when  they  are  really  only  the  most  amiable. 

Learn  to  make  small  sacrifices  with  a  good  grace  ;  to  accept  small  disap- 
pointments in  a  patient  spirit,  A  little  more  of  self-control,  a  little  more 
allowance  for  the  weaknesses  of  others,  will  oftentimes  change  the  entire 
spirit  of  a  household. 

We  are  not  to  be  polite  merely  because  we  wish  to  please,  but  because  we 
wish  to  consider  the  feelings  and  spare  the  time  of  others — because  we 
wish  to  carry  into  daily  practice  the  spirit  of  the  precept,  "  Do  unto  others 
as  you  would  have  others  do  unto  you." 


V  Eti^Liette  V  oF  V  \:\ie  •>  Hoci^e.  ••  g^^u 


MANAGEMENT  OF  SERVANTS 


llVERY  mistress  of  a  house  is  a  sovereign  queen,  whose  court  is 
the  home  circle,  which  is  dependent  entirely  upon  her  grace  and 
executive  ability  for  happiness,  comfort  and  refinement. 

In  a  well-ordered  household  the  machinery  is  always  in  order, 
and  always  out  of  sight,  and  it  is  the  special  care  of  the  mis- 
tress thereof  to  secure  servants  so  reliable,  so  efficient  and  so 
well  trained  that  this  machinery  shall  run  quite  noiselessly,  and  with  the 
most  perfect  satisfaction. 

No  well-bred  woman  talks  of  her  servants,  her  dinner  arrangements,  or 
of  her  housekeeping  affairs  generally,  to  her  visitors  in  the  drawing-room, 
nor  yet  to  her  husband  in  the  privacy  of  the  domestic  circle. 

No  lady,  however  gifted,  can  afford  to  neglect  the  management  of  her 
household.  If  she  be  possessed  of  immense  wealth,  she  may  afford  to  hire 
an  efficient  housekeeper,  but  even  then  tlie  final  responsibility  rests  upon 
her.  No  tastes  and  no  pleasures  should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of 
this  important  duty. 

The  momeAt  you  enter  a  house,  the  personality  of  the  mistress  is  betrayed 
by  the  atmosphere  which  seems  to  pervade  it.  If  she  be  a  good  and 
efficient  ruler,  the  servants  wear  a  cheerful  air,  the  children  are  obedient  and 
courteous,  the  rooms  are  tastefully  furnished  and  spotlessly  clean  and  neat. 
The  unexpected  guest  receives  a  cordial  welcome,  and  is  conducted  to  a 
well-appointed  table.  In  such  a  home  scandal  and  gossip  are  never  heard, 
and  peace  and  contentment  are  the  household  gods. 

The  first  and  most  important  rule  for  the  governing  of  the  household  is 
to  regulate  the  expenditure  so  that  it  shall  come  easily  within  the  income. 

Elegance  adds  greatly  to  the  enjoyment  of  life,  but  if  it  is  to  be  purchased 
at  the  expense  of  all  peace  of  mind,  you  had  better  do  without  it  altogether. 
If  you  cannot  be  elegant,  you  can  at  least  be  clean,  and  the  true  gentle- 
woman will  be  discovered  as  soon  in  the  cottage  as  in  the  palace  by  her  sur- 
roundings.    Shabby  gentility  is   one   of   the   most   objectionable  forms   of 


snobbishness.  To  affect  a  better  income  than  you  have,  to  ape  the  maimers 
of  your  richer  neighbors,  proclaims  you  vulgar  and  ill-bred  in  the  highest 
degree.  Shams  of  every  description  are  contemptible,  and  every  young 
housekeeper  should  build  her  house  upon  a  superstructure  of  sincerity,  and 
then  she  will  never  have  to  blush  at  awkward  discoveries. 

Your  house  may  have  the  appearance  of  refinement  without  any  great 
expense  if  good  taste  be  exercised  in  its  arrangement.  The  rooms  must  be 
furnished  with  an  artistic  eye  for  colors,  and  a  careful  eye  for  comfort. 
Whatever  pictures  or  works  of  art  there  are  should  be  good.  One  good  en- 
graving is  better  than  half  a  dozen  cheap  chromos. 

A  house  without  books  is  a  house  without  a  soul.  Be  sure,  therefore,  10 
have  plenty  of  books  around.  You  may  not  be  able  to  have  a  whole  libriry, 
but  you  can  at  least  collect  a  few  shelves  of  well-chosen  works. 

Thorns  and  ferns  are  ornamental  and  tasteful,  and  may  be  obtained  :it  a 
very  slight  expenditure  ;  all  that  they  require  is  a  little  care  and  thought  in 
their  cultivation  and  arrangement. 

Be  careful  not  to  overload  your  rooms  with  cheap  knick-knacks  and 
gaudy  tidies  of  crochet  or  knitted  work.  Any  one  having  a  taste  for  the 
higher  style  of  embroidery,  such  as  the  Kensington  and  Arrasene  work, 
may  produce  very  artistic  effects,  at  but  slight  expense. 

The  walls  of  your  rooms  are  a  very  important  subject,  and  as  you  cannot 
expect  to  change  the  papering  thereof  with  every  fluctuation  of  fashion,  it 
is  essential  that  you  exercise  good  taste  at  the  outset,  paying  but  little  atten- 
tion to  the  prevailing  style. 

The  wails  of  a  room  should  always  be  of  some  sober  color.  Your  carpets 
may  be  bright  as  you  please,  but  the  pattern  must  be  small,  and  the  colors 
well  blended.  Set  figures  are  very  wearisome  to  the  eye,  either  in  a  carpet 
or  on  wull-paper,  and  as  boih  are  likely  to  be  worn  a  long  time,  it  is  best 
to  look  out  for  that  at  the  beginning. 


\ 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  HOUSE. 


r37 


In  this  day  of  armdc  famiture,  ait  magaiziaes,  and  art  craxes  gcaaaBy, 
there  Deed  be  do  excme  lor  bad  ta&te  in  fiannshing,  Tbc  day  of  one  stiff 
SO&,  six  stiff  chain,  aod  ooe  straight  tabfe,  aU  placed  rigidly  against  the 
vall,  andfermiog  ri^u  angles  vith  it.  is  over,  the  gods  be  thanked;  and 
a  persoD,  be  he  ever  so  uncultured,  can  forot  some  ooncepcioe  of  what  is 
soitabie  and  beanti^  in  the  house  to  make  it  a  home. 

Plenty  of  fresh  air,  ckanlinc&s  and  qmct,  are  aB  indicarions  of  a  veO- 
orderedhome. 

The  servant  qnestioa  is  the  okost  difficnh  ooe  that  housekeepers  have  to 
contend  with  in  America.  The  independent  ^Niit  of  our  republic  ts  inim- 
ical to  anytfaii^  that  kxiks  like  senritnde ;  heace  ottr  3rouDg  wooiea  of  the 
poorer  dasses  would  much  rather  go  into  ^ctories,  or  bend  orer  scwii^- 
machiacs,  than  go  into  pleasant,  cultivated  families,  where  the  varied  labor, 
better  dre  and  purer  aunospberc  would  contribute  immeasurably  to  the 
presenratioo  of  their  health  and  happiness. 

American  ladies  are  largely  dependent,  therdbrc,  upon  the  poor  emigrant 
population  of  Germany  and  Ireland  for  their  servams,  and  this  will  account 
for  the  main  part  of  the  difficulties  in  bousriteeping  here.  It  would  be  task 
enough  to  instruct  a  ttatxTc-bom  girl  in  the  raried  mysteries  of  dusting  aikd 
dish-washii^,  of  waiting  on  the  table  and  answering  the  door-bell ;  but 
when  it  comes  to  wrestling  «'ith  the  vernacular  of  the  Fatherland  as  well, 
it  is  discouragii^  in  the  highest  decree. 

The  best  way,  however,  is  to  offer  good  wages,  take  only  such  a  ^rl  as  is 
well  recommended,  and  then,  by  firm,  patient  and  just  measures,  endeavor 
to  have  her  do  your  work  in  your  own  way,  and  to  your  perfect  satislacxioiL. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  mistress  must  ever  be  on  the  alert.  She  must  be 
quick  to  observe  any  negtect  of  orders  and  carelessness  in  the  execution  of 
them.  She  must  rcmiad  repeatedly,  but  always  kindly  and  finnly.  Let  your 
servant  see  that  you  wi//  be  obeyed,  but  nrerr  let  her  see  you  out  of  temper, 
and  you  wiD  soon  acquire  such  an  ascendancy  over  her  that  everything  will 
go  as  smoothly  when  you  arc  absent  as  when  you  are  present.  If  you  will 
keep  a  good  servant,  yoc  must  treat  her  properly.  A  good  mistress  »-ill  give 
as  much  attention  to  the  comibrt  and  happiness  of  her  servants  as  she  will 
to  that  <A  her  husband  and  her  children. 

If  she  have  but  one  servant,  she  must  be  cardul  doc  to  put  too  ouich  work 
upon  her.  No  one  Is  willing  to  drudge  all  the  time,  nor  should  any  one  ask 
it.  If  there  arc  se\-cral  sert-ants,  their  duties  must  be  distinctly  understood 
aztd  rigidly  enforced.  One  must  iK>t  be  expected  to  help  another  out,  as 
that  would  be  injustice  to  the  industrious  one. 

The  mistress  must  give  personal  supervision  if  she  would  have  her  work 
well  done.  Only  after  a  long  and  tried  period  of  service  can  she  afford  to 
relax  her  vigilance.  A  good  house-mistress  will  never  be  afraid  of  a  little 
trouble      The  constant  care  pays  in  the  end. 

Avoid  a  fault-finding  axul  scolding  manner.  When  a  thing  does  not  suit 
you,  say  so  quietly  to  your  servant.  A  dbplay  of  temper  only  loses  you 
the  respect  of  your  servant,  and  gains  you  nochii^  in  the  way  of  obedience. 


Servants  shook!  be  treated  as  thou^  they  were  **«"■*«  bongs,  with 
httman  weaknesses,  and  not  as  if  they  were  mere  workix^  machines.  You 
should  eadeavor  to  correct  their  faults,  ikoc  to  aggravate  them ;  and  jrou 
sboufci  treat  them,  and  have  your  children  treat  them,  wtth  in\-ariablc  kind- 
ness and  civihEy. 

You  should  interest  yourself  in  the  amuscBems  of  your  servants.  If  the>- 
have  a  caste  iot  reading,  proiride  them  with  good  books.  Sec  that  the^- 
oocasioaally  have  an  opportunicy  to  attend  a  place  of  amusement.  Do  noi 
restrict  their  boors  of  amusement,  or  eadeavor  to  curtail  their  personal 
liberty.  A  good,  devoted  servant  is,  particularly  in  thb  coumr>-.  where  the 
sense  of  equality  is  felt  and  tacitly  admiued,  as  much  a  part  of  the  &mily 
as  any  member  thervof.  She  is  the  trusted  confidante  in  family  troubles  ; 
she  is  the  recipient  of  all  the  joyfiil  secrets  of  the  various  members  of  the 
dmily  :  she  ts.  in  short,  more  friend  than  servant,  without  pccsumpcioa  on 
the  one  hand  or  undignified  oondesoensioa  on  the  other. 

Putkctuality  is  one  of  the  chief  requiremetus  of  a  wdl-ordered  household. 
The  good  temper  and  consequent  cotnfon  of  the  whole  £unily  depeiMl  upoo 
the  regularity  of  the  meats,  to  say  nochic^  of  the  health,  which  is  almost  as 
largely  dependent  tjpon  the  meal  betj^  served  on  time  as  upon  the  quality  of 
tbe&od.  The  breakfast  and  dinner  beU  should  be  as  punctual  as  the  church  bell. 

The  mistress  must  look  well  to  the  quality  and  preparation  of  the  food. 
Badly  cooked  fiaod,  moootonoos  ibod  or  insufficient  food  are  all  injurious 
to  the  health,  and  iko  lady  should  lex  other  and  more  agreeable  occupations 
engage  her  attention  until  she  has  attended  \a  her  marketing,  ordered  her 
meals,  and  made  stue  of  their  betng  properly  prepared  and  neatly  served. 

Unless  she  have  a  dining-room  maid,  upon  whom  she  can  chorou^ily 
depend,  it  b  better  for  the  lady  of  the  bouse  to  go  into  her  dinii^-room  a  few 
moments  before  meals  are  served,  to  sec  that  all  is  in  order,  the  table  properly 
anas^ed,  etc  There  are  very  few  servants  in  this  country  well  trained 
enoi^  to  be  depended  upon  without  dose  supervision. 

A  good  housekeeper  wiQ  also  attend  carcAiQy  to  her  daily  accounts. 
Entries  of  expenditures  sbotild  be  made  ever>'  day,  ard  the  amount  cast  up 
at  the  end  of  the  week.  If  a  book  is  kept  with  the  butcher  and  the  grocer, 
it  is  always  best  to  have  a  weekly  settlement.  A  monthly  or  a  quarterly  set- 
tlement may  of  course  be  made,  but  the  shorter  time  accounts  are  allowed  to 
run,  the  easier  it  is  to  untai^lc  anj-  little  knot  in  the  skein.  It  is  best  for  the 
mistress  to  do  all  her  own  ordering  for  the  domestic  commissariat  than 
to  depute  any  part  of  the  task  to  her  cook.  UTicre  servants  arc  allowed  to 
nm  and  order  this  or  that  article,  there  is  alwa)'s  trouble  with  the  tradesmen 
when  the  monthly  bill  comes  in. 

While  every  woman  should  do  all  in  her  power  to  enbugc  her  views,  cul- 
tivate her  mind,  and  improve  her  social  position,  she  should  bear  in  mind 
that  "  home  "  is  first  and  forever  her  special  heritage,  and  that  to  embellish 
and  beautify  it,  and  to  so  order  it  chat  it  shall  be  a  haven  of  rest  to  her  dear 
oikcs,  is  her  highest  and  noblest  duty,  to  which  ever>thing  else  should  be 
subservient. 


"^^^^^^^ 


/#V 


^ 


738 


-Tf" 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING. 


;^, 


#^'^i^^^i^^^i^i^i^>^)^^^g"^>^^^^>^>^'^^^i^^'^^fiBi^gE'i^^)^)^)^ 


^^^0.  > 


l^e-flr^t-oF-Cai^Vin^.  ^^fe 


^1^ ^  _. 


*^l-l-|=^^^fH>^«* 


Hi 


\wr-ir^  H E  importance  of  the  art  of  carving  has  been  referred  to  under 
h.l.^-^-  !.-\^l:      (he  head  of  Dining,  and  we  propose  here  to  give  a  few  rules 
upon  the  practice  which  may  be  of  benefit  to  the  tyro,  and  help 
him  to  acquire  that  ease  and  dexterity  in  carving  which  is  so 
conducive  to  peace  and  comfort  around  the  family  board. 
*^T^  In  carving  a  sirloin  of  beef,  the  upper  cuts  should  be  made 

lengthwise  of  the  beef,  while  the  under  cuts  are  crosswise— the  under  cuts 
being  also  much  thicker  than  the  upper  cuts.  As  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  which  is  the  choice  piece,  it  is  best  for  the  carver  to  ask  his 
guests  which  cut  they  prefer. 

Rib  roasts,  rolled,  and  a  round  of  beef  are  always  cut  in  very  thin  hori- 
zontal slices  across  the  whole  surface  of  the  meat.  It  is  essential,  though, 
that  these  slices  be  quite  thin. 

The  leg,  the  loin,  the  shoulder  and  the  saddle  are  the  four  pieces  of  mut- 
ton usually  brought  to  the  table  to  be  carved.  First,  as  to  the  leg.  This 
must  be  placed  on  the  table  with  the  knuckle  toward  the  left  hand.  Then 
cut  into  the  side  farthest  from  you  toward  the  bone,  helping  thin  slices 
from  the  right  and  thick  slices  toward  the  knuckle.  Always  divide 
the  little  bunch  of  fat  near  the  thick  end  among  your  guests,  as  it  is  a 
great  delicacy. 

A  saddle  of  mutton  is  often  ordered  for  a  small  dinner  party.  It  is  cut  in 
very  thin  slices,  close  to  the  back-bone,  and  then  downward. 

Place  a  "  shoulder  "  with  the  knuckle  toward  the  right  hand,  the  blade 
bone  toward  the  left.  Place  your  fork  firmly  in  the  middle  of  the  edge 
farthest  from  you,  and  cut  dexterously  from  the  edge  to  the  bone.  This 
causes  the  meat  to  fly  open,  when  you  can  cut  slices  on  each  side  of  the 
opening,  until  there  is  no  more  to  cut,  when  the  meat  should  be  turned 
over  and  slices  cut  from  the  under  side.  Another  method  of  carving  this 
joint  is  to  cut  slices  lengthwise  from  the  end  to  the  knuckle. 

The  loin  of  mutton,  which  is  a  piece  intended  specially  for  family  use, 
should  be  carved  either  through  the  joints  or  may  be  cut  lengthwise  in  a 
parallel  line  with  the  joints. 

A  fillet  of  veal  is,  in  shape  and  appearance,  very  similar  to  a  round  of 
beef,  and  is  carved  in  the  same  way  by  cutting  horizontal  slices  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  meat.  The  slices,  however,  should  not  be  nearly  so 
thin  as  beef.  A  fillet  of  veal  is  cut  from  the  leg,  the  bone  is  removed  by 
the  butcher,  and  the  pocket  thus  made  is  filled  with  dressing,  which  is  taken 
out  and  liclped  wiih  a  spoon  by  the  carver. 

A  breast  of  veal  may  be  either  roasted  or  stewed.  If  used  as  a  roasting- 
picce,  you  will  have  the  butcher  make  an  opening  or  hole  in  it  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  dressing.  In  carving  it,  the  ribs  may  be  separated  from  the 
brisket,  and  sent  round. 

A  fore-quarter  of  lamb  consists  of  shoulder,  breast  and  ribs.  The  knife 
must  be  first  placed   upon  the  shoulder,  drawn  through  horizontally,  and 


the  joint  removed,  and  placed  upon  another  dish.  The  ribs  can  then  be 
separated,  and  the  breast  sliced  and  sent  around. 

A  calf's  head,  which  is  by  some  considered  a  delicacy,  must  be  cut  down 
the  centre  in  thin  slices  on  each  sidt.  A  small  piece  of  the  palate,  of  the 
sweet-bread,  and  of  the  meat  around  the  eye,  must  be  put  on  each  plate  and 
sent  round. 

In  carving  a  haunch  of  venison,  make  a  cut  across  close  to  knuckle,  after 
which  cut  slices  by  making  straight  incisions  lengthwise. 

There  are  three  methods  allowed  in  carving  a  ham.  The  most  common 
one  probably  is  to  cut  it  like  a  leg  of  mutton,  beginning  in  the  middle,  and 
cutting  either  way.  You  may,  however,  begin  at  the  knuckle,  cutting  slices 
in  a  slanting  direction,  or  you  may  begin  at  the  thick  end.  The  slices 
must  always  be  as  ihin  and  delicate  as  possible,  and  are  the  usual  accom- 
paniment to  fowl  or  veal. 

Tongue  must  always  be  cut  in  thin,  regular  slices.  Make  the  first  cut  a 
short  distance  from  the  tip,  where  a  slice  of  some  size  may  be  attained. 
The  tip  is  considered  quite  a  tid-bit  by  some  people. 

In  carving  a  chicken,  first  cut  off  the  wings.  This  is  easily  done  by  learn- 
ing where  to  strike  the  joint.  Then  slice  the  breast,  and  cut  off  the  merry- 
thought and  side  bones.  The  breast  should  always  be  helped  first,  then  the 
wings — the  liver  wing  being  the  better  of  the  two.  It  is  better  to  always 
reserve  a  small  slice  of  the  white  meat  to  be  served  with  the  dark. 

Pigeon,  snipe  and  quail  are  cut  in  half,  and  a  piece  sent  to  each  guest. 
When  the  birds  are  small,  you  send  a  whole  one. 

Goose  and  turkey  are  helped  by  cutting  slices  off  the  breast,  and  then  the 
wings  and  legs  are  removed.  The  breast  is  considered  the  best  meat,  and 
after  that  the  wings. 

Boiled  rabbit  is  carved  thus  :  First  cut  off  the  legs,  then  take  out  the  shoul- 
ders with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  then  break  the  back  into  Ihree  or  four 
pieces  at  the  joint.  The  back  is  the  choice  help,  especially  the  piece  in  the 
centre.  The  shoulder  is  next  in  order  after  the  back,  and  the  leg  comes 
last.     The  kidney  is  a  delicate  bit.  ' 

For  cutting  fish  a  regular  silver  fish-slice  is  provided.  Salmon  and  all  fish 
of  that  order  are  cut  in  slices  down  the  middle  of  the  upper  side,  and  then 
in  slices  across  on  the  under  side,  A  piece  of  each  should  be  helped 
to  all. 

Mackerel  divides  among  four  people.  Pass  fish-knife  between  the  upper 
and  under  half  from  head  to  tail,  then  halve  each  side,  and  help  to  a  quarter. 

Cut  cod  crosswise  like  salmon,  then  downward,  and  send  a  small  piece  of 
round  on  each  plate  as  well. 

Large  flat  fish,  as  turbot,  flounders,  John  Dorey,  etc.,  are  first  cut  down 
the  middle  from  head  to  tail,  then  across  to  the  fin,  in  slices.  The  fin,  being 
considered  a  delicacy  by  some,  should  be  helped,  too. 

Small  fish,  like  smelts,  whiting,  etc.,  are  sent  whole  to  each  guest. 


/_ 


\ 


HOW  TO  SELECT  MEATS. 


/■ 


739 


cr^  y 


EEK3  -^the*art*of*cooking^-  feliXKR)- 

ia8i#<l>']tiIiiIiiI'li»'iaii]i)iI'»(I''S€ii|ii1iiiIiiltiiiIi(ltl  JtiIi(tOtiiIi»M  ;? 


4"^' 


_  ARCELY  a  young  housekeeper,  unless  so  fortunate  as  to  liave 
had  a  thorough  course  of  training  by  a  sensible  mother,  but  has 
been  mortified  at  her  own  extreme  ignorance  of  what  before 
seemed  unimportant  matters,  but  afterward  proved  themselves 
very  essential  points  in  the  way  of  doing  the  household  market- 
ing. The  difference  in  kind  and  quality,  and  the  technical 
names  of  the  various  parts  of  edible  animals,  probably  never  occurred  to 
her  until  brought  face  to  face  with  the  matter  in  the  butcher  shop,  which  she 
has  entered  for  the  first  time  to  purchase  her  meat  for  dinner. 

For  the  benefit  of  such  we  give  a  few  general  rules  upon  how  to  select 
meats,  the  names  of  the  different  parts,  appearance  of  good  and  bad  meats, 
etc.  First,  as  to  the  characteristics  of  good  meats.  Meat  of  a  pale  pink 
color  is  likely  to  be  diseased,  while  that  of  a  deep  purple  tint  has  not  been 
slaughtered,  but  has  died  of  acute  fever.  The  proper  color  is  a  bright,  rich 
red. 

It  should  be  firm  and  elastic  in  appearance,  and  scarcely  moisten  the 
fingers.     Bad  meat  is  wet  and  sodden,  while  the  fat  in  it  looks  like  jelly. 

Good  meat  has  little  or  no  odor,  and  is  not  disagreeable.  Bad  meat  has  a 
sickly  odor  that  is  extremely  offensive. 

Good  meat  should  not  shrink  much  in  cooking. 

It  should  not  become  very  wet  on  standing.  It  should  drj'  upon  the 
surface. 

Meat  should  be  dried  with  a  clean  cloth  as  soon  as  it  conies  from  the 
butcher's.     Cut  out  fly-blows  if  there  are  any  on  it. 

Never  buy  britised  joints. 

Meat  will  keep  a  long  time  in  cold  weather,  while  if  frozen  it  will  keep 
for  months.  Always  thaw  frozen  meat  before  attempting  to  cook  it,  by 
plunging  it  in  cold  water  or  setting  it  before  the  fire.  It  will  not  cook  well 
without  this  precaution. 

In  summer  place  your  meat  on  ice,  or  in  the  coldest  place  you  have,  until 
ready  to  cook  it. 

Always  baste  roast  meat  with  its  own  drippings.  You  cannot  baste  it  loo 
much. 

In  order  to  retain  the  juices,  your  meat  must  be  cooked  in  a  hot  oven. 

In  boiling  meat,  if  you  wish  to  make  soup  as  well,  put  your  meat  in  cold 
water,  and  bring  it  slowly  up  to  the  boiling  point.  The  juices  then  flav()r 
the  water  and  make  soup.  If  you  put  the  meat  in  boiling  water,  the  juices 
remain  in  the  meat,  and  the  liquor  is  worthless. 

Stewing  is  slow  boiling.  Frying  is  cooking  in  a  pan,  in  a  small  quantity 
of  fat.     Broiling  is  cooking  over  a  fire. 

Beef  is  the  flesh  of  the  ox,  and  is  the  principal  meat  eaten  in  this  country 
and  in  England.  Good  beef  shoidd  be  well  streaked  or  marbled  with  fat, 
and  should  have  plenty  of  loose  fat  or  suet  around. 


The  joints  of  beef  for  roasting  are  ribs,  sirloin,  chump  of  rump,  fillet  of 
sirloin,  mouse  buttock,  top  side  and  heart.  The  choice  roasts  are  sirloin 
and  rib  roasts.  For  a  small  family  a  nice  roast  is  made  of  one  rib,  the  bone 
being  taken  out,  and  the  meat  neatly  rolled  and  skewered  by  the  butcher. 

For  frying  or  broiling  the  best  steak  is  the  "porterhouse."  After  that 
"tenderloin"  and  "sirloin"  steak,  and  the  "rump"  steak.  The  latter 
should  be  well  beaten,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  toughness.  The  choicest 
thing  for  breakfast  is  a  "porterhouse"  steak,  broiledquickly  over  a  bright  fire. 

For  beefsteak  puddings  and  pics  coarser  pieces  of  the  meat  may  be  pur- 
chased.    For  soup,  a  good  shin-bone  is  best. 

Beef  is  more  nourishing  roasted  than  boiled,  and  can  be  eaten  more  fre- 
quently than  any  other  meat  without  causing  surfeit. 

Veal  has  but  little  fat,  and  is  of  a  pinkish  white  color.  Good  veal  should 
be  closely  grained  and  small ;  if  it  is  large  and  coarse-grained,  it  is  too  old 
to  be  really  nice.  Do  not  buy  it  if  it  is  moist  and  clammy,  as  it  is  then 
nearing  decomposition.  The  best  pieces  of  veal  for  roasting  are  fillet  and 
best  end  of  the  breast.     For  frying,  cutlets  from  the  shoulder. 

Spring  lamb  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  kinds  of  meat  that  can  be  eaten. 
The  whole  animal  is  usually  divided  into  quarters  by  the  butcher,  and  sold 
at  so  much  a  quarter.  A  hind  quarter  is  usually  rather  more  expensive  than 
a  fore  quarter,  although  the  latter  is  considered  by  some  the  more  delicate 
eating.  It  is  always  rather  an  expensive  meal,  but  a  roast  of  lamb,  with 
mint  sauce,  is  always  a  delicate  dinner. 

Mutton  is  the  meat  of  sheep  upward  of  four  years  of  age.  The  darker 
mutton  is  the  better,  as  it  is  a  sign  of  maturity.  Good  mutlon  should  also 
be  fat. 

The  parts  for  roasting  are  saddle,  haunch,  leg.  best  end  ot  loin,  chump 
end  of  loin,  shoulder,  breast  and  others. 

For  frying  and  broiling,  chops  and  cutlets  from  loin  and  neck;  also  cut- 
lets from  leg. 

For  bcjiliiig  the  leg  makes  an  excellent  dinner.  It  should  always  be 
accompanied  by  caper  sauce. 

Venison  should  be  fat.  A  young  deer  may  be  distinguished  by  the  cleft 
of  the  haimch  being  smooth  and  close.  Winter  is  the  season  for  buck  ven- 
ison, while  summer  is  the  time  f()r  doe  venison.  The  roasting  parts  are 
haimch,  neck  and  breast. 

In  choosing  poultry,  it  is  usual  to  try  the  breast  bone  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  fowl  be  young  or  old.  If  the  bone  be  pliable — that  is,  easily 
bent  with  the-  finger — the  chicken  or  turkey  is  yoimg  and  tender  enough  for 
roasting;  but  if  hard  and  unyielding,  the  fowl  had  better  be  boiled,  and 
plenty  of  time  allowed  for  the  process. 

The  principal  kinds  of  game  eaten  are  grouse,  partridge,  snipes,  quails, 
woodcocks,  ortolans,  pheasants,  wild  duck,  teal,  land-rail,  plovers  and  larks. 


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742 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


n^auafo^^^, 


William  Cullen  Bryant. 


TITO  him  who,  in  the  love  of  nature,  holds 

pJL,   Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 

A  various  language  ;  for  his  gayer  hours 

She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 

And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  elides 

Into  his  darker  musings,  with  a  mild 

And  gentle  sympathy,  that  steals  away 

Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware. 

When  thoughts 
Of  the  last  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 
Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 
Of  the  stern  agony,  and  shroud,  and  pall, 
And  breathless  darkness,  and  the  narrow  house. 
Make  thee  to  shudder  and  grow  sick  at  heart ; 
Go  forth  into  the  open  sky,  and  list 
To  nature's  teaching,  while  from  all  around 
Comes  a  still  voice  : 

"  Yet  a  few  days,  and  thee 
The  all-beholding  sun  shall  see  no  more, 
In  all  his  course ;  nor  yet,  in  the  cold  ground, 
Where  thy  pale  form  was  laid  with  many  tears. 
Nor  in  the  embrace  of  ocean,  shall  exist 
Thy  image.     Earth,  that  nourishes  thee,  shall  claim 
Thy  growth,  to  be  resolved  to  earth  again  ; 
And,  lost  each  human  trace,  surrendering  up 
Thine  individual  being,  shalt  thou  go 
To  mix  forever  with  the  elements, 
To  be  a  brother  to  th'  insensible  rock 
And  to  the  sluggish  clod,  which  the  rude  swain 
Turns  with  his  share  and  treads  upon. 

The  oak 
Shall  send  its  roots  abroad,  and  pierce  thy  mold. 
Yet  not  to  thy  eternal  resting-place 
Shalt  thou  retire  alone,  nor  couldst  thou  wish 
Couch  more  magnificent.     Thou  shalt  lie  down 
With  patriarchs  of  the  infant  world,  with  kings. 
The  powerful  of  the  earth,  the  wise,  the  good. 
Fair  forms,  and  honry  seers  of  ages  past. 
All  in  one  mighty  sepulchre. 

The  hills. 
Rock-ribbed  and  ancient  as  the  sun  ;  the  vales, 
Stretching  in  pensive  quietness  between  ; 
The  venerable  woods ;  rivers  that  move 


In  majesty,  and  the  complaining  brooks 

That  make  the  meadows  green ;  and,  poured  round  all, 

OIJ  ocean's  gray  and  melancholy  waste. 

Arc  but  the  solemn  decorations  all 

Of  the  great  tomb  of  man.     The  golden  sun. 

The  planets,  all  the  infinite  host  of  heaven. 

Are  shining  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death, 

Through  the  still  lapse  of  ages. 

All  that  thread 
The  globe  are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 
That  slumber  in  its  bosom.     Take  the  wings 
Of  morning;  and  the  Barcan  desert  pierce. 
Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 
Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 
Save  its  own  dashings  —  yet —  the  dead  are  there  ; 
And  millions  in  those  solitudes,  since  first 
The  flight  of  years  began,  have  laid  them  down 
In  their  last  sleep  :  the  dead  reign  there  alone. 

So  shalt  ikon  rest ;  and  what  if  thou  shalt  fall 
Unnoticed  by  the  living,  and  no  friend 
Take  note  of  thy  departure  ?     All  that  breathe 
Will  share  thy  destiny.     The  gay  will  laugh 
When  thou  art  gone  ;  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
Plod  on  ;  and  each  one,  as  before,  will  chase 
His  favorite  phantom  ;  yet  all  these  shall  leave 
Their  mirth  and  their  enjoyments,  and  shall  come 
And  make  their  bed  with  thee.     As  the  long  train 
Of  ages  glide  away,  the  sons  of  men, 
The  youth  in  life's  green  spring,  and  he  who  goes 
In  the  full  strength  of  years,  matron  and  maid. 
The  bowed  with  age,  the  infant  in  the  smiles 
And  beauty  of  its  innocent  age  cut  off — 
Shall,  one  by  one,  be  gathered  to  thy  side, 
By  those  who  in  their  turn  shall  follow  them. 

So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  moves 
To  the  pale  realms  of  shade,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death. 
Thou  go  not  like  the  quarry -slave  at  night. 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed. 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down   to  pleasant  dreams. 


'^<^mfr' 


-M 


\ 


FAMIl-IAR   POEMS 


A 


743 


^  eFriacjoaffta'x^ 


^*  ^/Y^S  unto  the 
^Al^    So  unto 


k- 


he  bow  the  cord  is, 
>  unto  the  man  is  woman  : 
Though  she  bends  him,  she  obeys  him  ; 
Though  she  dra\^•s  him,  yet  she  follows ; 
Useless  each  without  the  other." 

Thus  the  youthful  Hiawatha 
Said  within  himself  and  pondered. 
Much  perplexed  by  various  feelings. 
Listless,  longing,  hoping,  fearing. 
Dreaming  still  of  Minnehaha, 
Of  the  lovely  Laughing  Water. 
In  the  land  of  the  D;icotahs. 

"  Wed  a  maiden  of  your  people," 
Warning  said  the  old  Nokomis  ; 
**  Go  not  eastward,  go  not  westward. 
For  a  stranger,  whom  ye  know  not ! 
Like  a  fire  upon  the  hearthstone 
Is  a  neighbor's  homely  daughter  ; 
Like  the  starlight  or  the  moonlight 
Is  the  handsomest  of  strangers  ! " 

Thus  dissuading  spake  Nokomis, 
And  my  Hiawatha  answered 
Only  this  ;  "  Dear  old  Nokomis, 
Very  pleasant  is  the  firelight. 
But  I  like  the  starlight  better. 
Better  do  I  like  the  moonlight !  " 

Gravely  then  said  old  Nq(comis  : 
"  Bring  not  here  an  idle  maiden. 
Bring  nut  here  a  useless  woman. 
Hands  iniskilful,  feet  unwilling; 
Bring  a  wife  with  nimble  fingers. 
Heart  and  hand  that  move  together, 
Feet  that  run  on  willing  errands  1  " 

Smiling  answered  Hiawatha: 
'*  In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs 
Lives  the  Arrow-maker's  daughter, 
Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
Handsomest  of  all  the  women. 
I  will  bring  her  to  your  wigwam, 
She  shall  run  upon  your  errands, 
Be  your  starlight,  moonlight,  firelight. 
Be  the  sunlight  of  my  people  !  " 

Still  dissuading  said  Nokomis  : 
"  Bring  not  to  my  IdWge  a  stranger 
From  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs  ! 
Very  fierce  are  the  Dacotahs, 
Often  is  there  war  between  us. 
There  arc  feuds  yet  unforgotten. 
Wounds  that  ache  and  still  may  open  !  '* 

Laughing  answered  Hiawatha : 
"  For  that  reason,  if  no  other, 
Would  I  wed  the  fair  Dacoiah, 
That  our  tribes  might  be  united. 
That  old  feuds  might  be  forgotten. 
And  old  wounds  be  healed  forever  1 " 


ys) 


©Y^OOIQg.      I 


Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow. 

Thus  departed  Hiawatha 
To  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
To  the  land  of  handsome  women ; 
Striding  over  moor  and  meadow 
Through  interminable  forests. 
Through  uninterrupted  silence. 

With  his  moccasins  of  magic. 
At  each  stride  a  mile  he  measured  ; 
Yet  the  way  seemed  long  before  him. 
And  his  heart  outran  his  footsteps  ; 
And  he  journeyed  without  resting. 
Till  he  heard  the  cataract's  laughter, 
Heard  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha 
Calling  to  him  through  the  silence. 
"  Pleasant  is  the  sound  !  "  he  murmured, 
"  Pleasant  is  the  voice  that  calls  me  !  " 

On  the  outskirts  of  the  forest, 
'Twixt  the  shadow  and  the  sunshine. 
Herds  of  fallow  deer  were  feeding. 
But  they  saw  not  Hiawatha; 
To  his  bow  he  whispered,  "  Fail  not  1  " 
To  his  arrow  whispered,  "  Swerve  not  1  " 
Sent  it  singing  on  its  errand. 
To  the  red  heart  of  the  roebuck  ; 
Threw  the  deer  across  his  shoulder. 
And  sped  forward  without  pausing. 

At  the  doorway  of  his  wigwam 
Sat  the  ancient  Arrow-maker, 
In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
Making  arrow-heads  of  jasper. 
Arrow-heads  of  chalcedony. 
At  his  side,  in  all  her  beauty. 
Sat  the  lovely  Minnehaha, 
Sat  his  daughter.  Laughing  Water, 
Plaiting  mats  of  flags  and  rushes  ; 
Of  the  past  the  old  man's  thoughts  were. 
And  the  maiden's  of  the  future. 

He  was  thinking,  as  he  sat  there, 
Of  the  days  when  with  such  arrows 
He  had  struck  the  deer  and  bison. 
On  tlie  Musl^oday,  the  meadow  ; 
Shot  the  wild  goose,  flying  southward. 
On  the  wing,  the  clamorous  Wawa  ; 
Thinking  of  the  great  war-parties. 
How  they  came  to  buy  his  arrows. 
Could  not  figlit  without  his  arrows. 
Ah,  no  more  such  noble  warriors 
Could  be  found  on  earth  as  they  were  ! 
Now  the  men  were  .ill  like  women, 
Only  used  their  tongues  for  weapons  [ 

She  was  thinking  of  a  hunter 
From  another  tribe  and  country, 
Young  and  tall  and  very  handsome. 
Who  one  morning,  in  the  spring-time. 
Came  to  buy  her  fatlicr's  arrows. 
Sat  and  rested  in  the  wigwam. 
Lingered  long  about  the  doorway, 


^^ 


Looking  back  as  he  departed. 
She  had  heard  her  father  praise  him, 
Praise  his  courage  and  his  wisdom  ; 
Would  he  come  again  for  arrows 
To  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha? 
On  the  mat  her  hands  lay  idle. 
And  her  eyes  were  ver>'  dreamy. 

Through  their  thoughts  they  heard  a  footstep. 
Heard  a  rustling  in  the  branches. 
And  with  glowing  check  and  forehead. 
With  the  deer  upon  his  shoulders. 
Suddenly  from  out  the  woodlands 
Hiawatha  stood  before  them. 

Straight  the  ancient  arrow-maker 
Looked  up  gravely  from  his  labor, 
Laid  aside  the  unfinished  arrow, 
Bade  him  enter  at  the  doorway. 
Saying,  as  he  rose  to  meet  him, 
"  Hiawatha,  you  are  welcome  !" 

At  the  feet  of  Laughing  Water 
Hiawatha  laid  his  burden, 
Threw  the  red  deer  from  his  shoulders  ; 
And  the  maiden  looked  up  at  him. 
Looked  up  from  her  mat  of  rushes. 
Said  with  gentle  look  and  accent, 
"You  are  welcome,  Hiawatha  !  " 

Ver)'  spacious  was  the  wigwam. 
Made  of  deer-skin  dressed  and  whitened. 
With  the  gods  of  the  Dacotahs 
Drawn  and  painted  on  its  curtains. 
And  so  tall  the  doorway,  hardly 
Hiawatha  stooped  to  enter. 
Hardly  touched  his  eagle-feathers 
As  he  entered  at  the  doorway. 

Then  uprose  the  Laughing  Water, 
From  the  ground  fair  Minnehaha, 
Laid  aside  her  mat  unfinished, 
Brought  forth  food  and  set  before  them. 
Water  brought  them  from  the  brooklet, 
Gave  them  food  in  earthen  vessels, 
Gave  them  drink  in  bowls  of  basswood. 
Listened  while  the  guest  was  speaking. 
Listened  while  her  father  answered. 
But  not  once  her  lips  she  opened, 
Not  a  single  word  she  uttered. 

Yes,  as  in  a  dream  she  listened 
To  the  words  of  Hiawatha, 
As  he  talked  of  oltl  Nokomis,  ' 

Who  had  nursed  him  in  his  childhood. 
As  he  told  of  his  companions, 
Chibiabos,  the  musician, 
And  the  vcr>'  strong  man,  Kwasind, 
And  of  happiness  and  plenty 
In  the  land  of  the  Ojibways, 
In  the  pleasant  land  and  peaceful. 


A 


■ 


"  After  many  years  of  warfare, 
Many  years  of  strife  and  bloodshed, 
There  is  peace  hetween  the  Ojibways 
And  the  tribe  of  the  Dacotahs ;  " 
Thus  continued  Hiawatha, 
And  then  added,  spealiing  slowly, 
"  That  this  peace  may  last  forever. 
And  our  hands  be  clasped  more  closely. 
And  our  hearts  be  more  united. 
Give  me  as  my  wife  this  maiden, 
Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
Loveliest  of  Dacotah  women  !  " 

And  the  ancient  Arrow-maker 
Paused  a  moment  ere  he  answered. 
Smoked  a  little  while  in  silence. 
Looked  at  Hiawatha  proudly, 
Fondly  looked  at  Laughing  Water, 
And  made  answer  very  gravely  ; 
"  Yes,  if  Minnehaha  wishes  ; 
Let  your  heart  speak,  Minnehaha  !  " 

And  the  lovely  Laughing  Water 
Seemed  more  lovely,  as  she  stood  there. 
Neither  willing  nor  reluctant. 
As  she  went  to  Hiawatha, 
Softly  took  the  seat  beside  him, 
While  she  said,  and  blushed  to  say  it, 
"  I  will  follow  you,  my  husband  1 " 

This  was  Hiawatha's  wooing  ! 
Thus  it  was  he  won  the  daughter 
Of  the  ancient  Arrow-maker, 
In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs  ! 
From  the  wigwam  he  departed. 
Leading  with  him  Laughing  Water  ; 
Hand  in  hand  they  went  together. 
Through  the  woodland  and  the  meadow. 
Left  the  old  man  standing  lonely 
At  the  doorway  of  his  wigwam. 
Heard  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha 
Calling  to  them  from  the  distance. 


Crying  to  them  from  afar  off, 

"  Fare  thee  well,  O  Minnehaha  1 " 

And  the  ancient  Arrow-maker 
Turned  again  unto  his  labor. 
Sat  down  by  his  sunny  doorway. 
Murmuring  to  himself,  and  saying : 
"  Thus  it  is  our  daughters  leave  us. 
Those  we  love,  and  those  who  love  us  ! 
Just  when  they  have  learned  to  help  us, 
When  we  are  old  and  lean  upon  them. 
Comes  a  youth  with  flaunting  feathers, 
With  his  flute  of  reeds,  a  stranger. 
Wanders  piping  through  the  village. 
Beckons  to  the  fairest  maiden. 
And  she  follows  where  he  leads  her. 
Leaving  all  things  for  the  stranger  1 " 

Pleasant  was  the  journey  homeward 
Through  interminable  forests. 
Over  meadow,  over  mountain, 
Over  river,  hill  and  hollow. 
Short  it  seemed  to  Hiawatha, 
Though  they  journeyed  very  slowly. 
Though  his  pace  he  checked  and  slackened 
To  the  steps  of  Laughing  Water. 

Over  wide  and  rushing  rivers 
In  his  arms  he  bore  the  maiden  : 
Light  he  thought  her  as  a  feather. 
As  the  plume  upon  his  head-gear; 
Cleared  the  tangled  pathway  for  her. 
Bent  aside  the  swaying  branches. 
Made  at  night  a  lodge  of  branches. 
And  a  bed  with  boughs  of  hemlock. 
And  a  fire  before  the  doorway 
With  the  dry  cones  of  the  pine-tree. 

All  the  travelling  winds  went  with  them 
O'er  the  meadow,  through  the  forest ; 
All  the  stars  of  night  looked  at  them. 
Watched  with  sleepless  eyes  their  slumber ; 


From  his  ambush  in  the  oak-tree 
Peered  the  squirrel,  Adjidaumo, 
Watched  with  eager  eyes  the  lovers; 
And  the  rabbit,  the  Wabasso, 
Scampered  from  the  path  before  them. 
Peeping,  peeping  from  his  burrow. 
Sat  erect  upon  his  haunches. 
Watched  with  curious  eyes  the  lovers. 

Pleasant  was  the  journey  homeward  ! 
All  the  birds  sang  loud  and  sweetly 
Songs  of  happiness  and  heart's-ease  : 
Sang  the  blue-bird,  the  Owaissa, 
"  Happy  are  you,  Hiawatha, 
Having  such  a  wife  to  love  you  !  " 
Sang  the  robin,  the  Opechee, 
"  Happy  are  you.  Laughing  Water, 
Having  such  a  noble  husband  !  " 

From  the  sky  the  sun  benignant 
Looked  upon  them  through  the  branches. 
Saying  to  them,  "  O  my  children. 
Love  is  sunshine,  hate  is  shadow. 
Life  is  checkered  shade  and  sunshine. 
Rule  by  love,  O  Hiawatha  1  " 

From  the  sky  the  moon  looked  at  them. 
Filled  the  lodge  with  mystic  splendors. 
Whispered  to  them,  "  O  my  children. 
Day  is  restless,  night  is  quiet, 
Man  imperious,  woman  feeble; 
Half  is  mine,  although  I  follow; 
Rule  by  patience.  Laughing  Water!  " 

Thus  it  was  they  journeyed  homeward. 
Thus  it  was  that  Hiawatha 
To  the  lodge  of  old  Nokomis 
Brought  the  moonlight,  starlight,  firelight. 
Brought  the  sunshine  of  his  people, 
Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
Handsomest  of  all  the  women 
In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
In  the  land  of  handsome  women. 


* 


■fte   5i)arefoot   S^o^. 


V>LESSINGS  on  thee,  little  man, 

^3   Barefoot  boy,  with  cheeks  of  tan  1 

With  thy  turned-up  pantaloons. 

And  thy  merr>'  whistled  tunes  ; 

With  thy  red  lip,  redder  still, 

Kissed  by  strawberries  on  the  hill ; 

With  the  sunshine  on  thy  face. 

Through  thy  torn  brim's  jaunty  grace. 

From  my  heart  I  give  thee  joy— 

I  was  once  a  barefoot  boy  ! 

Prince  thou  art  — the  grown-up  man 

Only  is  republican. 

Let  the  million-doUared  ride  t 

Barefoot,  trudging  at  his  side. 

Thou  hast  more  than  he  can  buy 

In  the  reach  of  ear  and  eye — 

Outward  sunshine,  inward  joy. 

Blessings  on  thee,  barefoot  boy  1 


John  Greenleaf  Whittier. 

Oh,  for  boyhood's  painless  play. 
Sleep  that  wakes  in  laughing  day. 
Health  that  mocks  the  doctoris  rules. 
Knowledge  never  learned  of  schools, 
Of  the  wild  bee's  morning  chase, 
Of  the  wild  flower's  time  and  place. 
Flight  of  fowl,  and  habitude 
Of  the  tenants  of  the  wood; 
How  the  tortoise  bears  his  shell. 
How  the  woodchuck  digs  his  cell, 
And  the  ground  mole  sinks  his  well; 
How  the  robin  feeds  her  young. 
How  the  oriole's  nest  is  hung ; 
Where  the  whitest  lilies  blow. 
Where  the  freshest  berries  grow. 
Where  the  ground-nut  trails  its  vine. 
Where  the  wood-grape's  clusters  shine; 
Of  the  black  wasp's  cunning  way, 


Mason  of  hi*;  walls  of  clay, 
And  the  architectural  plans 
Of  gray  hornet  artisans  1  — 
For,  eschewing  books  and  tasks. 
Nature  answers  all  he  asks  ; 
Hand  in  hand  with  her  he  walks, 
Face  to  face  with  he%he  talks. 
Part  and  parcel  of  her  joy- 
Blessings  on  the  barefoot  boy  ! 

Oh,  for  boyhood's  time  of  June, 
Crowding  years  in  one  brief  moon. 
When  all  things  I  heard  or  saw. 
Me,  their  master,  waited  for. 
1  was  rich  in  flowers  and  trees, 
Humming-birds  and  honey-bees; 
For  my  sport  the  squirrel  played. 
Plied  the  snouted  mole  his  spade ; 


\ 


V-lo- 


, 

\ 

o           •. 

^            ff) 

.*■ 

Si 

\ 

/ 

.■)  • 

( 

FAMILIAR  POEMS. 

745 

1 

For  my  taste  the  blackberry  cone 

Pewter  spoon  and  bowl  of  wood. 

Every  morn  shall  lead  thee  through 

Purpled  over  hedge  and  stone  ; 

On  the  door-stone,  gray  and  rude  ! 

Fresh  baptisms  of  the  dew; 

Laughed  the  brook  for  my  delight 

O'er  me,  like  a  regal  tent. 

Every  evening  from  thy  feet 

Through  the  day  and  through  the  night. 

Cloudy-ribbed  the  sunset  bent. 

Shall  the  cool  wind  kiss  the  heat ; 

Whispering  at  the  garden  wall, 

Purple-curtained,  fringed  with  gold. 

All  too  soon  these  feet  must  hide 

Talked  with  me  from  fall  to  fall ; 

Looped  in  many  a  wind-swung  fold, 

In  the  prison  cells  of  pride. 

Mine  the  sand-rimmed  pickerel  pond. 

While  foi  music  came  the  play 

Lose  the  freedom  of  the  sod. 

Mine  the  walnut  slopes  beyond, 

Of  the  pied  frogs'  orchestra  ; 

Like  a  colt's  for  work  be  shod. 

Mine  on  bending  orchard  trees, 

And,  to  light  the  noisy  choir. 

Made  to  tread  the  mills  of  toil 

Apples  of  Hesperides  ! 

Lit  the  fly  his  light  of  fire. 

Up  and  down  in  ceaseless  moil : 

Still,  as  my  horizon  grew, 

I  was  monarch;  —pomp  and  joy 

Happy  if  their  track  be  found 

Larger  grew  my  riches,  too; 

Waited  on  the  barefoot  boy  ! 

Never  on  forbidden  ground ; 

All  the  world  1  saw  or  knew 

Happy  if  they  sink  not  in 

Seemed  a  complex  Chinese  toy, 

Cheerily,  then,  my  little  man. 

Quick  and  treacherous  sands  of  sin. 
Ah  I  that  thou  couldst  know  thy  joy. 

Fashioned  for  a  barefoot  boy  ! 

Live  and  laugh,  as  boyhood  can  ! 

Oh,  for  festal  dainties  spread, 

Though  the  flinty  slopes  be  hard. 

Ere  it  passes,  barefoot  boy  1 

Like  my  bowl  of  milk  and  bread, — 

Stubble-speared  the  new-mown  sward. 

i^»f»k*'M"U'»«Mi»S*«»*'»*»M'»«Min»»i 

• 

1         M 

^r^=:^i    /'^Jl9l^^\    t§i::!^'-~ 

=77*                                     A 

^^^^'^^^^r  |&^^^^^        ^ 

v*w*u'u»u'V(»iyfc/»u»u»(«»w^J 

Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

1. 

YVeAR  the  sledges  with  the  bells— 

What  a  tale  of  terror,  now,  their  turbulency  tells  I 

In  the  silence  of  the  night. 

^£\         Silver  bells— 

In  the  startled  ear  of  night 

How  we  shiver  with  afl'right 

What  a  world  of  merriment  their  melody  foretells  ! 

How  they  scre:tm  out  their  aflTright ! 

At  the  melancholy  menace  of  their  tone! 

How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle. 

Too  much  horrified  to  speak. 

For  every  sound  that  floats 

In  the  icy  air  of  night  ! 

They  can  only  shriek,  shriek, 

From  the  ru^t  within  their  throats 

While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 

Out  of  tune,     - 

Is  a  groan. 

All  the  heavens  seem  to  twinkle 

In  the  clamorous   appealing  to  the   mercy  of  the 

And  the  people — ah.  the  people — 

With  a  crystaUine  delight — 

fire, 

They  that  dwell  up  in  the  steeple. 

Keeping  time,  time,  time, 

In  a  mad   expostulation  with  the  deaf  and  frantic 

All  alone, 

in  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme, 

fire, 

And  who  tolling,  lolling,  tolling. 

To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 

Leaping  higher,  higher,  higher, 

In  that  muffled  monotone. 

From  the  belK,  bells,  bells,  bells. 

With  a  desperate  desire. 

Feel  a  glory  in  so  rolling 

Bells,  bells,  bells. 

And  a  resulute  endeavor. 

On  the  human  heart  a  stone — 

From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells. 

Now — now  to  sit  or  never, 
By  the  side  of  the  pale-faced  moon. 

They  are  neither  man  nor  woman — 
They  are  neither  brute  nor  human — 

II. 

Oh,  the  bells,  bells,  bells, 

They  are  ghouls  ; 

Hear  the  mellow  wedding  bells — 

What  a  tale  their  terror  tells 

And  their  king  it  is  who  tolls; 

Golden  bells  ! 

Of  despair ! 

And  he  rolls,  rolls,  rolls. 

What  a  world  of  happiness  their  harmony  foretells  ! 

How  they  clang,  and  clash,  and  roar! 

Rolls. 

Through  the  balmy  air  of  night 

What  a  horror  they  outpour 

A  psean  from  the  bells  ! 

How  they  ring  out  their  delight ! 

On  the  bosom  of  the  palpitating  air  I 

And  his  merry  bosom  swells 

From  the  molien-golden  notes, 

Vet  the  ear  it  fullv  knows 

With  the  pa;an  of  the  bells  1 

And  all  in  tunc. 

By  the  twanging 

And  he  dances  and  he  yells  ; 

What  a  liquid  ditty  floats 

And  the  clanging, 
How  the  danger  ebbs  and  flows  ; 

Keeping  time,  time,  time, 

To  the  turtle-dove  that  listens,  while  she  gloats 

In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

On  the  moon  ! 

Vet  the  ear  disiinctly  tells. 
In  the  jangling. 
And  the  wrangling, 
How  the  danger  sinks  and  swells, 
By  the  sinking  or  the  swelling  in  the  anger  of  the 
bells — 

To  the  pa^an  of  the  bells — 

Oh,  from  out  the  sounding  cells, 

Of  the  bells  : 

What  a  gush  of  euphony  voluminously  wells  1 

Keeping  time,  time,  time. 

How  it  swells  ! 

In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

How  it  dwells 
On  the  Future  !  how  it  tells 

To  the  throbbing  of  the  bells — 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells— 

Of  the  rapture  thai  impels 

Of  the  bells— 

To  the  sobhing  of  the  bells  ; 

To  the  swinging  and  the  ringing 

Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, 

Keeping  time.  time,  time, 

Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells. 

Bells,  bells,  bells— 

As  he  knells,  knells,  knells. 

Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells. 
Bells,  bells,  bells- 

In  the  clamor  and  the  clangor  of  the  bells  1 

In  a  happy  Rmiic  rhyme. 

To  the  tolling  of  the  bells— 

To  the  rhyming  and  the  chiming  of  the  bells. 

IV. 

Of  the  bells,  bells,  hells. 

To  the  tolling  of  the  bells, 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells.  bells- 

IIL 

Hear  the  tolling  of  the  bells — 

< 

Hear  the  loud  alarum  bells — 
Brazen  bells  I 

Iron  bells  ! 
What  a  world   of  solemn  thought   their  monody 
compels  ' 

Bells,  bells,  bells— 
To  the  moaning  and  the  groaning  of  the  bells 

> 

.  e) 

/ 

\ 

L 

*v 

<5 »- 

-*         0 

■v*" 

) 

' 

-^=«l%f  5i)Poa:>,  Si)Poa:>,  Uftou 


m 


©Y^inter  ©Y^Inc^. 


=rfe) 

#- 


Shakspeue. 


Fro7n  "As  Vou  Like  It. '•—Act  Jl,  Sc.  7. 


T^LOW,  blow,  thou  winter  wind, 
^•^   Thou  art  not  so  unkind 
As  man's  ingratitude ; 
Thy  tooth  is  not  so  keen 
Because  thou  art  not  seen, 
Akhough  thy  breath  be  rude. 
Heigh-ho  !  sing  heigh-ho  !  unto  the  green  holly, 
Most  friendship  is  feigning,  most  loving  mere  folly. 
Then  heigh-ho  the  holly. 
This  life  is  most  jolly. 


Freeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky. 

Thou  dost  not  bite  so  nigh 

As  benefits  forgot ; 

Though  thou  the  waters  warp. 

Thy  sting  is  not  so  sharp 

As  friend  remembered  not. 

Heigh-ho  I  sing  heigh-ho  !  unto  the  green  holly, 

Most  friendship  is  feigning,  most  loving  mere  folly; 

Then  heigh-ho  the  holly, 

This  life  is  most  jolly. 


Alfred  Tennyson. 


TTTHE  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 
ffjL^         And  snowy  summits  old  in  story  ; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 
Blow,  bugle,  blowj  set  the  wild  echoes  flying  ; 
Blow,  bugle  :  answer,  echoes,  dying,  dying,  dying  ! 


Oh,  hark!  oh,  hear!  how  thin  and  cleai. 
And  thinner,  clearer,  farther  going, 
Oh,  sweet  and  far  from  cliff  and  scar. 

The  horns  of  Elfland  faintly  blowing  ! 
Blow,  let  us  hear  the  purple  glens  replying. 
Blow,  bugle  ;  answer,  echoes,  dying   dying,  dyin?  ! 


O  love,  they  die  in  yon  rich  sky. 

They  faint  on  hill  or  field  or  river ; 
Our  echoes  roll  from  soul  to  soul. 

And  grow  forever  and  forever. 
Blow,  bugle,  blow,  set  the  wild  echoes  flying. 
And  answer  echoes,  answer,  dying,  dying,  dying  ! 


Uft 


e  *  ^ 


tt- 


\vi  HE  sea  !  the  sea  !  the  open  sea, 
\J^    The  blue,  the  fresh,  the  ever  free  ! 
Without  a  mark,  without  a  bound. 
It  runneth  the  earth's  wide  regions  round. 
It  plays  wth  the  clouds  ;  it  mocks  the  skies ; 
Or  like  a  cradled  creature  lies. 

I'm  on  the  sea !  I'm  on  the  sea  ! 

I  am  where  I  would  e\'er  be : 

With  the  blue  above,  and  the  blue  below. 

And  silence  whcresoe'er  I  go  ; 

If  a  storm  should  come  and  awake  the  deep. 

What  matter?     I  shall  ride  and  sleep. 


I  love  (oh,  koiv  I  love!)  to  ride 
On  the  fierce,  foaming,  bursting  tide. 
When  every  mad  wave  drowns  the  moon. 
Or  whistles  aloft  his  tempest  tune. 
And  tells  how  goeth  the  world  below. 
And  why  the  southwest  blasts  do  blow. 

I  never  was  on  the  dull,  tame  shore 
But  I  loved  the  great  sea  more  and  more. 
And  backward  flew  to  her  billowy  breast. 
Like  a  bird  that  seeketh  its  mother's  nest ; 
And  a  mother  she  ivas,  and  is  to  me  ; 
For  I  was  born  on  the  open  sea. 


The  waves  were  white  and  red  the  mom, 

In  the  noisy  hour  when  I  was  born  ; 

And  the  whale  it  whistled  and  the  porpoise  roH'd, 

And  the  dolphins  bared  their  backs  of  gold  ; 

And  never  was  heard  such  an  outcry  wild 

As  welcomed  to  life  the  ocean  child. 

I've  lived  since  then,  in  calm  and  strife, 
Full  fifty  summers  a  sailor's  life. 
With  wealth  to  spend,  and  a  power  to  range, 
But  never  have  sought  nor  sigh'd  for  change; 
And  Death,  whenever  he  come  to  me. 
Shall  come  on  the  wild,  unbounded  sea. 


748 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


Oliver 


An  Ejctract  /roiH 
C^WEET  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening's  close, 
^3  Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose ; 
There,  as  I  passed  with  careless  steps  and  slow, 
The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below  ; 
The  swain  responsive  as  the  milk-maid  sung. 
The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young : 
The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool, 
The  pla>'ful  children  just  let  loose  from  school ; 
The  watch-dog's  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering  wind. 
And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind, — 
These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade, 
And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

***** 
Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled. 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild, 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose. 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose. 
A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear. 
And  passing  rich,  with  forty  pounds  a  year; 
Remote  from  towns  he  ran  his  godly  race. 
Nor  e'er  had  changed,  or  wished  to  change  his  place. 
Unskilful  he  to  fawn,  or  seek  for  power. 
By  doctrines  fashioned  to  the  varying  hour  ; 
Far  other  aims  his  heart  had  learned  to  prize. 
More  bent  to  raise  the  wretched  than  to  rise. 
His  house  was  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train, 
He  chid  their  wanderings,  but  relieved  their  pain  ; 
The  long-remembered  beggar  was  his  guest. 
Whose  beard,  descending,  swept  his  aged  breast ; 
The  ruined  spendthrift,  now  no  longer  proud. 
Claimed  kindred  there,  and  had  his  claims  allowed  ; 
The  broken  soldier,  kindly  bade  to  stay, 
Sat  by  his  fire,  and  talked  the  night  away  ; 
Wept  o'er  his  wounds,  or,  talcs  of  sorrow  done, 


Goldsmith. 
The  Deserted  Villager 

Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  showed  how  fields  were  won. 
Pleased  with  his  guests,  the  good  man  learned  to  glow. 
And  quite  forgot  their  vices  in  their  woe  ; 
Careless  their  merits  or  their  faults  to  scan, 
His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began. 

Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride, 
And  e'en  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side. 
But  in  his  duty  prompt  at  every  call. 
He  watched  and  wept,  he  prayed  and  felt  for  all : 
And  as  a  bird  each  fond  endearment  tries, 
To  tempt  its  new-fledged  offspring  to  the  skies, 
Htf  tried  each  art,  reproved  each  dull  delay. 
Allured  to  brighter  worlds,  and  led  the  way. 

Beside  the  bed  where  parting  life  was  laid. 
And  sorrow,  guilt  and  pain  by  turns  dismayed, 
The  reverend  champion  stood.     At  his  control 
Despair  and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul : 
Comfort  came  down,  the  trembling  wretch  to  raise, 
And  his  last  faltering  accents  whispered  praise. 

At  church,  with  meek  and  unaffected  grace. 
His  looks  adorned  the  venerable  place  : 
Truth  from  his  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway, 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray. 
The  service  past,  around  the  pious  man. 
With  steady  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  ran  ; 
E'en  children  followed,  with  endearing  wile, 
And  plucked  his  gown,  to  share  the  good  man's  smile. 
His  ready  smile  a  parent's  warmth  e.vpressed, 
Their  welfare  pleased  him,  and  their  cares  distressed; 
To  them  his  heart,  his  love,  his  griefs  were  given, 
But  all  his  serious  thoughts  had  rest  in  heaven  : 
As  some  tall  cliff,  that  lifts  its  awful  form. 
Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm  ; 
Though  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread. 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head. 


fte  <#^^  ^vreeQ. 


OH !  a  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green, 
That  creepeth  o'er  ruins  <ild  ! 
Of  right  choice  food  are  his  meals,  I  ween. 
In  his  cell  so  lone  and  cold. 
The  wall  must  be  crumbled,  the  stones  decayed. 

To  pleasure  his  dainty  whim  ; 
And  the  mouldering  dust  that  years  have  made 
Is  a  merry  meal  for  him. 

Creeping  where  no  life  is  seen, 
A  rare  old  plant  is  the  ivy  green. 

Fast  he  stealeth  on,  though  he  wears  no  wings. 

And  a  staunch  old  heart  has  he ; 
How  closely  he  twineth,  how  tight  he  clings. 

To  his  friend,  the  huge  oak  tree  I 


Charles  Dickens. 


L-, 


And  slyly  he  traileth  along  the  ground, 

And  his  leaves  he  gently  waves 
As  he  joyously  hugs  and  crawleth  round 
The  rich  mould  of  dead  men's  graves, 

Creeping  where  grim  death  has  been, 
A  rare  old  plant  is  the  ivy  gre^n. 


Whole  ages  have  fled,  and  their  works  decayed. 

And  nations  have  scattered  been  ; 
But  the  stout  old  ivy  shall  never  fade 

From  its  hale  and  hearty  green. 
The  brave  ol  1  plant  in  its  lonely  days 

Shall  fatten  upon  the  past : 
For  the  stateliest  building  man  can  raise 

Is  the  ivy's  food  at  last. 


.^ 


^ 


Srorrj   Jfome  fo  Jfome. 


spring 


From  ••  Harper's  Heeify." 

Y^yHEN  swallows  were  building  in  early 
«**>  ^.7,,     "u  '"■=  '■°'^^  "'<='■'=  '■>='i  in  June  ■ 

T„  ,1,    h     ,"  ?'?  'r*""^  ''"'^^  ^""^  fti'-'and  sweet 
In   he  heat  of  the  August  noon  ■  ' 

A  'a^.^^'""^^  were  blowing  the  yellow  wheat 

And  the  song  of  the  harvest  nigh 
And  the  beautiful  world  lay  calm  and  sweet 

In  the  joy  of  a  cloudless  sky- 
Then  the  swallows  were  full  of  glad  content 

In  the  hope  of  their  northern  nest- 
Were  sure  that  the  land  they  were  tarr^-ing  in 

Of  all  other  lands  was  the  best 
And  if  they  had  heard  in  those  blissful  days 
TL      \}^  ,  ,  ',"  '"^y  ""St  heed  say  "  Go  " 
They  had  left  their  nests  with  a  keen  regret 
And  their  flight  had  been  sad  and  slow." 

''"'  Xnd",hT'""  V'  S™5,?nd  flower,  were  dead 

And  the  brown  leaves  fell  with  a  sieh 
And  they  watched  the  sun  setting  every  d'av 

{■urther  on  in  the  northern  sky 
I  hen  the  Voice  was  sweet  when  it  bid  them  "Go  " 

1  hey  were  eager  for  southward  flight 
And  they  beat  their  wings  to  a  new-born  hope 

When  they  went  at  the  morning  light. 
If  the  w-ay  was  long,  yet  the  way  was  glad 

And  they  brighter  and  brighter  grew 
And  they  dipped  their  wings  in  the  glowing  heat 

And  they  still  to  the  southward  flew,   ^  ' 

Till  >hey  found  the  land  of  the  summer  sun, 
1    J  ■  "Vu"°  "■*"^^=,'''e  nightingale  sings. 
And  joyfully  rested  'mid  rose  and  song 

1  heir  beautiful  weary  wings. 

Like  swallow-s  we  wander  from  home  to  home  — 
H  c  are  birds  of  passage  at  best  — 
"IJ.ny.  ="  "P"'  "e  have  dwelt  awhile. 
We  have  built  us  many  a  nest 
But  the  heart  of  the  Father  will  touch  our  heart. 
■ar    "=,*'"  sP="'"o"s  soft  and  low,  ' 

We  shall  follow  the  Voice  to  the  better  land 
And  its  bliss  and  its  beauty  know.  ' 


75° 


i^ 


"7 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


^^ 


Si)ame   of  The  Aagefx^. 


John  Milton. 
J^»-ofti  "Paradise  Lost,"  Book  VI. 


jHT^lCHAEL  bid  sound  the  archangel  trumpet; 
^Y-*^    Through  the  vast  of  heaven 
It  sounded,  and  the  faithful  armies  rung 
Hosanna  to  the  Highest :  nor  stood  at  gaze 
The  adverse  legions,  nor  less  hideous  joined 
The  horrid  shock.    Now  storming  fury  rose, 
And  clamor,  such  as  heard  in  heaven  till  now 
Was  never;  arms  on  armor  clashing  brayed 
Horrible  discord,  and  the  madding  wheels 
Of  brazen  chariots  raged ;  dire  was  the  noise 
Of  conflict ;  overhead  the  dis&al  hiss 
Of  fiery  darts  in  flaming  volleys  flew. 
And  flying  vaulted  either  host  with  fire. 
So  under  fier>'  cope  together  rushed 
Both  battles  main,  with  ruinous  assault 
And  ioextinguishable  rage.     All  heaven 
Resounded  ;  and  had  earth  been  then,  all  earth 
Had  to  her  centre  shook, 

if.  it  ^  %  ^  * 

Deeds  of  eternal  fame 
Were  done,  but  infinite  :  for  wide  was  spread 
That  war,  and  various  :  sometimes  on  firm  ground 
A  standing  fight,  then,  soaring  on  main  wing, 
Tormented  all  the  air;  all  air  seemed  then 
Conflicting  fire. 

****** 
Forthwith  (behold  the  excellence,  the  power 
Which  God  hath  in  his  mighty  angels  placed) 
Their  arms  away  they  threw,  and  to  the  hilU 


(For  earth  hath  this  variety  from  heaven 

Of  pleasure  situate  in  hill  and  dale), 

Light  as  the  lightning  glimpse  they  ran,  they  flew 

From  their  foundations  loosening  to  and  fro. 

They  plucked  the  seated  hills,  with  all  their  load. 

Rocks,  waters,  woods,  and  by  their  shaggy  tops 

Uplifting  bore  them  in  their  hands  ;  amaze. 

Be  sure,  and  terror,  seized  the  rebel  host. 

When  coming  towards  them  so  dread  they  saw 

The  bottom  of  the  mountains  upward  turned, 

*  *  *  *    and  on  their  heads 

Main  promontories  flung,  which  in  the  air 

Came    shadowing,   and    oppressed    whole   legions 

armed  ; 
Their  armor  helped   their   harm,  crushed  in  and 

bruised 
Into  their  substance  pent,  which  wrought  them  pain 
Implacable,  and  many  a  dolorous  groan  ; 
Long  struggling  underneath,  ere  they  could  wind 
Out  of  such  prison,  though  spirits  of  purest  light, 
Purest  at  first,  now  gross  by  sinning  grown. 
The  rest,  in  imitation,  to  like  arms 
Betook  them,  and  the  neighboring  hills  uptore  ; 
So  hills  amid  the  air  encountered  hills. 
Hurled  to  and  fro  with  jaculation  dire, 
That  underground  they  fought  in  dismal  shade  , 
Infernal  noise  !  war  seemed  a  civil  game 
To  this  uproar;  horrid  confusion  heaped 
Upon  confiision  rose. 


^kivuTtj*bRinifik/H>*u^nH'u^^ 


T_TARE  thee  well,  and  if  forever, 
Jl!*  Still  forever,  fare  thee  well ; 
E'en  though  unforgiving,  never 

'Gainst  thee  shall  my  heart  rebel. 

Would  that  breast  were  bared  before  thee 
Where  thy  head  so  oft  hath  lain. 

While  that  placid  sleep  came  o'er  thee 
Which  thou  ne'er  canst  know  again  ; 

Would  that  breast,  by  thee  glanced  over. 
Every  inmost  thought  could  show  ! 

Then  thou  wouldst  at  last  discover 
'Twas  not  well  to  spurn  it  so. 

Though  the  world  for  this  commend  thee— 
Though  it  smile  upon  the  blow. 

E'en  its  praises  must  offend  thee. 
Founded  on  another's  woe. 

Though  my  many  faults  defaced  me. 

Could  no  other  arm  be  found 
Than  the  one  which  once  embraced  me 

To  inflict  a  cureless  wound ! 


LoRD  Byron. 

Yet,  oh,  yet  thyself  deceive  not : 
Love  may  sink  by  slow  decay ; 

But  by  sudden  wrench,  believe  not 
Hearts  can  thus  be  torn  away  : 

Still  thine  own  its  life  retaineth — 

Still  must  mine,  though  bleeding,  beat. 

And  th'  undying  thought  which  paineth 
Is — that  we  no  more  may  meet. 

These  are  words  of  deeper  sorrow 
Than  the  wail  above  the  dead  ; 

Both  shall  live,  but  every  morrow 
Wakes  us  from  a  widowed  bed. 

And  when  thou  wouldst  solace  gather 
When  our  child's  first  accents  flow. 

Wilt  thou  teach  her  to  say  "  Father  !  " 
Though  his  care  she  must  forego? 

When  her  little  hands  shall  press  thee. 
When  her  lip  to  thine  is  pressed, 

Think  of  him  whose  love  shall  bless  thee. 
Think  of  him  thy  love  had  blessed. 


Should  her  lineaments  resemble 
Those  thou  nevermore  mayst  see. 

Then  thy  heart  will  softly  tremble 
With  a  pulse  yet  true  to  me. 

All  my  faults  perchance  thou  knowest. 
All  my  madness  none  can  know ; 

All  my  hopes  where'er  thou  goest. 
Whither,  yet  with  thee  they  go. 

Every  feeling  hath  been  shaken  ; 

Pride,  which  not  a  world  coiJd  bow. 
Bows  to  thee — by  thee  forsaken. 

E'en  my  soul  forsakes  me  now 

But  'tis  done  ;  all  words  are  iale — 
Words  from  me  are  vainer  still ; 

But  the  thoughts  we  cannot  bridle 
Force  their  way  without  the  will. 

Fare  thee  well !  thus  disunited, 
Tom  from  every  nearer  tie. 

Seared  in  heart,  and  lone,  and  blighted. 
More  than  this  I  scarce  can  die. 


/ 


\^ 


■^ 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


^ 


/ 


75' 


^^" 
^^^. 


4^T^ 


©Jfte  <K 


our  o 


--^^^ 


fQeaf^.      ^g 


Mrs.  Felicia  Hemans. 


y  ^EAVES  have  their  time  to  fall, 
^aA.  And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 
And  stars  to  set — but  all, 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Deaili ! 

Day  is  for  mortal  care. 

Eve  for  glad  meetings  round  the  joyous  hearth. 
Night  for  the  dreams  of  sleep,  the  voice  of  prayer — 

But  all  for  thee,  thou  mightiest  of  the  earth. 

The  banquet  halh  its  hour, 

Its  feverish  hour  of  mirth,  and  song,  and  wine  ; 
There  comes  a  day  for  grief's  o'erwhelming  power, 

A  time  for  softer  tears— but  all  are  thine. 

Youth  and  the  opening  ros'e 

May  look  like  things  too  glorious  for  decay, 
And  smile  at  thee— but  thou  art  not  of  those 

That  wait  the  ripened  bloom  to  seize  their  prey. 

Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall. 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath. 
And  stars  to  set — but  all, 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death  ! 


We  know  when  moons  shall  wane, 

When  summer-birds  from  far  shall  cross  the  sea. 
When  autumn's  hue  shall  tinge  the  golden  grain — 

But  who  shall  teach  us  when  to  look  for  thee  ? 

Is  it  when  Spring's  first  gale 

Comes  forth  to  whisper  where  the  violets  He? 
Is  it  when  roses  in  our  paths  grow  pale? — 

They  have  one  season — all  are  ours  to  die  ! 

Thou  art  where  billows  foam. 

Thou  art  where  music  melts  upon  the  air ; 
Thou  art  around  us  in  our  peaceful  home. 

And  the  world  calls  us  forth — and  thou  art  there. 

Thou  art  where  friend  meets  friend. 
Beneath  the  shadow  of  the  elm  to  rest — 

Thou  art  where  foe  meets  foe,  and  trumpets  rend 
The  skies,  and  swords  beat  down  the  princely  crest. 

Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall, 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath. 
And  stars  to  set — but  all. 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death  I 


Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 


T  \0  you  know  you  have  asked  for  the  costliest  thing 
^-J    Ever  made  by  the  Hand  above — 
A  woman's  heart  and  a  woman's  life, 
And  a  woman's  wonderful  love? 

Do  you  know  you  have  asked  for  this  priceless  thing 

As  a  child  might  ask  for  a  toy? 
Demanding  what  others  have  died  to  win, 

With  the  reckless  dash  of  a  boy  ? 

You  have  written  my  lesson  of  duty  out, 

Man-like  you  liavc  questioned  me — 
Now  stand  at  the  bar  of  my  woman's  soul, 

Until  I  shall  question  thee. 

You  require  your  mutton  shall  always  be  hot. 
Your  socks  and  your  shirts  shall  be  whole  ; 

I  require  your  heart  to  be  true  as  God's  stars, 
And  pure  as  heaven  your  soul. 

You  require  a  cook  for  your  mutton  and  beef; 

I  require  a  far  better  thing  : 
A  seamstress  you're  wanting  for  stockings  and  shirts — 

I  look  for  a  man  and  a  king. 


A  king  for  a  beautiful  realm  called  home. 
And  a  man  that  the  maker,  God, 

Shall  look  upon  as  He  did  the  first, 
And  say,  "  It  is  very  good." 

I  am  fair  and  young,  but  the  rose  will  fade 
From  my  soft,  young  cheek  one  day — 

Will  you  love  mc  then,  "mid  the  falling  leaves, 
As  you  did  'mid  the  bloom  of  May  ? 

Is  your  heart  an  ocean  so  strong  and  deep 

I  may  launch  my  ail  on  its  tide  ? 
A  loving  woman  finds  heaven  or  hell 

On  the  day  she  Is  made  a  bride. 

I  require  all  things  that  are  grand  and  true. 

All  things  that  a  man  should  be; 
If  you  give  this  all,  I  would  stake  my  life 

To  be  all  you  demand  of  me. 

If  you  cannot  do  this — a  laimdrcss  and  cook 

You  can  hire,  with  little  to  pay  : 
But  a  woman's  heart  and  a  woman's  life 

Are  not  to  be  won  that  way. 


/ 


-N 


752 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


ARA  Jane  Lippincott  (Grace  Greenwood). 


^«^HEN  troubled  in  spirit,  when  weary  of  life, 
^  J^    When  I  faint  'neath  its  burdens,  and  shrink  from  its  strife. 
When  its  fruit,  turned  to  ashes,  are  mocking  my  taste, 
And  its  fairest  scene  seems  but  a  desolate  waste, 
Then  come  ye  not  near  me,  my  sad  heart  to  cheer 
With  friendship's  soft  accents  or  sympathy's  tear  ; 
No  pity  I  ask,  and  no  counsel  I  need. 
But  bring  me,  oh,  bring  me,  my  gallant  young  steed  ! 
With  his  high  arched  neck,  and  his  nostril  spread  wide, 
His  eye  full  of  fire,  and  his  step  full  of  pride  ! 
As  I  spring  to  his  back,  as  I  seize  the  strong  rein. 
The  strength  to  my  spirit  returneth  again  ; 
The  bonds  are  all  broken  that  fettered  my  mind, 
And  my  cares  borne  away  on  the  wings  of  the  wind ; 
My  pride  lifts  its  head,  for  a  season  bowed  down. 
And  the  queen  in  my  nature  now  puts  on  her  crown  ! 
Now  we're  off — like  the  winds  to  the  plains  whence  they  came, 
And  the  rapture  of  motion  is  thrilling  my  frame  ! 
On,  on  speeds  my  courser,  scarce  printing  the  sod, 
Scarce  crushing  a  daisy  to  mark  where  he  trod  ! 
On,  on  like  a  deer,  when  the  hound's  early  bay 
Awakes  the  wild  echoes,  away  and  away  ! 
Still  faster,  still  farther,  he  leaps  at  my  cheer. 
Till  the  rush  of  the  startled  air  whirs  in  my  ear ! 


Now  'long  a  clear  rivulet  lieth  his  track. 

See  his  glancing  hoofs  tossing  the  white  pebbles  back; 

Now  a  glcn  dark  as  midnight — what  matter? — we'll  down, 

Though  shadows  are  round  us,  and  rocks  o'er  us  frown  ; 

The  thick  branches  shake  as  we're  hurrying  through. 

And  deck  us  with  spangles  of  silvery  dew. 

What  a  wild  thought  of  triumph  that  this  girlish  hand 

Such  a  steed  in  the  might  of  his  strength  may  command  ! 

What  a  glorious  creature  !     Ah  !  glance  at  him  now. 

As  I  check  him  awhile  on  this  green  hillock's  brow ; 

How  he  tosses  his  mane,  with  a  shrill,  joyous  neigh. 

And  paws  the  firm  earth  in  his  proud,  stately  play  ! 

Hurrah  !  off  again,  dashing  on  as  in  ire. 

Till  a  long,  flinty  pathway  is  flashing  with  fire  ! 

Ho  !  a  ditch  !     Shall  we  pause  ?     No  ;  the  bold  leap  v/e  daro, 

Like  a  swift-winged  arrow  we  rush  through  the  air  ! 

Oh,  not  all  the  pleasures  that  poets  may  praise, 

Not  the  'wildering  waltz  in  the  ball-room's  blaze. 

Nor  the  chiv:drous  joust,  nor  the  daring  race, 

Nor  the  swift  regatta,  nor  merry  chase. 

Nor  the  sail,  high  heaving  waters  o'er. 

Nor  the  rural  dance  on  the  moonlight  shore, 

Can  the  wild  and  thrilling  joy  exceed 

Of  a  fearless  leap  on  a  fiery  steed  I 


^     <  S 


©Y^afcfterx^. 


-^ 


Rosa  Vektner  Jeffrey. 


^TV^  NOEL  faces  watch  my  pUlow,  angel  voices  haunt  my  sleep, 
^i^V    And  upon  the  winds  of  midnight  shining  pinions  round  me  sweep ; 
Floating  downward  on  the  starlight  two  bright  infant  forms  I  see — 
They  are  mine,  my  own  bright  darlings,  come  from  heaven  to  visit  me. 

Earthly  children  smile  upon  me,  but  these  little  ones  above 
Were  the  first  to  stir  the  fountains  of  a  mother's  deathless  love. 
And  as  now  they  watch  my  slumber,  while  their  soft  eyes  on  me  shine, 
God  forgive  a  mortal  yearning  still  to  call  His  angels  mine. 

Earthly  children  fondly  call  me,  but  no  mortal  voice  can  seem 
Sweet  as  those  that  whisper  "  Mother  !  "  'mid  the  glories  of  my  dream; 
Years  will  pass,  and  earthly  prattlers  cease  perchance  to  lisp  my  name, 
But  my  angel  babies'  accents  will  be  evermore  the  same. 


And  the  bright  band  now  around  me  from  their  home  perchance  will  rove, 
In  their  strength  no  more  depending  on  my  constant  care  and  love ; 
But  my  first-born  still  shall  wander  from  the  sky,  in  dreams  to  rest 
Their  soft  cheeks  and  shining  tresses  on  an  earthly  mother's  breast. 

Time  may  steal  away  the  freshness,  or  some  whelming  grief  destroy 
All  the  hope  that  erst  had  blossomed,  in  my  summer-time  of  joy  ; 
Earthly  children  may  forsake  me.  earthly  friends  perhaps  betray, 
Every  tie  that  now  unites  me  to  this  life  may  pass  away  : 

But,  unchanged,  those  angel  watchers,  from  their  blessed,  immortal  home, 
Pure  and  fair,  to  cheer  the  sadness  of  my  darkened  dreams  shall  come, 
And  I  cannot  feel  forsaken,  for,  though  reft  of  earthly  love. 
Angel  children  call  me  "  Mother!  "  and  my  soul  will  look  above. 


V 


754 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


'7\ 


W^ 


Mary  A.  Townsend. 


^TTAR  up  the  lonely  mountain  side  my  wandering  footsteps  led; 
^^    The  moss  lay  thick  beneath  my  feet,  the  pine  sighed  overhead. 
The  trace  of  a  dismantled  fort  lay  in  the  forest  nave, 
And  in  the  shadow  near  my  path  1  saw  a  soldier's  grave. 

The  bramble  wrestled  with  the  weed  upon  \\'.  lowly  mound, 
The  simple  headboard,  rudely  writ,  had  rotted  to  the  ground; 
I  raised  it  with  a  reverent  hand,  from  dust  its  words  to  clear. 
But  time  had  blotted  all  but  these—"  A  Georgia  Volunteer." 

I  saw  the  load  and  scaly  snake  from  tangled  covert  start. 

And  hide  tliemselves  among  the  weeds  above  the  dead  man's  heart; 

But  undisturbed,  in  sleep  profound,  unheeding  there  l.e  lay  ; 

His  coffin  but  the  mountain  soil,  his  shroud  Confederate  gray. 

I  heard  the  Shenandoah  roll  along  the  vale  below, 

I  saw  the  Alleghenies  rise  towards  the  realms  of  snow. 

The  "  Valley  Campaign  "  rose  to  mind^ts  leader's  name— and  then 

I  knew  the  sleeper  had  been  one  of  Stonewall  Jackson's  men. 


Vet  whence  he  came,  what  lip  shall  say — whose  tongue  will  ever  tell — 
What  desolate  hearths  and  hearts  have  been  because  he  fell? 
What  sad-eyed  maiden  braids  her  hair,  her  hair  which  he  held  dear? 
One  lock  of  which,  perchance,  lice  with  the  Georgia  Volunteer  1 

What  mother,  with  long  watching  eyes  and  white  lips  cold  and  dumb. 
Waits  with  appalling  patience  for  her  darling  boy  to  come? 
Her  boy  !  whose  mountain  grave  swells  up  but  one  of  many  a  scar 
Cut  on  the  face  of  our  fair  land  by  gory-handed  war. 

What  fights  he  fought,  what  wounds  he  wore,  are  all  unknown  to  fame ; 
Remember,  on  his  lonely  grave  there  is  not  e'en  a  name  ! 
That  he  fought  well  and  bravely,  too,  and  held  his  coimtry  dear. 
We  know,  else  he  had  never  been  a  Georgia  Volunteer. 

He  sleeps — what  need  to  question  now  if  he  were  wrong  or  right? 
He  knows,  ere  this,  whose  cause  was  just  in  God  the  Father's  sight. 
He  wields  no  warlike  weapons  now,  returns  no  foeman's  thrust — 
Who  but  a  coward  would  revile  an  honored  soldier's  dust? 


Roll,  Shenandoah,  proudly  roll,  adown  thy  rocky  glen; 
Above  thee  lies  the  grave  of  one  of  Stonewall  Jackson's  men. 
Beneath  the  cedar  and  the  pine,  in  solitude  austere, 
Unknown,  unnamed,  forgotten,  lies  a  Georgia  Volunteer. 


©Jfte  picftet  ^uarc^. 


Et}iel  Lynn  Beers. 


"  'TV^  ^^  quiet  along  the  Potomac,"  they  say, 

g^V^  "  Except  now  and  then  a  stray  picket 
Is  shot,  as  he  walks  on  his  beat,  to  and  fro, 

By  a  rifleman  offin  the  thicket, 
*Tis  nothing — a  private  or  two,  now  and  then. 

Will  not  count  in  the  news  of  the  battle  ; 
Not  an  officer  lost — only  one  of  the  men. 

Moaning  out,  all  alone,  the  death-ratile." 

All  quiet  along  the  Potomac  to-night, 

Where  the  soldiers  lie  peacefully  dreaming  ; 
Their  tents  in  the  rays  of  the  clear  autumn  moon 

Or  the  light  of  the  watchfires  are  gleaming. 
A  tremiilous  sigh,  as  the  gentle  night-wind 

Through  the  forest-leaves  softly  is  creeping. 
While  stars  up  above,  with  their  glittering  eyes. 

Keep  guard — for  the  army  is  sleeping. 

There's  only  the  sound  of  the  lone  sentry's  tread. 
As  he  tramps  from  the  rock  to  the  fountain. 

And  thinks  of  the  two  in  the  low  trundle-bed 
Far  away  in  the  cot  on  the  mountain. 

His  musket  falls  slack— his  face,  dark  and  grim. 
Grows  gentle  with  memories  tender. 


As  he  mutters  a  prayer  for  the  children  asleep — 
For  their  mother — may  Heaven  defend  her  ! 

The  moon  seems  to  shine  just  as  brightly  as  then, 

That  night,  when  the  love  yet  unspoken 
Leaped  up  to  his  lips — when  low-murmured  vows 

Were  pledged  to  be  ever  unbroken. 
Then,  drawing  his  sleeve  roughly  over  his  eyes. 

He  dashes  off  tears  that  are  welling. 
And  gathers  his  gun  closer  up  to  its  place 

As  if  to  keep  down  the  heart -swelling. 

He  passes  the  fountain,  the  blasted  pine-tree — 

The  footstep  is  lagging  and  weary  ; 
Vet  onward  he  goe<;,  through  the  broad  belt  of  light 

Toward  the  shades  of  the  forest  so  dreary. 
Hark  !  was  it  night-wind  that  rustled  the  leaves  ? 

Was  it  moonlight  so  wondrously  flashing? 
It  looked  like  a  rifle — "  Ah!  Mary,  good-by  \" 

And  the  life-blood  is  ebbing  and  plashing. 

All  quiet  along  the  Potomac  to-night. 
No  sound  save  the  rush  of  the  river  : 

While  soft  falls  the  dew  on  the  face  of  the  dead— 
The  picket's  off  duty  forever. 


/ 


Al 


V 


/ 


lA-MII,iAR    I'OK.MS. 


755 


kL 


'I'lniMAS    CAMPUEI.r.. 


OUR  bugles  sang  tmce— forthe  night-cloud  had  lowered; 
And  tlie  sentiiitl  stars  set  their  watch  in  the  sky  ; 
And  thousands  had  sunk  on  the  ground  overpowered, 
The  weary  to  sleep,  the  wounded  to  die. 

When  reposing  that  ntght  on  my  pallet  of  straw, 
By  the  wolf-scaring  faggct  that  guarded  the  slain. 

At  the  dead  of  the  night  a  sweet  vision  I  saw, 
And  thrice  ere  the  morning  I  dreamt  it  again. 

Mciliought  from  the  battle-field's  dreadful  array, 

Far,  far  I  had  roamed  on  a  desolate  track  : 
'Twas  autumn — and  sunshine  arose  on  the  way, 

To  the  home  of  my  fathers,  that  welcomed  mc  back. 


I  flew  to  the  pleasant  field  traversed  so  oft 
In  life's  morning  march  when  my  bosom  was  young; 

1  heard  my  own  moimtaiii  goats  bleating  alofi. 
And  knew  the  sweet  strain  the  corn-reapers  sung. 

Then  pledged  we  the  wine-cup,  and  fondly  I  swore 

From  my  home  and  my  weeping  friends  never  to  part  ; 

My  little  ones  kissed  inc  a  thousand  times  o'er, 
And  my  wife  sobbed  aloud  in  her  fulness  of  heart. 

'*  Stay,  stay  with  us — rest,  thou  art  weary  and  worn  ;" 
And  fain  was  their  war-broken  soldier  to  stay  ; 

But  sorrow  returned  with  the  dawning  of  morn. 
And  the  voice  in  my  dreaming  melted  away. 


/^OME,  dear  old  comrade,  you  and  I 
\-X  Will  steal  an  hour  from  days  gone  by- 
The  shining  days  when  life  was  new, 
And  all  was  bright  as  morning  dew. 
The  lusty  days  of  long  ago, 
When  you  were  Bill  and  I  was  Joe. 

Your  name  may  flaunt  a  titled  trail, 
Proud  as  a  cockerel's  rainbow  tail ; 
And  mine  as  brief  appendix  wear 
As  Tam  O'Shantcr's  luckless  mare  ; 
To-day,  i>ld  friend,  remember  still 
That  I  am  Joe  and  you  arc  Bill. 

You've  won  the  great  world's  envied  prize. 

And  grand  you  look  in  people's  eyes. 

With  HON.  and  LI..D.. 

In  big  brave  letters,  fair  to  sec — 

Your  fist,  old  fellow  !  olT  thcy  gu  !  — 

How  arc  you.  Bill  ?     How  arc  you,  Joe  ? 


3i)if f  aniL  @)oe. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

You've  worn  the  judge's  ermine  robe  ; 
You've  taught  your  name  to  half  the  globe; 
You've  sung  mankind  a  deathless  strain  ; 
You've  made  the  dead  past  live  again  ; 
The  world  may  call  you  what  it  will, 
But  you  and  I  are  Joe  and  Bill. 

The  chaffing  young  folks  stare  and  tay, 
"  See  those  old  buffers,  bent  and  gray  ; 
They  talk  like  fellows  in  their  teens  I 
Mad,  poor  old  boys  !    That's  what  it  means" 
And  shake  their  heads  ;  thcy  little  know 
The  throbbing  hearts  of  Bill  and  Joe — 

How  Bill  forgets  his  hour  of  pride. 
While  Joe  sits  smiling  at  his  side  ; 
How  Joe,  in  spite  of  time's  disguise, 
Finds  the  old  schoolmate  in  his  eyes — 
Thobe  calm,  stern  eyes  that  melt  and  fill 
As  Joe  looks  fondly  up  at  Bill. 


-I-Scn^^, 


Ah,  pensive  scholar  !  what  is  fame  ? 

A  fitful  tongue  of  leaping  flame ; 

A  giddy  whirlwind's  fickle  gust, 

That  lifts  a  pinch  of  mortal  dust  : 

A  few  swift  years,  and  who  can  show 

Which  dust  was  Bill,  and  which  was  Joe  ? 

The  weary  idol  takes  his  stand, 
Holds  out  his  bruised  and  aching  hand, 
While  gaping  thousands  come  and  go- 
How  vain  it  seems,  this  empty  show  ! — 
'i'ill  all  at  once  his  pulses  thrill  : 
'Tit*  poor  old  Joe's  "  God  bless  you,  Bill  !" 

And  shall  wc  breathe  in  happier  spheres 
The  names  that  pleased  our  mortal  cars — 
In  some  sweet  lull  of  harp  and  song, 
For  earth-born   spirits  none  too  long — 
Just  whispering  »A  the  world  below. 
Where  this  w.is  Bill,  and  that  was  Joe? 


4^- 


t 


G^fract  ^ronq  Tsucife. 


OwBN  Mbkbuit:!. 


o   « 


^O-^E  may  live  without  poetry,  music  and  art ; 
^  Jfc^We  may  live  without  conscience  and  live  without  heart ; 
We  may  live  without  friends  ;  we  may  live  without  books  ; 
But  civilized  man  cannot  live  without  cooks. 


We  may  live  without  books, —  what  is  knowledge  but  grieving? 
Wc  may  live  without  hope, —  what  is  hope  but  deceiving  ? 
We  may  live  without  love, —  what  is  passion  but  pining? 
But  where  is  the  man  that  can  live  without  dining? 


\! 


K" 


756 


/ 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


Sicfurex^   o^  Memorv. 


'TV^  MONG  the  beautiful  pictures 
^JyV  That  hang  on  Memory's  wall, 

Is  one  of  a  dim  old  forest, 
That  seemeth  best  of  all. 
Not  for  its  gnarled  oaks  olden. 

Dark  with  the  mistletoe  ; 
Not  for  the  violets  golden 

That  sprinkle  the  vale  below  ; 
Xot  for  the  milk-white  lilies 

That  lean  from  the  fragrant  hedge, 
Coquetting  all  day  with  the  sunbeams, 

And  stealing  their  golden  edge  ; 
Not  for  the  vines  on  the  upland 

Where  the  bright  red  berries  rest. 
Nor  the  pinks,  nor  the  pale,  sweet  cowslip 

It  seemeth  to  me  the  best. 


I  once  had  a  little  brother 

With  eyes  that  were  dark  and  deep — 
In  the  lap  of  that  dim  old  forest. 

He  lieth  in  peace  asleep. 


Alice  Cakv. 


Light  as  the  down  of  the  thistle, 

Free  as  the  winds  that  blow, 
We  roved  there,  the  beautiful  summers 

The  summers  of  long  ago; 
But  his  feet  on  the  hills  grew  weary, 

And  one  of  the  autumn  eves, 
I  made  for  my  little  brother 

A  bed  of  the  yellow  leaves. 

Sweetly  his  pale  arms  folded 

My  neck  in  a  meek  embrace 
As  the  light  of  immortal  beauty 

Silently  covered  his  face  ; 
And  wlien  the  arrows  of  sunset 

Lodged  in  the  tree-tops  bright, 
He  tell,  in  his  saint-like  beauty, 

Asleep  by  ihc  gates  of  light. 

Therefore,  of  all  the  pictures 

That  hang  on  Memory's  wall. 

The  one  of  the  dim  old  forest 
Seemeth  the  best  of  all. 


\^      (go  fo  ©J%   S^eAt. 


Lydia  Huntlev  Sigournev. 


"cr 


/~^0  to  thy  rest,  fair  child  ! 
vX     Go  to  thy  dreamless  bed, 
W'hile  yet  so  gentle,  undefiled, 
With  blessings  on  thy  head. 

Fresh  roses  in  thy  hand, 

Buds  on  thy  pillow  Liid, 
Haste  from  this  dark  and  fearful  land. 

Where  flowers  so  quickly  fade. 

Shall  love  with  weak  embrace 
Thy  upward  wing  detain? 


No  !  cherub  angel,  seek  thy  place 
Amid  the  cherub  train. 

Ere  sin  hath  seared  ihc  breast, 
Or  sorrow  waked  the  tear, 

Rise  to  thy  throne  of  changeless  rest. 
In  yon  celestial  sphere  ! 

Because  ihy  smile  was  fair, 
Thy  lip  and  eye  so  bright, 

Because  thy  loving  cradle-care 
Was  such  a  dear  delight. 


Claka  Lauer  Baldwin. 


^TaT^HEN  the  last  hope  of  life 
^*i      Has  been  crushed  in  the  dust, 
And  the  last  of  our  loved  ones  are  gone — 

When  we   feel  that  there's  none 
Left,  who  love  us  and  trust, 

And  we  stand  in  the  wide  world  alone — 

When  the  friends  of  the  past 
Have  become  all  estranged 
And  forget  "  'Us  divine  to  forgive** — 


^ 


When  cold  words  arc  said. 
And  cold  looks  exchanged — 
And  there's  naught  left  to  hope  for  or  live,- 

Then  '  tis  joy  10  the  soul 

To  know  that  there's  One 
Whose  mercy  and  love  reaches  all — 

Who  in  tenderest  love 
Clings  till  life's  journey's  done, 

And  pities  us  still  when  we  fall. 


/ 


isr 


^ 


7S8 


^Ht>a^«s^^ 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


J- 


/ 


m 


ffte  ^OQg  o^  tfte  ©amp. 


**/^IVE\is  a  song! ''  the  soldiers  crlad, 
Vl^       The  outer  trenches  guarding, 
When  the  heated  guns  of  the  camps  allied 
Grew  weary  of  bombarding. 

The  dark  Redan,  in  silent  scoff, 

Lay  grim  and  threatening  under  ; 

And  the  tawny  mound  of  the  MalakofT 
No  longer  belched  its  thunder. 

There  was  a  pause.      A  guardsman  said, 

"  We  storm  the  forts  to-morrow; 
Sing  while  we  may,  iinother  day 
Will  bring  enough  of  sorrow." 

They  lay  along  the  batter^-'s  side, 
Below  the  smoking  cannon  : 

Brave  hearts  from  Severn  and  from  Clyde, 
And  from  the  banks  of  Shannon, 


Bayard  Taylok. 


They  sang  of  love,  and  not  of  fame ; 

Forgot  was  Britain's  glorj-  : 
Each  heart  recalled  a  different  name. 

But  all  sang  "  Annie  Laurie." 

Voice  after  voice  caught  up  the  song. 

Until  its  tender  passion 
Rose  like  an  anthem,  rich  and  strong. 

Their  battle-eve  confession. 

Dear  girl,  her  name  he  dared  not  speak, 
But  as  the  song  grew  louder. 

Something  upon  the  soldier's  cheek 
Washed  off  the  stains  of  powder. 


t-^ 


l?^ 


Beyond  the  darkening  ocean  burned 
The  bloody  sunset's  embers, 

While  the  Crimean  valleys  learned 
How  English  love  remembers. 

And  once  again  a  fire  of  hell 

Rained  on  the  Russian  quarters. 

With  scream  of  shot,  and  burst  of  shell, 
And  bellowing  of  the  mortars  ! 

And  Irish  Nora's  eyes  arc  dim 
For  a  singer  dumb  and  gory  ; 

And  English  Mary  mourns  for  him 
Who  sang  of  "  Annie  Laurie." 

Sleep,  soldiers  !  still  in  honored  rest 
Your  truth  and  valor  wearing  : 

The  bravest  are  the  tenderest, — 
The  loving  are  the  daring. 


■^ 


je- 


^ 


tb- 


-^^-- 


IF  I  had  known  in  the  morning 
How  wearily  all  the  day 
The  words  unkind 
Would  trouble  my  mina 
1  said  when  you  went  away, 
I  had  been  more  careful,  darling. 
Nor  given  you  needless  pain ; 
But  we  vex  ' '  our  own  " 
With  look  and  tone 

We  might  never  take  back  again. 


u.  r 


cjo  n 


Margaret  E.  Sangster. 

For  though  in  the  quiet  evening 
You  may  give  me  the  kiss  of  peace. 
Yet  it  might  be 
That  never  for  me 
The  pain  of  the  heart  should  cease. 
How  many  go  forth  in  the  morning 

That  never  come  home  at  night  ! 
And  hearts  have  broken 
For  harsh  words  spoken, 

That  sorrow  can  ne'er  set  right. 


-€— SI 


We  have  carc-ful  thoughts  for  the  stranger, 
And  smiles  fur  the  sometime  guest, 
But  oft  for  *'  our  own  " 
The  bitter  tone. 
Though  we  love  *'  our  own  "  the  best. 
Ah,  lips  with  the  curve  impatient  ! 

Ah,  brow  with  that  look  of  scorn  ! 
'  Twere  a  cruel  fate, 
Were  the  night  too  late 

To  undo  the  work  of  mom. 


©Jftere  (#A  Ro  i®)eatfi. 


TTTHERE  is  no  death  !    The  stars  go  down 
fJL,      To  rise  upon  some  fairer  shore  : 
And  bright  in  Heaven's  jewelled  crown 
They  shine  forevermore. 

There  is  no  death  !     The  dust  we  tread 
Shall  change  beneath  the  summer  showers 

To  golden  grain  or  mellow  fruit, 
Or  rainbow-tinted  flowers. 

There  is  no  death  !     The  forest  leaves 

Convert  to  life  the  viewless  air; 
The  rocks  disorganize  to  feed 

The  hungry  moss  they  bear. 


~^t\=^-^ 


J.  L.  McCrheky. 

There  is  no  death  !     The  leaves  may  fall. 
And  flowers  may  fade  and  pass  away  ; 

They  only  wait  through  wintry  hours 
The  coming  of  the  May, 

There  is  no  death  !     An  angel  form 
Walks  o'er  the  earth  with  silent  tread  ; 

He  bears  our  best  loved  things  away  ; 
And  then  we  call  them  "  dead." 

He  leavts  our  hearts  all  desolate. 

He  plucks  our  fairest,  sweetest  flowers  ; 

Transplanted  into  bliss,  they  now 
Adorn  immortal  bowers. 

The  bird-like  voice,  whose  joyous  tones 
Made  glad  these  scenes  of  sin  and  strife, 

Sings  now  an  everlasting  song 
Around  the  tree  of  life. 


Where'er  he  sees  a  smile  too  bright. 
Or  heart  too  pure  for  taint  and  vice, 

He  bears  it  to  that  world  of  light, 
To  dwell  in  Paradise. 

Born  unto  that  undying  life, 
They  leave  us  but  to  come  again  ; 

With  joy  we  welcome  them  the  same— 
Kxct-pt  their  sin  and  pain. 

And  ever  near  us,  though  unseen, 
The  dear  immortal  spirits  tread; 

For  all  the  boundless  universe 
Is  life — there  are  no  dead. 


-v;^^ 


/ 


-M 


K 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


-A 


759 


-ssysi- 


%■ 

Maftin'  an  Qcjifor  ©ufea  o'  <Klm.  p^ 


-=:eA9s»- 


Wii,i.  M.  Carleton. 


*^^OOD  momin',  sir,  Mr.  Printer;  how  is  your  body  to-ilay? 
VJ,    I'm  glad  you're  to  home,  for  yon  fellers  is  al'ays  a  runnin'  away. 
Your  paper  last  week  wa'n't  so  spicy  nor  sharp  as  the  one  week  before  ; 
Hut  I  s'pose  when  the  campaign  is  opened,  you'll  be  whoopin*  it  up  to  'em 

more. 
That  f»;llcr  that's  prinlin"  The  Stnasher  is  goin*  for  you  perty  smart ; 
And  our  folks  said  this  mornin'  at  breakfast,  they  thought  he  was  gettin'  the 

start. 
But  I  hushed  'em  right  up  in  a  minute,  and  said  a  good  word  for  you; 
1  told  "em  I  b'lieved  you  was  trj-in'  to  do  just  as  well  as  you  knew; 
And  I  told  'em  thafsome  one  was  sayin',  and  whoever  'twas  it  is  so. 
That  you  can't  expect  much  of  no  one  man,  nor  blame  him  for  what  he  don't 

know. 
But,  liiyin*  aside //^aj«rc  for  business,  I've  brought  you  my  little  boy  Jim  ; 
And  I  thought  I  would  see  if  you  couldn't  make  an  editor  outen  o'  him. 

"  My  family  stock  is  incrcasin',  while  other  folks  seem  to  nm  short. 

I've  got  a  right  smart  of  a  family — it's  one  of  the  old-fashioned  sort : 

There's  Ichabod,  Lsaac  and  Israel,  a  workin'  away  on  the  farm, 

They  do  'bout  as   much  as  one  good  boy,  and  make  things  go  ofl"  like  a 

charm. 
There's  Moses  and  Aaron  are  sly  ones,  and  slip  like  a  couple  of  eels  ; 
But   they're  tol'able  steady  in  one   thing — they  al'ays  git   round   to  their 

meals. 
There's  Peter,  is  busy  inventin'  (though  zvhat  he  invents  I  can't  see). 
And  Joseph  is  studyin*  medicine — and  both  of  'em  boardin'  with  me. 
There's  Abram  and  Albert  is  married,  each  workin'  my  farm  for  himself, 
-And  Sam  smashed  his  nose  at  a  shootin',  and  so  he  is  laid  on  the  shelf. 
The  rest  of  the  boys  are  all  growin'  'cept  this  little  runt,  which  is  Jim, 
And  I  thought  that  perhaps  I'd  be  makin'  an  editor  outen  o'  him, 

"  He  ain't  no  great  shakes  for  to  labor,  though  I've  labored  with  him  a  gootl 

deal. 
And  give  him  some  strappin"  good  arguments  I  know  he  couldn't  help  but 

to  feel ; 
But  he's  built  out  of  second-growth  timber,  and  nothin"  about  him  is  big, 
Exceptin'  his  appetite  only,  and  there  he's  as  good  as  a  pig. 
I  keep  him  carryin'  luncheons,  and  fillin'  and  bringin'  the  jugs, 
And  take  him  among  the  pcrlatoes,  and  set  him  to  pickin'  the  bugs ; 
And  then  there's  things  to  be  doin'  a  helpin'  the  women  in-doors; 
There's  churnin'  and  washin'  of  dishes,  and  other  descriptions  of  chores  ; 


But  he  don't  take   to   nothin'  but  victuals,  and  he'll  never  he  much,  I'm 

afraid. 
So  I  thought  it  would  be  a  good  notion  to  larn  him  the  editor's  trade. 
His  body's  too  small  for  a  farmer,  his  judgment  is  rather  too  slim. 
But  I  thought  we  perhaps  could  be  makin'  an  editor  outen  o"  him. 

"  It  ain't  much  to  get  up  a  paper,  it  wouldn't  take  him  long  for  to  learn  ; 
He  could  feed  the  machine,  I'm  thinkin',  with  a  good  strappin'  fellow  to 

turn, 
.\nd  things- that  was  once  hard  in  doin'  is  easy  enough  now  to  do  ; 
Just  keep  your  eye  on  your  machinery,  and  crack  your  arrangements  right 

through. 
I  used  for  to  wonder  at  rcadin',  and  where  it  was  got  up,  and  how  ; 
But  'tis  most  of  it  made  by  machinery'— I  can  sec  it  all  plain  enough  now. 
And  poetry,  too,  is  constructed  by  machines  of  different  designs. 
Each  one  with  a  gauge  and  a  chopper,  to  see  to  the  length  of  the  lines  ; 
And  I  hear  a  New  York  clairvoyant  is  runnin'  one  sleeker  than  grease. 
And  ■a.-rentin'  her  heaven-born  productions  at  a  couple  of  dollars  apiece  ; 
An'  since  the  whole  trade  has  growed  easy,  'twould  be  easy  enough,  I've  .-i 

whim, 
If  you  was  agreed,  to  be  makin"  an  editor  outen  o'  Jim." 

The  editor  sat  in  his  sanctum  and  looked  the  old  man  in  the  eye. 
Then  glanced  at  the  grinning  young  hopeful,  and  mournfully  made  his  reply  : 
"  Is  your  son  a  small  unbound  edition  of  Moses  and  Solomon  both? 
Can  he  compass  his  spirit  with  meekness,  and  strangle  a  natural  oath  ? 
Can  he  leave  all  his  wrongs  to  the  future,  and  carry  his  heart  in  his  cheek? 
Can  he  do  an  hour's  work  in  a  minute,  and  live  on  a  si.\pence  a  week? 
Can  he  courteously  talk  to  an  equal,  and  browbeat  an  impudent  dunce? 
Can  he  keep  things  in  apple-pie  order,  and  do  half-a-dozen  at  once? 

"  Can  he  press  all  the  springs  of  knowledge  with  quick  and  reliable  touch. 
And  be  sure  that  he  knows  how  much  to  know,  and  knows  how  to  not  know 

too  much? 
Does  he  know  how  to  spur  up  his  virtue,  and  put  a  check-rein  on  his  pride? 
Can  he  carry  a  gentleman's  manners  within  a  rhinoceros"  hide? 
Can  he  know  all,  and  do  all,  and  be  all,  with  cheerfulness,  courage  and  vim  ? 
If  so,  we  perhaps  can  be  '  makin'  an  editor  outen  o'  him.'  " 

The  farmer  stood  curiously  listening,  while  wonder  hit  visage  o'erspread, 
And  he  said  ;  "  Jim,  I  guess  we'll  be  goin';  he's  probably  out  of  bis  head." 


Will  M.  Carleton. 


XHICH  this  railway  smash  reminds  me,  in  an  underhanded  way 
Of  .1  lightning-rod  dispenser  that  came  down  on  me  one  day  ; 
Oiled  to  order  in  his  motion.s — sanctimonious  in  his  mien — 
Hands  as  white  as  any  b-iby's  an'  a  face  unnat'ral  clean  ; 
Not  a  wrinkle  had  his  r.ximcnt,  teeth  and  linen  glittered  white, 
And  his  ncw-conslructcd  neck-tie  was  an  interestin'  sight ! 
Which  I  almost  wish  a  razor  had  made  red  that  white-skinned  throat, 
.And  that  new-constructed  neck-lie  had  composed  a  hangman's  knot. 
Ere  he  brought  his  sleek-trimmed  carcass  for  my  women  folks  to  see, 
And  his  buzz-saw  tongue  a-nmniu'  for  to  gouge  ag.ish  in  me. 
Still  I  couldn't  help  but  like  him — as  I  fear  I  al'ays  must. 
The  gold  o'  my  own  doctrine  in  a  fellow  heap  o'  dust ; 
For  I  saw  that  my  opinions,  when  I  fired  them  round  by  round. 
Brought  back  an  answerin'  volley  of  a  mighty  similar  sound. 


I  touched  him  on  religion,  and  the  joys  my  heart  had  known  ; 
And  I  found  that  he  had  very  similar  notions  of  his  own  I 
I  told  hi  m  of  the  doubting?  that  made  sad  my  boyhood  years  ; 
Why,  he'd  laid  awake  till  morning  with  that  same  old  breed  of  fears  ! 

I  pointed  up  the  pathway  that  I  hoped  to  heaven  to  go : 

He  was  on  that  verj'  ladder,  only  just  a  round  below  ! 

Our  politics  was  different,  and  at  first  he  galled  and  winced  ; 

But  I  arg'cd  him  so  able,  he  was  very  soon  convinced. 

And  'twas  gettin'  tow'rd  the  middle  of  a  hungrj'  summer  day — 

There  was  dinner  on  the  table,  and  I  asked  him,  would  he  stay? 

And  he  sat  him  down  among  us — evcrlastin'  trim  and  neat — 

And  he  asked  a  short  crisp  hlcssin*  almost  good  enough  to  eai  I 

Then  he  fired  up  on  the  mercies  of  our  Everlastin'  Friend, 


\ 


760 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


Till  he  gi'n  the  Lord  Almighty  a  good,  first-class  recommend  : 
And  for  full  an  hour  we  listened  to  that  sugar-coated  scamp — 
Talkin*  like  a  blessed  angel — eatin'  like  a  blasted  tramp  ! 

My  wife — she  liked  the  stranger,  smiling  on  him  warm  and  sweet ; 
(It  al'ays  flatters  women  when  their  guests  are  on  the  eat !) 
And  he  hinted  that  some  ladies  never  lose  their  youthful  charms, 
And  caressed  her  yearlin'  baby,  and  received  it  in  his  arms. 
My  sons  and  daughters  liked  him — for  he  had  progressive  views, 
And  he  chewed  the  cud  o'  fancy,  and  gi'n  down  the  latest  news  : 
And  /  couldn't  help  but  like  him — as  I  fear  I  al'ays  must. 
The  gold  of  my  own  doctrines  in  a  fellow-heap  o'  dust. 

He  was  chiselin'  desolation  through  a  piece  of  apple-pie. 
When  he  paused  and  gazed  upon  us,  with  a  tear  in  his  oflT  eye, 
And  said,  "  Oh,  happy  family  ! — your  joys  they  make  me  sad  ! 
They  all  the  time  remind  me  of  the  dear  ones  once  /  had  ! 
A  babe  as  sweet  as  this  one ;  a  wife  almost  as  fair ; 
A  little  girl  with  ringlets,  like  that  one  over  there. 
But  had  I  not  neglected  the  means  within  my  way, 
Then  they  might  still  be  living,  and  loving  me  to-day. 

"  One  night  there  came  a  tempest ;  the  thunder  peals  were  dire ; 

The  clouds  that  marched  above  us  were  shooting  bolts  of  fire  ; 

In  my  own  house  I  lying,  was  thinking,  to  my  shame, 

How  little  I  had  guarded  against  those  bolts  of  flame, 

When  crash  !  — through  roof  and  ceiling  the  deadly  lightning  cleft, 

And  killed  my  wife  and  children,  and  only  I  was  left ! 

"  Since  then  afar  I've  wandered,  and  naught  for  life  have  cared. 

Save  to  save  others'  loved  ones  whose  lives  have  yet  been  spared  ; 

Since  then  it  is  my  mission,  where'er  by  sorrow  tossed. 

To  sell  to  worthy  people  good  lightning-rods  at  cost. 

With  sure  and  strong  protection  I'll  clothe  your  buildings  o'er; 


'Twill  cost  you — twenty  dollars  {perhaps  a  trifle  more ; 
Whatever  else  it  comes  to,  at  lowest  price  I'll  put ; 
You  simply  sign  a  contract  to  pay  so  much  per  foot)." 

I  — signed  it !  while  my  family,  all  approvin',  stood  about; 

The  villain  dropped  a  tear  on't — but  he  didn't  blot  it  out ! 

That  self-same  day,  with  wagons,  came  some  rascals  great  and  small ; 

They  hopped  up  on  my  buildin's  just  as  if  they  owned  'em  all; 

They  hewed  *em  and  they  hacked  'em — agin'  my  loud  desires — 

They  trimmed  'em  off  with  gewgaws,  and  they  bound  'em  down  with  wires  ; 

They  hacked  'em  and  they  hewed  'em  and  they  hewed  and  hacked  'em  still, 

And  every  precious  minute  kep'  a  runnin'  up  the  bill. 

To  find  my  soft -spoke  neighbor,  did  I  rave  and  rush  and  run; 
He  was  suppin*  with  a  neighbor,  just  a  few  miles  further  on. 
"  Do  you  think,"  I  loudly  shouted,  "  that.  I  need  a  mile  o'  wire 
For  to  save  each  separate  hay-cock  out  o"  heaven's  consumin'  fire  ? 
Did  you  think,  to  keep  my  buildin's  out  o'  some  uncertain  harm, 
I  was  goin'  to  deed  you  over  all  the  balance  of  my  farm  !  " 

He  silenced  me  with  silence  in  a  very  little  while. 
And  then  trotted  out  the  contract  with  a  reassuring  smile  ; 
And  for  half  an  hour  explained  it,  with  exasperatin'  skill, 
While  his  myrmurdums  kep'  probably  a  runnin'  up  my  bill. 
He  held  me  to  that  contract  with  a  firmness  queer  to  see ; 
'Twas  the  very  first  occasion  he  had  disagreed  with  me  ! 
And  for  that  'ere  thunder  story,  ere  the  rascal  finally  went, 
I  paid  two  hundred  dollars,  if  I  paid  a  single  cent. 

And  if  any  lightnin'-rodist  wants  a  dinner  dialogue 
With  the  restaurant  department  of  an  enterprisin'  dog, 
Let  him  set  his  mouth  a-runnin' just  inside  my  outside  gate. 
And  ril  bet  two  hundred  dollars  that  he  won't  have  lung  to  wait. 


-^f^] 


.1)  •■ — ^3 


(Kan  naft  ^ane. 


;&i^ 


Petroleum  V.  Nasbv. 


C^HE  isn't  half  so  handsome  as  when,  twenty  years  agone, 
^13  At  her  old  home  in  Piketon,  Parson  Avery  made  us  one  ; 
The  great  house  crowded  full  of  guests  of  every  degree. 
The  girls  all  envying  Hannah  Jane,  the  boys  all  envying  me. 

Her  fingers  then  were  taper,  and  her  skin  as  white  as  milk, 
Her  brown  hair — what  a  mess  it  was  !  and  soft  and  fine  as  silk  ; 
No  wind-moved  willow  by  a  brook  had  ever  such  a  grace. 
The  form  of  Aphrodite,  with  a  pure  Madonna  face. 

She  had  but  meagre  schooling ;  her  little  notes  to  me 

Were  full  of  crooked  pot-hooks,  and  the  worst  orthography  : 

Her  "  dear"  she  spelled  with  double  e,  and  "  kiss"  with  but  one  s : 

But  when  one's  crazed  with  passion,  what's  a  letter  more  or  less  ? 

She  blundered  in  her  writing,  and  she  blundered  when  she  spoke, 
And  every  rule  of  syntax,  that  old  Murray  made,  she  broke  ; 
But  she  was  beautiful  and  fresh,  and  I— well,  I  was  young  ; 
Her  form  and  face  o'erbalanced  .all  the  blunders  of  her  tongue. 

I  was  but  little  better.     True,  I'd  longer  been  at  school ; 
My  tongue  and  pen  were  run,  perhaps,  a  little  more  by  rule  ; 
But  that  was  all.     The  neighbors  round,  who  both  of  us  well  knew. 
Said— which  I  believe— she  was  the  better  of  the  two. 

All's  changed:  the  light  of  seventeen's  no  longer  in  her  eyes  ; 
Her  wavy  hair  is  gone — that  loss  the  coiffeur's  art  supplies  ; 
Her  form  is  thin  and  angular ;  she  slightly  forward  bends ; 
Her  fingers,  once  so  shapely,  now  are  stumpy  at  the  ends. 


She  knows  but  very  little,  and  in  little  are  we  one; 

The  beauty  rare,  that  more  than  hid  that  great  defect,  is  gone. 

My /a7":/f«tt  relations  now  deride  my  homely  wife, 

And  pity  me  that  I  am  tied  to  such  a  clod  for  life. 

I  know  there  is  a  difl"erence ;  at  reception  and  levee, 

The  brightest,  wittiest  and  most  famed  of  women  smile  on  me  ; 

And  everywhere  I  hold  my  place  among  the  greatest  men  ; 

And  sometimes  sigh,  with  Whittler's  Judge,  "  Alas  !  it  might  have  been.' 

When  they  all  crowd  around  me,  stately  dames  and  brilliant  belles, 
And  yield  to  me  the  homage  that  all  great  success  compels. 
Discussing  art  and  state-craft,  and  literature  as  well. 
From  Homer  down  to  Thackeray,  and  Swedenborg  on  "  Hell," 

I  can't  forget  that  from  these  streams  my  wife  has  never  quaffed, 
Has  never  with  Ophelia  wept,  nor  with  Jack  Falstaff  laughed ; 
Of  authors,  actors,  artists — why,  she  hardly  knows  the  names  ; 
She  slept  while  I  was  speaking  on  the  Alabama  claims. 

I  can't  forget— jiLst  at  this  point  another  form  appears — 
The  wife  I  wedded  as  she  was  before  my  prosperous  years  ; 
I  travel  o'er  the  dreary  road  we  travelled  side  by  side. 
And  wonder  what  my  share  would  be,  if  Justice  should  divide. 

She  had  four  hundred  dollars  left  her  from  the  old  estate  ;] 
On  that  we  married,  and,  thus  poorly  armored,  faced  our  fate. 
I  wrestled  with  my  books  ;  her  task  was  harder  far  than  mine — 
"I'was  how  to  make  two  hundred  dollars  do  the  work  of  nine. 


-N 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


761 


At  last  I  was  admitted  :  then  I  had  my  legal  lore, 
An  office  with  a  stove  and  desk,  of  books  perh:ips  a  score  : 
She  had  her  beauty  and  her  yu,:th,  and  some  housewifely  skill. 
And  love  for  me  and  faith  in  me,  and  back  of  that  a  wdl. 

I  had  no  friends  behind  me — no  influence  to  aid  ; 
I  worked  and  fought  for  every  little  inch  of  ground  I  made. 
And  how  she  fought  beside  me  !  never  woman  lived  on  less; 
In  two  long  years  she  never  spent  a  single  cent  fur  dress. 

Ah  !  how  she  cried  for  joy  when  my  first  legal  fight  was  won, 
When  our  eclipse  passed  pardy  by,  and  we  stood  in  the  sun  ! 
The  fee  was  fifty  dollars — 't  was  the  work  of  half  a  year — 
First  captive,  lean  and  scraggy,  of  my  legal  bow  and  spear. 

I  well  remember  when  my  coat  (the  only  one  I  had) 

Was  seedy  grown  and  threadbare,  and,  in  fact,  most  shocking  had  ; 

The  tailor's  stern  remark  when  I  a  modest  order  made  : 

"  Cash  is  the  basis,  sir,  on  which  we  tailors  do  our  trade." 


Her  winter  cloak  was  in  his  shop  by  noon  that  very  day  ; 
She  wrought  on  hickory  shirts  at  night  that  tailor's  skill  to  pay  ; 
I  got  a  coat,  and  wore  it  ;  but  alas  !  poor  Hannah  Jane 
Ne'er  went  to  church  or  lecture  till  warm  weather  came  again. 

Our  second  season  she  refused  a  cloak  of  any  sort. 
That  I  might  have  a  decent  suit  in  which  t'  appear  in  court ; 
She  made  her  last  year's  bonnet  do,  that  T  might  have  a  hat : 
Talk  of  the  old-time,  flame-enveloped  martyrs  after  that  I 

No  negro  ever  worked  so  hard  ;  a  servant's  pay  to  save. 
She  mad»  herself  most  willingly  a  household  drudge  and  slave. 
What  wonder  that  she  never  read  a  magazine  or  book, 
Combining  as  she  did  in  one  nurse,  housemaid,  seamstress,  cook. 

What  wonder  that  the  beauty  fled,  that  I  once  so  adored  ! 
Her  beautiful  complexion  my  fierce  kitchen  fire  devoured; 
Her  plump,  soft,  rounded  arm  w.as  once  too  fair  to  be  concealed ; 
Hard  work  for  me  that  softness  into  sinewy  strength  congealed. 


I  was  her  altar,  and  her  love  the  sacrificial  flame  : 

Ah  !  with  what  pure  devotion  she  to  that  altar  came, 

And,  tearful,  flung  thereon — alas  !  I  did  not  know  it  then — 

All  that  she  was,  and  more  than  that,  all  that  she  might  have  been  I 


VOHN  ANDERSON,  my  jo,  John, 
J^^    When  we  were  first  acquent, 
Your  locks  were  like  the  raven. 

Your  bonnie  brow  was  brent ; 
But  now  your  brow  is  held,  John, 

Your  locks  are  like  the  snaw  ; 
But  blessings  on  your  frosty  pow, 

John  Anderson,  my  jo. 


^ofti^  eKnsLerx^on,  M^  ^o. 


Robert  Burns. 


John  Anderson,  my  jo,  John, 

We  clamb  the  hill  ihegither ; 
And  mony  a  canty  day.  John, 

We've  had  wi'  ane  anither. 
Now  we  maun  totter  down,  John, 

But  hand  in  hand  we'll  go; 
And  sleep  thegither  at  the  fool, 

John  Anderson,  my  jo. 


■•o^o*- 


1^ 


<K 


ome 


cjoee 


t    eK 


ome. 


John  Howard  Payne. 
As  pjiblished  by  Mr.  Pay  tie,  in  New  I'orA-,  in  iSji. 


"    jUT'^ID  pleasures  and  palaces  though  we  may  roam, 
rf^-Y-^i   IJe  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 
A  charm  from  the  skies  seems  to  hallow  us  there, 
Which   seek  through  the  world,  is  ne'er  met  with  elsewhere. 

Home  !  home  !  sweet,  sweet  home  I 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home  I 

An  exile  from  home,  splendor  dazzles  in  vain  ; 
Oh,  give  me  my  lowly  thatched  cottage  again. 
The  birds  singing  gaily  that  come  to  my  call — 
Give  me  them,  with  the  peace  of  mind  dearer  than  all. 

Home  !  home  I  sweet,  sweet  home  ! 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home 


How  sweet  'tis  to  sit  "neath  a  fond  father's  smile, 
And  the  cares  of  a  mother  to  soothe  and  beguile ! 
Let  others  delight  'mid  new  pleasures  to  roam, 
But  give,  oh  !  give  me  the  pleasures  of  home. 
Home  !  home  !  sweet,  sweet  home  ! 
There's  no  place  like  home !  there's  no  place  like  home; 

To  thee  I'll  return,  overburdened  with  care  ; 
The  heart's  dearest  solace  will  smile  on  me  there. 
No  more  from  that  cottage  again  will  I  roam  ; 
Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 

Home  !  home  !  sweet,  sweet  home  ! 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home  ! 


:sr 


r^ 


762 


/ 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


_,J^ 


''3 


©JRe  5i)i^ouac  of  tFie  is)eac^. 


"i^"^ 


1^ 


Theodore  O'Hara. 


The  Legislature  of  Kentucky  caused  the  dead  of  that  State  who  fell  at  Buena  Vista  to-be  brought  home  and  interred  at  Frankfort,  under  a 

splendid  monument.     Theodore  O'Hara,  a  gifted  Irish-Kentuckian  soldier  and  scholar,  was  selected  the  orator  and 

poet  of  the  occasion,  whence  this  beautiful  eulogy,  which  has  the  same  application  to-day. 


TTt  HE  muffled  drum's  sad  roll  has  beat 
s-^L^     The  soldier's  last  tattoo  ; 
No  more  on  life's  parade  shall  meet 

That  brave  and  fallen  few. 
On  fame's  eternal  camping-ground 

Their  silent  tents  are  spread, 
And  glory  guards,  with  solemn  round. 

The  bivouac  of  the  dead. 

No  rumor  of  the  foe's  advance 

Now  swells  upon  the  wind  ; 
No  troubled  thought  at  midnight  haunts 

Of  loved  ones  left  behind  ; 
No  vision  of  the  morrow's  strife 

The  warrior's  dream  alarms  ; 
No  braying  horn  nor  screaming  fife 

At  dawn  shall  call  to  arms. 

Their  shivered  swords  are  red  with  nist. 

Their  plumed  heads  are  bowed ; 
Their  haughty  banner,  trailed  in  dust, 

Is  now  their  martial  shroud. 
And  plenteous  funeral  tears  have  washtd 

The  red  stains  from  each  brow. 
And  the  proud  forms,  by  battle  gashed, 

Are  free  from  anguish  now. 

The  neighing  troop,  the  flashing  blade. 

The  bugle's  stirring  blast, 
The  charge,  the  dreadful  cannonade. 

The  din  and  shout  are  past ; 
Nor  war's  wild  note  nor  glory's  peal 

Shall  thrill  with  fierce  delight 
Those  breasts  that  never  more  may  feel 

The  rapture  of  tlie  fight. 


Like  the  fierce  northern  hurricane 

That  sweeps  his  great  plateau. 
Flushed  with  the  triumph  yet  to  gain 

Came  down  the  serried  foe. 
Who  heard  the  thunder  of  the  fray 

Break  o'er  the  field  beneath 
Knew  well  the  watchword  of  that  day 

Was  "  Victory  or  death." 

Long  had  the  doubtful  conflict  raged 

O'er  all  that  stricken  plain — 
For  never  fiercer  fight  had  waged 

The  vengeful  blood  of  Spain — 
And  still  the  storm  of  battle  blew. 

Still  swelled  the  gory  tide  ; 
Not  long,  our  stout  old  chieftain  knew, 

Such  odds  his  strength  could  bide. 

'Twas  in  that  hour  his  stern  command 

Called  to  a  martyr's  grave 
The  flower  of  his  beloved  land, 

The  nation's  flag  to  save. 
By  rivers  of  their  fathers'  gore 

His  first-jorn  laurels  grew, 
And  well  he  deemed  the  sons  would  pour 

Their  lives  for  glory,  too. 

Full  many  a  mother's  breath  had  swept 

O'er  Angostura's  plain — 
And  long  the  pitying  sky  has  wept 

Above  the  moldering  slain. 
The  raven's  scream,  nr  eagle's  flight, 

Or  shepherd's  pensive  lay. 
Alone  awakes  each  sullen  height 

That  frowned  o'er  that  dread  fray. 


Sons  of  the  Dark  and  Bloody  Ground, 

Ye  must  not  slumber  there. 
Where  stranger  steps  and  tongues  resound 

Along  the  heedless  air  ; 
Your  own  proud  land's  heroic  soil 

Shall  be  your  fitter  grave — 
She  claims  from  war  his  richest  spoil — 

•The  ashes  of  her  brave. 
So,  'neath  their  parent  turf  they  rest, 

Far  from  the  gory  field. 
Borne  to  a  Spartan  mother's  breast. 

On  many  a  bloody  shield  ; 
The  sunshine  of  their  native  sky 

Smiles  sadly  on  them  here, 
And  kindest  eyes  and  hearts  watch  by 

The  heroes'  sepulchre. 

Rest  on,  embalmed  and  sainted  dead, 

Dear  as  the  blood  ye  gave  ; 
No  impious  footstep  here  shall  tread 

The  herbage  of  your  grave  ; 
Nor  shall  your  glory  be  forgot 

While  fame  her  record  keeps 
Or  honor  points  the  hallowed  spot 

Where  valor  proudly  sleeps. 
Yon  marble  minstrel's  voiceless  stone 

In  deathless  song  shall  tell. 
When  many  a  vanished  age  hath  flown. 

The  story  how  ye  fell ; 
Nor  wreck,  nor  change,  nor  winter's  blight, 

Nor  Time's  remorseless  doom. 
Shall  dim  one  ray  of  glory's  light 

That  gilds  your  deathless  tomb. 


"■•"^---^    Ufte  ^^ar/A  a'titi  \Ke  iJfocjoerxi).     $^^ 


Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 


^aTt  HEN  Eve  had  led  her  lord  away, 
V^        And  Cain  had  killed  his  brother, 
^  The  stars  and  flowers,  the  poets  say 
Agreed  with  one  another 

To  cheat  the  cunning  tempter's  art. 

And  teach  the  race  its  duty. 
By  keeping  on  its  wicked  heart 

Their  eyes  of  light  and  beauti", 

A  million  sleepless  lids,  they  say. 

Will  be  at  least  a  warning  ; 
And  so  the  flowers  would  watch  by  day, 

The  stais  from  eve  to  morning. 


They  try  to  shut  their  saddening  eyes. 

And  in  the  vain  endeavor 
We  see  them  twinkling  in  the  skies, 

And  so  they  wink  forever. 


On  hill  and  prairie,  field  and  lawn. 

Their  dewy  eyes  upturning. 
The  flowers  siill  watch  from  reddening  dawn 

Till  western  skies  are  burning. 

Alas  !  each  hour  of  daylight  tells 

A  tale  of  shame  so  crushing, 
That  some  turn  white  as  sea-bleached  shells. 

And  some  are  always  blushing. 

But  when  the  patient  stars  look  down 

On  all  their  light  discovers, 
The  traitor's  smile,  the  murderer's  frown. 

The  lips  of  lying  lovers, 


F.  Bret  Harte. 


XSAY  there  !     P'r'aps 
Some  on  you  chaps 
Might  know  Jim  Wild? 
Well — no  offence  : 
Thar  aint  no  sense 
In  gettin'  riled  ! 

Jim  was  my  chum 

Up  on  the  Bar  : 
That's  why  I  come 

Down  from  up  thar, 
Lookin'  for  Jim. 
Thank  ye,  sir  !  you 
Ain't  of  that  crew — 

Blest  if  you  are  ! 

Money? — Not  much  : 
That  ain't  my  kind  ; 

I  ain't  no  such. 

Rum? — I  don't  mind, 
Seein'  it's  you. 


Well,  this  yer  Jim, 
Did  you  know  him? — 
Jess  'bout  your  size; 
Same  kind  of  eyes  ? — 
Well,  that  is  strange  : 
Why,  it's  two  year 
Since  he  come  here. 
Sick,  for  a  change. 

Well,  here's  to  us  ? 

Eh? 
The  deuce  you  say  I 

Dead? 
That  little  cuss? 

What  makes  you  star — 
You,  over  ihar  ? 
Can't  a  man  drop 
's  glass  in  yer  shop 
But  you  must  rar"  ? 

It  wouldn't  take 

Derned  much  to  break 
You  and  your  bar 


Dead  ! 
Poor — little — Jim  ! 
— Why  there  was  me, 
Jones,  and  Bob  Lee, 
Harry  and  Ben — 
No-account  men  : 
Then  to  lake  hivi  ! 


Well,  thar—    Good-by— 
No  more,  sir, —  I — 

Eh? 
What's  that  you  say? — 
Why,  dernit ! — sho  ! — 
No?    Yes!     By  Jo! 

Sold  ? 
Sold  !     Why,  you  limb. 
You  ornery 

Derned  old 
Long-legged  Jim  ! 


^^-«- 


eS^ 


a-^a-A-s^^ 


Marrieil.      ^' 


s^Ss- 


Anonymous. 


-*->^'^ 


OUR  beautiful  Maggie  was  married  to-day — 
Ecaiuiful  Maggie,  with  soft  brown  hair. 
Whose  shadows  fall  o'er  a  face  as  fair 
As  the  snowy  blooms  of  the  early  May  ; 
We  havj  kissed  her  lips  and  sent  her  away. 

With  many  a  blessing  and  many  a  prayer. 
The  pet  o(  our  house  who  was  married  to-day. 

The  sunshine  is  gone  from  the  old  south  room, 

Where  she  sat  through  the  long,  bright  summer  hours. 
And  the  odor  has  gone  from  the  window  flowers. 

And  something  is  lost  of  their  delicate  bloom. 

And  a  shadow  creeps  over  the  house  with  its  gloom  ; 
A  shadow  that  over  our  paradise  lowers, 

For  we  sec  her  no  more  in  the  old  south  room. 


The  pictures  seem  dim  where  they  hang  on  the  wall ; 

Though  they  cost  but  a  trifle,  they  always  looked  fair, 
Whether  lamplight  or  snnlight  illumined  them  there — 

I  think  'twas  her  presence  that  brightens  them  all. 

Since  Maggie  no  longer  can  come  to  our  call, 

With  her  eyes  full  of  laughter,  unshadowed  by  care, 
"  The  pictures  seem  dim  where  they  hang  on  the  wall. 

I  lounge  through  the  garden,  I  stand  by  the  gate — 
She  stood  there  to  greet  me  last  eve  at  this  hour, 
Ever>'  eve,  through  the  summer,  in  sunshine  or  shower. 

Just  stood  by  the  postern,  my  coming  to  wail — 

Dear  Maggie,  her  heart  with  its  welcome  elate. 
To  give  me  a  smile,  and  a  kiss,  and  a  flower — 

Oh  !  when  will  she  meet  me  again  by  the  gate? 


I  thought  that  the  song  of  the  robin  this  eve, 

As  he  sang  to  his  mate  on  the  sycamore  tree. 
Had  minors  of  sc^dness  to  temper  his  glee. 

As  if  he  for  the  loss  of  our  darling  did  grieve. 

And  asked,  "  Where  Ls  Maggie?  '*  and  "  Why  did  she  leave- 
The  maiden  who  carrolled  sweet  duets  with  me  ?  " 

For  she  mocked  not  the  song  of  the  robin  this  eve. 


She  loved  us  and  left  us — she  loves,  and  is  gone 

With  the  one  she  loves  best,  as  his  bjautiful  bride. 
How  fondly  he  called  her  his  joy  and  his  pride. 

Our  joy  and  our  pride,  whom  he  claims  as  his  own  I 

But  can  he,  like  us,  prize  the  heart  he  has  won — 

The  heart  that  now  trustingly  throbs  by  his  side? 

God  knows  !  and  we  know  that  she  loves  and  is  gone. 


/ 


Al 


^^ 


(Sy^S^'-OO""-^^^ 


-*^ 


3<K 


|#r^ 


©Jfte  ©fox^ing 


>cerie. 


']'.   Buchanan  Read. 
The  following  is  pronounced  by  ii\c  lyesiiuinstcr  Re-vie^u  to  be  unquestionably  the  finest  American  pocni  ever  written. 


XITHIN  this  sober  realm  of  leafless  ireus, 
The  russet  year  inhnled  the  dreamy  air, 
Like  some  tanned  reaper  in  his  hour  of  case, 
When  all  the  fields  are  lying  brown  and  bare. 

The  gray  barns  looking  from  their  hazy  hills 
O'er  the  dim  waters  widening  in  the  vales. 

Sent  down  the  air  a  greeting  to  the  mills, 
On  the  dull  thunder  of  alternate  flails. 

All  sights  were  mellowed  and  all  sounds  subdued. 
The  hills  seemed  further  and  the  streams  sang  low; 

As  in  a  dream  the  distant  woodman  hewed 
His  winter  log  with  many  a  mufiled  blow. 

The  embattled  forests,  erewhile  armed  in  gold, 
Their  banners  bright  with  every  martial  hue, 

Now  stood,  like  some  sad  beaten  host  of  old, 
Withdrawn  afar  in  Time's  remotest  blue. 

On  slumberous  wings  the  vulture  tried  his  flight : 

The  dove  scarce  heard  his  sighing  mate's  complaint; 

And,  like  a  star  slow  drowning  in  the  light. 

The  village  church-vane  seemed  to  p;de  and  faint. 

The  sentinel  cock  upon  the  hill-side  crew — 
Crew  thrice,  and  all  was  stiller  than  before — 

Silent  till  some  replying  wanderer  blew 

His  alien  horn,  and  then  was  heard  no  more. 

Where  erst  the  jay  within  the  elm's  (all  crest 

Made  garrulous  trouble  round  the  unfledged  young : 

And  where  the  oriole  hung  her  swaying  nest 
By  every  light  wind  like  a  censer  swung  ; 

Where  sang  the  noisy  masons  of  the  caves, 

The  busy  swallows  circling  ever  near. 
Foreboding,  as  the  rustic  mind  believes, 

An  early  harvest  and  a  plenteous  year ; 

Where  every  bird  which  charmed  the  vernal  feast 
Shook  the  sweet  slumber  from  its  wings  at  morn. 

To  warn  the  reapers  of  the  rosy  east — 
AH  now  was  songless,  empty,  and  forlorn 


Alone,  from  out  the  stubble  piped  the  quail. 

And  croaked  the  crow  through  all  the  dreamy  gloom; 

Alone  the  pheasant,  drumming  in  the  v.ile. 
Made  echo  to  the  distant  cottage  looiu. 

There  was  no  bud,  no  bloom  upon  the  bowi:rs  ; 

I'he  spiders  wove  their  thin  shrouds  night  by  niglit  ; 
The  thistle-down,  the  only  ghost  of  flowers. 

Sailed  slowly  by — passed  noiseless  out  of  sight. 

Amid  all  this,  in  this  most  cheerless  air, 
And  where  the  woodbine  sheds  upon  the  porch 

lis  crimson  leaves,  as  if  the  year  stood  there 
Firing  the  floor  with  his  inverted  torch — 

Amid  all  this,  the  centre  of  the  scene, 

The  white-haired  matron,  with  monotonous  tread. 
Plied  her  swift  wheel,  and  with  her  joyless  mien 

Sat  like  a  Fate,  and  watched  the  flying  thread. 

She  had  known  sorrow.     He  had  walked  with  her. 
Oft  supped,  and  broke  with  her  the  ashen  crust ; 

And  in  the  dead  leaves  still  she  heard  the  stir 
Of  his  black  mantle  trailing  in  the  dust. 

While  yet  her  cheek  was  bright  with  summer  bloom, 
Her  country  summoned,  and  she  gave  her  all ; 

And  twice  War  bowed  to  her  his  sable  plume — 
Re-gave  the  swords  to  rust  upon  her  wall. 

Re-gave  the  swords — but  not  the  hand  that  drew. 

And  struck  for  liberty  the  dying  blow  ; 
Nor  him  who,  to  his  sire  and  country  true, 

Fell,  'mid  the  ranks  of  the  invading  foe. 

Long,  but  not  loud,  the  droning  wheel  went  on, 
Like  the  low  murmur  of  a  hive  at  noon  ; 

Long,  but  not  loud,  the  memory  of  the  gone 

Breathed  through  her  lips  a  sad  and  tremulous  tuae. 

At  last  the  thread  was  snapped — her  head  was  bowed. 
Life  dropped  the  distaff  through  his  hands  serene  ; 

And  loving  neighbors  smoothed  her  careful  shroud — 
While  Death  and  Winter  closed  the  autumn  scene. 


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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


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Arranged   both   Topically  and   Alphabetically. 


Absence. 

Conspicuous  by  his  absence. 

Sed  prxfuli^ebant  C;issius  atque  Brutus,  eo  ipso 
quod  effigies  corum  non  videbantur. 

Tticiius. 

Absence  makes  tJie  heart  grow  fonder; 
Isle  of  lieauty,  fare  thee  well ! 

Thomas  Haynes  Bayley. 

I  dote  on  his  very  absence. 

Shakspert'. 

Your  absence  of  mind  we  have  borne,  till  your  presence  of  body 
came  to  be  called  in  question  by  it. 


Accident. 

A  happy  accident. 


The  accident  of  an  accident. 


«/'. 


Mmc,  dc  Statl. 


Lord  Tluirlow. 


Acquaintance. 

Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot, 

And  ULA'er  brou^^ht  to  min'? 
Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot. 

And  days  o'  lang  syne? 

Burns. 

If  there  lie  no  great  love  in  tlie  beginning,  yet  Heaven  may  decrease 
it  upon  better  acquaintance,  when  we  are  married,  and  have  more 
occasion  to  know  one  another:  I  hope  upon  familiarity  will  grow 
more  contempt. 

Shakspere. 

Action. 

Statesman,  yet  friend  to  truth  !  of  soul  sincere, 
In  action  faithful,  and  in  honor  clear; 
Who  broke  no  promise,  ser\''d  no  private  end, 
\\'ho  gain'd  no  title,  and  who  lost  no  friend. 

Pope. 

What  a  piece  of  work  is  a  man  !  How  noble  in  reason  !  how  infinite 
in  faculties!  in  form  and  moving,  liow  exi)rLSS  and  admirable!  in 
action,  how  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god  ! 

Shakspere. 
For  since  these  arms  of  mine  had  seven  years'  pith. 
Till  now  some  nine  moons  wasted,  they  have  us'd 
Their  dearest  action  in  the  tented  field, 

Shakspere, 

In  peace  there's  nothing  so  becomes  a  man 
As  modest  stillness  and  Immility; 
But  when  the  bhxst  of  war  blows  in  our  ears. 
Then  imitate  the  action  of  the  tiger; 
Stiffen  the  sinews,  summon  up  the  blood. 

Shakspere, 


With  devotion's  visage, 

And  pious  action,  we  do  sugar  o*er 
The  Devil  himself, 

Shakspere, 

Adversity. 

A  wretched  soul,  bruised  with  adversity. 

Shakspere. 

A  man  I  am,  cross'd  with  adversity, 

Shakspere. 

If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strength  is  small. 

Old  Testament. 
In  the  day  of  prosperity  be  joyful, but  in  the  d  ly  of  adversity  consider. 

Old  Testament, 
Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 
Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  1  ead  ; 
And  this  our  life,  exempt  from  puHic  haunt, 
Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. 

Shakspere, 

The  aromatic  plants  bestow 
No  spicy  fragrance  while  they  grow ; 
But  crush'd,  or  trodden  to  tlie  ground. 
Diffuse  their  balmy  sweeis  around. 

The  wretch  condcmr'd  with  life  to  part. 

Still,  still  on  hope  relies  ; 
And  every  pan£»  that  rends  the  heart 

Bids  expectation  rise. 


Goldsmith. 


Age. 


My  way  of  life 

Is  fall'n  into  the  sear,  the  yellow  leaf; 

And  that  which  should  accompany  old  age, 

As  honor,  love,  obedience,  troops  of  friends, 

I  must  not  look  to  have, 

Shakspere, 

Me,  let  the  tender  ofhce  long  engage 

To  rock  the  cradle  of  reposing  age, 

With  lenient  arts  extend  a  mother's  breath. 

Make  languor  smile,  and  smooth  the  bed  of  death : 

Explore  the  thought,  explain  the  asking  eye. 

And  keep  awhile  one  parent  from  the  sky. 

The  stars  shall  fade  away,  the  sun  himself 
Grow  dim  with  age,  and  nature  sink  in  years, 

Addison^ 

In  a  good  old  age. 

Old  Testament. 

His  hair  just  grizzled 

As  in  a  green  old  age. 

Dry  den. 


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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS.                                                      769 

► 

The  Pyramids  themselves,  doting  witliage,  have  forgotten  the  names 

1 

1 

Oil !  when  a  Mother  meets  on  high 

of  tlieir  founders. 

The  babe  she  lost  in  infancy. 

Fuller. 

Hath  she  not  then,  for  pains  and  fears. 

Alone. 

The  day  of  woe,  the  watchful  night. 

For  all  her  sorrow,  all  her  tears. 

An  over-payment  of  delight? 

Soniht'j^, 

So  lonely  'twas,  that  God  himself 

Scarce  seemed  there  to  be. 

Colerid'^c-, 

Battle. 

Like  one  that  on  a  lonesome  road 

Doth  walk  in  fear  and  dread, 

And  leaving  in  battle  no  blot  on  his  name, 

And,  having  once  turned  round,  walks  on 

Look  proudly  to  heaven  from  the  death-bed  of  fame. 

And  turns  no  more  his  head. 

Campbell. 

Because  he  knows  a  frightful  fiend 

Ye  mariners  of  England ! 
That  guard  our  native  seas. 

Doth  close  behind  him  tread. 

Colcruigtr. 

Whose  flag  has  braved  a  thousand  years 

Alone! — that  worn-out  word, 

The  battle  and  the  breeze  ! 

So  idly,  and  so  coldly  heard  ; 

Campbell. 

Yet  ::U  that  poets  sing,  and  grief  hath  known, 

When  tlie  battle  rages  loud  and  long, 

Of  hopes  laid  waste,  knells  in  that  word— Alone  ! 

And  the  stormy  winds  do  blow. 

Biilwer  Lytton. 

Campbell. 
And  little  of  this  great  world  can  I  speak. 

Ambition. 

More  than  pertains  to  feats  of  broil  and  battle. 

Shakspere. 

When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Cxsar  hath  wept: 

But  to  the  hero,  when  his  sword 

Ambition  should  be  made  of  sterner  stuff. 

Sbakspcrc. 

Has  won  the  battle  for  tlie  free, 

Thy  voice  sounds  like  a  prophet's  word. 

I  have  no  spur 

J/alleck. 

To  prick  the  sides  of  my  intent ;  but  only 

Vaulting  ambition,  which  o'erleaps  itself. 

Wut's  words  to  them  whose  faith  and  truth 

And  falls  on  the  other. 

On  War's  red  techstone  rang  true  metal, 

Shakiiperc. 

Who  ventured  life  an'  love  an'  youth 

Here  we  may  reign  secure,  and  in  my  choice 

For  the  gret  prize  0'  death  in  battle? 

Lozvell. 

To  reign  is  worth  ambition,  though  in  hell: 

Better  to  reign  in  hell,  than  serve  in  heaven. 

Milton. 

Beauty. 

Angels. 

So  stands  the  statue  that  enchants  the  world. 

So  bending  tries  to  veil  the  matchless  boast. 

The  mingled  beauties  of  exulting  Greece. 

0  woman  !  lovely  woman  !  nature  made  thee 

fhomsoii. 

To  temper  man  ;  we  had  been  brutes  without  you. 

Angels  are  painted  fair,  to  look  like  you: 

In  naked  beauty,  more  adorn'd. 

There's  in  you  all  that  we  believe  in  heaven: 

More  lovclv,  than  Pandora. 

Milton. 

Am.izing  brightness,  purity,  and  truth. 

Kternal  jov,  and  everlasting  love. 

She  walks  in  beauty,  like  the  night 

Ohotry. 

Of  cloudless  climes  and  starry  skies; 

He  pass'd  the  flaming  bounds  of  place  and  time : 

And  all  that's  best  oi  dark  and  bright 

The  living  throne,  the  sapphire  blaze. 

Meet  in  her  aspect  and  lier  eyes ; 

Where  angels  tremble  while  they  giize, 

Thus  mellow'd  to  that  tender  light 

He  saw ;  but,  blasted  wi'.h  excess  of  light, 

Which  Heaven  to  gaudy  day  denies. 

Byron, 

Closed  his  eyes  in  endless  night. 

Gnij'. 

k 

Blessing. 

Argument. 

Blessings  be  with  them,  and  etern.al  praise, 

I  have  found  you   an   argument;!   am   not  obliged  to  tiiul  you  an 

Who  gave  us  nobler  loves,  and  nobler  cares, 

imdcrstanding. 

The  Poets,  who  on  earth  have  made  us  heirs 

yoliuson. 

Of  truth  and  pure  delight  by  heavenly  lays  ! 

It  would  be  argument  for  a  week,  laughter  for  a  month,  and  a  good 

Wordsworth. 

jest  forever. 

Shakspere. 

Blessings  on   him  who  invented  sleep,  tlie  mantle  that  covers  all 

human   thoughts,   the   food   that    appeases    hunger,   the    drink    that 

He  draweth  out  the  thread  of  his  verbosity  finer  than  the  staple  of 

quenches  thirst,  the  fire  that  warms  cold,  the  cold  that  moderates  heat. 

his  argument. 

and  lastly,  the  general  coin  that  purchases  all  things,  the  balance  and 

Shakspere. 

weight  that  equals  the  shepherd  with  the  king,  and  the  simple  with  the 
wise. 

Babe. 

Cervantes. 
Hush,  my  dear,  lie  still  and  slumber! 

A  babe  in  a  house  is  a  well-spring  of  pleasure. 

Holy  angels  guard  thy  bed  ! 

Tuppt-r. 

Heavenly  blessings  without  number 

i 

And  pity,  like  a  naked,  n^'w-born  babe. 

Gently  falling  on  thy  head. 

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Waits. 

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770                                                    DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 

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Blush. 

And,  through  the  heat  of  conflict,  keeps  the  law 

In  calmness  made^  and  sees  what  he  foresaw. 

Wordsworth . 

But  'neath  yon  crimson  tree, 

Lover  to  listening  maid  might  breathe  his  flame. 

Care. 

Nor  mark,  within  its  roseate  canopy, 

Her  blush  of  maiden  shame. 

Srya/tl, 

Care  to  our  coffin  adds  a  nail,  no  doubt. 
And  every  grin,  so  merry,  draws  one  out. 

We  grieved,  we  sighed,  we  wept :    we  never  blushed  before. 

Wolcot. 

Cozu/tiy. 

Let  the  world  glide,  let  the  world  go: 

This  is  the  state  of  man:    to-day  he  puts  forth 

A  fig  for  care,  and  a  fig  for  woe ! 

The  tender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms. 

If  I  can't  pay,  why,  I  can  owe, 

And  bears  his  blushing  lienors  thick  upon  him: 

And  death  makes  equal  the  high  and  low. 

The  third  day,  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost; 

Jfeyzvood. 

And— when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely 

Shall  I,  wasting  in  despair, 

His  greatness  is  a  ripening— nips  his  root, 

Die  because  a  woman's  fair? 

And  then  he  falls. 

Or  make  pale  my  cheeks  with  care. 

'Cause  another's  rosy  are? 

To  the  nuptial  bower  I  led  her,  blushing  like  tlie  morn. 

Be  she  fairer  than  the  day, 

Aft'lion, 

Or  the  flow'ry  meads  in  May, 
If  she  be  not  so  to  me, 

Burden. 

What  care  I  how  fair  she  be? 

Wither. 

Every  man  shall  hear  his  own  burden. 

Hang  sorro\v !  care  will  kill  a  cat, 
And  threescore  let's  be  merry. 

jVeTV  Testament, 

For  other  things  mild  Heav'n  a  time  ordains. 

Wither. 

And  disapproves  that  care,  though  wise  in  show. 

If  the  heart  of  a  man  is  depress'd  with  cares, 

That  with  superfluous  burden  loads  the  day. 

The  mist  is  dispell'd  when  a  woman  appears. 

And,  when  God  sends  a  cheerful  hour,  refrains. 

Ga^. 

^f^'Uo}l. 

Charity. 

And  the  gay  grandsire,  skill'd  in  gestic  lore, 

Has  frisk'd  beneath  the  burden  of  threescore, 

Goidsinith. 

An  old  man,  broken  with  tlie  storms  of  state. 

Is  cometolay  his  weary  bones  among  ye; 

Out  from  the  heart  of  Nature  rolled 

Give  him  a  little  earth  for  charity ! 

The  burdens  of  the  Bible  old. 

Shakspere. 

Emerson. 

In  Faith  and  Hope  the  world  will  disagree. 
But  all  mankind's  concern  is  Charity. 

Business. 

Pope. 
Charity  shall  cover  the  multitude  of  sins. 

I^ew  Testajnent. 

A  dinner  lubricates  business. 

Lord  Stowell. 

Careless  their  merits  or  their  faults  to  scan, 

Seest  thou  a  man  diligent  in  his  business?   he  shall  stand  before 

His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began. 

Goldsmith. 

kings ;  he  shall  not  stand  before  mean  men. 

Old  Testament. 

Of  seeming  arms  to  make  a  short  essay. 

Chastity. 

Then  hasten  10  be  drunk,  the  business  of  the  day. 

T)rydeti. 

Early,  bright,  transient,  chaste,  as  the  morning. 

Despatch  is  the  suul  of  business. 

She  sparkled,  was  exhaled,  and  went  to  heaven. 

Cliesterjield. 

Toung. 

How  doth  the  little  busy  bee 

As  chaste  as  unsunned  snow. 

Shahspere. 

Improve  each  shining  hour? 

Watts, 

Tliat  chastity  of  honor  which  felt  a  stain  like  a  wound. 

The  armorers,  accomplishing  the  knights. 

Burke. 

With  busy  hammers  closing  rivets  up, 

So  dear  to  Heaven  is  saintly  chastity, 

Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation. 

That,  when  a  soul  is  found  sincerely  so, 

Shakspere. 

A  thousand  liveried  angels  lackey  her, 
DrivinsT  far  off  each  thing  of  sin  and  guilt. 

Calm. 

Milton. 

Rest  here,  distrest  by  poverty  no  more. 

Childhood. 

Here  And  that  calm  thou  gav'st  so  oft  before ; 

Sleep,  imdisturb'd,  within  this  peaceful  shrine, 

Ah,  happy  hills!  ah,  pleasing  shade! 

Till  angels  wake  thee  with  a  note  like  thine ! 

yohnson. 

Ah,  fields  belov'd  in  vain  \ 

Where  once  my  careless  childhood  stray'd, 

A  stranger  yet  to  pain  ! 

Ne'er  saw  I,  never  felt,  a  calm  so  deep  ! 

Gray, 

The  river  glidcth  at  his  own  sweet  will ; 

I  have  had  playmates,  I  h.ave  had  companions. 

Dear  God !  the  very  houses  seem  asleep  ; 

In  my  days  of  childhood,  in  my  joyful  school-days; 

i 

And  all  that  mighty  heart  is  lying  still ! 

All  are  gone,  the  old  familiar  faces. 

Lamb. 

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The  childhood  shows  thtr  man 
As  morning-  shows  the  day. 

Milton. 

The  children  like  olive  plants  round  about  thy  tabic. 

Old  Testament. 
By  sports  like  these  are  all  their  cares  begnil'd  ; 
The  sports  of  children  satisfy  the  child. 

Goldsmith. 


Dancing. 

Midnight  shout  and  revelry, 
Tipsy  dance  and  jollity. 

On  with  the  dance  !  let  joy  be  unconfincd. 

And  bear  about  the  mockery  of  woe 

To  midnight  dances  and  the  public  show. 


Milton. 


Byron. 


Pope. 


Doubt. 

No  hinge,  nor  loop 
To  hang  a  doubt  on. 


Shakspcre, 


Doubt  thou  the  stars  are  fire, 
Doubt  that  the  sun  doth  move; 

Doubt  truth  to  be  a  liar, 
But  never  doubt  I  love. 

And  better  had  they  ne'er  been  born, 
Who  read  to  doubt,  or  read  to  scorn. 


Shakspere. 


Dreams. 

Hunt  half  a  day  for  a  forgotten  dream. 

Wordszoorth. 
Who  has  not  felt  how  sadlf  sweet 

The  dream  of  home,  the  dream  of  home, 
Steals  o'er  the  heart,  too  soon  to  fleet, 
When  far  o'er  sea  or  land  we  roam  ? 

Moore. 

True,  I  talk  of  dreams, 
Which  are  the  children  of  an  idle  brain, 
Begot  of  nothing  but  vain  fantasy. 

Shakspere. 

Dust. 

IIow  lov'd,  Jiow  honor'd  once,  avails  tliee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot: 
A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee  ; 
'Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be  ! 

The  knight's  bones  are  dust, 

And  his  good  sword  rust; 

His  soul  is  with  the  saints,  I  trust. 


PopL-. 


CoUriJtft:. 


Earth. 


Earth  felt  the  wound ;  and  Nature  from  her  seat. 
Sighing  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe, 
That  all  w:is  lost. 

Milton. 
The  common  growth  of  Mother  Earth 
Suflices  me— her  tears,  her  mirth. 
Her  humblest  niirlh  and  tears. 

W'ordstvorlit. 
Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God. 

CohriJi;,'. 


Ease. 

How  blest  is  he  who  crowns,  in  shades  like  these, 
A  youth  of  labor  with  an  age  of  case  ! 

Goldsmith. 
Shall  I  not  take  mine  ease  in  mine  inn? 

Shakspere. 
Nor  peace  nor  ease  the  he.-irt  can  know. 

Which,  like  the  needle  true. 
Turns  at  the  touch  of  joy  or  woe. 
But,  turning,  trembles  too. 

Mrs.  Gre-villc. 


Error. 

To  err  is  human,  to  forgive  divine. 

Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again ; 

The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers ; 
But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain, 

And  dies  among  his  worshippers. 


I'ofc. 


Byron. 


Eternity. 

'Tis  the  divinity  that  stirs  within  us; 

'Tis  Heaven  itself  that  points  out  an  hereafter. 

And  intimates  eternity  to  man. 

Eternity!  thou  pleasing,  dreadful  thought! 

Adiiisou. 
But  there  are  wanderers  o'er  Eternity 

Whose  bark  drives  on  and  on,  and  anchor'd  ne'er  shall  be. 

Byron. 

Faith. 

Happy  he 
With  such  a  mother!  faith  in  womanhood 
Beats  with  his  blood,  and  trust  in  all  things  high 
Comes  easy  to  him,  and,  though  he  trip  and  fall. 
He  shall  not  blind  Iiis  soul  with  clay. 

Tennyson. 
One  in  whom  persuasion  and  belief 
Had  ripened  into  faith,  and  faith  become 
A  passionate  intuition, 

Wordsworth. 
Faith    is    the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  the  evidence  of  things 
not  seen. 

New  Testament. 

Farewell. 

I  only  know  we  loved  in  vain — 
I  only  feel — Farewell ! — Farewell ! 

Byron. 

Oh,  now,  forever. 

Farewell  the  tranquil  mind!  farewell  content! 
Farewell  tlie  ploomed  troop,  and  the  big  wars, 
That  make  ambition  virtue  !  Oh,  farewell  I 
Farewell  the  neighing  steed,  and  the  shrill  trumi>, 
The  spirit-stirring  drum,  th'  ear-piercing  fife, 
The  royal  banner,  and  all  quality. 
Pride,  pomp  and  circumstance  of  glorious  war! 
And,  O  you  mortal  engines,  whose  rude  throats 
The  immortal  Jove*s  dread  clamors  counterfeit. 
Farewell  I  Othello's  occupation's  gone  ! 

Shakspere. 

Folly. 


A  fool  must  now  and  then  be  right  by  chance. 


Cozvper. 


For  fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. 


Pope. 


Of  all  causes  which  conspire  to  blind 
Man's  erring  judgment,  and  misguide  the  mind, 
What  the  weak  head  with  strongest  bias  rules, 
Is  pride,  the  ne\'er-failing  vice  of  fools. 


Pope, 


Forgetfulness. 

Go,  forget  me — why  should  sorrow 
O'er  that  brow  a  shadow  fling? 

Go,  forget  me — and  to-morrow 
Brightly  smile  and  sweetly  sing. 

Smile — though  I  shall  not  be  near  thee ; 

Sing — though  I  shall  never  hear  thee. 


Freedom. 


Wolfe. 


■\Ve  must  be  free  or  die,  who  speak  the  tongue 
That  Shakspere  spake;  the  iaith  and  morals  hold 
Which  Milton  held. 

WordsTJorth. 

I  am  as  free  as  nature  first  made  man. 
Ere  the  base  laws  of  servitude  began, 
When  wild  in  the  woods  the  noble  savage  ran. 

Drydtu. 
No.     Freedom  has  a  thousand  charms  to  show. 
That  slaves,  howe'er  contented,  never  know. 

Covjpcr. 

That  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  ne^v  birth  of  freedom,  and 
that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  shall  not 
perish  from  the  earth. 


Abraham  Lincoln. 


Glory. 


*Tis  beauty  calls,  and  glory  leads  the  wav. 

Lee. 

Avoid  sliaine,  but  do  not  seek  glorv — nothing  so  expensive  as  glorj". 

Sydney  Smith. 
I  have  touch'd  the  highest  point  of  all  my  greatness, 
And  from  that  full  meridian  of  my  glory 
I  haste  now  to  my  setting:     I  shall  fall 
Like  a  bright  exhalation  in  the  evening, 
And  no  man  see  me  more. 

Byron. 

God. 

Had  I  but  ser\-'d  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 
I  serv'd  my  king,  he  would  not  in  mine  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies. 

.Shakspere. 

Just  are  the  ways  of  God, 
And  justifiable  to  men  ; 
Unless  there  be  who  think  not  God  at  all. 

Milton. 

God  helps  them  that  help  themselves. 

Franklin. 

Lo,  the  poor  Indian  !  whose  untutored  mind 
Sees  God  in  clouds,  or  hears  him  in  the  wind; 
His  soul  proud  Science  never  taught  to  stray 
Far  as  the  solar  walk  or  milky  way. 

Pope. 

God  scndeth,  and  givelh,  both  mouth  and- the  meat. 

Thomas  Tnsser. 

Grief. 

Every  one  can  master  a  grief  but  he  that  has  it. 

.Shakspere. 


Happiness. 

Domestic  Happiness,  thou  only  bliss 
Of  Paradise  that  has  surviv'd  the  fall ! 

Cowper. 

O  happiness  !  our  being's  end  and  aim  ! 

Good,  pleasure,  ease,  content !  whate'er  thy  name ; 

That  something  still  which  prompts  th'  eternal  sigh, 

For  which  we  bear  to  live,  or  dare  to  die. 

Pope. 

How  bitter  a  thing  it  is  to  look  into  happiness  through  another 

man's  eyes! 

Shakspere. 

All  who  joy  would  win 
Must  share  it ; 

Happiness  was  bom  a  twin. 

Byron. 

Heaven. 


1^ 


*Tis  heaven  alone  that  is  given  away; 
'Tis  only  God  may  be  had  for  the  asking. 

Thus,  when  the  lamp  that  lighted 

The  traveller  at  first  goes  out. 
He  feels  awhile  benighted, 

And  looks  around  in  fear  and  doubt. 
But  soon,  the  prospect  clearing. 

By  cloudless  starlight  on  he  treads. 
And  thinks  no  lamp  so  cheering 

As  that  light  which  heaven  sheds. 


Lowell. 


Moore, 


Sit,  Jessica ;   look,  how  the  floor  of  heaven 
Is  thick  inlaid  with  patines  of  bright  gold  ; 
There's  not  the  smallest  orb  which  thou  behold'st 
But  in  his  motion  like  an  angel  sings, 
Still  quiring  to  the  young-eyed  cherubins: 
Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls  ; 
But,  whilst  this  muddy  vesture  of  decay 
Doth  grossly  close  it  in,  we  cannot  hear  it. 

Shakspere. 

Heaven  open'd  wide 
Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound 
On  golden  hinges  moving. 


Milton. 


To  heirs  unknown  descends  th'  unguarded  store, 
Or  wanders,  heaven-directed,  to  the  poor. 

Hell. 

Hell  is  pavL-d  with  j^ood  intentions. 


Pope. 


Which  way  shall 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair? 
Which  way  I  fly  is  hell ;  myself  am  hell ; 
And,  in  the  lowest  deep,  a  lower  deep, 
Still  threat'ning  to  devour  me,  opens  wide. 
To  which  tlie  hell  I  suffer  seems  a  heaven. 


fly, 


Milton. 


Full  little  knowcst  thou  that  hast  not  tried. 
What  hell  it  is  in  suing  long  to  bide ; 
To  loose  good  dayes  that  might  be  better  spent. 
To  wast  long  nights  in  pensive  discontent ; 
To  speed  to-dav,  to  be  put  hack  to-morrow; 
To  feed  on  hope,  to  pine  with  feare  and  sorrow. 

Spi-n.'ier. 


Honesty. 

Every  honest  miller  has  a  g( 


)lden  thumb. 


Old  .Saving. 


V 


DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


773 


Hope. 

Thus  heavenly  hope  is  all  serene, 
But  earthly  hope,  how  bright  soe'er, 

Still  fluctuates  o\-r  this  changing  scene, 
As  false  and  fleeting  as  'tis  fair. 


Jfebf. 


Cease,  every  joy,  to  glimmer  on  my  mind, 
But  leave — oh  !  leave  the  light  of  Hope  behind  ! 
What  though  my  winged  hours  of  bliss  have  been, 
Like  angel-visits,  few  and  far  between. 

Campbfll. 

Hope !  thou  nurse  of  young  desire. 

Bickers/aff. 

Hope  springs  eternal  in  the  human  breast : 
Man  never  is,  but  always  to  l>c  blest. 
The  soul,  une;isy,  and  confin'd  from  home, 
Rests  and  expatiates  m  a  life  to  come. 


Pope. 


Sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State! 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great ! 
Humanity  with  all  its  fears. 
With  all  the  hopes  of  future  years, 
Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate  ! 


Longfellotv. 


Idleness. 


How  various  his  employments,  whom  the  world 
Calls  idle  ;  and  who  justly  in  return 
Esteems  that  busy  world  an  idler  too  ! 

Coviper. 

In  idle  wishes  fools  supinely  staj' ; 

Be  there  a  will,  and  wisdom  finds  a  wav. 

Crabbe. 

Immortality. 

There  is  no  death  !  an  angel  form 

Walks  o'er  the  earth  with  silent  tread, 

He  bears  our  best-loved  things  away. 
And  then  we  call  them  "  dead." 

Harfey. 

There  is  no  death  \    What  seems  so  is  transition. 

This  life  of  mortal  breath 

Is  but  a  suburb  of  the  life  clysian, 

Whose  portal  we  call  death. 

Longfeliovf. 

Though  inland  far  wc  be. 

Our  souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 

Which  brought  us  hither. 

W'orJsjvorth. 

Our  dissatisfaction  with  any  other  solution  is  the  blazing  evidence  of 
immortality. 

Kmcrson. 


Innocence. 

An  age  that  melts  in  unperceiv'd  decay. 
And  glides  in  modest  innocence  away. 

Hc*s  armed  without  that's  innocent  within. 


First,  then,  a  woman  will,  or  won't,  depend  on*t; 
If  she  will  do't,  she  will ;  and  there's  an  end  on't. 
But  if  she  won't,  since  safe  and  sound  your  trust  is. 
Fear  is  affront,  and  jealousy  injustice. 


/////. 


Jesting. 

Of  all  the  griefs  that  harass  the  distrcst. 
Sure  the  most  bitter  is  a  scornful  jesl. 


oh  MS 


A  jest's  prosperity  lies  in  the  car 

Of  him  that  hears  it,  never  in  the  tongue 

Of  him  that  makes  it. 

S/taksp^rr. 

Haste  thee,  Nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Jest,  and  youthful  Jollity, 
Quips,  and  Cranks,  and  wanton  Wiles, 
Nods,  and  Becks,  and  wreathed  Smiles. 

A//// on. 

Joy. 

And  e'en  while  fashion's  brightest  arts  decoy. 

The  heart,  distrusting,  asks  if  this  be  joy. 

Go/Jsmith. 

Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 

Life  in  three  words — health,  peace  and  competence. 

Pope. 

Silence  is  the  perfcctest  herald  of  joy;  I  were  but  little  happy,  if  I 

could  say  how  much. 

Shakspere. 

Bliss  in  possession  will  not  last ; 
Remembcr'd  joys  are  never  past; 
At  once  the  fountain,  stream  and  sea, 
They  were,  they  are,  they  yet  shall  be 

Mottigomery. 

There's  not  a  joy  tlie  world  can  give  like  that  it  takes  away. 

Byron. 

From  our  own  selves  our  joys  must  flow, 

And  that  dear  hut— our  home. 

Coiton. 

Oh,  the  Joys  that  came  down  shower-like. 
Of  Friendship,  Love  and  Liberty, 
Ere  I  was  old ! 

Coieriiige, 

Justice. 


Fiat  Justitia  ruat  coelum. 


Terence. 


yohnson. 
Pope. 


Jealousy. 

Trifles,  light  as  air. 
Are  to  the  jealous  confirmations  strong 
As  proofs  of  Holy  Writ, 

Shakspere. 

Love  is  strong  as  death  ;  jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave. 

Oid  Testament. 


We  but  teach 

Bloody  instructions,  which,  being  taught,  return 

To  plague  the  inventor.     This  even-handed  justice 

Commends  the  ingredients  of  our  poison'd  chalice 

To  our  own  lips. 

Shakspere. 

What  stronger  breastplate  than  a  heart  untainted? 
Thrice  is  he  arm'd  that  hath  his  quarrel  just ; 
And  he  but  naked,  though  lock'd  up  in  steel. 
Whose  conscience  with  injustice  is  corrupted. 

Shakspere. 

Between  two  hawks,  which  flics  the  higher  pitch ; 

Between  two  dogs,  which  hath  the  deeper  mouth  ; 

Between  two  horses,  which  doth  bear  him  best; 

Between  two  girls,  which  hath  the  merriest  eye — 

I  have,  perhaps,  some  shallow  spirit  of  judgment ; 

But  in  these  nice  sharp  quillets  of  the  law. 

Good  faith,  I  am  no  wiser  than  a  daw. 

Shakspere, 


/ 


\ 


\ 


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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


~A 


Kindness. 

Assume  a  virUie,  if  you  have  it  not. 

I  must  be  cruel,  only  to  be  kind: 

Thus  bad  begins,  and  worse  remains  behind. 

Shakspere. 

Howe'er  it  be,  it  seems  to  me, 

'Tis  only  noble  to  be  good. 
Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets, 

And  simple  faith  than  Norman  blood. 

Tennysoti. 

And  kind  as  kings  upon  their  coronation  day. 

DrydtH. 

Yet  do  I  fear  thy  nature: 
It  is  too  full  o'  the  milk  of  human  kindness. 

Shakspere. 

The  King. 

Not  all  the  waters  in  the  rough,  rude  sea 
Can  wash  the  balm  from  an  anointed  king. 

Shakspere. 

A  man  may  fish  with  the  worm  that  hath  eat  of  a  king;  and  eat  of 

the  fish  that  hath  fed  of  that  worm. 

Shakspere. 

Ay,  ever\'  inch  a  king. 

Shakspere. 

The  king's  name  is  a  tower  of  strength. 

Shakspere. 

The  right  divine  of  kings  to  govern  wrong. 

Shakspere, 

Kissing. 

Be  plain  in  dress,  and  sober  in  your  diet; 

In  short,  my  deary:  kiss  me  and  be  quiet. 

Mojtiague. 

Then  come  kiss  me,  sweet-and-t\venty. 

Shakspere. 

O  Love,  O  fire  !  once  he  drew 

With  one  long  kiss  my  whole  soul  through 

My  lips,  as  sunlight  drinketh  dew. 

Tentiyson. 

The  kiss,  snatched  hasty  from  the  sidelong  maid. 

Thomson. 


A  long,  long  kiss,  a  kiss  of  youth  and  love. 


Knavery. 


Byron. 


Now  will  I  show  myself  to  have  more  of  the  serpent  than  the  dove ; 
that  is,  more  knave  than  fool. 


Whip  me  such  honest  knaves. 


Knowledge. 


Marlowe. 


Shakspere. 


Knowledge  is  of  two  kinds.     We  know  a  subject  ourselves,  or  we 
know  where  we  can  find  information  upon  it. 

Johnson. 


Half  our  knowledge  we  must  snatch,  not  take. 
Knowledge  is  power. 


Pope. 


Bacon. 

A  wise  man  is  strong;  yea,  a  man  of  knowledge  increaseth  strength. 

Old  Testament. 
Histories  make  men  wise;  poets,  witty;  the  mathematics,  subtle ; 
natural   philosophy,  deep ;  morals,  grave ;  logic  and  rhetoric,  able  to 

contend. 

Bacon. 


Labor. 

Man  goeth  forth  unto  his  work  and  to  his  labor  until  the  evening. 

Old  Testament. 


Honest  labor  bears  a  lovely  face. 

So  he  with  difficulty  and  labor  hard 
Mov'd  on,  with  difficulty  and  labor  he. 


Dekker. 


Milton. 


The  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire. 


New  Testament, 


The  Ladies. 


A  lion  among  ladies  is  a  most  dreadful  thing. 

Shakspere. 

If  ladies  be  but  young  and  fair, 
They  have  the  gift  to  know  it. 

Shakspere. 

Ladies,  whose  bright  eyes 
Rain  influence,  and  judge  the  prize. 


Milton. 


And  when  a  lady's  in  the  case. 

You  know  all  other  things  give  place. 

The  Land. 


Gay. 


Ill  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 
When  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay; 
Princes  and  lords  may  flourish  and  may  fade, 
A  breath  can  make  them  as  a  breath  h:is  made, 
But  an  honest  peasantrj',  a  country's  pride, 
When  once  destroyed,  can  never  be  supplied. 

Goldsmith. 

Breathes  there  the  man.  with  soul  so  dead. 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said. 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ! 
Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burned, 
As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turned 

From  wandering  on  a  foreign  strand? 

^  .Scott. 

There's  nae  sorrow  there,  John, 
There's   neither  cauld  nor  care,  John, 
The  day  is  aye  fair, 

In  the  land  o'  the  leal. 

Ladj  Nairne. 

Laughter. 

They  laugh  that  win. 

Shakspere. 

There  was  -x  laughing  Devil  in  his  sneer. 

Byron, 

You  hear  that  boy  laughing? — you  think  he's  all  fun ; 
But  the  angels  laugh,  too,  at  the  good  he  has  done ; 
The  children  laugh  loud  as  they  troop  to  his  call. 
And  the  poor  man  that  knows  him  laughs  loudest  of  all ! 

Jlolmes. 
And  Laughter  liolding  both  his  sides. 


Milton. 


The  Law. 


1  Clo.  Argal,  he  that  is  not  guilty  of  his  own  death  shortens  not  hi 

own  life. 

2  Clo,  But  is  this  law? 

I    Clo,  Ay,  marry,  is't;  crowner's-quest  law. 


When  law  ends,  tyranny  begins. 


Shakspere. 
Pitt. 


. 

^\ 

©         •. 

-»_     ^ 

J- 

6 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS.                                                     775 

1 

No  man  e'er  ft-It  the  halter  draw, 

Love. 

With  good  opinion  of  ths  Jaw. 

TntMbif//. 

A  mighty  pain  to  love  it  is, 

Of  Law  there  can  be  no  less  acknowledged,  than  that  her  scat  is  the 

And  'tis  a  pain  that  pain  to  miss ; 

bosom  of  God,  her  voice  the  harmony  of  the  world  :  ail  things  in  huavt-n 

But  of  all  pain,  the  greatest  pain 

and  earth  do  her  homage,  the  very  least  :is  feeling  her  care,  and  the 

It  is  to  love,  but  love  in  vain. 

greatest  as  not  exempted  from  her  power. 

//ooJtt-r. 

Cmvtry, 

The  law  is  a  sort  of  hocus-pocus  science,  that  smiles  in  yer  face 
while  it  picks  yer  pocket ;  and  the  glorious  uncertainty  of  it  is  of  mair 

Love  looks  not  with  the  eyes,  but  with  the  mind. 

And  therefore  is  wing'd  Cupid  painted  blind. 

Shokspere. 

use  to  the  professors  than  the  justice  of  it. 

MacA/ni. 

Mightier  far 
Than  strength  of  nerxe  or  sinew,  or  the  sway 

Learning. 

Of  magic  potent  over  sun  and  star. 
Is  Love,  though  oft  to  agony  distrest. 

Some  for  renown  on  scraps  of  learning  dote, 

And  though  his  favorite  seat  be  feeble  woman's  breast. 

And  think  they  grow  immortal  as  they  quote. 

Wordsworth, 

2'oHrig. 
With  just  enough  of  learning  to  misquote. 

But  to  see  her  was  to  love  her. 

Love  but  her  and  love  forever. 

Burns. 

Liberty. 

Had  wc  never  loved  sae  kindly. 

Had  we  never  loved  sae  blindly, 

Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of 

Never  met  or  never  parted. 

chains  and  slavery?     Forbid   it  Almighty   God!        I   know   not  what 

We  had  ne'er  been  broken-hearted. 

Burns. 

course  others  may  take;  but,  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty,  or  give  me 

death. 

Men  have  died  from  time  to  time  and  worms  have  eaten  them,  but 

Patrick  Henry. 

not  from  love. 

Liberty's  in  every  blow  ! 

Shakspere. 

Let  us  do  or  die. 

Oh,  my  luve's  like  a  red,  red  rose, 

Burns. 

That's  newly  sprung  in  Jiine, 

.0  libertj'!  liberty!  how  many  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name! 

Oh,  my  luve's  like  a  melodie 

Aftne.  Roland, 

That's  sweetly  played  in  tune. 

Burns. 

Behold!  in  liberty's  unclouded  blaze 

We  lift  our  heads,  a  race  of  other  days. 

Alas  !  the  love  of  \vom.-in  !  it  is  known 

Spragtie, 

To  be  a  lovely  and  a  fearful  thing. 

ByroH. 

Life. 

Man's  love  is  of  man's  life  a  thing  apart, 
'Tis  woman's  whole  existence. 

I  do  not  set  mv  life  at  a  pin's  fee. 

Byron. 

Shaksper,'. 

For  stony  limits  cannot  hold  love  out. 

The  world's  a  bubble,  and  the  life  of  man 

Sfiaksperf. 

Less  than  a  span. 

Bacon. 

Madness. 

We  are  such  stuff 

As  dreams  are  made  on:  and  our  little  life 

Great  wit  is  sure  to  madness  near  allied, 

Is  rounded  with  a  sleep. 

And  thin  partitions  do  their  bounds  divide. 

Shakspen-. 

/>r  »'«/«■«. 

A  sacred  burden  is  this  life  ye  bear, 

This  is  very  midsummer  madness. 

Look  on  it,  lift  it,  bear  it  solemnly, 

Shakspi-re. 

Stand  up  and  walk  bencatli  it  steadfastly. 

Though  this  be  m.idness,  yet  there's  method  in't. 

■Kail  not  for  soirow,  falter  not  for  sin. 

S/ntkspert. 

But  onward,  upward,  till  the  ijoal  ye  win. 

0^                   F-11 
Kembic, 

To  be  wroth  with  one  we  love 

i^ifu's  but  a  means  unto  an  end ;  that  end 

Doth  work  like  madness  on  the  brain. 

Beginning,  me  m  an*!  »;nd  to  all  things— God. 

Coleridge. 

Baihy. 

And  moody  madness  laughing  wild, 

That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's  great  end. 

Aniid  severest  woe. 

Gray. 

Toung. 

Cure  her  of  that: 

Our  life  is  but  a  winter  day 

Some  only  breakfast  and  away 

Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseas'd, 

Pluck  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow. 
Raze  out  the  written  troubles  of  the  brain  ? 

others  to  dinner  stay 

and  are  full  fed 

Sbakspere. 

the  oldest  man  but  sups 

and  goes  to  bed 
large  is  his  debt 

Maidenhood. 

that  lingers  out  tlic  day 

he  that  goes  soonest 

Maidens,  like  moths,  are  ever  caught  by  glare, 

( 

has  the  least  to  pay. 

And  Mammon  wins  his  way  where  Seraphs  might  despair. 

1 

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The  maid  who  modestly  conceals 
Her  beauties,  while  she  hides,  reveals ; 
Give  but  a  glimpse,  and  fancy  draws 
Whate'er  the  Grecian  Venus  was. 

Edzvard  Moore. 

She  dwelt  among  the  untrodden  ways 

Beside  the  spring  of  Love, 
A  maid  whom  there  were  none  to  praise 

And  very  few  to  love. 

Wordsworth. 

And  when  once  the  yoimg  heart  of  a  maiden  is  stolen. 

The  maiden  herself  will  steal  after  it  soon. 

Moore. 

Standing  with  reluctant  feet 
Where  the  brook  and  river  meet, 
Womanhood  and  childhood  fleet! 


Wretched  un-idea'd  girls. 


Man. 


Longfellow. 
Johnson. 


An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God. 
A  very  unclubable  man. 


Pope, 


y  oh  a  son. 
Before  man  made  us  citizens,  great  Nature  made  us  men. 


I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man ; 
\Vho  dares  do  more  is  none. 

Adam  the  goodliest  man  of  men  since  born 
His  sons ;  the  fairest  of  her  daughters  Eve. 


Shakspere. 


For  contemplation  he  and  valor  form'd, 
For  softness  she  and  sweet  attractive  grace; 
He  for  God  only,  she  for  God  in  him. 
His  fair  large  front  and  eyes  sublime  declar'd 
Absolute  rule. 

Mi/ton. 

Like  leaves  on  trees  the  race  of  man  is  found, 
Now  green  in  youth,  now  withering  on  tlie  ground : 
Another  race  the  following  spring  supplies  ; 
They  fall  successive,  and  successive  rise. 

Pope. 

All  the  world's  a  .stage 
And  all  the  men  and  women  merely  players; 
Tliey  liave  their  exits  and  their  entrances; 
And  one  man  in  his  time  plays  many  parts— 
His  acts  being  seven  ages.     At  first,  the  Infant, 
Mewling  and  puking  in  the  nurse's  arms. 
Thunthe  whining  School-boy,  with  his  satchel 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school.     And  then  the  Lover, 
Sighing  like  furnace,  with  a  woful  ballad 
Made  to  his  mistress'  eyebrow.    Then  a  Soldier, 
Full  of  strange  oaths,  and  bearded  like  the  pard; 
Jealous  in  honor,  sudden  and  quick  in  quarrel, 
Seeking  the  bubble  reputation 

Kvcn  to  the  cannon's  mouth.     And  then  the  Justice, 
In  fair  round  belly  with  good  capon  lin'd, 
With  eyes  severe  and  beard  of  formal  cut, 
Full  of  wise  saws  and  modern  instances — 
And  so  he  plays  his  part.     The  sixth  age  shifts 
Into  the  lean  and  sllpper'd  Pantaloon, 
His  youthful  hose  well  sav'd,  a  world  too  wide 
For  Iiis  shrunk  shank  ;  and  his  big  manly  voice, 
Turning  again  toward  childish  treble,  pipes 
And  whistles  in  his  sound.    Last  scene  of  all. 


That  ends  this  strange,  eventful  history, 

Is  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion  ; 

Sans  teeth,  sans  eyes,  sans  taste,  sans — everything. 

Shakspere, 

Marriage. 


Choose  not  alone  a  proper  mate. 
But  proper  time  to  marry. 


Cooper. 


Let  me  not  to  the  marriage  of  true  minds 
Admit  impediments:  love  is  not  love 
Which  alters  when  it  alteration  finds. 

Shakspere. 

How  much  tlie  wife  is  dearer  than  the  bride. 

Lyltenon, 
Such  duty  as  the  subject  owes  the  prince, 
Even  sucli  a  woman  oweth  to  her  husband. 

.Shakspere. 
You  are  my  true  and  honorable  wife  ; 
As  dear  to  me  ;is  are  the  ruddy  drops 
That  visit  my  sad  heart. 

Shakspere. 

With  secret  course,  which  no  loud  storms  annoy. 
Glides  the  smooth  current  of  domestic  joy, 

yohnsopi. 

Is  not  marriage  an  open  question  when  it  is  alleged  from  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  world  that  such  as  are  in  the  institution  wish  to  get 
out,  and  such  as  are  out  wish  to  get  in? 

R.  I['.  Emerson. 

Slie  what  was  honor  knew, 
And  with  obsequious  majesty  approv'd 
My  pleaded  re;ison.     To  the  nuptial  bower 
I  led  lier,  blushing  like  the  morn:  all  lieaven. 
And  happy  constellations  on  tliat  hour 
Shed  their  selcctest  influence ;  the  earth 
Gave  sign  of  gratulation,  and  each  hill ; 
Joyous  the  birds;  fresh  gales  and  gentle  airs 
Whisper'd  it  to  the  woods,  and  from  their  wings 
Flung  rose,  flung  odors  from  the  spicy  shrub. 

Milton. 

Melancholy. 

Sweet  bird,  that  shunn'st  the  noise  of  folly. 
Most  musical,  most  melancholy! 

Milton. 

And,  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 

She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 

Smiling  at  grief. 

Shakspere. 

Go — yon  may  call  it  madness,  folly; 

You  shall  not  cli;ise  my  gloom  away ! 
There's  such  a  cliarm  in  melancholy 

I  would  not,  if  I  could,  be  gay. 

Rogers. 

There's  naught  in  this  life  sweet. 
If  man  were  wise  to  sec't. 

But  only  melancholy ; 

Oh,  sweetest  Melancholy! 

Fletcher. 

The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 

Of  w.ailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sear. 


Bryant. 


Memory. 


Time  whereof  the  memory  <>f  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary. 

Blackstone. 


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And,  when  the  stream 

Re  ye  all  of  one  mind. 

■\Vhich  ovcrHowed  the  soul  \v;is  piissed  away» 

Old  Testament. 

A  consciousness  remained  that  it  had  left, 

Vain,  very  vain,  my  weary  search  to  find 

Deposited  upon  the  silent  shore 

That  bliss  which  only  centres  in  the  mind. 

Of  memory,  images  and  precious  thoughts 

Goldsmith. 

That  shall  not  die,  and  car^iot  be  destroyed. 

H'ortis7vori/t. 

Misery. 

Music,  when  soft  voices  die. 

Misery  acquaints  a  man  with  strange  bedfellows. 

Vibrates  in  the  memory; 

Shakspere. 

Odors,  when  sweet  violets  sicken. 

Our  sympathy  is  cold  to  the  relation  of  distant  misery. 

Live  within  the  sense  they  quicken. 

Gibbon. 

S/iff/ey. 

He  gave  to  misery  (all  he  had)  a  tear, 

This  is  the  truth  the  poet  sings, 

He  gain'd  from  Heaven  ('twas  all  he  wished)  a  friend. 

That  a  sorrow's  crown  of  sorrow  is  remembering  happier  things. 

Gray. 

T^nnysofi. 

In  misery's  darkest  cavern  known. 

While  memory  holds  a  scat 

His  useful  care  was  ever  nigh 
Where  hopeless  anguish  pour'd  his  groan, 

In  this  distracted  globe.     Remember  thee? 

Yea,  from  the  table  of  my  memory 

And  lonely  want  retired  to  die. 

I'll  wipe  awav  all  trivial  fond  records. 

'johusott. 

Shakspi-ff, 

Modesty. 

The  memorj'  of  the  just  is  blessed. 

Old  Testaftunt. 

He  saw  her  charming,  but  he  saw  not  half 
The  charms  her  downcast  modesty  conceal'd. 

Mercy. 

Thomson, 
The  chariest  maid  is  prodigal  enough 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strain'd  ; 

If  she  iinm:isk  her  beauty  to  the  moon. 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 

Shakspere. 

Upoi\  the  place  beneath:  it  is  twice  bless'dj 

And  on  their  own  merits  modest  men  are  dumb. 

It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes: 

iSolman. 

'Tis  mightiest  in  the  mightiest:  it  becomes 

Not  Stepping  o'er  the  bounds  of  modesty. 

The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown: 

Shakspere. 

His  sceptre  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power. 

The  attribute  to  awe  and  majesty, 

Thy  modesty's  a  candle  to  thy  merit. 

Fielding. 

Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings ; 

Tiut  mercy  is  above  this  sceptred  sway: 

Suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the  action,  with  this  special 

It  is  enthroned  in  the  hearts  of  kings. 
It  is  an  attribute  to  God  himself, 

observance,  that  you  o'erstep  not  the  modesty  of  nature. 

Shakspere. 

And  earthly  power  doth  then  show  likest  God's, 

Money. 

AVhen  mercy  seasons  justice.     Therefore,  Jew, 

Though  justice  be  thy  plea,  consider  this: — 
That  in  the  course  of  justice  none  of  us 

Put  money  in  thy  purse. 

Shakspere. 

Should  see  salv.ation  :  we  do  pray  for  mercy. 

Get  money;  still  get  money,  boy; 

And  that  same  prayer  doth  teach  us  all  to  render 

No  matter  by  what  means. 

The  deeds  of  mercy. 

jronsofi. 

Shakspere. 

The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

That  mercy  I  to  others  show. 

jVew  Testament. 

That  mercv  show  to  me. 

This  bank-note  world. 

Pope. 

/falleck. 

Sweet  mercy  is  nobility's  true  badge. 

Kor  what  is  worth  in  anything 

Shakspere. 

But  so  much  money  as  'twin  bring? 

Butler. 

Mind. 

Hath  a  dog  money?    Is  it  possible 
A  cur  can  lend  three  thousand  ducats? 

My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is  ; 

Shakspere. 

Such  present  joys  therein  I  find 

Motherhood. 

That  it  excels  all  other  bliss 

That  earth  affords  or  grows  by  kind: 

A  mother  is  a  mother  still, 

Though  much  I  want  which  most  would  have, 

The  holiest  thing  alive. 

Yet  still  mv  mind  forbids  to  crave. 

Coleridge. 

Dyer. 

Where  yet  was  ever  found  a  mother 

My  mind  to  me  an  empire  is 

Who'd  give  her  booby  for  another? 

While  grace  affordeth  health. 

Gay. 

Southzveil, 

Music. 

'Tis  strange  the  mind,  that  very  fiery  particle. 

Should  let  itself  be  snuff'd  out  by  an  article. 

As  sweet  and  musical 

fiyroii. 

As  bright  Apollo's  liitt-,  strunj?  with  his  hilir; 

I,  thus  neglecting  worldly  ends,  all  dedicated 

Anil  when  Love  speiiks.  the  voice  of  all  the  gods 

( 

To  closeness,  and  the  bettering  of  my  mind. 

Makes  heaven  drowsv  with  the  harmonv. 

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Bright  gem  instinct  with  music,  vocal  spark. 

Wordsworth. 

He  makes  sweet  music  with  th'  enamel'd  stones, 
Giving-  a  gentle  kiss  to  every  sedge 
He  overtaketh  in  his  pilgrimage. 


SJiakspere. 


His  very  foot  hath  music  in  't 
As  he  comes  up  the  stairs. 


Mickle. 
Sundays  observe:  think  when  the  bells  do  chime 

Herbert. 


'Tis  angels*  music. 


That  strain  again  ;  it  had  a  dying  fall : 

Oh,  it  came  o'er  my  ear  like  the  sweet  south, 

That  breathes  upon  a  bank  of  violets, 

Stealing  and  giving  odor. 

SJiakspere. 

It  will  discourse  most  eloquent  music. 

Sliakspere. 

The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself, 

Nor  is  not  mov'd  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds. 

Is  fit  for  treasons,  stratagems  and  spoils : 

The  motions  of  his  spirit  are  dull  as  night, 

And  his  affections  dark  as  Erebus. 

Let  no  such  man  be  trusted. 

Shakspere, 

Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast, 
To  soften  rocks,  or  bend  a  knotted  oak. 

CoJigreve. 

When  Music,  heavenly  maid,  was  young, 

While  yet  in  early  Greece  she  sung. 

^  ^  ^  Collins. 

The  music  in  my  heart  I  bore 
Long  after  it  was  heard  no  more. 

Nature. 

Come  forth  into  the  light  of  things  ; 
Let  nature  he  your  teacher. 

Wordszoorth. 

The  course  of  nature  is  the  art  of  God. 

Toung. 

One  touch  of  nature  makes  the  whole  world  kin. 

Shakspere. 

Diseased  nature  sometimes  breaks  forth 
In  strange  eruptions. 


Wordsivorth. 


Shakspere. 


Accuse  not  nature  ;  she  hath  done  her  part: 
Do  thou  but  thine. 


Night. 


Milton. 


Night  is  the  time  to  weep  ; 

To  wet  with  unseen  tears 

Those  graves  of  memory  where  sleep 

The  joys  of  other  years. 

Montgomery. 
How  beautiful  is  night ! 
A  dewy  freshness  fills  the  silent  air; 
No  mist  oI>scures,  nor  cloud,  nor  speck,  nor  stain, 
Breaks  the  serene  of  heaven: 
In  full-orbed  glorj',  yonder  moon  divine 
Rolls  through  the  dark-blue  depths. 
Beneath  her  steady  ray 
The  desert-circle  spreads, 
Like  the  round  ocean,  girdled  with  the  sky. 
How  beautiful  is  night! 

Southey. 


Here  in  the  body  pent, 

Absent  from  Him  I  roam  ; 

Yet  nightly  pitch  my  moving  tent 

A  day's  march  nearer  home. 

Montgomery. 

O  night, 
And  storm,  and  darkness  !  ye  are  wondrous  strong. 
Yet  lovely  in  your  strength,  as  is  the  light 
Of  a  dark  eye  in  woman  ! 


Where  eldest  Night 
And  Chaos,  ancestors  of  Nature,  hold 
Eternal  anarchy  amrdst  the  noise 
Of  endless  wars,  and  by  confusion  stand. 


Byron. 


Milton. 


Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night. 

Milton. 
You  meaner  beauties  of  the  night. 
That  poorly  satisfy  our  eyes 
More  by  your  number  than  your  light, 
You  common  people  of  the  skies — • 
What  are  you  when  the  moon  shall  rise? 

Wolten. 

Good  night,  good  night:  parting  is  such  sweet  sorrow, 

That  I  shall  say  good  night  till  it  be  morrow. 

Shakspere. 


Pain. 

Rich  the  treasure, 
Sweet  the  pleasure, 
Sweet  is  pleasure  after  pain. 

So  when  a  raging  fever  burns, 

We  shift  from  side  to  side  by  turns, 

And  'tis  a  poor  relief  we  gain 

To  change  the  place,  but  keep  the  pain. 


Dry  den. 


The  labor  we  delight  in  physics  pain. 


Shakspere. 


To  frown  at  pleasure,  and  to  smile  in  pain. 

Pains  of  love  be  sweeter  far 
Than  all  other  pleasures  are. 


2'oung. 


Dry  den. 


Patience. 

This  flower  of  wifely  patience. 


Chaucer. 


The  worst  speak  something  good :  if  all  want  sense, 
God  takes  a  text  and  preacheth  patience. 


Pferhert. 


Like  patience  on  a  monument. 


Shakspere. 
Patience  and  sorrow  strove, 
Who  should  express  her  goodliest. 

Shakspere. 

'Tis  all  men's  office  to  speak  patience 

To  those  that  wring  under  the  load  of  sorrow. 

But  no  man's  virtue,  nor  sufliciency, 

To  be  so  moral  when  he  shall  end  ire 

The  like  himself. 

.Shakspere. 

For  there  was  never  yet  philosopher 
That  could  endure  the  toothache  p.itiently. 

Shakspere. 

Arm  the  obdured  breast 

With  stubborn  patience  .is  with  triple  steel. 

Milton. 


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The  best  of  men 

Pity  the  sorrows  of  a  poor  old  man, 

That  e*er  wore  earth  about  him  was  a  sufferer; 

Whose  trembling  limbs  have  borne  him  to  your  door, 

A  soft,  meek,  patient,  humble,  tranquil  spirit. 

Whose  days  are  dwindled  to  the  shortest  span  ; 

The  first  true  gentleman  that  ever  breathed. 

Oh!  give  relief,  and  Heaven  will  bless  your  store. 

DiHft. 

Moss, 

Patriotism. 

Pleasure. 

That  man   is  little  to  be  envied  whose  patriotism  would  not  gain 

Rich  the  treasure. 

force  upon  the  plain  of  Marathon,  or  whose  piety  would  not  grow 

Sweet  the  pleasure. 

warmer  among  the  ruins  of  lona. 

Sweet  is  pleasure  after  pain. 

J  0^1  ns  on. 

Dryden. 

Such  is  the  patriot's  boast,  where'er  we  roam. 

But  pleasures  arc  like  poppies  spread, 

His  first,  best  country  ever  is  his  home. 

You  seize  the  flower.  Its  bloom  is  shed; 

(V(i/i/.%' /«;'///. 

Or,  like  the  snow-fall  in  the  river. 

Patriotism  is  the  last  refuge  of  a  scoundrel. 

jfo/inso/t. 

A  moment  white,  then  melts  forever. 

Burns. 

Who  dared  to  love  their  country  and  be  poor. 

The  Puritans  hated  bearb.iiting,  not  because  it  gave  pain  to  the 

J^Oj>f. 

bear,  but  because  It  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectators. 

True  patriots  all ;  for  be  it  understood 

Macaulay, 

We  left  our  country  lor  our  country's  good. 

A  man  of  pleasure  is  a  man  of  pains. 

roung. 

Sarr/rigiort. 

Oh,  Heaven  I  he  cried,  my  bleeding  country  save. 

The  soul's  calm  sunshine  and  the  heartfelt  joy. 

Pope. 

Campbe//. 

Come  live  with  me,  and  be  my  love, 

My  countr\',  'tis  of  thee. 

And  we  will  all  the  i)le:murcs  prove 

Sweet  land  of  liberty — 

That  hills  and  valleys,  dales  and  fields. 

Of  thee  I  sing. 

Samuf!F.Srni//i, 

Woods  or  steepy  mountains,  yields. 

I  was  born  an  American  ;  I  live  an  American  ,  I  shall  die  an  American. 

All  hiiman  race,  from  China  to  Peru, 

Pleasure,  howe'er  dlsguis'd  by  art,  pursue? 

Our  country— whether  boundL-d  by  the  St.  John's  and  the  Sabine,  or 

Warton. 

however  otherwise  bounded  or  described,  and  be  the   measurements 

Here  Skugg 
Lies  snug. 
As  a  bug 

more  or  less — still  our  country,  to  be  cherished  in  all  our  hearts,  to  be 
defended  by  all  our  hands. 

mul/irop. 

In  a  rug. 

Peace. 

Franktm, 

There  »s  little  pleasure  in  the  house 

Peace  be  within  thy  walls  and  prosperity  within  thy  palaces. 

When  our  gudeman  's  awa'. 

^                                             Mickle, 

O/d  Testament. 

Peace  hath  her  victories 

No  profit  grows  where  is  no  pleasure  ta'en  ; 

No  less  renown'd  than  war. 

In  brief,  sir,  study  what  you  most  affect, 

Shakspere. 

Afilton, 

Still  in  thy  right  hnnd  carry  gentle  peace, 

Poverty. 

To  silence  envious  tongues. 

Shakspete. 

Blessed  is  he  that  considercth  the  poor. 

There  never  was  a  good  war  or  a  bad  peace. 

Old  Testament. 

Frankiiii. 

Steep'd  me  In  povertv  to  the  very  lips. 

Peace,  peace:  when  there  is  no  peace. 

'                  *            •                                   Shakspere. 

Old  Testament. 

lie  left  a  paper  sealed  up,  wherein  were  found  tlircc  articles  as  hU 

Where  peace 

bust  will :  "I  owe  much,  I  have  nothing,  I  give  the  rest  to  the  poor." 

And  rest  can  never  dwell,  hope  never  comes. 

Jlabelais. 

That  comes  to  all. 

Milton. 

With  one  liand  he  put 
A  pcnnv  in  the  urn  of  poverty 

The  inglorious  arts  of  peace. 

And  with  the  other  took  a  shilling  out. 

MarvelL 

Poiiok. 

Pity. 

Poor  naked  wretches,  whercsoe'er  you  are. 
That  bide  the  pelting  of  this  pitiless  storm. 

She  loved  me  for  the  dangers  I  had  passed, 

How  shall  your  houseless  heads  and  unfed  sides, 
Your  loop'd  and  window'd  raggedncss,  defend  you 
From  seasons  such  as  these. 

And  I  loved  her  that  she  did  pity  them. 

Shakspere. 

lie  that  hath  pity  upon  the  poor  lendeth  unto  the  Lord. 

Shakspere. 

Ohi  Testament. 

Thou  source  of  all  my  bliss,  and  all  my  woe, 

For  pity  melts  the  mind  to  love. 

That  found'st  me  poor  at  first,  and  keep'st  me  so. 

Dry  den. 

Goldsmith, 

Of  all  the  paths  lead  to  a  woman's  love 

Too  poor  for  a  bribe,  and  too  proud  to  importune. 
He  hath  not  the  method  of  making  «  fortune. 

Pity  's  the  straightest 

Beaumont  and  FUtcher^ 

Gray. 

And  pity,  like  a  naked  new-born  babe, 

Nor  grandeur  hear  with  a  disdainful  smile 

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Striding  the  blast. 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

Shakspere. 

Gray. 

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A  poor,  infirm,  weak   and  despis'd  old  man. 

So  his  life  has  flowed 

Skaisfere.. 

From  its  mysterious  urn  a  sacred  stream, 

Praise. 

In  whose  calm  dejith  the  beautiful  and  pure 

Alone  are  mirror'd. 

The  love  of  praise,  howe'er  concealed  by  art, 

Talfoitrd. 

Reigns  more  or  less,  and  srlows  in  ev'rv  heart. 

We  understood 

J  OltJIg. 

Her  by  her  sight ;  her  pure  and  eloquent  blood 

Praise  God,  from  whom  all  blessings  flow; 

Spoke  in  her  cheeks,  and  so  distinctly  wrought, 

Praise  Him,  all  creatures  here  below! 

That  one  might  almost  say  her  body  thought. 

Doune. 

Praise  Him  above,  ye  heavenly  host! 

Ken. 

The  real  simon  pure. 

Poetic  Justice,  with  her  lifted  scale, 

Ce7itiiz>re. 

■Where,  in  nice  balance,  tnith  with  gold  she  weighs, 

They  say  that  a  lion  will  turn  and  flee 

And  solid  pudding  against  empty  praise. 

From  a  maid  m  the  pride  of  her  purity, 

Pop,-. 

But  the  maiden,  if  she  be  a  wise  little  thing. 

Of  whom  to  be  disprais'd  were  no  small  praise. 

Will  keep  out  of  the  path  of  the  beastly  king. 

Miltot:. 

Ano7i. 

Green  be  the  turf  above  thee. 

Ch;iste  as  the  icicle. 

Friend  of  my  better  days; 

That 's  curded  by  the  frost  from  purest  snow. 

None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 

And  hangs  on  Dian's  temple. 

Shakspere. 

Nor  named  thee  but  to  praise. 

HalUfk. 

Poets  lose  half  the  praise  they  should  have  got 

Quiet. 

Could  it  be  known  what  they  discreetly  blot. 

All  that  are  lovers  of  virtue,  ...  he  quiet,  and  go  a- Angling. 

Waller. 

]Vititon. 

The  sweeter  sounds  of  woman's  praise. 

Macaulay. 

Use  three  Paysicians, 

Still-first  Dr.  Quiet, 

Praise  undeserved  is  scandal  in  disguise. 

Next  Dr.  Merj'-man 
And  Dr.  Dyet. 

Pofe. 

The  rose  that  all  are  praising 

Oid  zvork  on  Health. 

Is  not  the  rose  for  me. 

Sayley. 

But  quiet  to  quick  bosoms  is  a  hell. 

Byron. 

Pride. 

And  join  with  thee  calm  Peace  and  Quiet, 
Spare  Fast,  that  oft  with  gods  doih  diet. 

He  passed  a  cottage  with  a  double  coach-house, 

Milton. 

A  cottag^e  of  gentility ; 

Study  to  be  quiet. 

And  he  owned  with  a  grin 

Neifj  Testament. 

That  his  favorite  sin 

Is  pride  that  apes  humility. 

Rain. 

Southey. 

My  pride  fell  with  my  fortunes. 

Violets  plucked,  the  sweetest  rain 

Shaksfere. 

Makes  not  fresh  or  grow  again. 

Fletcher, 

Pride  in  their  port,  defiance  in  their  eye. 

Goldstfiith. 

The  thirsty  earth  soaks  up  the  rain. 
And  drinks  and  gapes  for  drink  again ; 

Pride  goeth  before  destruction,  and  an  haughty  spirit  before  a  fall. 

The  plants  suck  in  the  earth,  and  are 

Old  Testament. 

With  constant  drinking  fresh  and  fair. 

A  falcon,  towering  in  her  pride  of  place. 

Cowley. 

Was  by  a  mousing  owl  hawk'd  at  and  killed. 

For  the  rain  it  raineth  every  day. 

Shiikspere. 

Shakspcre, 

In  pride,  in  reasoning  pride,  our  error  lies; 

He  shall  come  down  like  rain  upon  the  mown  grass. 

All  quit  their  sphere,  and  rush  into  the  skies. 

Old  Testament. 

Pride  still  is  aiming  at  the  blessed  abodes; 

Ah,  do  not,  when  my  heart  hath  scap'd  this  sorrow, 

Men  would  be  angels,  angels  would  be  gods. 

Pope. 

Come  in  the  rearward  of  a  conquered  woe ; 

Give  not  a  windy  night  a  rainy  morrow. 
To  linger  out  a  purpos'd  oveithrow. 

And  the  Devil  did  grin,  for  his  darling  sin 

Is  pride  that  apes  humility. 

Shakspere. 

Coleridge. 

Purity. 

Reading. 

Learn  to  read  slow:  all  other  graces 

Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure. 

Will  follow  in  their  proper  places. 

New  Testamejit. 

Walker. 

She  was  good  as  she  was  fair; 

Read,  mark,  learn  and  inwardly  digest. 

None — none  on  earth  above  her! 

Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

As  pure  in  thought  as  angels  are, 

You  write  with  ease  to  show  your  breeding. 

To  know  her  was  to  love  her. 

But  easy  writing's  cursed  hard  reading. 

Rogers. 

Sheridan. 

Like  the  stained  web  that  whitens  in  the  sun, 

Reading  maketh   a  full  man,  conference  a  ready  man,  and  writing 

< 

Grow  pure  by  being  purely  shone  upon. 

an  exact  man. 

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Moore. 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS.                                                    1^^ 

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Whiit  is  Iwicc  read  is  commonly  better  rLincmbercd  than  what  is 

Sadness. 

transcribed. 

yo/tnson. 

Of  all  tales  'lis  the  saddest— and  more  sad 

And  better  had  they  ne'er  been  bom, 

Because  it  makes  us  smile. 

Byron. 

Who  read  to  doubt,  or  read  to  scorn. 

Scoii. 

I   had  rather  have  a  fool  make  mc  merry,  than  experience  make 

Reading?  what  they  never  wrote, 

me  sad. 

Just  fifteen  minutes,  huddle  up  theirwork, 

Shakspere. 

And  with  a  well-bred  whisper  close  the  scene. 

Earth  has  no  sorrow  that  Heaven  cannot  heal. 

MoOTe, 

Cowper. 

But  hushed  be  every  thought  that  springs 

Reason. 

From  out  the  bitterness  of  things. 

W'ofdswofth, 

Reason  is  the  life  of  the  law;  nay,  the  common  law  itself  is  nothing- 

else  but  reason.  .  .  .  The  law,  which  is  perfection  of  reason. 

But,  sad  as  angels  for  the  good  man's  sin, 

CcUc. 

Weep  to  record,  and  blush  to  give  it  in. 

Camphtll. 

Sure,  He  that  made  us  with  such  large  discourse, 

For  seldom  shall  she  hear  a  tale 

Looking  before  and  after,  gave  us  not 

So  sad,  so  tender,  and  so  true. 

That  capability  and  godlike  reason 

Shenstonf. 

To  rust  in  us  unus'd. 

A  sadder  and  a  wiser  man. 

S/iai-spere. 

He  rose  the  morrow  morn. 

Now  see  that  noble  and  most  sovereign  reason, 

CoUridgf. 
And  Mecca  saddens  at  the  long  delay. 

Like  sweet  bells  jangled,  out  of  tune  and  harsh. 

S/taAspe/Y. 

Thomson. 

Give  unto  me,  madelowlv  wise, 

The  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  ; 

The  Sea. 

The  confidence  of  reason  give; 

And  in  the  light  of  truth  thy  bondman  let  me  live. 

They  that  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships,  that  do  business  in  great 

Wonfswor//i. 

waters. 

Old  Testament. 

Error  of  opinion  may  be  tolerated  where  reason  is  left  free  to  com- 

bat it. 

yt^t-rsofi. 

V\\  example  you  with  thievery: 

The  sun's  a  thief,  and  with  his  great  attraction 

Robs  the  vast  sea :     the  moon's  an  arrant  thief. 

The  ruling  passion,  be  it  what  it  will, 

And  her  pale  fire  she  snatches  from  the  sun: 

The  ruling  passion  conquers  reason  sttll. 

The  sea's  a  thief,  whose  liquid  surge  resolves 

The  moon  into  salt  tears. 

The  intelligible  forms  of  ancient  poets. 

Shakspere, 

The  fair  lunnanities  of  old  rcHgitm, 

'Twas  when  the  sea  was  roaring 

The  power,  the  beauty  and  the  majesty, 

With  hollow  blasts  of  wind, 

That  had  their  Iiaunts  in  dale,  or  piny  mountain, 
Or  forest,  by  slow  stream,  or  pebbly  spring. 

A  damsel  lay  deplorine, 
All  on  a  rock  reclin'd. 

Or  chasms  and  watery  deptlis  :  all  these  have  vanished  ; 

Gay. 

They  live  no  longer  in  the  faith  of  reason. 

Co/eridge. 

This  narrow  isthmus  'tvvixt  two  boundless  seas, 

The  past,  the  future,  two  eternities! 

Religion. 

Moore, 

To  be  of  no  church  is  dangt-rous.     Religion,  of  whicll  llic  rewards 

On  life's  vast  ocean  diversely  we  sail, 

are  distant  and  which  is  animated  only  by  Kailh  and  Hojie,  will  glide 

Reason  the  card,  but  passion  is  the  gale. 

Pope. 

by  degrees  out  of  the  mind,  unless  it  be  invigorated  and  reimpressed 

,         by  external  ordinances,  by  stated  calls  to  worship    and  the  salutary 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean— roll! 

1        influence  of  example. 

Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain  ; 

;                                                                                                                             yo/iftso/i. 

Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin— his  control 

The  writers  against  religion,  whilst  they  oppose  every  system,  are 

Stops  with  the  shore. 

Byron. 

wisely  careful  never  to  set  up  any  of  their  own. 

Shame. 

A  little  philosophy  inclineth  a  man's  mind  to  atheism,  but  depth  of 

philosophy  bringeth  men's  minds  about  to  religion. 

And  lovelier  things  have  mercy  shown 

I^ord  Bacon. 

To  ever)-  failing  but  their  own  ; 

Revenge. 

And  every  woe  a  tear  can  claim, 

Except  an  erring  sister's  shame. 

Which,  if  not  \  ictorv,  is  vet  revenge. 

Byron. 

Milton. 

Oh,  shame  to  men  •  devil  with  devil  damn'd 

Revenge,  at  first  though  sweet, 

Firm  concord  holds  ;  mm  only  disagree 

Bitter  ere  long  back  on  itself  recoils. 

Of  creatures  r.itional. 

Milton. 

Milton. 

That  practicM  falsehood  under  saintly  shew, 

O  shame  !  wher*:  is  thy  blush  I 

Deep  malice  to  conceal,  couch'd  with  revenge. 

Shakspere. 

Milton. 

Avoul  shame,  but  do  not  seek  glory— nothing  so  expensive  as  glory. 

If  it  will  feed  nothing  else,  it  will  feed  my  revenge. 

Sydney  Smith. 

Shakspere. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise; 

i 

Revenge  is  profitable;  gratitude  is  expensive. 

Act  well  your  part,  there  all  the  himor  lies. 

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782                                                    DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 

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Men  the  most  infamous  are  fond  of  fame, 

Thou  hast  been  called,  O  Sleep  !  the  friend  of  woe; 

And  those  who  fear  not  guilt,  yet  start  at  shame. 

But  'tis  the  happy  that  have  called  thee  so. 

Churchill. 

Southey. 

I  have  mark'd 

He  giveth  his  beloved  sleep. 

Old  Testament. 

A  thousand  blushing-  apparitions 

To  start  into  her  face  ;  a  thousand  innocent  shames, 

Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber,  a  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep. 

In  angel  whiteness,  bear  away  those  blushes. 

Old  Testament. 

Shakspere. 

Tired  Nature's  sweet  restorer,  balmy  sleep  ! 

Young. 

Sighing. 

Not  poppy,  nor  mandragora, 
Nor  all  the  drowsy  syrups  of  the  East, 

A  plague  of  sighing  and  grief!  it  blows  a  man  up  like  a  bladder. 

Shakspere. 

Shall  ever  medicine  thee  to  that  sweet  sleep 

Which  t!  ou  ow'dst  yesterday. 

Sigh'd  and  look'd,  and  sigh'd  again. 

Shakspere. 

Dry  den. 

On  parent  knees,  a  naked  new-born  child 

Speed  the  soft  intercourse  from  soul  to  soul, 

Weeping  thou  sat'st  while  all  around  thee  smiled; 

And  waft  a  sigh  from  Indus  to  the  Pole. 

Pope. 

So  live,  that,  sinking  in  thy  last  long  sleep, 

Calm  thou  may'st  smile,  while  all  around  thee  weep. 

Sigh  no  more,  ladies,  sigh  no  more, 

yones. 

Men  were  deceivers  ever. 

Shakspere. 

Now  blessings  light  on  him  who  first  invented  sleep  :  it  covers  a  man 

all    over,  thoughts    and    all,  like   a  cloak;   it  is  meat  for  the  hungrv, 

Had  sighed  to  many,  though  he  loved  but  one. 

Byron. 

drink  for  the  thirsty,  heat  for  the  cold,  and  cold  for  the  hot. 

Cervantes. 

I  stood  in  Venice,  on  the  Bridge  of  Sighs  ; 

A  palace  and  a  prison  on  each  hand. 

ByroH. 

Solitude. 

She  gave  me  for  my  pains  a  world  of  sighs. 

In  the  desert  a  fountain  is  springing, 

Shakspere. 

In  the  wide  waste  there  still  is  a  tree, 

The  sigh  that  rends  thy  constant  heart 

And  a  bird  in  the  solitude  singing, 

Shall  break  thy  Edwin's  too. 

Goldsmith. 

Which  speaks  to  my  spirit  of  thee. 

Byron. 

Silence. 

I  praise  the  Frenchman,  his  remark  was  shrewd. 
How  sweet,  how  passing  sweet  is  solitude ! 

There  was  a  silence  deep  as  death  ; 

But  grant  me  still  a  friend  in  my  retreat, 

And  the  boldest  held  his  breath 

Whom  I  may  whisper,  solitude  is  sweet. 

For  a  time. 

Co-wper. 

Campbell. 

He  makes  a  solitude,  and  calls  it  peace.                     ^ 

The  silent  organ  loudest  chants 

Byron. 

The  master's  requiem. 

Emerson. 

For  solitude  sometimes  is  best  societv. 

And  short  retirement  urges  sweet  return. 

Come  then,  expressive  silence,  muse  his  praise. 

Milton. 

Thomson. 

That  inward  eye 

Silence  in  love  bewrays  more  woe 

Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude. 

Than  words  though  ne'er  so  witty. 

Wordsworth. 

A  beggar  that  is  dumb,  you  know, 

In  solitude,  where  we  are  least  alone. 

May  challenge  double  pitv. 

Byron. 

Raleigh. 

0  Solitude  !  where  are  the  charms 

No  hammers  fell,  no  ponderous  axes  rung; 
Like  some  tall  p.ilm  the  mystic  fabric  sprung. 

That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face? 

Couper. 

Majestic  silence ! 

There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods, 

Neber. 

There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore, 

Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 

There  is  society,  where  none  intrudes, 

Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad  ; 

By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar : 

Silence  accompany'd;  for  beast  and  bird, 
They  to  their  grassy  couch,  these  to  their  nests. 

I  love  not  Man  the  less,  but  Nature  more. 

Byron. 

Were  slunk,  all  but  the  wakeful  nightingale. 

Millon. 

Strength. 

Silence  that  dreadful  bell !  it  frights  the  isle 

He  that  ^vrestles  with  us  strengthens  our  nerves  and  sharpens  our 

From  her  prosperity. 

Shakspere. 

skill;  our  antagonist  is  our  helper. 

Burke. 

Silence  is  the  perfectest  herald  of  joy;  I  were  but  little  happy  if  I 

Spring. 

could  say  how  much. 

Shakspere. 

Come,  gentle  Spring  !  ethereal  mildness !  come. 

Sleep. 

Thomson. 
When  Si>ring  unlocks  the  flowers  to  paint  tlie  laughing  soil. 

Methought  I  heard  a  voice  cry,  "  Sleep  no  more ! 

Jleber. 

Macbeth  does  murder  sleep" — the  innocent  sleep  ; 

Sweet  Spring,  full  of  sweet  days  and  roses, 

( 

Sleep,  that  knits  up  the  ravell'd  sleeve  of  care. 

A  b<JX  where  sweets  compacted  lie. 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


783 


But  when  shall  spring' visit  the  mouldering  urn? 

Oh,  when  shall  it  dawn  on  the  night  of  the  grave? 

Beat/te. 

Primrose,  first-born  child  of  Ver, 
Merry  spring-time's  harbinger. 

Bt'aumont  attd  FUtcher. 
In  those  vernal  seasons  of  the  year,  when  the  air  is  calm  and  pleas- 
ant, it  were  an  injury  and  snHcnncss  against  Nature  not  to  go  out  and 
see  her  riches,  and  partake  in  her  rejoicing  with  heaven  and  earth. 

Milton. 

The  State. 

But  in  the  gross  and  scope  of  mine  opinion, 
This  bodes  some  strange  eruption  to  our  state. 

Shakspert. 

WTiat  constitutes  a  stale? 

*****  * 

Men  who  their  duties  know. 
But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing,  dare  maintain. 

****** 
And  sovereign  law,  that  state's  collected  will, 

O'er  thrones  and  globes  elate, 
Sits  empress,  crowning  good,  repressing  ill. 

"jones. 

A  thousand  years  scarce  serve  to  form  a  state  ; 
An  hour  may  lay  it  in  the  dust. 

Byron. 

Here  shall  the  Press  the  People's  right  maintain, 
Unawcd  by  influence  and  unbribcd  by  gain  ; 
Here  patriot  Truth  her  glorious  precepts  draw. 
Pledged  to  Religion,  Liberty  and  Law, 

Story. 

States,  as  great  engines,  move  slowly. 

Bacon. 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing  her- 
self like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her  invincible  locks; 
methinks  I  see  her  as  an  eagle  mewing  her  mighty  youth,  and  kind- 
ling her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  mid-day  beam. 


Milton. 


Talking. 


Then  he  will  talk — good  gods  !  hnw  he  will  talk  ! 

Lee. 

Who  think  too  little,  and  who  talk  too  much. 

Dry  Jen. 

Let  your  speech  be  always  with  grace,  seasoned  with  salt. 

jWry  Testament. 

The  poetry  of  speech, 

Byron. 

Just  at  the  age  'twixt  boy  and  youth. 

When  thought  is  speech,  and  speech  is  truth. 


Scott. 


Thought. 


But  evil  is  wrought  by  want  of  thought 
As  well  as  want  of  heart. 

IfooJ. 

They  are  never  alone  that  are  accompanied  with  noble  thoughts. 

Sidney. 
And  Thoiitjlit  leapt  out  to  wed  with  Thought 
Ere  Thought  could  wed  itself  with  Speech. 

Tennyson. 

Like  thoughts  whose  very  sweetness  yieldeth  proof 

That  they  were  born  for  immortality. 

Woriiszvorth. 


He  thought  as  a  sage,  though  lie  felt  as  a  man. 
Thought  is  deeper  than  ail  sjieech. 


Beattie. 
C ranch. 


With  Curious  art  tnc  brain  too  finely  wrought 
Preys  on  herself,  and  is  destroyed  by  thought. 

Churchin. 

The  dome  of  thought,  the  palace  of  the  soul. 

Byron. 

Thought  is  the  property  of  him  wlio  can  entertain  it,  and  of  him 
who  can  adequately  place  it. 

Kmerson. 

But  words  are  things,  and  a  small  drop  of  ink, 
Falling,  like  dew,  upon  a  thought,  produces 
That  which  makes  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  think. 

Byron. 
When  to  the  sessions  of  sweet  silent  thought 
I  summon  up  remembrance  of  things  past. 

Shakspert. 

Delightful  task  !  to  rear  the  tender  thought, 
To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot. 

Thomson. 

Thoughts,  that  voluntarj-  move 
Harmonious  numbers, 

Milton. 

Time. 

Even  such  is  Time,  that  takes  on  trust 
Our  youth,  our  joys,  our  all  we  have. 
And  pays  us  but  with  age  and  dust; 
Who  in  the  dark  and  silent  grave. 
When  we  have  wandered  aU  our  ways, 
Shuts  up  the  story  of  our  days  ; 
But  from  this  earth,  this  grave,  this  dust, 
My  God  shall  raise  me  up,  I  trust. 

Ralei^. 

And  panting  Time  toiled  after  liiin  in  vain. 

'johnson. 

The  signs  of  the  times. 

New  Testament. 

Thus  the  whirligig  of  Time  brings  in  his  revenges. 

Shakspere. 

Live  to  be  the  show  and  gaze  o'  the  time. 

Shakspere. 

The  bell  strikes  one.     We  take  no  note  of  time. 

But  from  its  loss. 

I'oung. 

Gather  ye  rose  buds  while  ye  may, 

Old  Time  is  still  a-flying. 

And  this  same  flower,  that  smiles  to-day. 

To-morrow  will  be  dving. 

Her  rick. 

Time  has  laid  his  hand 
Upon  my  heart,  gently,  not  smiting  it, 
But  as  a  harper  lays  his  open  palm 
Upon  his  harp,  to  deaden  its  vibrations. 

Longfellow, 

His  golden  locks  time  hath  to  silver  turned ; 

O  time  too  swift!  O  swiftness  never  ceasing  I 
His  youth  'gainst  time  and  age  hath  ever  spurned. 

But  spurn'd  in  vain  ;  vouth  waneth  by  increasing. 

PeeU. 

Truth. 

Beautj-  is  truth,  truth  beauty,  that  Is  all 
Ye  know  on  earth,  and  all  ye  need  to  know. 

Keats. 

Truth  from  his  lips  prevail'd  with  double  sway, 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  rcmain'd  to  pray. 

Goldsmith. 

No  pleasure  is  comparable  to  standing  on  the  vantage-ground  of  initi. 

Lord  Biicon. 


784 


DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


For  truth  has  such  a  face  and  such  a  mien. 
As  to  be  lov'd  needs  only  to  he  seen. 

Dry  den. 

Truth  is  as  imposible  to  soil  by  any  outward  touch  as  is  the  sunbeam. 

Lord  Bacon. 

Truth  is  the  highest  thing  that  man  may  keep. 

Chaucer. 

Great  is  truth,  and  mighty  above  all  things. 

Old  Testament. 

Truth   is    as  impossible  to  be  soilt-d   by  any  out\vard  touch  as  the 

sunbeam. 

Milton. 

Tyranny. 

Necessity  is  the  argument  of  tyrants,  it  is  the  creed  of  slaves. 

Pitt. 

Kings  will  be  tyrants  from   policv,  when   subjects  are  rebels  from 

principle. 

B7irke. 

Where  law  ends,  tyranny  begins. 

Pitt. 

The  tree  of  liberty  only  grows  when  watered  by  the  blood  of  tyrants. 

Bar  ere. 
This  hand,  to  tyrants  ever  sworn  the  foe, 
For  freedom  only  deals  the  deadly  blow; 
Then  sheathes  in  calm  repose  the  vengeful  blade, 
For  gentle  peace  in  freedom's  hallowed  shade. 

J.  ^.  Adams. 

Virtue. 

Know  then  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know), 
"  Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." 


Pope. 


Well  may  your  hearts  believe  the  truths  I  tell ; 
'Tis  virtue  makes  the  bliss,  where'er  we  dwell. 


Collins. 

Virtue  could  see  to  do  what  virtue  would 
By  her  own  radiant  light,  though  sun  and  moon 
Were  in  the  flat  sea  sunk. 

Afilton. 

Virtue  is  bold,  and  goodness  never  fearful. 

Shakspere, 

I  cannot  praise  a  fugitive  and  cloistered  virtue,  unexercised  and 
unbreathed,  that  never  sallies  out  and  sees  her  adversary,  but  slinks 
out  of  the  race,  where  that  immortal  garland  is  to  be  run  for  not  with- 
out dust  and  heat. 

Milton. 

Virtue  is  like  precious  odors,  most  fragrant  when  they  are  incensed 
or  crushed. 

Bacon. 

War. 

War,  war,  is  stiii  the  cry — war  even  to  the  knife! 

Byron. 
There  never  was  a  good  war  or  a  bad  peace. 

Franklin. 
But  war's  a  game  which,  were  their  subjects  wise, 
Kings  would  not  play  at. 

Cowper. 

Oh,  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness, 
Some  boundless  contiguity  of  shade, 
Where  rumor  of  oppression  and  deceit, 
Of  unsuccessful  or  successful  war, 
Might  never  reach  me  more. 

CoTvper. 

To  be  prepared  for  war  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  pre- 
serving peace. 

Washinffto}!. 


t 


One  to  destroy  is  murder  by  the  law^; 
And  gibbets  keep  the  lifted  hand  in  awe; 
To  murder  thousands  takes  a  specious  name. 
War's  glorious  art,  and  gives  immortal  fame. 

2'oung. 


He  is  come  to  ope 
The  purple  testament  of  bleeding  war. 


Oh,  wither'd  is  the  garland  of  war, 
The  soldier's  pole  is  fallen. 


Shakspere. 


Shakspere. 


The  hum  of  either  army  stilly  sounds. 
That  the  fix'd  sentinels  almost  receive 
The  secret  whispers  of  each  other's  watch. 
Fire  answers  fire;  and  through  their  paly  flames 
Each  battle  sees  the  other's  umbered  fac(J. 
Steed  threatens  steed,  in  high  and  bo.istful  neighs 
Piercing  the  night's  dull  ear ;  and  from  the  tents, 
The  armorers  accomplishing  the  knights, 
With  busy  hammers  closing  rivets  up. 
Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation. 

Shakspere. 

Welcome. 

'Tis  sweet  to  hear  the  watch -dog's  honest  bark 
Bay  deep-mouthed  welcome  as  we  draw  near  home. 

Byron. 
Whoe'er  has  travel'd  life's  dull  round. 
Where'er  his  stages  may  have  been, 
May  sigh  to  think  he  still  has  found 
The  warmest  welcome  at  an  inn. 

Shenstone. 

For  I,  who  hold  sage  Homer's  rule  the  best, 
Welcome  the  coming,  speed  the  going  guest. 


Welcome  ever  smiles, 

And  farewell  goes  out  sighing. 

Wisdom. 


Pope. 
Shakspere. 


Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing;     therefore  get  wisdom  ;  and  with  all 
thy  getting  get  understanding. 

Old  Testament. 

The  man  of  wisdom  is  the  man  of  years. 


2'oung: 


In  idle  wishes  fools  supinely  stay  ; 

Be  there  a  will,  and  wisdom  finds  a  way. 


Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learn'd  so  much ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. 


To  know 
That  which  before  us  lies  in  daily  life, 
Is  the  prime  wisdom. 


Coivper. 


Milton. 


Be  wisely  worldly,  be  not  worldly  wise. 

^uarles* 

Thus  we   play  the  fools  with  the  time,    and  the  spirits  of  the  wise 

sit  on  the  clouds  and  mock  us. 

Shakspere. 

Type  of  the  wise  who  soar,  but  never  roam ; 
True  to  the  kindred  points  of  Heaven  and  Home. 

Wordsworth. 

Woman. 

The  reason  firm,  the  temperate  will , 

Endurance,  foresight,  strength  and  skill; 

A  perfect  Woman,  noVily  planned. 

To  warn,  to  comfort  and  command. 

Wordsworth. 


-V] 


Her  air,    hur  manners,  nil  who  saw  admired; 
Courteous  though  coy,  and  gentle  thoujjh  retired  ; 
The  joy  of  youth  and  health  her  eyes  display'd, 
And  ease  of  heart  her  every  look  convey'd. 


Karth's  noblest  thin^,  a  woman  perfected. 


Crahbf. 
Lozvfil. 


My  latest  found, 
Heaven's  last,  best  gift,  my  ever  new  delight. 


Milh' 


A  creature  not  too  bright  or  good 
For  human  nature's  daily  food  ; 
For  transient  sorrows,  simple  wiles, 
Praise,  blame,  love,  kisses,  tears  and  smiles, 

WorJs^vorth. 

O  woman  !  in  our  hours  of  ease. 
Uncertain,  coy,  and  hard  to  please. 
And  varial>le  as  the  shade 
By  the  light,  quivering-  aspen  made  ; 
When  pain  and  anguish  wring  the  brow, 
A  ministering  angel  thou  1 

^       ^  Scott. 

Where  is  the  man  who  has  the  power  and  skill 

To  stem  the  torrent  of  a  woman's  will  ; 

For  if  she  will,  she  will,  vou  may  depend  on't ; 

And  if  she  won't,  she  won't;  and  there  's  an  end  on  't. 

Ohi  Epigntm. 

Women,  like  princes,  find  few  real  friends. 

Lyitelton. 

Her  voice  was  ever  soft, 
Gentle  and  low — an  excellent  thing  in  woman. 

Shakspere. 
Sir,  a  woman  prcacliitig  is  like  a  dog's  walking  on  his  hind  legs.    It 
is  not  done  well ;  but  you  are  surprised  to  find  it  done  at  all. 

yohnson. 

The  world  was  sad — the  garden  was  a  wild, 
And  Man,  the  hermit,  sighed — till  woman  smil'd. 

Catnpl'til. 

The  woman  that  deliberates  is  lost. 

AJiiison. 

He  is  a  fool  who  thinks  by  force  or  skill 
To  turn  the  ciirrent  of  a  woman's  will. 

Titke. 

Her  children  arise  up  and  call  her  blessed. 

Old  Tfstamtnt. 

So  well  to  know 
Her  own,  that  what  she  wills  to  do  or  say 
Seems  wisest,  virtuousest,  discreetest,  best. 

M//ton. 


Not  she  with  trait'rous  kiss  her  Savior  stung, 
Not  she  denied  him  with  unholy  tongue; 
She,  while  apostles  shrank,  could  danger  brave. 
Last  at  his  cross  and  earliest  at  his  grave. 


Barrett. 


Youth. 


Crabbed  age  and  youth 
Cannot  live  together. 

Shakspfre. 

Rejoice,  O  young  man,  in  thy  youth. 

Otd  Testament. 

The  canker  galls  the  infants  of  the  spring, 
Too  oft  before  their  buttons  be  disclosed  ; 
And  in  the  morn  and  liquid  dew  of  youth 
Contagious  blastments  are  most  imminent. 


Shakspen. 


Of 


He  wears  the  rose 
outh  upon  him. 


.Shakspt-re. 

'Tis  now  the  summer  of  your  youth:     lime  has  not  cropt  the  rost 
from  your  check,  though  sorrow  long  has  washed  them. 

Edtvard  Moore. 
Fair  laughs  the  morn,  and  soft  the  zephyr  blows. 

While  proudly  riding  o'er  the  .izure  realm 
In  gallant  trim  the  gilded  vessel  goes ; 

Youth  on  the  prow,  and  Pleasure  at  the  helm; 
Regardless  of  the  sweeping  whirlwind's  sway. 
That,  hush'd  in  grim  repose,  expects  his  ev'ning  prey. 

Gray. 
• 

A  worm  is  in  the  bud  of  youth. 
And  at  the  root  of  age. 


And  life  is  thorny,  and  youth  is  vain  ; 
And  to  be  wroth  with  one  we  love 
Doth  work  like  madness  in  the  brain. 


Cozvper. 


Coicn'dgr. 


In  the  lexicon  of  youth,  which  fate  resenes 

For  a  bright  manhood,  there  is  ntJ  such  word 

As— /at'/.  „    ,  ,    ,, 

Btihver  Lytton. 

Ah!  happy  years!  once  more,  who  would  not  be  a  boy? 

Byron, 


J^J 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


/ 


-^^T 


Heroes  and  Heroines  of  Prose  and  Poetry. 


J^-^V 


A  Compendium  of  the  Celebrated  Characters  in  the  Literature  of  the  World. 

The  name  of  tlie  character  is  g-iven  in  black  k-tter;  the  name  of  the  author  and  of  the  work  from  which  tiie  character  is  taken,  in  italic. 


Abdiel.  Paradine  Lost,  Milton.  The 
faithful  angel  who  opposed  Satan  in  his  re- 
volt. 

Abigail,     The  Bible.    A  waiting-maid. 

Ablewliite,  Oodfrey.  Moonstone ^  Wilkie 
Collins.     A  disreputable  spy. 

Abou  Hassan.  Arabian  Nights.  An 
Arab  who  was  made  to  believe  himself  Caliph. 

Absalom,  i.  The  Bihle.  The  son  of  Da- 
vid, King  of  Israel.  2.  Ahsalom  and  AchitO' 
Phely  Drydt-n.     A  jiseudonvm  for  the  Duke  of 


an    illegitimate     son     of    Kii 


nper- 


Monmouth 
Charles  II, 

Absolute,  Captain.  The  Rivals,  Sheri- 
dan. The  hero  ot  the  comedy,  the  gallant 
and  fortunate  lover. 

Absolute,  Sir  Anthony.  The  Rivals, 
Sheridan.  Father  of  Captain  Absolute,  a 
very  iriiscible  and  absolute  old  gentleman. 

Acliitophel.  Absalom  and  Achitoph,l, 
Dryden.  The  ijscudoii^m  for  the  Karl  of 
Shaftesbury. 

Aeres,  Bob.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A 
cowardly  boaster,  the  butt  of  the  comedy. 

Aorasia.     The  Faery  ^ueen,  Spenser.    An 
olii  witch,  the   personification    of^  Intern] 
ance. 

Adam,  Bell.  Reliqites,  Percy.  A  cele- 
brated archer. 

Adams,  Parson.  Joseph  Andre-v?;,  Field- 
ing.   An  eccentric,  good-natured  clergj-man. 

Adriana.  Comedy  of  Errors^  Shakspere. 
The  wife  of  Antipliolus. 

Aguecheek,  Sir  Andrew.  Twelfth 
Kighty  Shakspere.    A  coward  and  a  fool. 

Aladdin.  Arabian  Nights.  The  owner  of 
a  magic  lamp  and  ring,  which  gave  tlie  pos- 
sessor every  wish  he  made. 

Allworthy,  Squire.  Tom  j'ones.  Field- 
ing.   A  good-natured  old  country  gentleman. 

Alp.  The  Siege  of  Corinth^  Byron.  A 
brave  and  devoted  man. 

Amadis  de  Gaul.  Amadis  de  Gaul.  The 
hero  of  a  Portuguese  chivalric  romance, 
the  authorship  of  which  is  unknown.  It  was 
translated  into  every  language  in  liurope. 

Amelia,  Amelia,  Fielding.  A  lovely 
woman,  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  Fiel'i- 
ing's  own  wife. 

Amine.  Arabian  Nights.  A  wicked  Bor* 
cercss   who   chaiiged   her  three  sisters    into 

hounds. 

Amlet,  Rirbard,  The  Confederacy^  Van- 
burgh.     A  gambler. 

Amri.  Absalom  and  Achitophel^  Dryden. 
Pseudonym  for  11.  Finch. 

Andrews,  Joseph.  foseph  Andrnvs, 
Fielding.  A  hero  ridiculously  upright  and 
pure. 

Anerley,  Mary.  Mary  Anerley,  Black- 
more.    A  lovely  and  beautiful  girl. ' 

Apemantns.  Timon  of  Athens,  Shaks- 
pere.    A  cynic. 


Arden,  Enoch,  Enoch  Arden,  Tennyson. 
A  sailor,  supposed  drowned,  who  returns 
home  to  find  his  wife  married  again. 

Argante.  The  Faery  ^ueen,  Spenser.  A 
giantess. 

Ariel.  The  Tempest,  .Shakspere.  A  spirit 
of  the  air,  perhaps  the  daintiest  creation  of 
the  myriad-minded  poet. 

Artful  nodger.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens. 
A  young  thief  who  understands  his  business. 

Arthur,  King.  Idyls  of  the  King,  Tenny- 
son. A  legendarv  British  King,  who  estab- 
lished an  order  of  chivalry  known  as  the 
Round  Table,  and  about  whom  many  popu- 
lar legends  are  afloat  in  Wales  and  AVestcrn 
France. 

A^'Aton,  Zury.  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor, 
Scott.  A  beautiful  character^  loved  and  lost 
by  Havens  wood. 

Atalanta.  Atalanta  in  Calydon,  Szvin- 
bierne.     One  of  Diana's  maidens, 

Autolycus.  Winter'' s  Tale,  Shakspere. 
An  intellectual  sneak-thief. 

Baba,  All.  Arabian  Nights.  The  hero 
of  the  tale  of  the  forty  thie\'es,  who  breaks 
into  the  robbers'  cave  by  means  of  the  magical 
pass-word  '*  Sesame." 

Baba,  Cassim.  Arabian  Nights.  Brother 
of  the  above,  who  forgets  the  pass-word,  and 
is  captured  by  the  roboers. 

Backbite,  Sir  Benjamin.  School  for 
Scandal,  Sheridan.     A  scandal-monger. 

Bagstock,  Joe.  Dontbey  and  Son,  Dick- 
ens.   A  pompous  fellow. 

Bailey,  Young.  Martin  Chmzlezvit,Dick' 
ens.     A  precor-ous  youtli. 

Balderstoii*,  Caleb.  Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor, Scott.    Thti  Sutler  of  Ravenswood, 

Balthazar.  \,  Comedy  of  Errors,  Shaks- 
/'ere.  A  merchant,  z.  ^Inch  Ado  about  Noth- 
ing, Shakspere.     A  servant. 

Banquo.  Macbeth,  Shakspere.  A  chieftain 
murdered  by  Macbeth;  later  in  the  same  play, 
a  ghobt. 

Bardell,  Mrs.  Pickxvick  Pa/>ers,  Dick- 
ens. Mr.  Pickwick's  landlady,  wno  sues  him 
for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage. 

Bardolph.  Jfenry  /I'.,  Shakspere.  A 
follower  of  Sir  J  olin  Falstaff. 

Barkis.  Daz-id  Cof-f-erfeld,  Dickens.  A 
marrving  man  who  eventually  marries. 

Bath,  Major.  Amelia,  Fielding.  A  pom- 
pous olVicer. 

Bayes.  The  Rehearsal,  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham.    A  pseudonym  for  Drjden. 

Baynes,  Charlotte.  Ad^'cntures  of 
Philip,  Thackeray.     The  hero's  sweetheart. 

Bede,  Adam.  Adam  Bede,  George  Eliot. 
An  ideal  workingman. 

Belch,  Sir  Toby.  Tivelfth  Nighty  Shaks- 
pere.    Olivia's  hard-drinking  uncle. 

Belford.  Clarissa  /larlowe,  Richardson. 
The  friend  of  Lovelace. 


Belinda.  Rape  of  the  Lock,  Pope.  The 
heroine,  whose  hair  is  cut. 

Bell,  I,aura.  Pendennis,  Thackeray.  One 
of  the  sweetest  heroines  in  Knglish  literature. 

Bell,  Peter.  Peter  Bell,  Wordsworth. 
An  extremely  prosaic  man. 

Bellaston,  I^ady,  Tom  Jones,  Fielding. 
One  of  Tom  Jones'  sweethearts. 

Bellenden,  Lady.  Old  Mortality,  Scott, 
A  Tory  gentlewoman. 

Belphoebe.  The  Faery  ^neen,  Spenser. 
A  pseudonym  for  Queen  Hlizabeth. 

Belvidera.        Venice   Preserved^    Olway. 

The  heroine  of  the  poem. 

Benedict.  Love's  Labor  Lost,  Shaksfere. 
A  confirmed  bachelor  who  was  converted  to 
matrimony  by  tlie  lovely  Beatrice.  l''romtliis 
gentleman  comes  the  name  Benedict  applied 
to  married  men  who  were  not  gt>ing  to  marry. 

Beunet,  Mrs.  Amelia,  Fielding.  An  im- 
proper character. 

Benvolio.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakspere. 
One  of  Romeo's  friends. 

Bertram.  All's  Well  That  Ends  Well, 
Shakspere.  The  hero  of  the  play,  who  mar- 
ries Helen. 

Bianoa.  Othello,  Shakspere.  Ciissio's 
sweetheart. 

Birch,  Harvey.  The  Spy,  Cooper.  The 
chief  character  of  the  novel. 

Bilfil.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  Allworthy's 
nephew,  a  tale-6earer. 

Blember,  3Iiss  Cornelia,  Don/bey  and 
Son,  Dickens.     A  blue-stocking  governess. 

Boabdil,  Captain.  Every  A.'rn  in  J/is 
Humor,  Joh/ison.     A  boasting  coward. 

Boeuf,  Front  de.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One 
of  King  John's  followers.  A  ferocious  scoun- 
drel. 

Boffin,  Noddy,  Onr  Mutual  Friend, 
Dickens.  The  good-natured  occupant  of 
Boffin's  Bower. 

Bois  Guilbert,  Brian  de.  Ivanhoe, 
Scott.     The  master  of  tlie  Knights  Templars. 

Boniface.  The  Beaux'  Stratagem,  Far- 
quhar.  A  bindlord.  Hence  apjiUed  to  land- 
lords generally. 

Booby,  Lady,   Joseph  Andrrws,  Fielding. 

One  of  the  minor  characters. 

Booth.      Amelia,   Fielding.     The   hero   of 

the  story. 

Bottom,  Nick,  A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  Shakspere.  A  ridiculous  weaver 
with  whom  Titania.  the  queen  of  the  fairies, 
is  forced  to  fall  in  love  by  a  cliarin. 

Bounderby,  Josiah,  Hard  Times,  Pick- 
ens. A  prosaic,  matter-of-fact  manufacturer. 

Bowles,  Tom.  Kenelm  Chillingly,  Bui- 
Tver.     A  blacksmith. 

Bowline.  Tom.  Roderick  Random,  Smol- 
lett. A  sailor  whose  name  has  been  applied 
to  mariners  ever  since. 


/ 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


787 


-7\ 


Ilox  nncl  Cox,  r-<^x  and  Cox^  Morton^ 
The  heroes  of  tlic  farce. 

Brartwardine,  Itnrnn.  M'lverly,  Scott. 
The  tattler  of  Kuse  lJr;i(i\v;irdinc, 

Krninblf*,  >lnttlie^v.  Jfutnphrey  Ciinkrr, 
Smoiiill.    A  walkiiij^  tpitume  of  dyspepsia. 

KranpTtoiis,  £z't-//na,  Jif/ss  Jjurtuy.  Ver^' 
vulgar  people. 

Brass,  Sally  and  Sampson.  Ofd  Curi- 
osity Shop^  Jjtckens.  A  shysicring  lawyer  aiiJ 
his  sister. 

Brick,  JeffpFson.  Martin  Chuzxtcioit^ 
Dui^ins.    A  ridicuU>us  American  editor. 

Bridgenorth,  I>rajor  Balph.  Prveril 
of  the  Peak,  Scott*  A  piomiiieiit  ufHcer  in  tne 
f*uritan  Ari:iy. 

Bridget,  Mrs,  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne. 
Tristram's  nurse. 

Bro\m,  Tom.  Tom  Ttro'.mi's  School  Pays 
and  7i»w  Provju  at  Ox/orJ^  Thos.  Hughes. 
The  hero  of  one  of  the  best  boys'  books  ever 
written  in  tnglish. 

Bufket,  Inspector.  Bleak  House,  Pick' 
ens,    A  detective. 

Bumble.  Oliver  Twist,  Pickens.  A  bea- 
dle. 

Cains,  Doctor,  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
ShakA/icre.    ^Vnue  Page's  Wei&h  lover. 

Caliban.  The  Tempest,  ShaksJ>ere. 
Probpero's  monstrous  servant. 

Candor,  i*frs.  The  liivals,  Sheridan. 
A  scandal-monger. 

Carkor,  Pombey  and  Son,  Pickens.  A 
scoundrelly  clerk. 

Cassio.  Othello,  Shakspere.  Othello's 
lieutenant. 

Candle,  >Irs.  Curtain  Lectures,  Pouglas 
yerrold.    An  ;irtistic  scold. 

CiMistir,  Col.  The  Lounger,  Mackenzie. 
A  satirical  gentleman. 

Celia,  As  Yon  Like  It,  Shaksperc. 
Kosalind's  cousin. 

Chadband.  Bleak  Mouse,  Pickens,  A 
hypocrite. 

Chamont.  The  Orphans,  Otway.  The 
hero  of  tlie  play. 

Chillingly,  Kcnelm.  Kenelm  Chillingly, 
Bulxuer.     'i  he  hero  of  llie  novel. 

Christnbi-1.  Christabel,  Coleridge.  The 
lieroine  ol  tlie  poeui. 

Christiana.  Pilgrim's  Progress, Bunyan. 
The  wife  of  the  hero  Christian. 

Chuzzle^vit,  Jonas  and  Martin.  Mar- 
tin  Chuizlez'^it,  Pirk,ns.  'Ihc  tirst  a  miser  and 
murderer,  the  second  the  hero  of  Dickens' 
story. 

Clare,  Ada.  Bleak  Mouse,  Pickens,  The 
vite  of  Carstonc,  and  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant characters  in  tiie  story, 

Clifford,  Paul.  Paul  Clifford,  Bulvier, 
A  beatified  highwayman  hero. 

Clinker,  Humphrey.  ffumphrey  Clin- 
ker, Smollett.  \  pliil<>sophic;il  young'  man 
who  meets  very  singular  adventures. 

Cnelebs.  Carlehs  in  Search  oj  a  Wife, 
Jiannah  More.  A  gentleman  who  lias  very 
precise  ideas  on  the  subjects  of  matrimony 
and  woman. 

Coldstream,  Sir  Charles, 

Matlhezvs.     A  fatigued  and  wearj'  man 

world. 

Consnelo.  Consuelo,  George  Sand.  The 
heronic  of  the  novel,  a  rather  intlammable 
young  lady. 

Copper  Captain,  Tlte.  Rule  a  Wife, 
and  Have  a  Wife,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
A  nickname  applied  to  Peres,  the  boastful 
coward  of  the  play. 

Copperfield,  I>avid.    Pavid Copperfield, 

Pickens.  The  hcrr>  of  the  novel,  supposed  to 
be  a  picture  of  Dickens'  own  life  and  char- 
acter. 


Used    Up, 
an  of  the 


Cordelia.  Kinff  J^ear,  Shakxpere,  The 
faitliful  daughter  of  the  King  in  Itie  play. 

Curinne.  Corinne,  Mme,  de  .Stael.  The 
heroine  of  dc  Stall's  greatest  work. 

Costigan,  Captain.  Pend.nnis,  Tliack- 
eray.  Tlic  father  nt  IV-ndenms'  first  swtel- 
heart,  a  hard-drinking  but  amusing  old  man. 

Coverly,  Sir  B<»gerde.  Spectator,  Ad- 
dison. A  model  country  gentleman  of  the 
olden  time. 

Crane,  lohabod.  Sleepy  Hollow,  Irving. 
The  schoolmaster  in  tlie  sketch. 

Crawley,  Kawdon.  Vanity  Fair,  Thack- 
eray. Tlie  hero  of  "the  novel  without  a  hero." 
The  husband  of  Becky  Sharp. 

Cressida.  Troilus  and  Cressida,  Shaks 
^'■re.  The  heroine  of  the  play,  in  love  with 
I'roilus. 

Crummies,  Vineent.  Nicholas  Nickle- 
hv,  Pickens.  Atliealrical  head  of  a  theatrical 
family. 

Crusoe,  Robinson.  Bohinson  Crusoe, 
Pe/\>e,  TIic  luTo  of  the  most  remarkable 
n(  vel  ever  written.  It  h.is  been  translated 
into  every  civilized  lantjuage  on  the  globe. 
The  sti  ry  relates  Crusoe's  adventures  on  a 
desert  isle  upon  which  he  was  castby  the  sea, 
and  is  one  of  inteube  interest. 

Cuttle,  Captain.  Ponibey  and  Son, 
Pnkens.  A  nautical  characier'who  indulges 
in  a  number  of  queer  mannerisms. 

Cymbeline.  Cymbeline,  Shakspere.  A 
heroic  King  of  Bril-iin. 

Dalgarno.  I^or<l,  The  Fortunes  of  Xigrl, 
Sc.'tt.  A  Scottibli  nobleman  of  bad  char- 
acter. 

Halgetty,  I>ngald,  WaTer/y,  Scott.  A 
famous  and  well  drawn  soldier  of  fortime, 
whose  name  has  become  proverbial. 

Deans,  I>a%*ie,  EfHe  and  Jennie. 
Heart  </  Midlothian,  Scott.  Famous 
characters  in  tlie  story.  Jeanie  is  the  heroine. 

Dedlock,  Lady,  and  Sir  I^eieester. 
Bleak  J/ouse,  Thickens.  Huslmnd  and  wife, 
proud  and  unfortunate,  but  nt.'1'le  people. 

Delaniaine,  Geoffrey,  Man  and  Wife, 
Collins.    A  man  of  muscle. 

Delphinc.  Pclphine,  Mme.  de  Stael.  The 
heroine  of  the  novel, 

Derond<a,  Paniel.  Paniel  Peronda, 
George  Eliot.  Tlie  hero  of  the  novel,  one  of 
tlie  best  character  sketches  which  George 
Kliot  h:LS  made. 

Desdemona.  Othello,  Shakspere.  The 
unfortunate  heroine  of  the  play,  wife  of  tne 
Moor  Othello. 

Diddler,  Jeremy.  Baisintr  the  Wind, 
Kinuy.  The  prototype  of  all  liiodern  dead- 
beats. 

Dimsdale,  Bev.  Arthnr.  The  Scarlet 
Letter,  Hawthorne.  The  seducer  of  Hester 
Prynne. 

Dods,  Meg,  St.  Boman's  Well,  Scott,  A 
landlady. 

Dodson  and  Fogg,  Pickwick  Papers, 
Pickens.  M  rs.  Ilardell's  attorneys  in  her 
suit  against  Mr.  Pickwick. 

Dogberry.  Much  Ado  about  Nothing, 
Shakspere.  An  absurd  character  who 
travesties  justice. 

Dombey,  X'lorenoe,  Mr,  and  Pnnl. 
Pombey  and  Sou,  Pickens.  Characters  in  the 
novel. 

Dominie,  Sampson.  Guy  Mannering, 
Scott.    An  eccentric  clergyman, 

Don  Quixote,  Pon  Quixote,  Cerr-nn/es. 
The  hero  i»f  the  novel.  'I'his  ha^  been  de- 
scribed bv  eminent  critics  as  the  bcjit  work  of 
fiction  which  the  world  luis  yet  produced.  It 
w;is  written  in  .'Spanish  by  Miifuel  de  Cer- 
vantes, jui  a  protest  against  the  ridiculous 
extravagances  of  what  are  known  as  Chivalric 
Komancts.  Don  Quixote  is  the  type  upon 
which  thousands  of  later  novels  Have  been 
founded.    Crazed  by  the  reading  of  knightly 


tales,  he  firms  himself  and  goes  out  In  search 
of  adventures,  on  his  sletd  Kozinantc,  and 
accompanied  by  his  sciuirc  Sancho  Panzo. 
1  hese  adventures  are  tnld  so  wittily,  that  the 
world  has  been  laughing  at  them  for  cen- 
turies, and  tlie  book  n:is  never  lost  its  fresh, 
boyish  interest.  The  best  Kngltsh  translation 
is  Smollett's.  Gubtavu  Dore,  the  famous 
French  artist,  some  years  since  completed  a 
set  of  illustrations  lor  Don  Quixote,  which 
have  added  greatly  to  its  interest. 

Dora.  Pavid  Copperfield,  Pickens.  Cop- 
perlield's  child -wife. 

Dnrimant.  The  Man  of  Mode,  Ethertge. 
A  dandy. 

Dorothea.     Middlemarch,  George  Eltot. 

The  heroine  of  the  tale. 
Dorrit,  Iklward  and  "  Little,"    Little 

Porrit,  Pich.us.  Th<j  lather  of  the  Marshal- 
sea  prison  and  liis  interesung  daughter. 

Drawcansir.  The  Rehearsal,  The  Puke 
of  Buckingham.    A  bully, 

Duleinea  del  Toboso,  Pon  Quixote, 
Cervantes.  A  cuunlrv  girl  whom  Don  Quix- 
ote Selects  i\s>  his  ladylove. 

Dnn<b-eary,I>ord.  Our  American  Cousin, 
Taylor.  A  tvpical  and  absurd  English  lord. 
The  character  was  really  created  by  Uic  actor 
Soihern, 

Edgar.       lung    Lear,    Shakspere.      The 

son  ol  Olouceslef, 

Kmilin,  Othello,  Shakspere.  %Vife  of 
lago,  Uie  villain  of  the  play. 

£;smon<l,  Beatrix  and  Henry.    Henry 

Fsmond,  Thackeray.  Heroine  and  hero  of 
the  novel,  which  is  of  tlie  time  of  the  Knglish 
Revolution. 

Eugenia.  Tlie  Return  of  the  Xative, 
Hardy.    A  beautiful  and  unfortunate  gnl. 

Evangeline.  Bvangeline.  Longfellor^. 
Heroine  of  the  poem  ;  her  wandehugsWe  tuld 
in  verse  that  will  never  die. 

Evans,  Sir  Hugh.  The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  Shakf.pere.    A  ^Vcl^h  clergjiiLin. 

Evelina,  Fvclina,Miss  Barney.  Heroine 
of  the  novel. 

E>-re,  Jane,  fane  Eyre,  Bronte.  Hero- 
ine of  the  novel. 

Eag,     The  Rtzfals,  Sheridan,    A  servant. 

Fagin,  Oliver  Tivist,  Pickens.  The  pre- 
ceptor in  the  thieves'  academy,  where  Oliver 
Twist  is  held  a  prisoner. 

Faithful,  Jacob,     yacob  Faithful,  Mar- 

ryatt.     I'he  hero  of  the  novel. 

Falkland.  The  Btvals,  Sheridan.  A 
jealous  lover  of  Julia's,  and  friend  to  Captain 
Absolute. 

Enlstaff,  Sir  John.  Henry  IV,  and  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Shakspere.  Tins 
is  Shakspere 's  mvist  comic  charncler; 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  so  ple;LScd  with  Sir 
jolm  in  Henry  IV.  that,  nt  her  request, 
Shakspere  composed  The  Merrv  Wivts  oi 
Windsor,  in  order  to  give  the  fat  knight  a 
wider  field  for  fun, 

Fnnny,  Under  the  Greenwood  Tree, 
Hardy.    A  pretty  school -mistress. 

Fat  Boy,  The.  Pickwick  Papers,  Pickens. 
One  of  the  minor  characters  in  the  novel, 
given  to  sleep  aud  pie, 

Faust,  Faust,  Goethe.  The  hero  of  the 
great  German  tragedy,  who  sells  his  soul  to 
Uie  Devil,  and  pets  in  return  ynulh,  wealth 
and  an  attendant  devil,  MephivtopheUs. 
Goethe  was  to  Germany  wIij^  Shakspere 
was  to  England, 

Triton,  Septimius.  Septimi'us  Felton, 
Hawthorne,    The  mystical  liero  of  Uic  novel. 

Fewlinand.  The  Tempest,  .'Shakspere. 
Son  of  the  Kmg.  falls  in  love  with  Prospero's 
daughter  Miranda. 

Ferrers,  Endymlon.  Endymion,  Ben- 
famin  Disraeli.    Hero  of  the  novel. 


^ 


/ 


^ 


788 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


Figaro,  The  Marriage  of  Fr's^aro.  Beau- 
mareliais.  An  exceedingly  coniie;il  and  sharp- 
witted  barber. 

Firmin,  Philip.  The  Adventures  of 
Philip^  Thackeray.     The  hero  of  the  novel. 

Florizel.  A  Winter's  Taie,  Shal-s/ere. 
The  prince  of  IJoheinia. 

Fluellen,  /fenry  I'..  Shal-spere.  A 
ped.uitic  but  brave  \\  elsh  officer. 

Foker,  Harry.  Pentieifnis,  Tiiackeray. 
One  of  the  minor  cliaraiMers. 

Foppington,  Lord.  The  JZelofse,  Van 
Brttgh.     An  idiotic  dandy. 

Fosro,  Count.  Woman  in  White,  Col/ins. 
A  complicated  scoundrel. 

Frankenstein,  Frankenstein, Jifrs^Southey. 
The  dreadful  result  of  the  labors  of  a  German 
student,  who  makes  a  man  in  the  dissecting 
room  out  of  corpses  and  briners  him  to  life  by 

falvanism.  The  hideous  ht.ro  ot  the  novel 
as  a  Scries  of  most  blood-curdling  adven- 
tures. 

Friar  Tuck.  Reliqites,  Percy.  The  jolly 
companion  of  KobJn  Hood,  the  outlaw  of 
Sherwood  Forest. 

Friday,  Robinson  Crusoe ^  DeFoe.  Cru- 
soe's savage  servant. 

GadgTind,  Jeremiah,  Hard  Times , 
Pickens.     A  tyrannical  **  practical  "  man. 

Gamp,  Sairy.  Alartin  Chiizzlezvit, 
Pickt-ns.  A  comical  and  hard-drinking 
monthly  nurse. 

Garg:antua,  Gargantua,  Rabelais.  Hero 
of  the  tale. 

Gaunt,  Griffith.  Griffith  Gaunt^  Reade. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Gay,  Walter,  Dnnibry  and  Son,  Pickens. 
Marries  Florence  Donihey. 

Gihbie,  Goose,  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A 
half-witted  boy. 

Gil  Bias.  Gil  Bias,  Le  Sage.  The  hero 
of  a  very  f;imnus  novel.  His  adventures  are 
L<f  the  most  surprising  character,  and  are  told 
in  a  most  interesting  manner. 

Gilpin,  John,  'John  Gilpin\<;  Ride,  Cozv- 
pcr.     The  absurd  hero  of  the  poem. 

Ginevra.  Ginevra,  Rogers.  The  heroine 
of  the  poem,  accidentally  locked  in  a  tnmk 
on  her  wedding  day,  and  not  found  for  years 
and  years. 

Gohbo,  I^aimeelot,  The  Merchant  of 
Venice,  Shak^pere.    A  merry  scr\ant. 

Goneril,  Kiffg  Lear,  Shakspere.  The 
elde>.E  daughter  ofthe  King,  a  traitor  and  an 
ingrate. 

Gonzalo.  The  Tempest,  Shakspere.  An 
old  cuunciUor. 

Gosling,  Giles.  Kemhvorth,  Scott.  A 
landlurd. 

Grandison,  Sir  Charles.  Sir  Charles 
Grandi^on,  Richardson,     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Gray,  Vidian,  Vivian  Gray,  Pisraeli. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Grnndy,  Mrs.  Speed  the  Plough,  Aforton. 
An  old  lady  \sho  represents  worldly  propriety 
and  tale -bearing, 

Gulli\'er,  Lemuel.  Gulliver^ s  Travels, 
Swijt.     Hero  of  the  romance. 

Hamlet.         Jfamlet,       Shakspere.  The 

melancholy  Dane,  heio  of  the  play. 

Harley.     The  Man  of  Feeling,  Mackenzie. 

Hero  of  the  novel. 

Hnrlowe,  Clarissa.      Clarissa  I/ar/ovje, 

Richardson.     Heroine  of  tlie  novel, 

Harris,  Mrs.    Martin  Chuzzler'it ,  Pickens. 

A  fictitious  person  invenled  by  Sairy  Gamp, 
for  the  ^Mirpose  of  enforcing  her  statements 
by  quoting  the  opinions  of  Afrs.  Ha: 


lams  upon 


hy  quoting  the  op: 

the  subject  under  discussion, 

Headstone,  Bradley.  Our  Mutual 
Friend,  Pickens.  A  schoolmaster  in  love 
with  Lizzie  Hexani. 


Heep,  Uriah.  Pavid  Copperfeld,  Pickens. 
A  hypocrite  and  sneak. 

Helena.  All's  Well  thai  Ends  Well, 
Shakspere.     Heroine  of  the  iday. 

Hero.  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  Shaks- 
pere.    Daughter  of  Leonato. 

Hexaru,  Xizzie.  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Pickens.     Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Holofernes.  As  I'on  Like  It,  Shakspere. 
A  schoolmaster  and  pedant. 

Holt,  Felix.  Felix  Holt,  George  Eliot. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Honeynian,  Charles.  The  Newcomes, 
Thackeray.     A  fashionable  preacher. 

Honor,  Mrs.  Tom  fones,  Fielding.  Sophia 
Western's  waiting-woman. 

Hopeful,  Pilgrim^s  Progress,  Bunyan. 
A  pilgrim. 

Horatio.  Hamlet,  Shakspere.  The 
friend  of  Hamlet. 

Howe,  Miss.  Clarissa  Harlowe,  Richard- 
son.    Clarissa's  friend. 

Hudibras.  Hudibras^  Butler.  Hero  of 
the  poem. 

Hunter,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  I^eo.  Pickwick 
Papers,  Pickens.  Minor  characters  in  the 
novel. 

lago.  Othello,  Shakspere.  The  villain 
of  the  tragedy. 

Imogen,  Cymbeline,  Shakspere.  Hero- 
ine of  the  plav. 

Isabella.  Measure  for  Measure,  Shaks- 
pere.    Heroine  of  the  play. 

Ivanhoe,  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  Hero  of  the 
novel. 

Jack,  Col.  Col.  Jack,  DeFoe.  The 
criminal  hero  of  the  tale. 

Jaffier,  Venice  Preserved,  Otway,  Hero 
of  the  poem. 

Jaques.  ^4^  2'oh  Like  It,  Shakspere. 
The  melancholy  philosopher. 

Jarndyce,  John.  Bleak  House,  Pickens. 
A  benevolent  old  gentleman. 

Javert,  Les  Miserables,  Hugo.  A  de- 
tective. 

Jessica,  Merchant  of  Venice^  Shakspere. 
Shylock's  daughter. 

Jingle,  Alfred.  Pickzvick  Papers, 
Pickens.     An  amusing  adventurer. 

Kilmansegg,  Miss,  The  Golden  Legend, 
Hood.  The  golden -legged  heroine  of^  the 
poem, 

Ititely.  Every  Man  in  his  Hunter,  John- 
son.    A  jealous  husband. 

r.ady  Bountiful.  The  Beau's  Stratagem, 
Farqnhar.     A  generous  ladv. 

Laertes.  Planilet,  Shakspere.  The  son 
of  Polonius,  killed  by  his  own  sword. 

Lnlla  Rookh,  Lalla  Rookh,  Moore. 
Heri)ine  of  the  jtoem,  to  whom  Feramorz  re- 
lates the  stories  told  in  tlie  romance. 

Languish,  Lydia,  The  Rivals,  Sheridan. 
Heroine  of  the  play. 

Lear,  King.  Kim^  Lear,  Shakspere. 
Hero  of  the  play. 

Leatherstoeking,  Natty.  Pathfinder, 
PeersLiyer,  and  other  wnels^  Cooper.  A 
huntsman  and  Indian  tighter. 

Legree.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Stoive,  Slave 
master. 

Leigh,  Aurora,  Aurora  Leigli^  Brown- 
ing.    Heroine  of  the  romance. 

Leila,  Giaour,  Byron,  Heroine  of  the 
poem.  / 

I.>iglitwood,     l>Iortimer,       Our    Mutual 

Friend,  Pickens.     Minor  character  in  novel. 

Lismahago,  Capt,  Humphrey  Clinker, 
Smollett.    A  retired  officer. 

Little,  Henry.  Put  Fourself  in  His 
Place,  Reade.     Hero  of  the  novel. 


Little  Nell.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Pickens. 
Heroine  of  novel. 

Looksley,  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One  of  Robin 
Hood's  pseudonyms. 

Long  Tonx  Coffin.  Pilot,  Cooper.  A 
boatman. 

Lothair,  Lothair,  Pisraeli.  Hero  of 
novel,  supposed  pseudonvm  for  the  Marquis 
of  Bute. 

Lothario,  The  Fair  Penitent,  Rowe. 
A  rake. 

Lovelace,  Clarissa  Harlcnve,  Richardson. 
A  rake. 

Lumpkin,  Tony.  She  Sloops  to  Conquer, 
Goldsmith.     A  Country  squire. 

Macbeth,  Macbeth,  Shakspere.  Hero 
of  the  play. 

Macduff.  Macbeth,  Shakspere.  Rival 
of  Macbeth. 

Maclvor,  Flora.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  Hero- 
ine of  novel, 

3Iaekenzie,  3rrs.  jVejocomes,  Thackeray. 
A  termagant  widow. 

Malagrother,  Sir  Mingo.  The  Fortunes 
of  Nigel,  Scott.     An  ill-natured  courtier. 

Malaprop,  Mrs.  The  Rivals,  .Sheridan. 
A  character  famed  for  verbal  blunders. 

Malvolio.  Tvjelffk  Night,  Shakspere. 
Olivia's  Conceited  steward. 

Manfred,  Manfred,  Byron.  Hero  of  the 
tragedy. 

Mantalini.  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Pickens. 
The  absurd  husband  of  the  milliner  in  the 
storv'. 

Marcliioness,  The,  Old  Curiosity  Shop, 
Pickens.  Mr.  Dick  Swiveller's  reni'arkable 
little  nurse. 

Blargaret.  Faust,  Goethe.  The  heroine 
of  the  tragedy, 

Marlow,  Toiing.  .She  Stoops  to  Conquer, 
Goldsmith.     Hero  of  the  play. 

Medora.  The  Corsair,  Byron.  Heroine 
of  tlie  poem. 

Merdle,  >Ir.  Little  Porrit,  Pickens.  A 
speculator. 

Meister,  Wilhelm.  Wilhelm  Meister, 
Goethe.     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Mephistopheles,      Faust,    Goethe.      The 
Devil. 
Mercutio.      Romeo    and    Juliet,    Shaks- 
e.       A     wonderfully     witty       friend       of 
meo's. 

3Iieawber,  "Wilkins.  Pavid  Copperfeld, 
Pickens.  A  remarkable  character,  always 
waiting  for  sometliing  to  turn  up. 

Miller,  Daisy.  Paisy  Miller,  Henry 
James.  An  alleged  representative  American 
girl. 

Minna.  The  Pirate,  Scott.  One  of  the 
heroines  of  tlie  novel. 

Miranda.  The  Tempest,  .Shakspere. 
Daughter  of  Prosi>ero,  bduvcd  of  Ferdinand  ; 
heroine  ofthe  pla)'. 

Monimia.  The  Orphan,  Otzvay.  Heroine 
of  the  poem. 

Mouldy.  Henry  IV.,  Shakspere.  One 
of  Falstaff's  recruits. 

Mucklewrath.  Habbnknk.  Old  Mor- 
tality, Scott.     A  fanatical  preacher. 

Neuchatel,  Adriana.  Endymion,  Pis- 
raeli.   A  wealthy  young  lady. 

Newcome,  Clive,  Colonel,  Ethel.  The 
Nezvcomes,  Thackeray.  Cliaracters  in  the 
best  novel  Thackeray'has  written. 

Nickleby,  Mrs,  Nicholas  Nickleby, 
Pickens.  The  exjtsperating  mother  of  Uie 
Jiero,  Nicholas. 

Noma.  The  Pirate,  .Scott.  An  insane 
soothsayer. 

Nydia.  Last  Pays  tf  Pompeii,  Buhver. 
A  blind  Jlowtr  girl. 


^: 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


789 


^ 


01>ndiiih.  Tristram  S/tarufj',  Sternt.  A 
scrv.il  1 1. 

Ob*'ron.  MidsummfY  JVi^i/'x  Dream^ 
Shakspcre.     Tlic  King  of  Fair^laiul. 

Ochiltree,  Kdie.  Thi  Antiquary,  Scott. 
A  bcj^giir  of  prominence. 

Olilbuck,  Jonathnn.  The  Antiquary^ 
Scott.     IKto  of  the  iiuvul. 

OI»l  Mortality.  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A 
gp"avi;stonc  clcuiicr. 

Olifaunt,  Nigel.  Tfig  Fortunes  of  Nigel, 
Scott.     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Ophelia.  JIamiet,  Skakspere.  Heroine 
of  the  tragedy. 

Orville,  I^-ord.  Evelina,  Miss  Burney, 
Evehiia's  lover. 

Othello.  Othello^  Shakspere.  Hero  of 
the  play,  a  Moor,  husband  oiDcsdemoiia. 

0*Trigger,  Sir  I>«olus.  The  Rivals, 
Sheridan.    Afire-eating  Irishman. 

Overreai'h,  Sir  Giles.  A  Nctv  Way  to 
pay  Old  Debts,  Massingt:r.     A  usurer. 

Paffe,  Anna  and  Mrs.  The  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,  Shakspere.  Characters  in  the 
play. 

Pamela.  Pamela,  Richardson.  An  in- 
tensely good  young  iady. 

Panffloss.  The  Heir-at-Lavf,  Colman,  A 
pedantic  teacher. 

PantagTuel.  Pantagruel,  Rabelais.  Hero 
of  the  sketch. 

Partridge.  Tom  fones.  Fielding.  The 
hero's  trusty  folUnvcr. 

Pecksniff,  Charity,  Mercy,  Mr.  Martin 
Chuzzlevjtt,  Dtckcns.    Characters  in  the  storj'. 

Pendennis,  Arthur,  Helen,  Major. 
Pendennis,  Thackeray.  Well  drawn  and  for- 
cible characters  in  the  novel. 

Perdita-  Winter's  Talc,  Shakspere, 
Florizet's  sweetlieart. 

Fetruchio.      The    Taming  of  the  Shrezv, 
Shakspere.       The     hero,    and     husband 
Katlieime. 

Pickle,  Peregrine,  Pere^inc  Pickle, 
Smollett^  Tlie  wandering  and  immoral  hero 
of  tlie  novel. 

Pick^vick,  Samuel.  Pickwick  Papers^ 
Dickens,     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Pierre,  Venice  Preserved^  Otway,  A 
conspirator. 

Pistol,  Ancient,  Merry  Wives  of  Wind' 
sor  and  Jlenry  IV.,  Shakspere.  Falstaff's 
most  characteristic  ft)ilower. 

Plpydell,  Faulus.  Guy  Mannering,  Scott. 
A  lawyer. 

Poins,  Xed,  Jfenry  IV.,  Shakspere.  A 
friend  of  Prince  Hal. 

Portia.  The  Merchant  of  I'enice.  Heroine 
of  the  play. 

Poundlint,  Peter.  Old  Mortality ,  Scott. 
A  preaclier. 

Primrose,  I>r,     Vicar  of  Wakefeld,  Gold- 
smith.   The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 
Primrose,  Moses.     His  son. 
I*rolius.       Tt.'O     Geulhmen    of     Verona^ 
Shak.^pere.     One  of  the  two  Gentlemen, 

Proudfnte,  I^air  Maid  of  Perth,  Scott. 
A  bonnet-maker. 

Prynne,  Hester.  Scarlet  Letter,  Haw 
thorne.     Heroine  ot  novel. 

Pumhlechook,  I^nde,  Great  Expecta' 
tions,  Dickens,    A  bully  and  fraud. 

Pynchon,  Phoebe,  Jloiise  of  the  Seven 
Gables,  Hawthorne.     Heroine  of'thc  novel, 

Quasimodo.  Our  Lady  of  Notre  Damcy 
Iluiio.    A  monster. 

Quickly,  Mrs,  Henry  IV.,  .Shaksf>ere. 
The  famed  hostess  of  the  Boar's  Head  Tavern, 
in  Kastcheap. 

Qnilp.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens.  A 
vicious  dwarf. 


or 


Quince,  Peter.  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  ,'ihakspere.  Character  in  the  inter- 
lude. 

Kandom,  ICoderitrk.  Roderick  Random^ 
Smollett,     Hero  of  the  novel, 

Knshleigh.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  The  villain 
of  the  novel. 

KasHelas.  Rasselas,Dr.  fohnson.  Prince 
of  Abyssinia,  hero  of  the  tale. 

Kattler,  Jack.  Roderick  Random,  Smol- 
lett.    A  nautical  character. 

Kavcnswood.  The  Bride  of  Lammer moor, 
Scott.  Hero  of  the  novel,  lover  of  I^ucy  Ash- 
ton. 

Kebecca.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  A  lovely 
Jewess. 

Redgauntlet.  Redgauntlet,  Scott.  Hero 
of  the  novel, 

Rob  Hoy.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  A  Scottish 
chief,  hero  of  the  novel. 

Koderigo,  Othello,  Shakspere,  lago's 
dupe. 

Komeo,  Romeo  and  fnJtet,  .Shakspere. 
The  hero  of  the  play,  lover  of  J  uliet. 

Sabrina.     Comus,  Milton.    River  nymph. 

Sacripant,  Orlando  Fnrioso,  Ariosto. 
King  of  Circ:issia,  in  love  with  Angelica. 

Saddletree,  Bartoline.  Heart  of  Mid' 
lothian,  Scott.     A  learned  peddler. 

Sancho  Panza.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes. 
Worthy  squire  of  a  worthy  master;  the  right 
man  in  the  right  place. 

Sandford,  Harry.  Sandford and Merton, 
Day.     Hero  of  the  ston.'. 

Sangradu,  Ooctor.  Gil  Bias,  Le  Sage, 
A  confirmed  phlebotomist. 

Seheherezade,  Queen.  Arabian  Nigfits. 
The  Sultaness  who  tells  the  tales. 

Scrub,  The  Bean's  Stratagem,  Farquhar, 
A  facetious  valet. 

Sedley,  Amelia,  Vanity  Fair,  Tltackeray. 
An  amiable  woman,  but  of"  no  great  decis.on. 

SetUey,  Joseph,  Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray. 
A  fat,  bashful  Kast  Indian^ 

Selim,  Bride  of  Abydos,  Byron.  The 
hero. 

Shafton,  Sir  Piercie.  The  Monastery, 
Scott.    A  pedantic  courtier. 

Shandy,  Tristram.  Tristram  Shandy, 
Sterne.     Hero  of  the  story. 

Sharp,  ReI>ecoa.  J'attity  Fair,  Thack- 
eray.    The  designing    heroine. 

Shylock.  Jferchaut  of  Venice,  Shaks- 
Pere.    A  vindictive  Jew, 

Silvia.  Tzvo  Gentleman  of  Verona,  Shaks- 
pere.    In  love  with  Valentine. 

Skimpole,  Harold.  Bleak  House, 
Dickens.     Always  out  of  money. 

Slipslop,  Mrs,  'josef'h  Andr,-70s,  Fielding, 
A  waiting  woman  of  doubtful  character. 

Slop,  Doctor.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne, 
An  irascible  physician. 

Sly,  Christopher.  Taming  of  the  Shrew, 
Shakspere.     A  drunken  linker. 

Slj'me,  Chevy.  Martin  Chuzzlcwit, 
Dickens.     A  "  gent  short  of  funds." 

Smyke,  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Dickens,  An 
ill-used,  poor,  half-witted  pupil  of  Squeers. 

Sncenvell,  Lady,  School  for  Scandal, 
Sheridan.    A  gossip  and  back-biter. 

Snodgrass,  Augustus.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickens.    A  poetical  character, 

Snoiv,  l/ucy.  Villette,  Charlotte  Bronte, 
The  heroine. 

Sparkler,  Kdmond.  Little  Dorn'i, 
Dickens.     Man  of  l;i^hion. 

Squeers,  AVackford,  Nicholas  Nickleby, 
Dickens.  The  brutal  master  of  Dotheboy's 
Hall. 

Squeers,  Master  "Wnckford.  In  same. 
A  spoiled  child,  the  Image  of  his  father. 


St,  l/oon.    St,   Leon,    William   Goodvin. 

Hero  of  the  tale,  has  llic  secret  of  perpetual 
youth  and  the  transmutation  of  metals. 

Steerforth,  tlnmes.  David  Copperfield, 
Dickens.    Talented  and  pronigalo. 

Steggs,  Miss  Carolina  Wilhelnkina 
Amelia.  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Goldsmith,  A 
pretender  to  gentility. 

St  iggins.  Elder.  Pickwick  Papw^M, 
Dickens,  Affects  pineapple  rum  and  ^Ir.-.. 
Weller. 

Strap,  Tlugh.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett. 
Roderick's  follower. 

Surface,  Sir  Charles  and  Joseph. 
School  for  Scandal,  .Sheridan,  The  first  a 
good-natured  rake,  the  second  a  hypocrite. 

Swiveller,    Di'-k.     Old  Curioxity    Shop. 
Dickens,  A  gay  rattlepate  and  a  goud  fellow. 
Tamora.      Titus  Andronicus,  Shakspere. 
A  Gotiiic  Queen. 

Tapley,  Mark.  Martin  Chuizlcrif, 
Dickens,  Happi(.-st  when  most  miserable ; 
jolly  when  he  ought  to  cry, 

Tappertit,  Simon,  Bamahy  Rudge, 
Dickens,    A  ferocious  little  apprentice. 

Tartuffe,  Tartiiffe,  Moliere,  A  hypocriti- 
cal character. 

Teazle,  Lady,  School  for  Scandal,  Slier- 
idan.    The  heroine. 

Teazle,  Sir  Peter.     School  for  Scandal, 

Sheridan.     The  old  husband  of  Lady  Teazle. 

Thersites.       Iliad,    Homer,  and   Troilus 

and   Cresstda,   Shakspere.      A  foul-mouihed 

Greek. 

Thwackum.  Tom  jones.  Fielding.  A 
philosophical  pedagogue. 

Tillemina,  The  Critic,  .Sheridan.  A 
maiden  very  much  crossed  in  love, 

Timoii,  Timon  of  Athens,  Shakspere, 
A  misanthrope,  hero  of  the  pl.iy. 

Tinto,  l)ick.  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  and 
St.  Romans  Well,  Scott.     An  arust. 

Titania.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Shak.^Pere.     The  queen  of  fairies. 

Titmouse,  TilHebat.  Ten  Thottsand  a 
Tear,  Dr.  Warren.  A--Ioni'ihed  Parliament 
by  an  imitation  of  Chanticleer. 

Tito.  Romola,  George  Eliot.  The  hand 
some,  but  weak  hero. 

Tod  gers,  M  rs.  Martin  Chuzzlev-'it, 
Dickens.  The  keeper  of  a  commercial  board- 
ing-house. 

Toots.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
simple,  eccentric  fellow. 

Topsey.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Mrs.  Stowe, 
An  ignorant  young  slave  girl. 

Touchstone.  As  2'oh  Like  It,  Shakspere. 
A  clown. 

Touchwood,  Peregrine.  St.  Romans 
Well,  Scott.    An  irascible  liiist  Indian. 

Tox,  Miss,  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
spinster,  slightly  curious. 

Traddles,  Tom.  David  Cr^pperfeld, 
Dickens,  A  barrister  and  friend  of  Co]iper- 
field. 

Trapbois.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Scott. 
A  usurer. 

Trim,      Corporal.        Tn'sfam      .Shandy, 
Sterne.         The  follower  of  Uncle  Toby. 
Trinculo.   Tempest,  Shakspere.  A  jester. 
Triol,  Marquis.    77/4?   Pirate,  Scott.    A 
we;ilthy  2.eal.uuler, 

Trotwood,  Betsy,  David  Copperfield, 
Dickens.  The  kindest  of  wotnen,  but  wiili  an 
aversion  to  tresp;issiiig  donkeys. 

Trulliber,  Parson.  foseph  Andrews, 
Fietding,    Ai\  ignor;uit  clergym.in. 

Trunnion,  Commodore  Hawser,  Pere- 
grine Pickle,  Smollett.  An  odd  nautical 
character. 

Tiilkinghorn,  IVIr,  Bleak  House, Dickens. 
A  wilv  solicitor. 


./ 


\ 


790 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


y 


Tulliver,  Mag^e.  Mill  on  the  Floss y 
George  Eliot,     Tliu  heroine. 

TiUliver,  Tom.  Mill  on  the  Floss,  George 
Eliot,     Her  selfish,  conceited  brother. 

Tupraaii,  Trary.  Pickvick  Papers^ 
Dickens,   An  obese  iM.hnircr  of  luvely  women. 

Turveydrop.  Bleak  House,  Pickens. 
Dancing^  master  and  professor  of  deportment. 

Tuslier,  Thomas.  ifenry  Esmond , 
Thackeray.    A  sycophantic  ckrj^ymun. 

Xivemlo-W",  3Ir.  0«r  Mutual  Friend^ 
Pickens.  A  diner-out  and  friend  of  tlie  Ven- 
ecrings. 

Twist,  Oliver.  Oliver  Tzvtst,  Pickens. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Twj'sden,  Talbott.  Philip,  Thackeray. 
A  public  officer. 

Tybalt.  Romeo  and  ynliet,  Shakspere. 
Nephew  of  Lady  Capulet,  slain  by  Uomeo. 

tJlrica.    Iz'anhoe,  Scott.    An  old  witch. 

Una.  The  Faery  ^ueen,  Spenser.  The 
personification  of  Truth. 

Unoas.  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  Cooper. 
A  Mohican  chief. 

tJncle  Toby.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  A 
noble  veteran,  the  real  hero  of  the  story. 

Uncle  Tom.  Uncle  Tom's  Cahin,  Starve. 
A.  pious  and  unfortun.ate  slave,  the  hero  of 
the  novel.  This  book  added  more  converts  to 
the  abolition  party  than  :iny  other  factor.  It 
is  the  most  remarkable  and  effective  American 
work  j)rinted. 

Vardeii,  Dolly.  Barnahy  Ritdge,Pickens. 
The  heroine  of  the  story. 

"X'athek.  Vathek,  Beckford,  The  hero  of 
CecUforii's  remarkable  novel. 

Vernon,  I>i.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  The 
heroine  of  the  novel. 

■\nioles.  Pleak  House,  Pickens.  A  crafty 
lawyer. 

Viola.  TvJelftk  Night,  Shakspere,  A 
sweet  little  lady  in  love  with  Orbino, 


Virgilia.  Coriolanus,  Shakspere.  AVife 
of  Coriolanus, 

Vir^nia.  Paul  and  Virginia,  St.  Pierre. 
Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Vivian.  Idyls  of  the  Kivg,  Tennyson.  The 
mistress  of  ^Merlin,  the  Enchanter. 

Wadman,  WidoAV.  Tristram  .Shandy  ^ 
Sterne.  The  ladv  who  seeks  to  decoy  Uncle 
Toby  into  matrimony. 

Wamba.    Ivanhoe,  Scott.    A  clown. 

"VTardle,  Mr.  Pickiuick  Papers,  Pickens, 
A  jolly  country  gentleman,  friend  of  Mr. 
Pickwick. 

Wegg,  Silas,  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Pickens.     The  villain  of  the  novel. 

W^eller,  Tony  and  Saniivel.  Pickzvick 
Papers^  Dickens.  Father  and  son  ;  the  latter, 
Mr.  Pickwick's  ser\ing  man,  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  original  and  mosthumorous creation 
of  Dickens'  exuberant  fancy. 

Wertlier.  Sorrozus  of  IVerther,  Goethe. 
Hero  of  the  tale. 

"Western,  Squire  and  .Sopbia.  Tom 
yones.  Fielding.  Father  and  daughter,  the 
latter  the  heroine  of  the  novel. 

"Wlxiskerandos,  Don  Ferolo.  The  Critic, 
.Sheridan.     The  lover  of  Tilburina. 

Wickfield,  Agnes.  Paiid  Copperfield, 
Pickens.     Heroine  of  the  novel. 

"Wild,  Jonathan.  Jonathan  Wild,  Field- 
in^.  A  fanio'.is  highwayman,  and  afterwards 
a  noted  thieftaker  of  London. 

VVUdair,  Sir  Harry.  The  Constant  Cou- 
ple, and  .Sir  Harry  \\  iUlair,  Farquhar,  The 
hero  of  both  plays. 

Wilfer,  Bella,  Lavinia,  Reginald  and 
Mrs.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Pickens.  One  of 
the  most  entertaining  faniilv  groups  in  Eng- 
lish fiction.  Tlie  first  is  the  charming  licroine 
of  the  novel.  Lavinia  is  her  abominable  sis- 
ter ;  Reginald,  her  angelic  papa;  while  the 
somber  background  is  made  by  the  gloomy 
mamma,  whose  other  name  in  the  family  is 
The  Tragic  Muse. 


"Wilfrid.  Rokely,  Scott.  Hero  of  the 
poem. 

Williams,  Caleb.  Caleb  Williams,  Cod- 
2vin.     The  hero  of  a  very  remarkable  novel. 

"Wimble,  "Will.  Spectator,  Addison. 
Pseudonym  for  Thomas  Morecraft. 

Winkle,  Rip  Van.  Sketch  Book,  Irving. 
The  immortal  sleeper  of  the  Catskilts. 

"Wislifort,  r,ady.  The  Way  of  the  World, 
Cougrez'e.     Heroine  of  the  play. 

"Worldly  Wiseman,  Mr.  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  Bunyan.  One  of  Christian's  diffi- 
culties. 

Wray,  Enoch.  The  Village,  Crahhe.  A 
noble  old  man. 

"Wren,  Jenny.  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Pickens,     The  dolls'  dressmaker. 

Wrongbead,  Sir  Francis.  The  Provoked 
Husband,   Vanburgh.     Hero  of  the  play. 

Yorick.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  A  jester 
descended  from  the  Yorick  whose  history  is 
tuld  by  Hamlet. 

Yseult.  Tristram  and  I'seult,  Matthetv 
Arnold.    A  Cornish  heroine  of  the  olden  time. 

Zadoc.  Absolobt  anet 
Pseudonym  for  Sancrofi 
terbury. 

Zanoni.  Zanoni,  Bulwer,  The  mystical 
hero  of  the  novel. 

Zeluco.  Zeluco,  Pr.  J.  Moore.  The 
pr)digiil  hero  of  the  novel. 

Zobeide.  Arabia?!  Nights.  The  wife  of 
the  great  Haroun  al  Ilaschid. 

Zodig.  Zodig,  Voltaire.  The  Uabylonian 
hero  of  the  novel. 

Zophiel,  Paradise  Lost,  Milton.  A  swift- 
winged  cherub. 

Zuleika.  The  Bride  of  Abydos,  Byron. 
Heroine  of  the  poem. 


uid  Achitophel,  Pryden. 
[>ft,  Archbishop  of^Can- 


>A'Ml 


^ 


m.. 


I 


Al 


V 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    NOMS    DE    PLUME. 


79' 


-^ 


!i§^SiSpgss§iiiSisiii§iiSisisiss!SiiSiif 


A  DICTIONARY  OF 


'■m^^mmm'^m^wmmmmm^ 


NOMS  DE  PLUME. 


jfe_A. 


-^^^^^Mm^^mm.Tmmmi 


I 


HE  following  list  of  assumed  names  in  English  ami 
American  literature  will  be  found  to  be  the  most  com- 
prehensive ever  published  : 


ASSUMED    NAME. 


REAL,    NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE   WOKK. 


A  Country  Parson...  .Archbish.  Whately...  .Divinity  and  Logic. 

A  Gaol  Chaplain Rev.  Krskine  yinnle. .  .Bcnf/t-ys  .'ifisce/.aTi^, 

..-,,«  ^         *    ^'    TT   T,      J,      {  Recreations  of  a 

A.  K.  H.  B Rev.  A.  K.  H.  Boyd...  I  ^        .      „ 

(  Country  Parson. 

A.  L.O.  E.  (a  lady 

of  Enj^land) 

A  Lady Mrs.  Jlundell Domestic  Cookery. 

A  Lady Mrs.  Anna  Jamieson..Art  Criticism. 

A  Literary  Anti 

quary. 

A  Lover  of 

Literature 

A  Lincolnshire  i  ™    ,,  ,,    ,,  »,-.,■ 

.  T.  Hartwcll    Ilorne.  ..Kinliography. 


!  Charlotte  Tucker City  of  No  Cross. 


j  F.  W.  Fairholt Costume  in  England. 

[  Thomas  Grec 


Diarv. 


;- 


Richard  Cobden Political  tract?. 


[  J.  Fcnimore  Cooper. ..Travels. 


Admonish  Crime.. 


'  Poems. 


Grazier  i 

A  Manchester 

Manufacturer 

A  Northern  Man. .,  .Chas.  J.  Ingersoll Political  History. 

A  Student  at  La\v..F.  K.  Hunt The  Fourth  Estate. 

A  TravellintJ 

Bacliclor  \ 

A  Trinity  Man Thomas  Wright Alma  Mater,  1827. 

A   N.  Farmer Rev.  Isaac  Wilkins... Political  tracts. 

A  Young  American  .A.  Slidel  Mackenzie.  .Year  in  Spain. 

Abimelech  Coody... Julian  C.  Vcrplanck..  .Political  tracts. 

Acheta  Domcstica  ..Miss  L.  M.  IJudgen.,, Episodes  of  Insect  Life. 

Acton  Bell Aime  Bronte Agnes  Gray. 

I  Rev.  J;inies  Cook 

'  I  Richmond 

Adolph  Myer M.  A.  Goldschmidt... .Novelist. 

Agiitc \Vhitelaw  Reid Journalist, 

Airricola    William  Elliott Carolina  Sports. 

Alfred  Croquis Daniel  Maclisc Fraserian  Portraits. 

Alfred  Crowquill A.  H.  Forrester Eccentric  Tales. 

Allan  Grant William  Wilson Dundee  Rci-iew. 

^    T  I  Alice  Bradley  (Neal)      )^,,    ,     ,3     t,     , 

Alee  G.  Lee j  Hi  ^^^^J^^^'^y'  Book, 

Ally  Slnper Charles  H.Ross Adventures  in  yudy. 

Alma  viva Clement  Scott Figaro*  s  dramatic  critic. 

Alpin William  Wilson Dundee  RevUiu, 

Alter Rev.  J.  B.  Owen Chess  Studies. 

Alton  Clyde Sarah  Anne  Jeffries. .  .Maggie  Lynn. 

Amateur  Casual James  Greenwood  ....Night  in  the  Workhouse. 

Amelia Mrs.  Welby Poems. 

Amicus Thomas  Fairbairn... .Social  Progress. 

Amy  Lothrop Anna  B.  Warner Dollars  and  Cents. 

An  Amateur Charles  K.  Sharpe.. ..Portraits. 

An  American Gen.  Lewis  Cass Sketches  in  France. 

An  Angler Sir  Humphrj'  Davy...Salmonia. 

^  '*«.  I  John  Oxenford The  Times. 

Playgoer  \ 


ASSUMED    NAME. 


REAL    NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE    WOKK. 


An  Epicure F.  Saunders Salad  for  the  Solitary 

An  Irish  Woman, ...Miss  Anna  Perrler The  Irishman. 


An  Octogenarian 
An  Old  Bushman. 

An  Old  ^Lan 

An  Old  Sailor.... 
Anthony  Pasquin.. 


Ascott  R.  Hope...  j 

Aug.  Dunshunner. 

Au^ur 

Aunt  Fanny , 


Book  About  Roys. 


James  Roche Essays. 

. . .  W.  Wheelwright Naturiilist. 

(  Sir  Francis  Bond  i  Bubbles  from  (he 

\  Head  \  Brunner. 

...M.  H.  Baker Sea  Tales. 

John  Williams Morning  I leral.t. 

Arachnophilus Adam  White Essays. 

Archxus Rev.  John  Sterling The  Onyx  Ring. 

Ariel Stephen  R.  Fiskc AV?i»  York  Lfad^r. 

Artemus  Ward Charles  F.  Browne....*' His  Book.'* 

Arthur  Griff cnhoff. ,  .George  Colman,  Jr.... Dramatist. 

Arthur  Sketchley...,Rev.  George  Ross Mrs.  Brown. 

Asa  Trenchard Henry  Watterson Magazine  sketches. 

(  Robert  Hope 

/  Monlcrleff 

Wm.  E.  Aytoun Talcs,  Btncktvood, 

H.  M.  Feist The  Racing  Prophet. 

Mrs.  T.  D.  Gage Juvenile  Talcs. 

Aunt  Judy Mrs.  Alfred  Gatt>' Aunt  Judy's  Mauizine. 

Azamat  Batuk N.  L-  Thichlin Spain  and  Spaniards. 

Bab W.  S.  Gilbert Bab  Ballads. 

Bailey Fred.  Douglass J ournaKst. 

Barclays,  One  of  the. .Mrs.  H.G.Otis Barclays  of  Bnston. 

Barnacle A.  C.  Barnes Litterateur, 

Barrabas  i_        ,       ,         ,,  »   .■  t      •      n       f 

,    .  .     ,       ,        I  Doughis  Jerrold Articles  in  Punch. 

Whitefeather  i  "=       "^ 

Barry  Cornwall B.  W.  Proctor The  Sea  and  other  Songs. 

Barry  Gray Robert  Barry  Collin... My  Married  Life. 

Belle  Britain Hiram  Fuller AVrv  York  Mirror, 

Belle  Smith Louise  Klrby  Piatt..  ..//tfw/  yournal, 

.    Benjamin  V.  Austin    » 
Bcnauly <    and    Lyman  Abbott,    >  Conecut  Corners. 

^    Ben.  Au.  Ly.,  jointly    ' 

Benedict  Cruiser George  Aug,  Sala Howl  Tamed  Mrs.  C. 

„    ,       .  (  The  John  Brown 

Berwick James  Redpath 1  *  t 

•^  "^  (  Invasion, 

Besieged  Resident. ..H.  Labouchcrc In  Paris. 

Bibliophile  Jacob. . , . Paul  Lacroix Novels. 

Bldcford  Postman.  ..Edward  Capern Poems. 

Bill  Arp.,.; Charles  II.  Smith. 

BIythc  While,  Jun.  ..Solon  Robinson AWi'  I'orJh  Tribune. 

Bob  Shnrt A.  B.  Longstrcct Political  articles. 

Bon  Culticr Wm.  E.  Aytoun Ballads. 

Boston  Bard Robert  S.  Coffin Poems. 

Boston  Rebel John  Lowell Political  articles. 

Boz Charles  Dickens Sketches  by  Boz. 

Bret  ILirtc Francis  B.  Hart The  Heathen  Chinee. 

Brother  Peregrine. ,  .Octavian  Blewitt Fraser's  MagaMine, 

Burleigh Matthew  Hale  Sm'iih.. Boston  yournai. 

Bullerof  Brascnose..John  Hughes B/aei7food*s  MaguMine, 

Cadwaladcr  ,      ^   „^„^^ Life  of  H.  M.  S.anley. 

Rowlands  t 


I\ 


792 


/ 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    NOMS    DE    PLUME. 


KEPKESENIATIVE    WORK. 


C^sariensis. 


Literary  World. 


George  F.  Pardon The  Billiard  Book. 


M.  J.Whitty Tales  of  Irish  Life. 


Chas.  Summerfield. .  .Albert  ^^'.  Arrin;^ton..  ; 
Charlotte  Elizabeth  ! 


Vis 


Tales. 


ASSUMED    NAME.  REAL    NAME. 

I  Rev.  James  AV. 

'  Alexander 

Caller  Herrin Annie  Smith Tales,  Family  Herald. 

Cannibal  Jack Charles  Reach. The  W^^y  to  "Win. 

Cantell  A.  Ei^'ly George  W.  Peck Journalist. 

Captain  Rawdon 

Crawley 

Capt.  Rock  in 

London  S 

Captain  Shandon..  ..C,  Smith  Cheltnam.  ...Beigravia. 

Caradoc Henry  W.  Moore St.  Louis  Spectator. 

Carl  Benson Charles  A.  Bristed Upper  Ten  Thousands. 

„     .  (  Charles  Carleton  \  , 

Carleton !  _    _     f  Journalist. 

/  Coffin  S 

Caveat  Emptor Sir  George  Stephen.. ..Search  of  a  Home. 

Cavendish W.  Johnson  Neale Sea  Novels. 

Cavendish Henry  Jones On  Whist. 

Cecil Cornelius  Tongue The  Stud  Farm. 

Cham A.  de  Xoe Caricatures. 

Charles   Martel Thomas  Delf Miscellanies. 

Southern  Literary 

Messenger 

Charlotte  Elizabeth 

Tonna 

Chartist  Parson Rev.  Chas.  Kingsley.  .Poems. 

Chevalier M.  C.  Hart Sunday  Mercury, 

Cheviot  Tichburn..  ..W.  H.  Ainsworth Novelist. 

Chinese  Philosopher. Oliver  Goldsmith Citizen  of  the  World. 

Chris.  Crowfield Mrs.  H.  B.  Stowe Magazine  articles. 

Christine  Severne. .  ..Mrs.  Anna  Boulton...  .Could  Aught  Atone? 

Christian  Reed Francis  C.  Fisher Novelist. 

Christopher  North. .  .John  Wilson Noctes  Ambrosianas. 

Claribel Mrs.  Barnard Come  Back  to  Erin. 

C.  O.  Nevers Chas.  C.  Converse Sweet  Singer. 

Colley  Cibber James  Rees Dramatic  Criticism. 

Viscomtesse 

de  St.  Mars 

„        ,      . ,.  (  Alice  Bradlev  (Neal)      J  ^    ,    ,     ,      ,  ,     , 

Cousin  Alice I  "       -t  I  Godey  s  Lady's  h^ok. 

\  Haven  J  "^  -^ 

Cousin  Kate Catherine  D.  Bell Hope  Campbell. 

Currer   Bell Charlotte  Bronte Jane  Eyre. 

Cuthbert  Bede Rev.  E.  Bradley Verdant  Green. 

^    ^   -r  ^         r      1  TT  \  Letters  on  Church 

D.  C,  L Reresford  Hope 

<  Matters. 

D G George  Daniel Dramatic  critic. 

Danbury  Newsman.  -J.  M.  Bailey Life  in  Danbur^-. 

Darby  North Daniel  Owen  Madden. The  Mildmays. 

Davenant  Cecil Derwent  Coleridge....  A"/j;'f/i/'j  Quarterly. 

Delta David  M.  Moir Poems. 

Dennis  Jasper  1 

Murphy  \ 

Denvent  Conway. . .  .Henr^'  D.  Inglis Travels. 

Dick  Tinto Frank  B.  Goodrich.... Court  of  Napoleon. 

,   .      ,       ,        J  Washington  Irving.. .  .History  of  New  York. 
Knickerbocker  j  »  " 

Doctor  Merrj' J.  Wyndham Merry  Companions. 

Dod  Grile ^L  Biercc Friend's  Delight. 

Don  Leucadio  )  Rev.  Joseph  Blanco 

Doblado  \  White 

Dow,  Junior Elbridge  G.  Page Patent  Sermons. 

Dr.  Oldham  at  j  „        ^   ,   t    ^    -n  (  American  Advocate 

!  Rev.  Caleb  S.  Henry..  ,  „ 

Graystones  )  '       i  0/  Peace. 

Dr.  Vicesimus 

Blenkinsop 

Dr.  Peter  Morris J.  G.  Lockhart Peter's  Letters. 

Dr.  Syntax Wm.  Combe Tour  of  Dr.  S. 

Dr.  Updike  1  „         .  ^   .  (  The  Life  and 


Countess  Dash.. 


.  Sketches, 


.  C.  Maturin Novels  and  plays. 


■  Letters  from  Spain. 


j  Theo.  E.  Hook Whitington  and  His  Cat. 


Underbill  S 


'  Roval  Tyler. 


Adventures  of  U.  U. 


■  Isaac  Butt College  Romance. 


(  Thos.  De  Quincey Confessions. 


Fannv  Fern., 


?^ern  Leaves, 


ASSUMED    NAME.  REAL    NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE    WORK. 

Druid H.  M.  Flint Neiu  York  ll^orid. 

Dunn  Brown Rev   Samuel  Fisk Sj^ringficld  Republican, 

E.  B,  Waverly J.  Wilson  Croker Letters  on  Currency. 

E.  C,  Rcvons <Chailes  C.  Converse. .  -Spring  and  Holiday. 

E.  H.  T E:irl  of  Derby Travels. 

Eden  Warwick .'George  S.  J  abet Notes  on  Noses. 

Edge  worth  Benson.  .John  Scott Visit  to  Paris. 

Edith  May .Anna  Drinker Poetry. 

Edmund  Falconer... Edmund  O'Rourke..  ..Dramatist. 

Edmund  Kirke James  R.  Gilmore Travels. 

Edward  Baldwin.  ...William  Godwin Juvenile  works, 

Edward  Hazlcfoot..  .W.  Sidney  VstH'^&t.,,, Knight's  Quarterly, 

Edward  Herbert J.  Hamilton  Reynolds. Poetrj-. 

Edward  Stevenson 
O'Brien  ) 

Edward  Sidney Beverly  Tucker The  Partisan  Leader. 

Elia Charles  Lamb Essaj's  of  Elia. 

Eli  Perkins M.  D.  Landon Journalist. 

Elizabeth  Wetherell. Susan  Warner AVJde,  Wide  World. 

Ellis  Bell Emily  J.  Bronte Wuthering  Heights. 

English  Opium- 

Eater  \ 

Ephemera Henry  Fitzgibbon Book  of  the  Salmon. 

Ephraim  Holding,. ..George  Mogridge Sunday  School  Tales. 

Espriella  Alvarez.. .  .Robert  Southcy Letters  from  England. 

Estella Elizabeth  Bogart New  York  Mirror. 

Ethan  Spike Matthew  F.  Whittier. 

Etonensis Wm.  E.  Gladstone.,,,  G7W/««/orarj'  Revieiv. 

Ettrick  Shepherd James  Hogg Tales  and  Poems. 

Everpoint Joseph  M.  Field The  Drama  in  Pokerville. 

Ezek  Richards John  Savage The  Press. 

Falconbridge Jonathan  F.  Kelly. ...Humor. 

Mrs.  (Sarah  Willis)        ^ 
James  Parton  \ 

Fanny  Fielding Mary  J.  S.  Upsher. 

(  Emily  (Cliubbuckj  1  Trippings  in 

Fanny  Forrester        j  Judson  \  Authorland- 

Farmer's  Boj- Robert  BloomfieUl Poetry. 

Fat  Contributor A.  Miner  Gris wold.,.. Humor. 

(  Reliques  of  Father 

(  Prout. 

Felix  Balfour Watts  Phillips London  yournal, 

Ferragus Louis  Ulbach Journalist. 

Felta Kate  "W.  Hamilton. 

Flaneur Edmund  H.  Vates Novels. 

Florence  T^ei'^h Ann  F.  Wilbur Ladies'  Magazine, 

Florence  Percy Mrs.  Eliza  Akers Poetry. 

F.  G.  Trafford Mrs.  J.  H.  Riddell George  Geith. 

Francis  Oldys George  Chalmers Life  of  Thos.  Paine. 

Frank  Farleigh Frank  E.  Smedlcy Louis  Arundel. 

Frank  Forrester Henry  W,  Herbert  .  ...Field  Sports  of  the  U.  S. 

Gail  Hamilton Mary  Abigail  Dodge.  .Gala  Days, 

Gath Geo.  Alf.  Townscnd.  ..Journalist. 

Gemsee G.  E.  M.  Crawford Cricket  Notes. 

Neuu  York  Courier 

and  Inquirer, 

Geoffrey  Crayon Washington  Irving...  .Sketch  Book. 

George  Eliot Marian  C.  Evans Novels. 

George  Forest Rev.  J.  G.  Wood Naturalist. 

George  Sand Madame  Dudevant.... Novels. 

Girard  Montgomery. .John  Moultrie Knighf^s  Quarterly. 

Glance  Gaylord "W.  I.  Bradley Fiction. 

Gleaner Nathaniel  I.  Bowditch.Zfjj/f?/;  Transcript. 

Mrs.  Sarah  Jane 

(Clark)  Lippincott  \ 

Grace  Wharton A.  T.  Thompson Queens  of  Society. 

Graduate  of  Oxford. .John  Ruskin Modern  Painters. 

Graybeard John  F.  Graff Lay  Sermons.  • 

Gregory  Griffin George  Canning The  Microcosm, 


Father  Prout Francis  Mahoney. 


Genesee  Traveller.  ..Matthew  L.  Davis. 


Grace  Greenwood.. 


History  of  My  Pets. 


\ 

N.. 

-^ %' 


•^J 

o           ^ 

^           c 

.* 

G^ 

( 

\ 

A    DICTIONARY    OF 

NOMS    DE    PLUME.                                                                       793 

t 

ASSUMED    NAMF. 

HEAL    NAME. 

REPRESENTATIVE    WOKK. 

ASSUMED    NAMK. 

'-  1 

KEAL    NAME.                   REPRXSBNTATIVB    WORK. 

H;imiUon  Murniy.. 
H;ins  Breitmun 

.Henry  Molden 

.Charles  G.Leland... 

.KnightU  Quarterly. 
.Ballads. 

John  Hampden.... 

I  Lord  (G.  N.  Green-      1  ,_. 

J                     ville)  Nugent  l"^*'^^- 

l^Ians  Yorkul 

.A.  Oakey  Hall 

.Ballads. 

John  Jorrocks 

.Edward  Surtees Sponge's  Sporting  Tour. 

Hnrkuwav 

..Charles  Marshall.... 

.Sporting  Notes. 

H;irrictt  Mvrllc 

.Mrs.  L.Miller 

.Juvenile  tales. 

John  Oldbug 

:                          ,...  .  .              I  The  Puritan. 
t                          Withington  S 

.Charles  T    Brings... 

John  Paul 

John  Phcenix 

.Charles  H.Webb Liffith  Lank. 

.Capt.  Geo.  H.  Derby. .Phcrnixiana. 

Harry  Grinj;;o   ..... 

I  Lieut.  Harry  Aug. 
\                                  Wis 

\  Captain  Brand. 

John  Quod  

.John  T.  Irving Kniikerbocker  Magaxine. 

Harry  Hieovcr 

Charles  Brindley 

-Practical  Horsemanship. 

John  Sur. re-butter 

John  Anstcv The  Pleader's  Guide. 

Harry  Lorrequcr... 

.Charles  Lever 

(  Adventures  of  Harry 
'  \                        Lorrequer. 

John  Waters 

Jon  Ree 

.  Henry  Cary Knickerbocker  Magazine, 

.John  Badcock Slang  Dictionary. 

H.  R 

John  Chalkhill 

Jonathan  Frcke 

Slingsby 

.Izaak  Walton The  Complete  Angler. 

Ht-atherbc-U 

..Eleannr  Smith 

Tales  in  Good  Words* 

!         Helen  Berkley 

(  Anna  Cora  (Mowatt) 

\  Evelyn. 

1  John  F.  Waller Slingsby  Papers. 

ei            ' 

Jonathan  Oldstyle.. 

.Washington  lT\\n^.,., Morning  Chronicle. 

Helen  Mar 

.Mrs.  D.  M.  F.Walker 

Joseph  Hutter 

, .  Henry  N.  Coleridge. . .  h'night's  Quarterly.                    ' 

Henry  Holbcach... 

.W.  n.  Rands 

.Shoemakers'  Village. 

Josh  Hillings 

.Henrv  W.  Sh.aw Allminax, 

Henry  J.  Thurston. 

.F.  T.  Palgrave 

.Passionate  Pilgrim. 

Josiiua  Coffin 

.H.  W.  Longfellow  ....History  of  Ncwbuir. 

Hesba  Streton 

.Sarah  Smith 

1  Hester  Morley's 

Journeyman  Printer.. C.  Manhy  Smith Autobiography  of  J.  P. 

\                            Primrose. 

J. Sand 

-Miles  Sandau Novelist. 

Hierophilis 

.Archbishop  McHale.. 

.  Political  Letters. 

(  Joseph  Lemuel                 )  , 

Julian  Cramer 

r                           Chester  i-'°'"-"=^'"- 

Home  Lee 

.Harriet  Parr 

.Novelist. 

Justitia 

..Bennett  Lowe Photog.  Note- Book.                  i 

Hookanit  Bee,  Esq 

-S.  R.  Wigram 

.Flotsam  and  Jetsam. 

Karl  Reden 

.Charles  C.  Converse... Church  Singer. 

Honestus 

.Benj.  Austin 

.htdiprndent  L'hronicU, 

Kirwan 

1  Rev.  Nicholas  Murray. Religious  Controversy. 

H'lpe  Anstfd 

.Miss  Rurdett 

.  Family  Herald. 

Horace  Fitz  Jersey. 

.Theo.  W.  A,  Buckley. 

.Collegiate  Experience. 

Knickerbocker 

-John  S.  Du  Sollc Sunday  Despatch. 

Horace  Welbv 

.John  Timbs 

.Signs  before  Death. 

K.  N.  Pepper 

.J.  W.  Morris Poems.                                            , 

Horam 

.Rev.  James  Ridley... 

.Tales  of  the  Genii. 

Kuklos 

.John  Harris T.iles  in  m.igazines. 

Horus 

.John  C.  Fisher 

.Journalist. 

Laco 

..Stephen  Higginson Political  controversy. 

Hosea  Biglow 

.James  R.  Lowell 

.Biglnw  Papers. 

Laclilla 

..Mrs.  Anne  Ycarsley... Poems.                                             , 

Hotspur 

.11.  M.  Feist 

(   Telegraph  and 
'  \                     Sporting  Li/f. 

Launcelot 

Wagstaffe,  Jr. 

Charles  Mack-ay Gouty  Philosopher. 

Howadji 

.Geo.  Wm.  Curtis 

.Nile  Notes. 

Laura  Caxton 

.Lizzie  B.  Comins. 

Howard  Glvndon.- 

.Laura  C.  Reddon. . . . 

.Idyls  of  Battle. 

Lawrence  Slingsby 

.Geo.  H.  Lewes Burlesques. 

Huntsnian 

.Granlley  Berkeley 

.Field. 

Lctghton 

-,         ,            .       ,               1  Piscataqua  Fran- 
..Rev.  Jesse  Appleton..  ( 

(              gelnal  Magazine. 

1  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Stuart 

1 

H    Trusta 

\                                  Phelp 

Tell-Tale. 

Lemuel  Gulliver... 

.Jonathan  Swift Gulliver's  Travels. 

lanlhe 

.Emma  C.  Embury.... 

.Guide  and  other  Poems. 

Leonard  Rae 

-John  Douglas Hal  o'  the  Wynd. 

Ignatius  Loyola 

Robinson 

[  Sketches  of  Public 

Lewis  Carroll 

.C.  L.  Douglas Alice  in  Wonderland. 

^^"" 

■  (                         Characters. 

L'lnconnuc 

.L.  Virginia  French Poems. 

Ik.  Marvel 

.Donald  G.  Mitchell... 

.Reveries  of   a  Bachelor. 

Littlejohn 

.Fred.  G.  Tomlins Lt>*idon  Weekly  Times. 

Inipulsia 

)  Ladv  Harriet  G. 

(  Lispings  from  Low 

London  AntiquarLii 

.J.  C.  Hottcn Slang  Dictionary. 

GushinKton 

(Hamilton)  Dufferi 

1  \                         Latitudes. 

Louise  Muhlbach.. 

.Clara  (Mullcr)  Mundt.. Historical  Novels. 

Ion 

.E.  Kingman 

.Baltimore  Sun. 

Louis  de  Monlalte. 

-Blaise  Pascal Letters  to  a  Provincial. 

I>aac  Tomkins 

-Lord  Brougham 

.On  the  Aristocracy. 

Luke  Limner 

.John  Lcighton Artist. 

.W.  Gilmore  Simms... 

.Novelist, 

ning, 

.Humor. 

Lynn  Bard 

Mac 

Mc.Vronc 

.W.  McConnell Comic  Draughtsman.                ; 

.George  Arnold McArone  Papers.                        , 

Jack  Humphries... 

.Jonathan  F.  Kellv... 

Jack  Ketch 

.T.  K.  Hervev 

.Poetrv. 

Mace  Sloper 

.Charles  G.  Leiand Ballads. 

Jacob  Larwood 

.L.  R.Sadler 

.London  Parks. 

Major  Jack  Downing  Scba  Smith Humor. 

Jacob  Omnium 

January  Scarle 

.M.  J.  Higgins 

.G.  Scarle  Phillips.... 

.  The  Times. 

.Gypsies  of  Dane's  Dyke. 

Malakoff 

Manhattan 

.Joseph  A.  ScovWXt.... London  Herald, 

.Dr.  Dollinger 

.Religious  controversy. 

Maria  del  Occidente 

Mari.(Gowcn)               y 
Brooks  S 

Janu^Wcatherboun 

dT.  G.  Wainwright 

.  London  Magazine. 

.Albert  Smith 

.Miss  Mackay  

.  Medical  Times. 
.Figaro, 

Mariett.i 

.Harriet  M.  Bradley.  ..Minnie's  Birthtlav, 
■  Mary  Virginia                 . 

Jeanie  Dods 

Jedediah 

Cleishbotham 

*  Sir  Walter  Scott 

.Talcs  of  My  Landlord. 

1           (Hawcs)  Terhunc  1 

Mrs.  (larrict  M.               )  »,        ,                                           i 
I  Novels. 

Jcemes  Pipes  of 

Pipcsville 

1  Stephen  C.  Massett.. 

.Humor. 

Markham  Howard. 

Stephens  i 
.Mary  Cecil  Hav 0!il  Middlctnn's  Money. 

1         Jennv  June 

.Mrs.  Jennie  C.  Croly.. 

.ChUdren's  tales. 

Mark  Littleton 

.John  1*.  Kennedy Swallow  Barn. 

1         Jeremiah  Bingletub 

..John  Styles 

.Velvet  Cushion. 

Mark  Rochester..,. 

.W.  C.  M.  Kent The  Derhv  Ministry. 

J.  K.  L 

Joaquin  Miller 

.Samuel  1-.  Clemens.. ..Innocents  Abroad. 

.Cincinnatus  H.  Miller.Poems. 

Married  Critic 

-Jules  G.  Janin Criticisms. 

.Sunday  Despatch. 

Martin  Doyle 

Mary  Clavers 

.Rev.  William  Hickey.. Irish  Agriculture. 
.Mrs.  CM.  Kirkland...A  New  Home. 

Joe  Miller,  Jr 

.Thompson  Westcott. . 

- 

John  Darby 

.J.  E.  Garretson 

.Essays. 

Mary  Ormc 

Mrs.  Mary  Sargent         j  l,,,„,„  ,„  l^ji,,. 

1 

John  Gifford 

Edward  Foss 

.Legal  Peers. 

Gove  (Ncal)  Nichols  ( 

e 

/ 

_j 

\ 

^ 

"*T 

\'      ' 

V 

•V  ' 


K 


794 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    NOMS    DE    PLUME. 


^ 


I  W.  M.  Thackeray Paris  Sketches. 


Minnie  Myrtle... 


'  Robert  McXish., 


f  Poems, 


..Blackwood^ s  Magaz 


Mrs.  Markham., 


Mrs.  Manners.. 


V 


ASSUMED    NAME,  REAL    NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE    WOKK. 

Mary  Powell Miss  M.  A.  Manning. -Fiction. 

Massachusettensis... Daniel  Leonard Pulitical  controversy. 

™          .  ^   ,,-   ,,    T^  .1  (  Master  Timothv's 

Master  Timothy G.  \\  .  M.  Reynolds....  Bookcase 

Matthew  Browne. ...William  B.  Rands Poems. 

Matthew  Stradling...M.  M.  F.  Mahoney....  .Gilbert  Massinger. 

Maurice  Sand Maurice  Dudevant.  ...Travels. 

Max  Adder Chas.  Heber  Clark  ....Comic. 

Mercutio AVill  Winter Ne^  York  Tribune, 

Michael  Angelo 

Titmarsh 

Miles  O'Reilly See  Private  Miles  O'Reilly 

Anna  v..  Johnson 

(Mrs.  Joaquin  Miller) 

Modern 

Pythagorean 

Mof  ussilite Thomas  Lang Too  Clever  by  Half. 

Morgan  O'Doherty .  .William  Maginn DlackivoofPs  Magazine. 

Morgan  Rattler Percival  Banks Fraser^s  Magazine. 

Mr.  Pips Percivai  Leigh Punch. 

1  Mrs.  Elizabeth  J  c-   i.      i  i.-   .     • 

;  „  \  School  histories. 

/  Penrose  \ 

t  Cornelia  H.  (Bradley)    )   ,,,,  aw,         i 

;  ^-   .        ,       At  Home  and  Abroad. 

\  Richards  \ 

Mrs.  Partington Benj.  P.  Shillabcr Boston  Post. 

Ned  Buntlinc E.  Z.  C.  Judson King  of  the  Sea. 

Nelsie  Brook Mrs.  Ellen  Ross Litllc  Mother  Mattie. 

Nicias  Foxcar Francis  Jacox Journalist, 

Nilla Miss  Abby  AUin Home  Ballads. 

Nimrod Charles  J.  Apperly.... Chase,  Tu:f  and  Road. 

Novanglus John  Adams Political  controversy. 

O    F   Q  )        „  I  Natural  history  in 

„  „     ..    f  A.  Douty i  r-- 

Philander  Smith  S  (  Figaro. 

Occasional John  W.  Forney The  Press,  Philadelphia. 

Old  Humphrey George  Mogridge Every-day  Lessons. 

Old  Merry Edwin  Hodder Old  Merry's  Annual. 

Old  Sailor Henry  M.  Barker Tough  Yarns. 

Old  Shekarry Major  Leveson Forest  and  Field. 

Old  South Benjamin  Austin Indt-pejident  Chronicle, 

Oliver  Oldschool Joseph  Dennie The  Port/olio. 

Oliver  Optic William  F.  Adams Juvenile  tales. 

Olivia Emily  Edson  Grigg... Journalist. 

Ollapod Willis  G.  Clark. Knickerbocker  Magazine, 

\  Handbook  of 

OlpharHamst,  Esq.. Ralph  Thomas 

•  J         1  X-  ^  r  ictitious  Names. 

One  from  the  Plough. G.  Mitchell The  Times, 

OnuphrioMuralto...Sce  William  Marshall,  Gent. 

Onyx  Titian Sarah  M'oodward Apple  Blossom. 

Orpheus  C.  Kerr Robert  H.  Newell Humor. 

Ouida Louise  de  la  Ramc Under  Two  Flags. 

i  Lord  (Robert  E.  ; 

(  BuKvlt)  Lylton  \ 

v.  Fisher W.  E.  Chatto Angler's  Souvenir. 

r.irson  Frank Francis  J  acox J  nurnalist. 

Patty  Lee Alice  Cary Poems. 

I  J.  A.  S.  Coi;in  1  ,  r.-  .• 

>■"''  neranger \        (jjanton)  de  Plancy  (  '"'""^''  Dictionary. 

Paul  Creyton John  F.  Trowbridge.  .Fiction. 

Paul  Pindar J.  Yonge  Akerman Legends  of  Old  London. 

Paul  Priggins Rev.  J.  Hewlett Novelist. 

Paulus  Silentiarius... George  P.  Philes The  Philobtblion, 

Peasant  Bard Josiah  D.  Canning Poems. 

Pennsylvania 

Farmer 

Pcquot Charles  W.  March Boston  Courier. 

Peregrine  Pe^^ic James  Morier Hajji  Baba. 

Pcrlcy Benj.  Perley  Poore,   ^.Baston  yournal. 

Peter  Palette Thomas  Onwhyn.,,,.. Artist, 


Owen  Meredith. . 


Lucille. 


[John  Dickinson Political  controversy. 


f  Samuel  Parr Characters  of  Fox. , 


ASSUMED    NAME,  REAL    NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE   WORK. 

Peter  Parley Samuel  G.  Goodrich.  .Cabinet  Library. 

Peter  Pennot Rev.  W.  F.  Round. 

Peter  Peppercorn...  .Thomas  L.  Peacock.. .Poems. 

Peter  Pindar Dr.  John  AVolcot Satirist. 

Peter  Plymlcy Rev.  Sydney  Smith.... Letters. 

Peter  Porcupine William  Cobbett P.  P.'s  Gazette,  > 

Peter  Priggins Rev.  H.  Hewlett College  Scout. 

Peter  Quince Isaac  Stor^' Tlie  Parnassian  Shop. 

Peter  Sclilcmihl George  Wood P.  S.  in  America, 

Peter  Scriber Charles  Aug.  Dzixls. . .Commerciai  Advertiser. 

Peter  Wilkins Robert  Pattock Fiction. 

Petroleum  V.  Nasby. David  R.  Locke Toledo  Blade. 

Philanthropes William  Lad Friend  of  Peace. 

Philip  Qiiilibet George  E.  Pond. 

Philip  Wharton John  C.  Thomson Wits  and  Beaux. 

Philopatris  Varvi-     ^  ^ 
censis  \ 

Phiz H.  K.  Browne Illustrator  of  Dickens. 

Poor  Richard rienjamin  Franklin....  P.  R.'s  Almanac. 

Porte  Crayon David  H.  Strother Harper* s  M^^gazine, 

Priam C.  J.  Collins Dick  Diminy. 

^.^   .,,     !  Charles  G.  Halpine.,..AV:y  York  Herald. 
O  Reilly  ) 

Prizeman  Newdigate.^V.  H,  Mallock Every  Man  His  Own  Poet 

Publicola John  Quincy  Adams. . .Political  controversy. 

Publicola W.  J.  Fox IVestminster  Pcnie^u, 

Publicola David  E.  Williams London  Weekly  Despatch, 

I'uck John  Proctor Caricature  cartoons. 

Q Chas.  G.  Rosenberg... You've  Heard  of  'Em, 

Q Edmund  11.  Yates Esening  Star. 

Q.  Q Miss  Jane  Taylor Youth's  Magazine, 

Q.  K.  Philander         )  ,,    ,,    ^,  r.,        -  , 

_  .  ,      J  M.  M.  Thompson Plu-ri-bus-tah, 

Doesticks  ) 

Quallon S.  H.  Bradbury Poems. 

Qjiz Rev.  Ed.  C.iswcll Sketches. 

R.idical Leslie  Grove  yox\c^.,,, London  Times, 

Rawdnn  Cra\vley. ..  .See  Capt.  Rawdon  Crawley. 

Red  Spinner W.  Senior Waterside  Sketches. 

Reuben  Percy See  Shollo  and  R,  Percy. 

Richard  Brisk J.  Duncan Railway  Book. 

Richard  Hayward..,Frcd.  S.  Cozzens Knickerbocker  ATagazine, 

Robinson  Crusoe  ...  .Daniel  Defoe Adventures  of  R.  C. 

Rob  Roy John  Macgregor Canoe  Voyages. 

Roving  Englishman.  Grenville  Murray Sketches. 

Ruhama Miss  Skidmore St.  Louis  Globe- Democrat. 

Runnymcdc Benjamin  Disraeli Letters  of  Runny mede. 

Rustic  Bard Robert  Dinsmoor Poems.  ■ 

Rutledge Mrs.  Miriam  (Coles)  Harris. 

S.  G.O S,  G.  Osborne The  Times. 

Samuel  A.  Bard Ephraim  G.  Squier. ..  .Waikna. 

Sam  Slick Thos.  C.  Haliburton...The  Clockmaker. 

„        ,    _   ,  -VT-      T.-    ij-  (  Papers  for  Thoughtful 

Sarah  Tyler Miss  Keddie \       ^  ",.  , 

f  Girls. 

Saville  Rome Clement  Scott London  Telegraph. 

Scrutator J.  Horlock Country  Gentleman. 

See  De  Kay Charles  D.  Kirk. 

Seeley  Rcgester Mrs.  O.  J.  Victor. 

Sexton  of  the  Old-     i_       ,       ,,    „  J  Dealings  with  the 

,       ,     Lucius  M.  Sargent  ^  ^      , 

school  \  ^  \  Dead. 

Shamrock R.  D.  Williams Poems. 

Sh;:Isley  Bcaucharap.T.  W.  Bradley Grantley  Grange. 

Shirley  Dare Mrs.  (Susan  Dunning^  Waters, 

Sholto  and  i  Thomas  Byerley  and      ) 

Reuben  Percy  \      Joseph  C.  Robertson  )  ^ 

Sholto R.  S.  Mackenzie Philadelphia  Press. 

Sigma Lucius  ^L  Sargent. ..  .Boston  Transcript, 

Silvcrpen Eliza  Meteyard Lilian's  Golden  Hours. 

Sir  Cosmo  Gordon. .  .Sir  S.  E.  Brydges Letters  on  Byron, 

Sir  Galahad Kenry  "W.  Moore Kansas  City  Times, 


-^ 


IV 


/ 


A    I5ICT10NARV    OK    NOMS    DE    PI.UM1£. 


795 


ASSUMED    NAME.  REAL    NAMH.  REPRESENTATIVE    WORK. 

Solitaire Jolin  S.  Robh Humor. 

Sophie  May Miss  R.  S,  Chirk SwMinp  Dr.'s  Adventures. 

Spiirrowgrass V.  S.  Cozzens Sparrowgrass  Papers. 

Speranza Laily  Wilde Poems. 

Spy  in  Washington.  .Matthew  L.  Davis.  ...A''.  3'.  Courier. 

Squihob George  II.  Derl>y Squibob  Papers. 

Stampede Jonathan  F.  Kelly Humor. 

Stella Mrs.  E.  A,  n.  Lewis... Records  of  the  Heart. 

Stonehen^e J.  Henry  Walsh The  Dog, 

Straws Joseph  M.  Field Ntw  Orleans  Picayune, 

Straws,  J  r Miss  Kale  Field Springfield  Republican. 

Sut  Lovengood Guorjic  W.  Harris Humor. 

Sydney  Yendys Sydney  DobcH Poetry. 

Tabor Mrs.  Robinson Novelist. 

Tag,  Rag  and  Bobtail.  Isaac  D'Israeli Flim- Flams. 

Talvi Mrs.  Ed.  Robinson..  ..Tales. 

Tamoc  Caspipinj J  acob  Duche Letters  of  T.  C. 

TeufelsdrtEckh Thomas  Carlyle Sartor  Uesartus. 

Teutha William  Jerdan Literary  Gazette. 

Tlie  Black  Dwarf Th(im;is  J.  Wooler Politics. 

The  Celt Thomas  Davis Poems. 

The  Druid Henry  H.  Dixon Silk  and  Scarlet. 

The  Governor Hciiry  Morford New  York  Atlas. 

The  O'Hara  I''amily..Juhn  and  M.  Hanim..  .Novels. 

I'he  Traveller Isaac  Stary Columbian  Sentinel, 

'       .    \  Nathaniel  Ward Simple  Cobbler. 

Guarde  J 

Theodore  Taylor,,,., J.  C.  Hotten Life  of  Thackeray. 

Thinks  I  to  Myself.. .Rev.  Dr.  Ed.  Nares,,.. Novels. 

Thomas  Little Thomas  Moore Little's  Poems. 

Thomas  Iiigoldsby...Rev,  U,  H.  Barham...  .Ingoldsby  Legends. 

Thomas  Rowley ...  .Thomas  Chatterton,,.. Poems. 

Timon  Fieldmouse.. .William  B.  Rands Essays. 

Timothy  Tickler Robert  Syme In  Noctes  Ambrosiana-. 


Vandyke  Brown William  Penn  Brennan  f 


ASSUMED    NAME.  REAL    NAME.  R  KPKESBMTATIVE    WORK. 

Timothy  Titcomb,,..j.  G.  Holland Letters  to  tlic  Young. 

Tom  Brown Thomas  Hughes Tom  Brown  at  Ilugby. 

Tom  Folio Joseph  E.  Babson. 

Tom  Hawkins Theo.  W.  A.  \^wz)f\Q\.. Gentleman*:  Atoj^axine. 

Trinculo John  A.  CockerJll Journalist. 

Tristram  Merton Thomas  B.  Macaulay..Aw/^A/'x  Quarterly, 

Two  Brothers A.  and  C.  Tennyson... Poems. 

Ubique Parker  Gilmorc Afloat  and  Ashore. 

Una Mary  A.  Ford Poems. 

Uncle  Hardy William  Senior Notable  Shipwrecks. 

l^nclc  John Elisha  Noyce Marvels  of  Nature. 

Uncle  Philip Rev.  Dr.  F.  L.  Hawks. American  Histories. 

Uncle  Toby Rev.  Tobias  H.Miller. 

V Mra.  Archer  Clivc Poems. 

Harp  of  a 

Thousand  Strings. 

Veteran  Observer Ed.  D.  Mansfield Chronicle  and  Atlas. 

V^illage  SchoolmjisterC.  M.  Dickinson Tales. 

Vigilant John  Corlett The  Times. 

Vivian George  H.  Lewes The  Leader, 

Vivi;in  Joyeux W.  M.  Praed Knight' s Quarterly, 

Walter  Barrett,  clerk. Joseph  A,  Scoville Old  Merchants  of  N.  Y. 

Walking  Gentleman. Thos.  C.  Gratlan.. ...  .Highways  and   Bywavs. 

Walter  Maynard W.  Beale Enterprising  Impresario. 

Warrington William  S.  Robinson. .5/*fi«i^cA/  Kepublican. 

Waters William  H.  Russell... Diary  of  a  Detective. 

Werdna  Retnyw Andrew  Wynter Odds  and  Ends. 

\\*Iiat's  His  Name E.  C.  Massey Green-eyed  Monster. 

Wm.  Marshall,  Gtfnt., Horace  Walpolc Castle  of  Otranlo. 

William  and  Hnhcrt  1       ,      .,      ,  ,         t  t--         *    .u 

,,.,.     ,  .JJohn  Hookham  rrere.King  Arthur. 

\\  hisllecraft  j  ^ 

Wilibald,  Alexis William  H;vring Walladmor. 

Wizird John  Corlett The  Times. 

Zadkiel  the  Seer R.  J.  Morrison Prophetic  Almanac. 


^ 


\ 


796 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  MYTHOLOGY. 


n_.:--  -  L_       _  — ■ 
li 


I-' e  r' r^rJ.ciiJx^aP'P: '■^.FFaiijdr' r) rijJtJgHFP?' 


l^"'''J[i4^'"Jiisr  ^ii:!^^!;." 


A   DICTIONARY 

OF 


■■K\.. 


;-  .■^^;,-^^'-:.r?Wv  .'^■ 


i^?g7^g??HF?:E 


HEATHEN  DEITIES 

AND   OTHER 

FABULOUS   PERSONS 

or 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN 
HISTORY. 


-TV"  BEO'NA.     A  goddess  of  voyages,  etc. 

e**^    Acha'tes.     The  trusty  friend  of  .-Eneas. 

Acll'eron.  Tin:  son  of  Sol  and  Terra,  changed 
by  Jiipiier  into  a  river  of  hell.  Used  also  for 
hell  itself. 

Achilles.  A  Greek  who  signalized  himself  in 
the  war  against  Troy.  Having  been  dipped  by 
his  mother  in  the  river  Styx,  he  was  invulner- 
able in  every  part  except  his  right  heel,  but  was 
at  length  killed  by  Paris  with  an  arrow. 

A'ciS.     A  Sicilian  shepherd,  killed  by   Polyphe- 

mas  because  he  rivaled  the  latter  in  the  atFec- 

tions  of  Galatea. 
Actge'on,     A  famous  hunter,  who,  having  sur- 

pris-d  Diana  as  she  was  bathing,  was  turned  by 

her  into  a  slag,  and  killed  by  his  own  dogs. 
Ado'nls.    A  beautiful  youth  beloved  by  Venus 

and  I'roserpine.     He  was  killed  by  a  wdd  boar. 

When  wounded,  Venus  sprinkled  nectar  into  his 

blooJ,  from  which  fiOwers  sprang  up, 
TKtrfi'ns.     A  king  of  Atheu'i,  giving  name  to  the 

.'t^can  sea  by  drowning  himself  in  it. 
-ffi'g'is.     A  shield  given  by  Jupiter  to  Minerva. 

Al.'j  the  name  of  a  Gorgon  wtiom  Pallas  slew. 
JEne'aS.      A  Trojan  prince,  son  of  Anchises  and 

Venus  ;  the  hero  of  Virgil's  poem  the  .-Eneid. 
.ffi'olus.     The  god  of  the  winds, 
.^o'us.     One  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 
.ZB3CUla.'pius.      The  god  of  medicine,  and   the 

sou  lit  ApoUu.     Killed  by  Jupiter  with  a  thun- 

<!erli   It  for  having  restored  Hippolytus  to  life. 
,31'thon.     One  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 
Agamem'non.     King  of  Mycenje  and  Argos, 

brot.ii.r  lu  Meuelaus,  and  chosen  captain-gea- 

cr.il  .if  the  (ireeks  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 
Ag'anlp'pe.     A  fountain  at  the  foot  of  Mount 

li.liiiiu,  daughter  of  the  river  Permessus. 
Agrla'ia.     One  of  the  three  Graces. 
A'jax.     Next  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  of  all  the 

(Ireeks  in  the  Trojan  war. 
Al'bion.     'I'he  son  of  Neptune ;  went  into  Britain 

and  Lstablishcd  a  kingdom. 

Alces'te,  "r  Alcestis.  The  daughter  of  Pelias 
and  wife  of  Admctus,  brought  back  from  hell  by 
Hercules. 

Alci'des.     A  title  of  Hercules. 

Alec'to.     One  of  the  three  Furies. 

Alo'a.     A  festival  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres. 

Am'mon.    A  title  of  Jupiter. 

Amphi'on.  A  famous  musician,  the  son  of  Ju- 
piter and  Antiope,  who  built  the  city  of  Thebes 
by  the  music  of  his  harp.  He  and  his  brother 
Zethus  arc  said  to  have  invented  music. 

Amphitri'te.  Goddess  of  the  sea,  and  wife  of 
Ncptm.e. 


Androzn'ach.e.    Wife  of  Hector. 

Androm'eda.  The  daughter  of  Cepheus  and 
Cassiopeia,  who,  contesting  with  Juno  and  the 
Nereides  fur  the  prize  of  beauty,  was  bound  to  a 
rock  by  them  and  expu^ed  to  a  sea  monster,  but 
was  rescued  and  married  by  Perseus. 

Ange'rona.     The  goddess  of  silence. 

Antge'us.  The  giant  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra  ; 
squeezed  to  death  by  Hercules. 

Antever'ta.     Goddess  of  women  in  labor. 

Aiitiff'one.  The  daughter  of  (Edipus  and  Jo- 
casia,  famous  for  her  filial  piety. 

An'ubis.     An  Egyptian  god  with  a  dog's  head. 

A'pis.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe  ;  called  also 
Serapis  and  Osiris.  Taught  the  Egyptians  to 
sow  corn  and  plant  vines,  and  worshipped  by 
them  in  the  furni  cf  an  ox. 

Apollo.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and 
the  gud  pif  music,  poetry,  eloquence,  medicine 
and  ihe  fine  arts. 

Arach'ne.  A  Lydian  princess,  turned  into  a 
spiii^;!-  lur  contending  wiih  Minerva  at  spinning. 

Arethu'sa.  One  of  Diana's  nymphs,  who  was 
eliau^ea  into  a  fountain. 

Ar'gTlS.  The  son  of  Aristor;  said  tn  have  had  a 
hundred  eyes ;  but  being  killed  by  Mercury 
when  appointed  by  Juno  to  guard  lo.she  put  his 
eyes  on  the  tail  of  a  peacock.  Also  an  archi- 
tect, who  built  the  ship  Argo. 

Ariad'ne.  The  daughter  of  Minos,  who,  from 
love  lo  Theseus,  gave  him  a  clew  of  thread,  tu 
guide  him.  out  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth  ;  being 
afterward  deserted  by  him,  she  was  married 
to  Kacchus,  and  made  his  priestess. 

Axi'on.  A  lyric  poet  of  Methymna,  who,  in 
his  voyage  to  Italy,  saved  his  life  from  the 
cruelty  of  the  mariners  by  means  of  dolphins, 
which  the  sweetness  of  his  music  brought 
together. 

AristSB'uS.     A  son  of  Apollo  and  Gyrene. 

Astrse'a.  The  g.iddess  of  justice;  changed  inio 
tlic  constellation  Virgo. 

Atalan'ta.  A  princess  of  Scyros,  who  consented 
10  marry  that  one  of  her  suitors  who  should  out- 
run her,  Hippomenes  being  the  successful  com- 
petitor. 

Atlas.  One  rf  the  Titans,  and  kingofMaure- 
tania  ;  said  to  have  supported  the  world  cii  his 
shoulders;  he  was  turned  into  a  mountain  by 
Perseus. 

AuTo'ra.     The  goddess  of  morning. 
j  Autum'nus.     The  god  of  fruits. 

Bacchan'tes.      Priests  of  Bacchus. 

Bac'cllUS.  1  *ic  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  and 
the  god  of  wine. 

Bap'ta.     The  goddess  of  shame. 


Beller'oph.on.  The  son  of  Glaucus,  king  of 
Ephyra.  He  underwent  numerous  hardships  for 
refusing  an  intimacy  with  Sthenohoea,  wife  of 
Proetus,  the  king  of  Argos.  With  the  aid  of  the 
horse  Pegasus  he  destroyed  the  Chimera. 

Bello'na.     Goddess  of  war  ;  sister  of  Mars. 

Bereni'ce.  A  Grecian  lady;  the  only  person  of 
her  sex  permitted  to  see  the  Olympic  games. 

Boli'na.  A  nymph  rendered  immortal  for  her 
modesty  and  resistance  to  Apollo. 

Bo'reas.     The  son    of    Astraeus    and    Aurora  ; 

ih  J  ii.ime  of  the  north  wind. 
Bria'reus.     A  giant  who  warred  against  heaven, 

antl  w.is  feigned  to  have  had  fifty  heads  and  one 

hundrei.!  arms. 
Busi'ris.      The  son   of   Neptune;    a   tyrant   of 

E'.^ypt,  and  a  monstrous  giant,  who  fed  his  horses 

with  human  flesh  ;  was  killed  by  Hercules. 
Byblis.     The   daughter  i^{  Miletus  ;    she   wept 

herself  into  a  fouiitain  through  iove  of  her  brother 

Cauniis. 
Ca'ctlS.     A  son  of  Vulcan  and  a  most  notorious 

rubber;  slain  by  Hercules  for  stealing  his  oxen. 

Cad'muS.    The  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia  ; 

louiider  of  Thebes,  and  the  reputed  inventor  of 

sixteen  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 
Cadu'ceuS.     Mercury's  golden  rod  or  wand. 
Calli'ope.     One    of  the   Muses,  presiding  over 

clui^iii^jiice  and  epic  poetry. 
Calyp'so.     One  of  the  Oceanides,  who  reigned 

in  the  island  0::;ygia,  and  entertained  and  became 

enamored  of  Ulysses, 
CamSB'na,  or  Carna.     Goddess  of  infants. 
CaSSan'dra.     A  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba, 

tiiduwed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy  by  Apollo. 
Castal'ides.     The    Muses,    so    called   from    the 

I.Fiiiu.iui  Castalius,  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus. 

Cas'tor.  A  sou  of  Jupiter  and  Leda.  He  and 
his  twin  brother  Pollux  shared  immortality  alter- 
nately, and  were  formed  into  the  cousiellation 
Gemini. 

Ce'crops.  The  first  king  of  Athens,  who  insti- 
tuted in.irriage,  altars  and  sacrifices. 

Ceu'taurs.  Children  of  Ixion,  half  men  and 
half  hotses.  inhabiting  Thessaly,  and  vanquished 
by  Theseus. 

Cerlaerus.  The  three-headed  dog  of  Pluto, 
guaidiiiri  the  gates  of  hell. 

Ce'res.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Cybele,  and 
goddess  of  agriculture. 

Clia'ron.  The  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  fer- 
ryman of  hell,  who  conducted  the  souls  of  the 
deatl  over  the  rivers  Styx  and  Acheron. 

Charyb'dis.  A  ravenous  woman,  turned  by 
JuHi'er  into  a  very  dangerous  gulf  or  whirlpool 
on  the  coast  of  Sicily. 


^ 


A  DICTIONAKV  OK  MYTHOLOGY. 


797 


Chi'mera.  A  strange  monster  of  Lycia,  killed 
liy  Liullcruiilion.    ■ 

Chi'ron.  A  Centaur,  who  was  preceptor  to 
Achilles,  taught  /Escul:»pius  physic,  and  Her- 
cules rusiroiiomy,  and  who  became  the  constella- 
tion S.igiitarms. 

ChXTTSeis.  The  daughter  of  Chryses,  priest  of 
Ap.-ll...  famed  for  beamy  and  tor  her  skill  iu 
cnibri»idery. 

Cir'ce.     A  noted  enchantress. 

CU'o.     One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over  history. 

Clo'tbo.     One  (if  the  three  Fates. 
Clyteuines'tra.    The  f:mhlcss  wife  of  Agamem- 
non, kilkd  i-y  her  Sun  Orcsies. 
Co'mus.     The  god  of  merriment. 
Cro'CUS.     A  young  man  enamored  of  the  nymph 

Snid.i.\,  and  chanyed  into  a  flower. 
Croe'sus.     King  of  Lydia;  the  richest  man  of 

hi^  unic. 
Cu'pid'     Son  of  Mars   and  Venus  ;  the   god  of 

love. 
Cyb'ele.     The  daughter  of  Crelus   and   Terra  ; 

wife  of  Saturn,  and  mother  of  the  gods. 
Cy'clopS.     Vukiin's  workmen,  giants  who  had 

unly  line  eye.  in  ihe  middle  of  llitir  foreheads  ; 

sl.iiu  by  Apullo  in  a  pique  against  Jupiter. 

CSBd'aluS.  A  most  ingL-niousnrti6cer  of  Athens, 
«ho  furnied  the  Cretiiii  labyrintli,  and  invented 
the  auger,  axe,  glue,  plumb-line,  saw,  and  ma^ts 
and  b.ails  for  ships. 

!Da'xnon.     The  friend  of  Pythias. 

Dana'ides,  or  Be'lides.  The  fifty  daughters 
ol  Uan.uis,  king  of  Argos,  all  of  wlioui,  except 
Hypermnestra,  killed  their  husbands  on  the  first 
night  of  their  marriage,  and  were  therefore 
doomed  to  draw  wattr  out  of  a  deep  well,  and 
eternally  pour  it  into  a  cask  full  of  holes. 

IJaph'ne.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo;  the 
daughter  of  the  river  Pencus;  changed  into  a 
laurel  tree. 

Saph'nis.  A  shepherd  of  Sicily  and  son  of  Mer- 
cury  :  educated  by  the  nymphs,  and  inspired  by 
the  .Mn^es  with  the  love  of  poetry. 

Sar'dauus.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  founder  of 
Tr..y. 

Seida'mia.  The  daughter  of  Lycomedes,  king 
of  Scyros;  wife  of  Achilles,  and  mother  of 
Pyrrhus. 

Deiph'obus.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba; 
married  Helena  after  the  death  of  Paris,  but  be- 
tr.iyed  by  her  to  the  Greeks. 

Dejani'ra.  Wife  of  Hercules,  who  killed  herself 
in  despair,  because  her  husband  burnt  himself 
to  avoid  the  torment  occasioned  by  the  poisoned 
shirt  she  liad  given  him  to  reg..in  his  love. 

Del'plli.  A  ciiy  of  Phocis,  famous  for  a  temple 
anil  ,in  oracle  of  Apullo. 

Deucalion.  The  son  of  Prometheus,  and  king 
of  liie^s.ily,  who,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  was  pre- 
served from  the  general  deluge,  and  repeopled  the 
world  by  throwing  stones  behind  them,  a^ 
directed  by  the  orauc. 

dan'a.  Daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and 
goddess  of  hunting,  chastity  and  marriage. 

Di'dO.  Founder  and  queen  of  Carthage  ;  daugh- 
ter of  P.elus,  and  wife  of  Sicha:us.  According  to 
X'ir;;!!,  she  entertained  /Eneas  on  his  voyage  t<j 
It.dy,  and  burnt  herself  through  despair,  because 
he  left  her. 

Diozue'des.  Son  of  Tydcus,  and  kingof  /Etolia  : 
^iaiiieti  great  reputation  at  Troy,  and,  with 
Ulysses,  carried  ulT  the  Palladium. 

Dir'ce.  Wife  of  I. yens,  king  of  Thebes;  dragged 
to  death  by  a  mad  bull. 

Dry'ades.     Nymphs  of  the  woods. 

£!ch'0.  ^  be  daughter  of  Aer.  or  Air,  and  Tellus, 
who  pined  away  for  love  of  Narcissus. 

Slec'tra.  Daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Clyicm- 
nestra  ;  instigated  her  brother  Orestes  to  revenge 
their  father's  death  upon  their  mother  and  vtgis- 
thus. 

Slys'ium.  The  happy  residence  of  the  virtuous 
alter  death. 


Bncel'aduS.  Son  of  Titan  and  Terra,  and  the 
strongest  of  the  giants;  conspired  against  Jupiter, 
and  attempted  to  scale  heaven. 

Endym'ioxi.  A  shepherd  and  astronomer  of 
Cuia,  Loiidemned  to  a  sleep  of  thirty  years. 

Epe'uS.  The  artist  who  made  the  Trojan  horse. 
inventor  of  the  sword  and  buckler. 

Er'atO.     The  Muse  of  lyric  and  amorous  poetry. 

Er'eane.     A  river  whose  waters  inebriated. 

Er'ebuS.  The  son  of  Chaos  and  Nox  ;  an  infer- 
nal dt:ity.  A  river  of  hell,  atul  often  used  by  the 
poets  for  hell  itself. 

Erin'nys.  The  Greek  name  for  the  Furies,  or 
Ktunuiiides. 

£j'ros.     -A  name  of  Cupid. 

Eumen'ides.    A  name  of  the  Furies. 

Euphor'bus.  The  son  of  Panthous ;  slain  by 
Mcn^laus  in  the  Trojan  war. 

Euphros'yne.     One  of  the  three  Graces. 

Euro'pa.  The  daughter  of  Agenor,  carried  by 
lupiiei,  in  the  form  of  a  white  bull,  into  Crete. 

Eury  ale.  A  queen  of  the  Amazons.  Also  one 
of  the  inree  Gorgons 

Eury'alus.  A  Peloponncsian  chief  in  the  Tro- 
jan war.  Also,  a  Trojan  and  a  frieml  of  Nisus, 
for  wliosc  loss  .'Eneas  was  inconsolable. 

Eui^d'ice.  Wife  of  Orpheus  ;  killed  by  a  ser- 
pent on  her  marriage  day. 

EuryTocllUS.  One  of  the  companions  of 
Uly^srs;  iiie  only  one  who  was  not  changed  by 
Circe  into  a  hog 

Euter'pe.  One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over 
nui^iL. 

Evad'ne.  Daughter  of  Mars  and  Thcbc  :  threw 
herself  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  husband,  Cata- 
neus. 

Fab'ula.     Goddess  of  lies. 

Fa'nxa.     Goddess  of  report,  etc. 

Pates.  Powerful  goddesses,  who  presided  over 
the  birth  and  the  life  of  m.tnkind,  were  the  three 
daughters  of  Nox  and  Krebus,  named  Clotho, 
Lachcsis  and  .Atropas,  Clotho  was  supposed  to 
hold  the  distaff,  Lachcsis  to  draw  the  thread  of 
human  life,  and  Atropos  to  cut  it  oflT. 

Fau'na,  amlFatu'a.     Names  of  Cybelc. 

Fau'ni.     Rur.d  gods,   described  as  having  the 

Ic^s,  feel  and  ears  of  gOats. 

Fau'nus.  Son  of  Mercury  and  No.\,  and  father 
of  thj  I'.iuni. 

Flo'ra.     The  goddess  of  flowers. 

^ortu'na.  I'l^e  goddess  of  fortune  ;  said  to  be 
bUnd. 

Fur'ies.  The  three  daughters  of  Nox  and  Ache- 
ron, named  Alccto,  Tisiphoneand  .Megscra,  with 
hair  composed  of  snakes,  and  armed  with  whips, 
cii.iins,  etc. 

Galate'a.  A  sea-nymph,  daughter  of  Nereus 
and  ]>oris,  passionately  loved  by  Polyphemus. 

Gan'ymede.  The  son  of  Tros,  King  of  Troy, 
wriL'ni  Jiipiler,  in  the  form  of  an  eagle,  snatched 
up  and  made  his  cup-bearer. 

Ge'ryon.  A  monster,  having  three  bodies  and 
three  heads,  and  who  fed  his  oxen  with  human 
flesh,  and  was  therefore  killed  by  Hercules. 

Gor'diUS.  A  husbandman,  but  after^v'ard  king 
of  Phrygia,  remarkable  for  tying  a  knot  of  cords, 
on  which  the  empire  of  Asia  depended,  in  so  in- 
iric.ite  a  manner,  that  Alexander,  unable  to  un- 
ravel it,  cut  it  asunder. 

Qor'gona,  The  three  daughters  of  Phorcus  and 
Ceta,  named  Stheno,  Kuryale  and  Medusa. 
Their  bodies  were  covered  with  impenetrable 
scales,  their  hair  entwined  with  serpents  ;  they 
had  only  one  eye  betwixt  them,  antl  they  could 
change  into  stones  those  whom  they  looked  on. 

Qra'ces.  Three  goddesses,  Aglaia.  Thalia  and 
Kuphrosyne,  represented  as  beautiful,  modest 
virgins,  and  constant  attentlants  on  Venus. 

Ha'deS.     A  title  of  Pluto. 

Har'pieS.  Winged  monsters,  daughters  of  Nep- 
tune and  Terra,  named  .\elIo,  Celacno  and  Ocy- 


pcte,  with  the  faces  of  virgins,  the  bodies  of  vul- 
tures, and  hands  armed  with  claws. 
Selld*     Tbe  daughter  of  Juno  ;  jgoddcss  of  youth, 

and  Jupiter's  ciip-bc:trcr  ;  banished  from  heaven 

on  account  of  an  unlucky  fait. 
Hec'tor.     The  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba  ;   the 

mist    valiant    of  the    Trojans,     and    slain    by 

Achdlcs. 
Hec'uba.     The  wife  of  Priam,  who  tore  her  eyes 

out  lor  the  loss  of  her  children. 

Hel'eaa,  or  Hel'en.  The  wife  of  Menelatu, 
and  the  m<.st  beautiful  woman  of  her  age.  who, 
running  away  with  Paris,  occasioned  the  Trojan 
war. 

HeTenus.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  spared 
l>>-  the  Greeks  for  his  skill  in  divination 

Helle.  The  daughter  of  Athamas,  who,  flying 
fr  >m  her  stepmother  Inn,  w.is  drowned  in  the 
Pontic  Sea,  and  g;ive  it  the  name  of  Hellespont. 

Her'cules.  The  son  <^f  Jupiter  and  Alcmcna  ; 
th^  most  famous  hero  of  antiquity,  remar-ablc  for 
his  gre.it  strength  and  numerous  exploits. 

Her'mes.     A  name  of  Mercury. 

Hermi'pne.  The  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus, 
.Old  Wile  ..1' Cadmus  ;  was  changed  intoascrpent. 
Also,  a  daufihtcr  of  Mcnelaus  and  Helena,  mar- 
ried to  Pyrrhus. 

He'ro.  A  beautiful  woman  of  Scstos,  in  Thrace, 
and  priestess  of  Venus,  whom  Leand^r  of  Abydos 
loved  so  tenderly  that  he  swam  over  the  Hellcs- 
pmt  every  night  to  see  her;  but  lie,  at  leryjih. 
Dcing  unfortunately  drowned,  she  threw  herself, 
in  despair,  into  the  sea. 

Hesper'ides.  Three  nymphs,  itglc.  Arethusa 
.Old  Hesperethnsa,  daughters  of  Hesperus.  I'hey 
had  a  g.irden  bearmg  golden  apples,  watched  by 
a  dra.;nn,  which  Hercules  slew,  and  bore  away 
the  fruit. 

Hes'peruS.  The  son  of  Japeius,  and  brother  to 
.\tlas  ;  changed  into  the  evening  star. 

Hippol'ytuS.  The  son  of  Theseus  and  Antiopc. 
or  Hippolyte,  who  was  restored  to  life  by  jtscula- 
pius,  at  the  reque>t  of  DiaiU. 

Hippom'enes.  A  Grecian  prince,  who,  beating 
Atalanta  m  :he  race  by  throwing  golden  apples 
before  her,  married  her.  They  were  changed  by 
Cybelc  into  lions. 

Hyacin'thuS.  A  beautiful  boy,  beloved  by 
.\p..,lo  and  Zcphyrus.  l  he  latter  killed  him; 
but  Apollo  changed  the  blood  that  was  spilt  into 
a  (lower  called  hyacinth. 

Hy'ades,  Seven  daughters  of  Alias  and  ^thra,  ■ 
changed  by  Jupiter  into  seven  stars. 

Hy'dra.  A  celebrated  moaster,  or  serpent,  with 
seven  or.  according  lo  some,  fifty  heads,  which 
infested  the  Lake  Lcrna.  It  was  killed  by 
Hercules. 

Hy'men.  Son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  god 
of  marriage. 

Hyp'erion.    Son  of  Coclus  and  Terra. 

Ica'rius.  Son  of  tp.lwlus  ;  having  received  from 
iiacchus  a  bottle  of  wine,  he  went  iiuo  Attica  to 
show  men  tlie  use  of  it,  but  was  thrown  into  a 
well  by  some  shepherds  whom  he  had  made 
drunk  and  who  thought  he  had  given  them  poison. 

lo'aniS.  The  son  of  n.xdahis.  who,  flying  with 
his  father  out  of  Crete  in;o  Sicily, and  soaring  loo 
high,  melted  the  wax  of  his  wings,  and  fell  Into 
the  sea,  tliencc  calkd  the  Icariau  sea. 

I'O.  The  daughter  of  Inachus,  ttimcd  by  Jupiter 
into  a  white  ncifer,  but  afterward  resumed  her 
former  shape  :  was  worshipped  after  her  death 
by  the  Kgypiians,  under  the  n.imc  of  Isis. 

Iphig-enia,  The  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
■Clytemnestra,  who.  standing  ready  as  a  victim  to 
bes.acrificed  to  appease  the  ire  of  Diana,  was 
by  that  goddess  transformed  into  a  white  hart 
and  made  a  priestess. 

I'ris.  The  daughter  of  Thaumas  and  Elcclra  ; 
one' of  the  Occanides.  and  messenger  and  com- 
panion of  Juno,  who  turned  her  into  a  rainbow. 

Ixi'on.  A  king  of  Thessaly,  and  father  of  the 
Cent.i'urs.  He  kiiled  his  own  sister,  and  was 
punished  by  being  fastened  in  hell  to  a  wheel  per- 
petually turning. 


/ 


7 


\ 


798 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  MYTHOLOGY. 


Ja'nilS.  The  son  of  Apollo  and  Crcusa,  and  first 
king  of  Italy,  who,  receiving  the  banished 
Salurn,  was  rewarded  by  him  with  the  knowledge 
of  husbandry,  and  of  things  pa^t  and  future. 

Ja'son.  The  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  who,  with 
Medea's  help,  obtained  the  golden  fleece  from 
Colchis. 

Jocas'ta.  The  daughter  of  Creon.  She  unwit- 
tingly iiKirried  her  own  son,  CEdipus. 

Ju'no.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Ops;  sister 
and  wife  of  Jupiter,  the  great  queen  of  heaven, 
and  of  all  tne  gods,  and  goddess  of  marriages 
and  births. 

Ju'piter.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops  ;  the  su- 
preme deity  of  the  heathen  world,  the  most  pow- 
erful of  the  gods,  and  governor  of  all  things. 

Lach'esiS.     One  of  the  three  Fates. 

Laoc'oon.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and 
high  priest  of  Apollo,  who  opposed  the  reception 
of  the  wooden  horse  into  Troy,  for  which  he  and 
his  two  sons  were  killed  by  serpents. 

Liaoxn'edon.  A  king  ofTroy.klUedby  Hercules 
for  denying  him  his  daughter  Hesione  after  he 
had  delivered  her  from  the  sea-monster. 

Lia'res.  Inferior  gods  at  Rome,  who  presided 
over  houses  and  families  ;  sons  of  Mercury  and 
Lara. 

Laver'na.     A  goddess  of  thieves. 

Lean'der.    See  Hero. 

Le'the.  A  river  of  hell  whose  waters  caused  a 
tui.il  fiiri^ctfulness  uf  things  past. 

Luben'tia.     Goddess  of  pleasure. 

Lu'cifer.  The  name  of  the  planet  VenuS,  or 
morning  star;  said  to  be  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Aurora. 

Luci'na.  A  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  and  a 
goddess  who  presided  over  childbirth. 

Xju'na.  The  moon;  the  daughter  of  Hyperion 
and  Terra. 

XiUper'calia.     Feasts  in  honor  of  Pan. 

IVCars.     The  god  of  war. 

Mede'a.  The  daughter  of  jEtes,  and  a  wonder- 
ful suiLCress  or  magician;  she  assisted  Jason  to 
obtain  the  golden  fleece. 

Ikledu'sa.  The  chief  of  the  three  Gorgons  ;  killed 
by  Pcrstius. 

Megr^'ra.     One  of  the  Furies. 

Megr'ara.     Wife  of  Hercules. 

lUelpom'ene.     One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over 

IVrpm'POTl.    The  son  of  Tithonus  and  Aurora,  and 

king  of  Abydon  ;  killed  by  Achilles  for  assisting 

Priam,  and  changed  into  a  bird  at  the  request  of 

his  mother. 
TKCenela'uS.      The  son  of  Atrcus,  king  of  Sparta  ; 

t)ruiht;r  ui  Agamemnon,  and  husband  of  Helen. 
SEeu'tor.      The  faithful   friend    of    Ulysses,    the 

governor  of  Telemachus,  and  the  wise---t  man  of 

his  time. 
Mer'cury.     The  son  of  Juplrerand  Mala;  me*; 

senger  ot  ihe  gods,  inventor  of  letters,  and  god  of 

eloquence,  commerce  and  robbers. 

Sli'daS.  A  king  of  Phrygia,  who  had  the  power 
given  him  of  turnmg  whatever  he  touched  intu 
gold. 

SSizier'va.  The  godde*:s  of  wisdom,  the  arts,  and 
war  ;  produced  from  Jupiter's  bratn. 

IVCin'otatir.  A  celebrated  monster,  half  man  and 
half  hull. 

STnemos'yne.  The  goddess  of  memory,  and 
niuiiier  ol  the  nine  Muses. 

SEo'mtlS.  The  son  of  Nox,  and  god  of  folly  and 
pleasantry. 

Mor'pheus.  The  minister  of  Nox  and  Somnub, 
and  gutl  ot  sleep  and  dreams. 

IVCors.     Goddess  of  death. 

Mu'ses.  Nine  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemo- 
syne, named  Calliope,  Clio,  Erato,  Euterpe, 
Melpomene,  Polyhymnia,  Terpsichore,  'I'halia 
and  Urania.  They  were  mistresses  of  all  th<; 
sciences,  andgovernessesof  the  feasts  of  the  gods. 

ICu'ta.     Goddess  of  silence. 


Na'iades.     Nymphs  of  streams  and  fountains. 

Iiarcis'su3.  A  beautiful  youth,  who,  falling  in 
love  with  his  own  reflection  in  the  water,  pined 
away  into  a  daffodil, 

Nem'esis.  One  of  the  infernal  deities,  and  god- 
dess of  revenge. 

Nep'tune.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops  ;  god  of 
tne  sea,  and,  next  to  Jupiter,  the  most  powerful 
deity. 

Ne'reids.     Sea-nymphs. 

Nes'tor,  The  son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris,  and 
king  uf  Pylos  and  .Messenia,  He  fought  against 
the  Centaurs,  was  distinguished  in  the  Trojan 
war,  and  lived  to  a  great  age. 

Ni'obe.  Daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  wife  of  Am- 
phion,  who,  preferring  herself  to  Latona.  had  her 
fourteen  children  killed  by  Diana  and  Apollo, 
and  wept  herself  into  a  stone. 

Nox.  The  most  ancient  of  all  the  deities,  and 
goddess  of  night. 

Ocean 'ides.  Sea-nymphs,  daughters  of  Oceanus; 
thiLC  thousand  in  number. 

Oce'anuS.     An  ancient  sea-god 

(£d'ipilS>  King  of  Thebes,  who  solved  the  rid- 
dle of  the  Sphinx,  unwittingly  killed  his  father, 
married  his  mother,  and  at  last  ran  mad  and 
tore  out  his  eyes. 

Om'ph.ale.  A  queen  of  Lydia,  with  whom  Her- 
cul<.s  W.IS  so  enamored  that  he  submitted  to 
spinning  and  other  unbecommg  offices. 

Ops.     A  name  of  Cybele. 

Ores'tes.     The  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Or'plieus.  A  celebrated  Argonaut,  whose  skill 
iu  music  is  said  to  have  been  so  great  that  he 
could  make  rocks,  trees,  etc.,  follow  him.  He 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Calliope. 

Osi'ris.     See  Apis. 

PaUa'dium.  A  statue  of  Minerva,  which  the 
Iroj.iii-^  imagined  fell  from  heaven,  and  with 
which  their  city  was  deemed  unconquerable. 

Pallas  and  Pylotis,      Names  of  Minerva. 

Pan.  The  son  of  Mercury,  and  ihe  god  of  shep- 
herds, huntsmen,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country. 

Pando'ra.  The  first  woman,  made  by  Vulcan, 
and  endowed  with  gifts  by  all  the  deities.  Jupi- 
ter gave  her  a  box  which  contained  all  the  evil; 
and  miseries  of  l.fe,  tjut  with  hope  at  the  boltom. 

Par'is,  or  At'exander.  Son  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba;  a  mo-t  lie.iuiUul  youth,  who  ran  away 
with  Helen,  and  thus  occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

Pamas'silS.  A  mountain  of  Phocls,  famous  for 
a  temple  ol  Apollo  ;  the  favorite  residence  of  the 
Muses. 

Pegr'asuS.  A  winged  horse  belonging  to  Apollo 
and  the  Muses,  which  sprung  from  the  blood  of 
Medu^a  when  Perseus  cut  oft"  her  head. 

Pena'tes.     Small  statues,  or  household  gods. 

Penel'ope.  A  celebrated  princess  of  Greece, 
daughter  of  Icarus,  and  wife  of  Ulysses ;  cele- 
brated for  her  chastity  and  constancy  in  the  long 
absence  of  her  husband. 

Per'seuS.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae;  \i^r- 
1  inne  t  many  extraordinary  exploits  by  means 
(f  Medusa's  head. 

Plia'eton.  Son  of  Sol  (Apollo)  and  Climene. 
Hij  .isl^ed  the  guidance  of  his  f.ither's  chariot  for 
one  day  as  a  proof  of  his  divine  descent;  hut, 
unable  to  manage  the  horses,  set  the  world  on 
fire,  and  was  therefore  struck  by  Jupiter  with  a 
thunderbolt  into  the  river  Po. 

Philome'la.  The  daughter  of  Pandicn,  king  of 
iViiieii^  ;  changed  into  a  nightingale. 

Phin'eas.  King  of  Paphlagonia  ;  had  his  eyes 
torn  out  by  Uorcas,  but  w;is  recompensed  with 
the  knowledge  of  futurity.  Also,  a  king  of 
Thrace  turned  into  a  stone  by  Perseus. 

PhoeTjus.    A  title  of  Apollo. 

Ple'iades.  Seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and  Plei 
uuc,  tliangcd  into  stars. 

Plu'tO.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  brother  of 
Jupiter  and  Neptune,  and  the  god  of  the  inferna' 
regions. 


Plu'tus.     The  god  of  riches, 

Pomo'iia.     The  goddess  of  fruits  and  autumn. 

Polyhym'nia.     The  Muse  of  rhetoric. 

Pri'am.  I  he  last  king  of  Troy,  the  son  of  La- 
omedon,  under  whose  reign  Troy  was  taken  by 
the  Greeks. 

Prozue'tlieuJS.  The  son  of  Japctus ;  said  to 
have  stolen  lire  from  heaven  to  animate  two 
bodies  which  he  had  formed  of  clay,  and  was 
therefore  chained  by  Jupiter  to  Mount  Caucasus, 
with  a  vulture  perpetually  gnawing  his  liver. 

Pros'erpine.    Wife  of  Pluto. 

Pro'teuS.     The  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys  ;   a 

sea-go  I  and  prophet,  who  possessed  the  power 

of  changing  himself  into  any  shape. 
Psy'ch.e.     A    n>'mph    beloved    by    Cupid,   and 

made  immortal  by  Jupiter. 
Pyg'rnies.     A  nation   of   dwarfs    only    a   span 

Tuny,  c.irried  away  by  Hercules. 
Pyl'ades.     Tlic  constant  friend  of  Orestes. 
Psrr'amuS  and  Thisbe.     Two  lovers  of  E.iby- 

|jii,  WHO  killed  themselves  with  the  same  sword, 

and  thus  caused  the  berries  of  the  mulberry  tree, 

under  which  they  died,  to  change  from  white  to 

red. 
Py'th.on.     A  huge  serpent,  produced  from   the 

iiuid    of  the    deluge;  killed    by    Apollo,  who,  in 

memory  thereof,  instituted  the  Pythian  games. 
Re'inuS.     The  el  .!er  brother  of  Romulus,  killed 

by  hi  n  fur  ridiculing  the  city  walls. 
Hhadaman'tbuS.     One  of  the    three    infernal 

jud-e,. 

Rom'tllus.  The  son  of  Mars  Ilia ;  thrown  into 
the  'liber  by  his  uncle,  but  saved,  with  his  twin 
brother,  Remus,  by  a  shepherd  ;  became  the 
founder  and  first  king  of  Rome. 

SaTii.     The  twelve  frantic  priests  of  Mars. 

SaluS.     Goddess  of  health. 

Saturna'Ua.     Feasts  of  Saturn. 

Sat'um.   A  son  ofCcelus  and  Terra;  god  of  time. 

Sat  yrs.  Attendants  of  fJacchus  ;  horned  mon- 
ster:,, half  goats,  half  men. 

Sem'ele.  The  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Thebe, 
and  mother  of  Bacchus. 

Semir'amis.  A  celebrated  queen  of  -Assyria. 
who  bu:lt  the  walls  of  Babylon;  was  slain  by 
Iter  own  son,  Ninyas,  and  turned  into  a  pigeon, 

Sera'pis.    See  Apis. 

Sile'nus.  The  foster-father,  master  and  com- 
panion of  Bacchus,  He  lived  in  Arcadia,  rode 
on  an  ass,  and  was  drunk  every  day. 

Si'renS.  Sea -nymphs,  or  sea  -  monsters,  the 
daugliters  of  Oceanus  and  Amphitrite. 

Sis'yplmS'  The  son  of  ./Eolus  ;  a  most  crafty 
prince,  killed  by  Theseus,  and  condemned  by 
Pluto  to  roll  up  hill  a  large  stone,  which  con- 
stantly fell  back  again. 

Sol.     A  name  of  Apollo. 

Som'nus.  The  son  of  Erebus  and  Xox,  and  the 
god  ol  sleep. 

Sphinx.  A  monster,  who  destroyed  herself  be- 
cause LEdipus  solved  the  enigma  she  proposed. 

Sten'tor.  A  Grecian  whose  voice  is  reported 
to  have  been  as  strong  and  as  loud  as  the  voices 
of  fifty  men  together. 

Sthe'ziO*     One  of  the  three  Gorgons. 

Gtyx.     A  river  of  hell. 

Sylvanus.     A  god  of  woods  and  forests. 

Ta'cita.     A  goddess  of  silence. 

Tan'talus.  The  son  of  Jupiter,  and  king  of 
Lydi.i,  \\\\o  .-served  up  the  limbs  of  his  son, 
Pelops,  to  try  the  divinity  of  the  gods,  for  which 
he  was  plunged  to  the  chin  in  a  lake  of  hell,  and 
doomed  to  everlai>ting  thiist  and  hunger. 

Tar'tarus.  The  part  of  the  infernal  regions  in 
w  iu^li  the  wicked  were  punisheii. 

Tau'rus.  The  bull  under  whose  form  Jupiter 
ciirried  away  Europa. 

Telem'achuS.     The  only  son  of  Ulysses. 

Terpsich'ore.  The  Muse  presiding  over  danc- 
ing. 


^71 


VL 


■\ 


V 


A  DICriONARY  OF  MUSICAL  TERMS 


799 


The'inis.     The   daugliter  of  Cactus   and  Terra, 

and  goddess  of  justice. 

Ti'phys.     Pilot  of  the  ship  Argo. 
Tisipli'oxie*     One  of  the  three  Furies. 

Ti'tan.     'I'he    son   of   CceIus   and    Terra,   elder 

hiuilur  of  S:uurn,  and  one  of  the  giants   who 

w.trrcl  .lyainst  heaven. 
Titho'nus.     The  son  of  Laomedon,  loved  by 

.'^urura,  and  turned  by  her,  in  his  old  age,  into  a 

gra<;^^lopptr. 
Tri'tOH.     The  son  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite,  a 

powerful  sea-god,  and  Neptune's  inimpeter. 


Tro'ilus.     A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 
Troy.     A  city  of  Phrygia,  famous  for  holding  out 

a   siege   of  ten   years  again^^t    the   Greeks,   but 

fnatly  captured  and  destroyed. 
"Olys'ses.     King  of  Ithaca,  who.  by  his  subtlety 

and  eluqiicnce.  was  eminently  serviceable  to  the 

drirck^.  in  the  Trojan  war. 
TTra'nia.    The  Muse  of  astronomy. 
Ve'nus.     One  of  the  most  celebrated  deities  of 

the  ancients,  the  wife  of  Vulcan,  the  goddess  of 

beauty,  the  mother  of  love,  and  the  mistress  of 

the  graces  and  of  pleasurc^i. 
Vertuni'llUS.     A  deity  of  the  Romans,  who  pre- 


sided over  spring  and  orchards,  and  who  was  the 
lover  of  Pomona. 

Ves'ttt.  The  sister  of  Ceres  and  Juno,  the  god- 
dess of  fire,  and  patroness  of  vestal  virgins. 

V^iri'placo.  An  inferior  nuptial  goddess,  who 
reconcilcil  husbands  and  wives.  A  lemple  ai 
Rfime  was  dedicated  lo  her,  whither  the  married 
couple  repaired  after  a  quarrel. 

Varcan.  The  gnd  who  presided  over  subicna- 
iK-iJus  fire,  patron  uf  workers  in  metal. 

Zeph'yruS.  The  west  wind,  son  of  .^^oliis  an*l 
Aurura.  .md  lover  of  the  goddess  Flora. 

Zeus.     A  title  of  Jupiter. 


-!-<-f=^<S-|H-J- 


— -«-«- 


efe^ 


-#— 5<- 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  MUSICAL  TERMS. 


m 


Accellerando,  or  AcceL      Quicken   the  time 

gradually. 
Adag'io.     Very  slow. 
Ad  Libitum,  or  Ad  Lib.    At  will, 
Affettuoso.     Affjcting,  with  pathos. 
Agitato.    Agit.-iicd. 
Al  Fine.     To  the  end. 
Allegretto.      Somewhat   cheerful,  but    nt)t    so 

i|uu  k  ;.s  Ai/t'^ro, 

Allegrro.    Quick. 

A)  Seg'nO-     To  the  sign,  signifying  that  the  per- 

lormcr  niuvt  go  back  to  the  sigii  :S :,  and  play 

from  that  mark  to  the  word  Fiue. 
Amoroso.     Lovingly. 
Andante.     Somewhat  slow. 
Andantino.    Not  quite  so  slow  as  AndanU. 

Animate      In  an  animated  style. 
A  poco  a  poco.     lattle  by  little. 
Aria.     Aji  uir  or  song. 
Assai.     Very,  extremely. 
A  tempo.     In  the  regular  time. 
Bis.       1  wicc  (rcpe.it). 
Brillante.     Brilliant. 

Calando.     Diminishing  gradually  in   tone  and 
s  pL  cd . 

Cantabile.     In  a  graceful,  singing  style. 

Con  Moto.     In  agitated  style.     With  spirit. 

Con  Spirito.     With  quickness  and  spirit. 

Codct.     A  few  bars  added  to  terminate  a  compo- 
sitiuii. 

Colla  Voce.     With  the  voice  or  melody. 

Con  B;-io.     Witli  brilliancy. 

Con  £xpressione.     With  expression. 

Crescendo,  or  Cres.     Gradually   increase   the 


Da  Capo,  or  D.  C. 

to  the  word  J'tne. 


Repeat  from  the  beginning 
Gradually  diniin- 


Decrescendo,  or  Decrea. 

151  tiic  \uUiniv:  of  tunc. 
Delicato.  Delicately. 
Del  Segno.    See  Se^o. 

Diminuendo,  or  Dim.    Same  as  Decrescendo. 
Dolce,  i^  r  Dol.     In  a  sweet,  smooth  style. 
Doloroso.     Ill  a  mournful,  pathetic  style. 


|-  With  expression. 


E.     And 

Expressivo. 

Expressione. 

Fine.     The  end. 

Forte,  or  f.    Loud. 

Fortissimo,  or  ft    Very  loud. 

Forzando,  or  Fz.     Signifies  that  the  note  is  to 

be  givtu  puculiar  emphasis  or  force. 
Forza.     Force. 
FUOCO.     With  fire. 
Grave.     Extremely  slow. 
Qrazioso.     In  a  graceful,  elegant  style. 
Impromptu.     An  extemporaneous  production. 
L.  H.      Left  hand. 
LarghettO.     Slow  and  solemn,  but  less  so  than 

La  r^.'. 

Largro.     Vcrj'  slow  and  solemn. 

Leg-eremente.    Lightly,  gayly. 

Lentando.    Slower  by  degrees. 

Legato.     In  a  smooth  and  connected  manner. 

Leato.     In  a  slow  time. 

Loco.      Place,  play  as  written. 

JVIaestosO.     Majestic  and  dignified. 

Martellato.     Struck  with  force. 

Meno.    Less. 

ikTezzo,  or  M.      Neither  loud  nor  soft  —  medium. 

Mezzo  Forte,  or  mf.     Rather  loud. 

Mezzo  Piano,  or  m.p.     Rather  soft. 

Moderato.     Moderate. 

MoltO.     Very. 

MOSSO.      Movement. 

Moto,     or    Con    Moto.      With    agiUtion    and 

earnestness. 
Morendo.     Dying  away. 
Non  Troppo.    Nut  too  much. 

Oblig'atO.      Cannot  be  omitted. 

Ottava,  or  Sva.    An  octave  higher. 

Patetico.     Pathetically. 

Pastorale.     A  soft  and  rural  movement. 

Piano,  or  p.    Soft. 

Piaxussimo,  or  pp.    Very  soft. 

PiU.     Very. 

Poco.     A  little,  somewhat. 


Pomposo.     Pompous,  grand. 

Presto,      ^'<?ry  quick. 

Prestissimo.     As  quick  as  possible. 

Quasi.    A-v  if. 

Rallentando,  or  Rail.      A  gradual  dlminu- 

t.Mii  i.r'  [jiic  and  rctari.ling  of  movement. 
Relig-ioso.      In  a  snl-mn  style. 

Ritardando,  or  Ritard,  or  Rit.    C.r.ulually 

Riuforzando,  or  Rf.     With  additional  force. 

Ritenuto.     Mold  back  the  time  al  once. 

Scherzando.     Playfully. 

Seg'Ue.     Cuiuinue  as  before. 

Seria.     Seriou>ly. 

Sempre.     Throughout  —  always. 

Sexnplice.     In  a  simple,  unaffected  style. 

Segrno,  or  :S:.    Sign  :  as.  A!  s^gytc,  to  the  sign  ; 

JMi  Sf^no,  repeat   from  the  sigii  to  the  word 

J-uu. 
Senza.     Without. 
Sforzando.     Emphasized. 
Sincopato.     Forced  nut  of  time. 
Smorzando.    Smoothed,  decreased. 
Soav©.     ^oft  and  delicate. 
SottO  Voce.     In  an  undertone. 
So^tenutO.     Li  a  smooth,  connected  style. 
Spirito,  or  Con  Spirito.    With  spirit. 
Staccato.     Detached,  short. 
Tempo.     In  time. 

'''smpo  di  Marcia.     In  marching  time. 
Tempo  di  Valse.    In  waltz  time. 
Tempo  Primo.     In  the  original  time. 
Trillondo.     Shaking  on  a  succession  of  notes. 
Tranquillo.     Tranquilly. 
TuttO  Forza.     As  loud  as  possible. 
Veloce.    With  Velocity. 
Vigroroso.     Boldly,  vigorously. 
Vivace.     With  extreme   briskness   and   anima- 

Vivo.     Animated,  lively. 

Volti  SubitO.     Turn  over  the  pages  quickly. 

ZeloBO.     With  real. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  FAMILIAR  ALLUSIONS. 


^-tg^T^y-t 


<h^ 


^fet 


tt9 


--iP^TS^ 


>^r^gfev^ 


Words  and   Phrases,  Persons,  Places,   Pictures,   Buildings,   Streets  and   Monuments  frequently   alluded   to   in 

Literature  and  in  Conversation. 


'^HO  has  not  met,  either  in  reading  or  conversation,  with  allusions  to  matters  with  which  he  was  previously  unacquainted? 

^Jttt^     Facts  and  fan'ies  of  history  and  romance  are  continually  encountered,  to  which  only  a  liberal  education  or  a  wide  course 

!%M>    of  study  will  give  the  key.     We  have  gathered  below  a  glossary  of  the  most  frequent  of  these  allusions,  and  we  flatter 

K%^    ourselves  that  the  succeeding  pages  will  throw  a  flood  of  light  upon  many  interesting  topics  which  to  the  majority  of 

people  have  heretofore  been  dark  and  inexplicable. 


Abderite.  Democritus.theoriginallaugh- 
inK  philosopher,  was  born  in  Abdera,  a  Thra- 
cian  citv.  From  hiin  a  scotfer  or  person 
ffiven  to  continual  laughing  is  called  an 
Abderite. 

Abraham's  Bosom.  The  rest  of  the 
blessed  dead. 

Abyla  and  Calpe.  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
the  exit  from  the  Mediterrinean. 

Academics.  Plato's  disciples  were  so 
called  from  the  Academ\. 

Academy.  (Academe.)  Plato  founded 
his  s<  hool  in  a  gvmnasium  of  this  name  near 
Athens.     36S  B';  "C. 

Academy,  The  French.  A  French  sci- 
entific body  limited  to  forty  members. 

Acadia.  Formerly  the  name  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

Adam's  Apple.  A  part  of  the  throat 
where,  it  is  said,  a  piece  of  the  forbidden  fruit 
lodged. 

Admirable     Crichton,     The.        James 
Crichton,  an  accomplished  Scotchman  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 
Admiral.     The  highest  rank  in  the  Navy. 
^neid.    An  epic  poem  by  Virgil. 
Ages.     The  five  ages  of  the  world  accord- 
ing to  Hesiod,  are  the  Golden,  the-  SiIvlt,  the 
Brazen,  the  Heroic  and  the  Iron. 

Alabama.  A  Confederate  privateer  .luilt 
in  England.  Sunk  by  the  Kearsarge  June 
lyth, 1S64. 

Aladdin's  Window,  To  Finish.  Trying 
to  complete  another's  work.  Aladdin's  palace 
was  perfect  except  one  window  left  for  the 
Sultan  to  finish,  but  his  treasure  failed  him. 

Albany  Regency.      Name  anplied  sixt^- 

years  ago  to  some  Democrats  at  Albany,  N.  \  . 

Albino.      A  person   with   white  skin    and 

hair  and  red  eyes.      The  Portuguese  so  called 

the  white  negroes. 

Albion.  England,  so  called  from  the 
chalky  white  cliffs. 

Aldine  Press.  Founded  hy  Aldus  Manu- 
tius  at  Venice  in  i-^c/i.  Editions  of  the  class- 
ics issued  from  this  press  were  called  the 
Aldine  editions.  This  term  is  n()W  applied  to 
some  elegant  editions  nf  English  works. 

Alexandrian  Library.  Was  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  It  contained  700,000 
volumes,  and  was  burnt  47  B.  C. 


Alexandrine  Age.  323-640,  when  Alex- 
andria was  the  seat  of  the  highest  culture. 

Alhambra.    A  magnificent  palace  and  a 
fortress   built   by   the  "Moors  at  Granada,  in 
Spain. 
All-Hallows.     All  Saints'  day,  Nov.  ist. 
Allah.    Arabic  name  of  God. 
Almacks.        Assembly  room  in   London 
where  the  most  exclusively  aristocratic  balls 
were  given. 

Almighty  Dollar.  A  phrase  first  used 
by  Irving  in  his  Creole  Village,  and  which  has 
become  quite  common.     The  title  of  a  play. 

Alsatia.  A  q  larter  in  London  where 
criminals  take  refuge. 

Alto-Relievo.  Figures  in  marble  or  cast- 
ings projecting  one-naif  or  more  from  the 
tablet. 

Ambrosia.     Food  of  the  Gods. 
Anaclironism.      An   error  in   computing 
time. 

Anacreontics.  Poems  composed  in  the 
manner  of  Anacreon,  a  great  poet  noted  for 
iiis  exact  imitation  of  nature. 

Ancien  Regime.  The  French  Govern- 
ment previous  to  the  revolution  of  i";q8. 
Angling,  The  Father  of.  Izaak  Walton. 
Annus  ]>Iirabilis.  (Wonderful  year.) 
A.  D.  1666.  Noted  for  the  great  fire  in  Lon- 
don, the  Plaguu,  and  an  English  victory  over 
the  Dutch. 

Antoninus,  The  TVall  of.  Was  built  by 
the  Romans  in  A.  D.  140  across  Scotland  be- 
tween the  Clyde  and  the  Frith  of  Forth;  an 
embankment  of  earth. 

Apollo  Belvedere.  One  of  the  most  beau  - 
tiful  and  perfect  representations  of  the  human 
form  is  the  statue  of  Apnllo  in  thu  Belvedere 
Gallery  of  the  Vatican  Palace  .-it  Rome. 

Appian  "Way.  The  road  from  Rome  to 
Capua.     The  oldest  Roman  road. 

Apples  of  Sodom.  Beautiful  fruit,  hut 
full  of  ashes.  Applied  figuratively  to  the  dis- 
appointment of  sin. 

Apple,  Golden.  Prize  for  beautv  disput- 
ed before  Paris,  bctvvcen  Juno,  Pallas  and 
W-nus  ;  awarded  by  him  to  Vt-nus. 

Arabesque.    Decoration  in  Moorish  style. 
Arcadian.     A  shepherd  ;   a  Greek  grazing 
country   named   Arcadia    has   furnished  this 
word  to  the  poets. 


Argo.  The  ship  in  which  Jason  and  his 
fiftv-four  companions  sailed  when  going  to 
Colchcs  for  the  Golden  Fleece. 

Argonauts,   The  adventurers  on  the  Argo. 

Argus-eyed,  Crafty,  watchful.  Argus 
had  a  hundred  eyes  ;the  jealous  Juno  put  him 
on  detective  duty  over  lo. 

Armada,  The  Spanish.  A  fleet  of  130 
ships  gathered  bv  Pliil'p  of  Spain  for  the  in- 
vasion of  Enghmd  in  1500.  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  busy  preparing  for  resistance  when  tlie 
news  came  that  a  storm  had  completely 
wrecked  the  Armada. 

Artesian  "Well.  Boring  in  the  earth  un- 
til water  is  reached  that  will  flow  sponiaiie- 
ouslv.    Their  first  use  was  in  Artois,  France. 

Aryans.  The  stem  of  the  Indo-European 
peoples. 

Aster  Library.  Founded  by  John  Jacob 
Astor  in  New  York  City. 

Athens,  The  Modern.     Boston. 

Augustan  Age.  As  the  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  Roman  literature  was  during 
the  time  of  Augustus,  that  name  is  given 
to  any  age  wherem  literature  is  pre-emment. 

Auld  Reekie.     Scotland. 

Avalon.  King  Arthur's  burial-place, 
Glastonbury. 

AjTeshire  Poet,  The.  Burns.  His  birth- 
place was  near  Ayr  in  Scotland. 

Barnburners.  A  name  given  some  years 
ago  to  radical  Democrats,  a  leading  man 
amongst  whom  was  John  Van  Buren. 

Babylonish  Captivity.  The  seventy  years' 
captivity  of  the  Jews  at  Babylon, ('>oS-53^  B.C. 

Baconian  Philosophy.  The  inductive 
philosophy  of  Lord  Bacon. 

Balmoral  Castle.  A  Scotch  castle  own  - 
cd  by  Queen  \"ictoria.  where  she  spends  most 
of  her  time  in  the  summer. 

Bank  of  England.    Founded  i6<>4. 

Bard  of  Avon.  Shakspere,  so  calK-d 
from  his  home  being  Stratford-on- Avon. 

Barmecide's  Feast.  A  mockery,  a  de- 
lusion and  a  sham.  Barmecide  asked  a  starv- 
ing beggar  to  dinner,  and  seated  liim  at  a 
table  of  empty  dishes. 

Basilisk.  A  mythical  serpent  with  power 
to  kill  by  merely  looking  at  its  victim. 


Basso  Rrliovo.  Fijjuns  in  marble  and 
castings  thai  pmjcct  but  a  little  from  the  plant-. 

Hiistile.  French  prison  ami  fortress. 
IVnplc  were  incarcerated  here  bv  Uttre  de 
ctuJttt,  without  notice  or  trial.  Destroyed 
by  a  mub,  170^. 

Bnttle  of  tlie  Books.  Satire  by  Dean  Swift 
comparing  ancient  and  modern  literature. 

li.'ittle  of  the  Kc'ST'*-  A  practical  joke  on 
the  Itritisli  General  Lorin^^.  Detailed  in  a 
ballad  of  the  Kevolutionary  war. 

Batterjs  The.  A  park  in  New  York  City 
adjoining  the  river. 

B<>n<:on  St.  The  aristocratic  residence 
street  of  lJt)Ston. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast.  A  fairy  tale. 
Beautv  lives  with  the  Beast  to  save  her  fath- 
er's life.  Hy  l>er  love  she  disenchants  the 
Heiist.  who  pro\es  to  be  a  great  Prince. 

Bedlam.    A  mad-house. 

Bee,  The  Attic,  Plato;  so  called  from 
his  honeyed  style. 

Bee,  The  Busy.  An  example  of  com- 
munal industr)'. 

Beel/.ebub.    A  Philistine  deity. 

BeKIJinK  *>»*■  Question,  Assuming  as 
true  what  you  are  to  prove. 

Belle  Frani-e,  La.     Beautiful  France. 

Bel^avia.  Fashionable  quarter  of  Lon- 
don. 

Bell  the  Cat.  In  a  convention  of  mice 
It  was  proposed  to  hang  a  bell  on  the  cat's 
neck,  to  give  warning  of  her  coming.  No 
one  wouldserve  on  the  committee. 

Bell,  The  Passing.  Rung  formerly  when 
persons  were  dying. 

Beloved  l>isciple,  T1»e.    St  John. 

Bess,  Go<ul  Queen.     Queen  Elizabeth. 

BibliothequR  National.  (National  lA- 
brary.)  At  Paris  ;  contains  over  1,000,000 books, 
i50.oc)o  MSS. 

Billingsgate.  Coarse  languaj^e.  Such 
as  is  used  ut  the  fish  market  of  RiUingseate  in 
London  :  a  fishwife's  tongue  being  said  to  be 
remarkably  expressive. 

Black  l>eath.  A  pla^e  which  desolated 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  in  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Black  Friday.  Gold  panic  Sept  26th, 
iS6y.  Immense  fortunes  lost  and  won  same 
day.  Investigation  could  never  discover  the 
true  inwardness  of  it. 

Itlack  H€>le  of  Calcutta.  Dark  prison 
cell  wherein  Surajah  Dowlah  shut  up  146 
British  soldiers  ;   only  J3  lived  till  morning. 

Black  Prince,  The.  Edward,  Prince  of 
A\*ales,  son  of  Edward  HI. 

Blac^k  Republicans.  The  Republican 
party  of  I'.  -S.  so  called  when  opposing  the 
extension  of  slaverj". 

Blarney  Stone.  Its  supposed  virtue  when 
kissed  is  lo  impart  a  smooth  and  oily  tongue. 
Profusion  of  compliments  is  called  Blarney. 
This  stone  is  in  Blarney  Castle,  near  Cork, 
Ireland. 

liluebeard.  A  wife-killing  tyrant,  in  a 
nursery  story. 

Blue  Laws.  Some  severe  New  England 
statutes  were  so  called. 

Blue  Stocking.  A  literary  socictv  at 
Venice  in  1400,  whose  members  wore  olue 
stockings,  is  the  origin  of  this  name  for  a 
female  pedant. 

Itoheniinn.  As  opposed  to  Philistine,  an 
artist  or  literary  man  living  loosely  by  his  wits. 

Bois  de  Boulogne.  A  Parisian  prome- 
nade. 

Border,  The.  Frontier  of  England  and 
Scotland. 

Border  Minstrel,  The,  Sir  Walter  Scott, 

Border  States.  Man,*land,  Delaware, Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky,  Missouri. 


Bourgeoisie.  A  class  of  t!ie  people  of 
France  mostly  composed  of  traders  and 
manutaclurers. 

Boulevard,  A  wide  street  in  Paris,  in  the 
place  (it  the  ancient  ramparts. 

Itonrse,     Parisian  stock  exchange. 

Itow  Bells.  A  set  of  bells  in  the  Church 
of  .'^t.  Mary-le-Bow,  London.  One  "born 
within  sound  of  Bow  Bells"  is  a  Cockney. 

Bowery,  The,  A  New  York  thoroughfare. 

lioycfttt.  To  refuse  to  have  anything  to 
do  with  a  person.  To  let  him  severely  ahme. 
A  trying  ordeal  passed  through  by  Captain 
Boycott  in  Ireland  in  iSSi.  No  one  would 
selt  to  him,  buy  from  him,  work  for  him  or 
speak  to  him. 

Brandy  Nose.    Queen  Anne  of  England. 

Breeches  Itible,  The.  An  edition  in 
which  "aprons'*  in  Gen.  iii.  7  is  rendered 
"  breeches." 

Bride  of  tlie  Sea.    Venice. 

15ri<lge  of  Sighs.  In  Venice.  Connects 
Doge's  Palace  and  State  Prison.  Over  this 
bridge  the  condemned  passed  when  on  their 
way  to  be  executed. 

Britisli  iVIus**uni.  Library  and  museum 
in  London. 

Br*»adway,  The  principal  business  street 
of  Nc\v  "^'ork. 

Brook  Farm.  A  Socialistic  community 
to  carry  out  the  idea  of  l'"ourierism ;  was 
founded  at  West  Roxbur}-,  Mass.,  1841. 

Brother  Jonathan,  America  ;  an  Amer- 
ican. Some  tlitiibt  as  to  its  origin,  but  it  is 
said  to  come  from  (Joy.  Jonathan  Trumbull, 
of  Connncticut,  in  speaking  of  whom  Wash 
ington  would  say,  "  We  must  consult  Brother 
Jonathan." 

Buncombe.  Clan -trap  speeches,  to  cajole 
constituents,  more  tlian  tor  immediate  effect. 
Buncomi>e  is  in  North  Carolina.  A  North 
Carolina  member  said  a  fiery  speech  w.as  not 
delivered  to  the  House,  but  to  Buncombe. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument.  An  obelisk 
of  granite  marking  tlie  site  of  the  battle  of 
Bunker  llill,  fought  between  the  British  and 
Americans,  June  17,  1775. 

Cachet,  Lettres  de.  (Se.iled  letters.) 
Blank  warrants  with  the  seal  of  the  French 
Kiiiff  already  affixed  frir  imprisoning  or  re- 
leasmg  any  person  in  the  Bastile. 

Caledonia.     Scotland. 

Caluuiet.  An  Indian  pipe.  In  old  times 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  red  men  would  be 
ratified  by  smoking  the  calumet. 

Canipagna.  The  plains  around  the  city 
of  Rome. 

Carbonari.  A  secret  political  society  or- 
ganized in  Italy,  1S20. 

Carmagnole.  Song  and  dance  in  the 
French  Kevolution. 

Cartesian  Pliilosophy.  From  Descartes, 
"  I  think,  therefore  I  exist." 

Castle  Garden.  At  New  York  Citj-,  the 
landing-place  of  emigrants. 

Catacombs.  Subterranean  sepulchres. 
About  three  miles  from  Rome  in  the'Appian 
Way  a  viLst  number  of  long  untierground  pas- 
sages about  three  feet  wide  and  ten  feet  high. 
On  each  side  in  niches  were  deposited  the 
bodies  of  the  martyrs  and  earlv  Christians. 
These  niches  were  closed  with  tiles  or  slabs 
of  marble  having  proper  inscriptions  on 
them.  During  the  persecutions  the  Christians 
concealed  themselves  in  these  caves. 

Cavalier  Serrente.  The  escort  of  a 
married  woman. 

Cecilia,  St.  A  martyr;  patroness  of 
music. 

Celestial  Empire.  China,  whose  first 
Emperors  were  all  divinit?fcs. 


Central  Park.  The  great  park  of  New 
York  City  ;  contains  S63  acres. 

CliampN  de  .Mar«.  A  field  in  Paris  for 
military  manoruvres. 

Champs  Klysees.  A  promenade  in  Paris. 

Charter  Oak.  A  tree  in  Harttnrd.  Conn.. 
in  wliich  the  C«)lonial  Charter  w;is  secrvteu 
in  16SS.     It  was  blown  down  in  1S56. 

Chauvinism.  Patriotism  of  the  blatant 
kind,  from  Chauvin,  one  of  Scribe's  charac- 
ters. 

Cheapaide.     A  thoroughfare  in  London. 
Chiltern  Hundre<ls,  To  Accept  the.  A 

member  of  the  English  Parliament  cannot 
resign,  and  cannot  hold  office  during  mem- 
berslup.  If  he  wishes  to  leave,  he  cm  vacate 
his  seat  by  accepting  the  office  of  Steward  of 
the  Chiltern  Hundreds. 

Chiltern  Hundreds.  A  tract  in  Buck- 
inghamshire and  Oxfordshire,  England,  to 
which  is  attached  the  nominal  otfice  of 
steward  under  the  crown. 

Christ  Church.  The  name  of  the  largest 
college  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Cid,  The.  The  Spanish  hero,  Don  Rod- 
erigo  Laynez,  Count  of  Bivar. 

Cincinnati,  The.  Society  of  American 
Revt)luti<)nary  olhcers. 

Citizen  King,  The.  Louis  Philippe  of 
France. 

Cockaine,  Land  of.  An  imaginary 
country  of  e:ise  and  pleasure  ;  usually  applied 
to  London. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes,  A  brass  statue, 
one  ot  the  wonders  of  the  world,  which  stood 
astride  the  entrance  to  the  port  of  Khodes. 

Columbia,  Poetical  name  of  the  United 
States. 

Column  of  Vendome,  A  stone  pilLir  in 
Paris  erected  by  Napideon,  commemorating 
the  successes  of  the  l->encli  armies.  It  was 
thrown  down  by  the  Conmiunists  in  1S71. 

Confederate  States.  The  eleven  States 
which  seceded  in  iS(m,  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Florida,  (ie()rgia,  Louisian.i,  Afississippi, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Texas  and  Virginia. 

Congressional  Library.  At  Washing- 
ton ;  it  is  the  largest  in  the  United  States. 

Con.sols.     English  public  securities. 

Copperheads.  Northern  sympathizers 
with  the  South  in  the  Civil  war. 

Corncrackers,  Tlie.    Kentuckians. 

Corn  Law  Rh3'mer,  The.  Ebenezer 
Elliott. 

Corso.    The  chief  thoroughfare  of  Rome. 

Crapaud,  Joluiuy.    A  Frenchman. 

Credit  M(»billcr.  An  authorized  stock 
company.  The  Anieririm  Credit  Mobilier 
formed  for  raising  money  for  the  Pacific 
Railroad  raised  a  Uiul  odor  in  1S7J. 

Crocodile  Tears.  Counterfeit  sorrow. 
A  fable  says  the  crocodile  weeps  as  it  eats  its 
victim. 

Cumberland.  A  United  States  vessel 
sunk  by  the  Confederate  ram  Merrimac  in 
llampt(U)  Koads,  March  S,  1862. 

Curfew  Bell.  At  S  o'clock,  the  ringing  of 
the  curfew  bell  in  old  times  in  England,  all 
lights  were  extinguished,  the  fires  raked  up 
and  covered,  and  the  people  of  the  Kingdom 
retired  to  bed.  This  rule,  made  by  \\'illiani 
the  Coiujueror,  Ixsted  for  a  long  time,  and 
even  yet  there  is  some  sign  of  its  observance 
in  the  nine  o'clock  bell  rung  in  many  )>arts  of 
New  England. 

Damocles*  Sword.  Damocles,  having 
commented .  upon  tlie  happiness  which  the 
tyrant  Dionysins  must  enjoy,  was  invited  bv 
him  to  a  feast  where,  whilst  discussing  the 
good  things,  he  looked  up  and  discovered  a 
sword  hanging  by  a  single  hair  imnu  illately 
over  his  head. 


/ 


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802 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


Darby  and  Joan.    The  lovins^  couple. 

Darwinian  Theory.  An  explanation  of 
the  origin  of  species  in  animals,  tliat  they 
come  from  one  or  a  few  original  forms,  the 
present  differences  resulting  from  develop- 
ment and  natural  selection. 

De  Profundis.  The  130th  Psalm  ;  part  of 
thet)urial  service. 

Debatable  Ground.  Land  on  the  west- 
ern border  of  Scotland,  disputed  between 
England  and  Scotland. 

Defender  of  the  Faith.  Henry  VIII. 
received  this  title  from  Pope  Leo.  X.,  and 
his  successors  Iiave  borne  it  ever  since. 

Directory,  The  French.  By  the  Con- 
stitution of  170$,  the  executive  power  was 
vested  in  five  Directors;  it  lasted  only  four 
years. 

Dixie,  Tlie  I.and  of.  The  Southern  States. 

Dizzy.  The  nickname  of  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli, Karl  of  Beaconsfield. 

Doctors'  Commons.  The  place  where 
the  Ecclesiastical  Court  sat  in  London. 

Doctrinaire.  A  cant  term  in  French 
politics,  given  to  the  proposer  of  an  imprac- 
ticable compromise  me;isure. 

Doe,  John,  The  fictitious  plaintiff  in 
ejectment  suits,  the  defendant  being  Uichard 
Roe. 

Doomsday  Book.  Compiled  by  order  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  It  contained  a  sur- 
vey and  an  estimate  of  value  of  all  the  lands 
in  England. 

Donnybrook  Fair.  A  once  celebrated 
annual  fair  near  Dublin. 

Douay  Bible,  The.  The  English  Bible 
authorized  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church; 
first  published  at  Douay,  France. 

Do-rniing  Street.  The  olTicial  residence  of 
the  English  Prime  Minister  since  the  time  of 
Sir  Roliert  Walpole  is  in  Downing  Street, 
London. 

Drnry  L-ane  Theater.  In  London;  was 
opened  in  l6;SS 

Djring  Gladiator.  An  ancient  statue  in 
the  Capitol  at  Rome. 


Eastern  States,  Tlie,  Maine,  New- 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut. 

Eece  Homo.  A  painting  by  Correg^io 
representing  the  Savior  crowned  with 
thorns. 

Ecole  Polyteclinique.  A  Parisian  school, 
the  graduates  of  which  are  given  places  in 
the  public  service. 

El  Dorado.  A  fabulous  region  in  South 
America,  surpassing  all  other  countries  in 
the  production  of  gems  iind  (irecirjus  metals, 
A  name  for  any  wealthy  country. 

Elephant,  Seeing  the.  Seeing  the 
w.irld. 

Elffin  Marbles.  A  collection  of  Greek 
sculptures  made  by  Lord  Elgin.  Now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Esriirinl,  Tlie.  A  roval  residence  built 
by  Philip    II. ;    it  is   the   largest  structure 


Spain,  and  one  of  the  most  splendid  buildings 
in   Europe.     It  is  iJ  miles  from  Madrid  and 
contains   a   palace,    a  church,   a   monastery, 
free  schools  and  a  mausoleum. 
Eternal  City,  The.     Rome. 

Eureka.  (I  have  found  it.)  Exclamati<ni 
of  Archimedes  when  he  disc<wered  the  method 
of  proving  that  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the 
sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle  equaled  the 
square  of  the  hypotlienuse. 

Evanjcelists,  S>-mboIs  of  th^.  MatUiew 
has  a  scroll  before  him  and  holds  a  pen; 
Mark  sits  writing,  with  a  winged  lion  by  his 
side;  Luke  has  a  pen  and  a  scroll,  near  him 
is  an  ox  ;  John  is  a  young  man  behind  whom 
is  an  eagle. 


Exclusion,  Bill  of.  A  bill  wliich  passed 
the  English  House  of  Commons  in  1079,  pro- 
posing to  exclude  the  Duke  of  V<irk  from  tlie 
throne  because  he  was  a  Koman  Catholic. 

Expounder  of  the  Constitution,  The. 
Daniel  Webster. 


Fabian  Policy.  Delaying;  dilator.'. 
From  Quintiis  Fabius  Maximus,  the  Roman 
General  who  successfully  opjiosed  Hannibal, 
the  Carthaginian,  by  avoiding  a  battle  and 
continually  harassing  him. 

Fabiiis,  The  American.  George  Wash- 
ington. 

Fairmount  Park.  In  Philadelphia, 
where  the  Centennial  Exiiihition  of  1S76  was 
held;  contains  nearly  3,000  acres. 

Faineants,  Les  Rois.  (Do-nothing 
Kings.)  The  last  twelve  Kinoes  of  the  Merov- 
ingian Dynastv  were  so  called.  For  about 
100  years  previous  to  7J0,  when  Pepin  de- 
throned Childeric  IIL,  they  were  mere  pup- 
Cets.  and  the  supreme  authority  was  exercised 
y  the  mayors  of  the  palace. 

Falernian.  A  celebrated  ancient  Italian 
wine  grown  at  Falernum. 

Faneuil  Hall.  In  Boston,  built  1742  ;  called 
the  "cradle  of  Liberty,"  for  there  the  Revolu- 
tionary patriots  were  wont  to  assemble. 

Farmer  George,  George  III.  of  Eng- 
land ;  so  called  from  his  love  of  agriculture. 

Fata  Morgana.  A  mirage  in  the  Straits 
of  Messina. 

Father  of  his  Country.  George  AVash- 
ington. 

Fathers    of   the    Latin    Church.       St. 

Ambrose  of  Milan,  St,  Augustine,  St.  Ber- 
nard, St.  Hilary,  St.  Jerome,  Lactantius. 

Faubourg  St.  Antoine.  The  part  of 
Paris  where  the  workingmen  live. 

Faubourg  St.  Germain.  Aristocratic 
part  of  Paris. 

Fenians.  A  society  of  Irishmen  formed 
in  the  United  States  in  1S65  to  free  Ireland. 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Plain  in 
France  where  Francis  I.  and  Henry  V'lII. 
met  on  a  mutual  \isit.  It  is  historical  on 
account  of  the  gorgeous  display,  both  parties 
being  most  extravagant  in  tlieir  outfit. 

Fifth  Avenue.  A  celebrated  residence 
street  in  Xew  York. 

Fighting  Joe.  The  American  General 
Joseph  Hooker. 

First  Gentleman  in  Europe.  George 
IV.  of  England. 

Five  Points.  A  once  notorious  locality 
in  New  York. 

Flagellants.  Religious  fanatics  of  the 
thirteentli  Century  who  went  about  naked  and 
scourging  themselves. 

Fleet,    The.      A    London    prison    taken 
down  in  1S45. 
Flowery  Kingdom,  The.    China. 

Flying  Dutchman.  A  spectre  ship 
cruising  about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Fore- 
l)i)des  trouble  to  whoever  sees  it. 

Forte.    Strong  point. 

Fort  Sumter.  In  the  harbor  of  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  Here  were  beard  the  first  sounds 
of  the  cannons'  thunder  in  the  late  Civil  war. 

Fourierism.  Charles  Fourier,  a  French 
visionary,  proposed  a  system  of  communism 
in  whicfi  the  world  should  be  divided  into 
"phalansteries"  of  four  hundred  families 
wlio  Were  to  live  and  work  in  common. 

Freshman.  A  student  in  Iiis  first  year  at 
college. 

Funk,  Peter.  A  mock  auction;  a  person 
employed  to  act  as  an  apparent  purchaser 
unu  bid  up  articles' for  sale. 


Gadsbill.  Near  Rochester,  in  Kent, 
England.  Place  where  Falstaff  met  so  many 
men  in  buckram.  Charles  Dickens'  residence 
was  at  Gadshill. 

Genre  Painting.  Represents  ordinary 
domestic  and  rural  scenes. 

George,  St.,  and  the  Dragon.  St. 
George,  the  patron  saint  of  England,  is  said 
to  have  slain  in  Libya  a  hideous  dragon 
whose  daily  food  was  a  virgin. 

Gerrjnuander.  The  geographical  appor- 
tionment of  districts  to  give  preponderance 
to  one  political  party.  Started  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  named  from  its  Governor,  El- 
bridp;e  Gerry.  Example,  a  shoestring  district 
in  ilissouri. 

Ghetto.  The  quarter  in  Rome  to  which 
the  Jews  were  formerly  restricted. 

Ghibelline.  One  of  a  faction  in  Italy  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  which  favored  the 
German  Emperors,  in  opposition  to  the 
Guelphs,  adherents  of  the  Pope. 

Girondists;  The  Gironde.  Moderate 
"  Constitutional "  Republican  party  in  the 
French  Revolution  in  179J5. 

Glencoe.  A  pass  in  Argyleshire,  Scot- 
lai'd.  Here,  February  13,  i6(ji,  were  massacred 
thirty-eight  of  the  NicDonalds  by  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  soldiers  under  Capt.  Camp- 
bell. 

Gobelins.  A  tapestrv  and  carpet  manu- 
factory at  Paris,  founded  by  Gobelin,  a  dyer, 
about  370  years  ago. 

Godiva,  Lady.  Wife  of  Lcnfric,  Earl  of 
Mercia,who  offered  to  remit  certain  exactions 
to  his  tenants  if  she  would  ride  naked  through 
the  streets  of  Coventry.  She  did  so,  all  the 
people  closingtheir  doors  and  keeping  within 
excLpt  one,  "Peeping  Tom,"  who  was  struck 
blind  for  peeping  at  her. 

Goleonda.      The   neighborhood   of  some 
rich  diamond  mines  in  India. 
Gold  Fever.     1S49;  peopled  California. 
Golden  Age.     A  period  of  innocence  and 
prosperity.      Nearly   always   refers    to    some 
past  age. 

Golden  Gate.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor 
of  San  Francisco. 

Golden  Horn.  The  estuary  of  the  Bos- 
phorus,  upon  whose  banks  Constantinople  is 
built. 

Gordian  Knot.  A  difficulty;  an  obstacle. 
Gordius,  King  of  Phrvgia,  consecrated  t>» 
Jupiter  a  wagon,  the  beam  and  yoke  of  which 
were  tied  togetlier  by  such  an  intricate  knot 
that  no  one  could  imravel  it.  An  oracle  hav- 
ing foretold  that  he  who  could  untie  this 
knot  would  be  m;Lster  of  Asia,  Alexander 
cut  it  asunder  \\'ilh  his  sword. 

Gordon  Riots,  The.  In  17S0  in  London, 
the  bill  passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  for 
the  relief  of  the  Rctman  Catholics  caused  so 
much  ill-feeling  that  Lord  George  Gordon,  a 
fanatic,  incited  the  mob  to  try  and  force  its 
repeal.  Dickens  in  his  RarnaHy  Rudge  gives 
a  vivid  description  of  these  riots. 

Gotham.  A  name  sometimes  applied  to 
New  York  City. 

Gotham,  Tl»e  Wise  Men  of.    Noted  for 
their  folly.     (Jutham  w;is  an  English  \illage. 
Great  Commoner,  The.    William  Pitt. 
Great  Duke,  The.     Wellington. 
Great  Eastern.     The  largest  vessel  ever 
launched.     Slie  was  built  to  carry  1.000  pas- 
sengers  and  5,000  t<ms  of  cargo.     Her  chief 
worlt  has  been   in  the  laying  of  ocean  tele- 
graph cables. 

Great  Pyramid,  The.  Is  at  Gheezeh, 
Egypt.     It  is  4S4  iviit  high. 

Greenbacks.  T'nited  States  Treasury 
notes.     So  naiued  from  their  color. 

Green  Isle,  The.  Ireland.  Sometimes 
also  called  the  Emerald  Isle. 

Greenwood.  A  cemetery  in  Brooklvn, 
N.  Y. 


y 


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A    DICTIONARY   OF   FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


803 


"71 


Grefforian  Year.  1582;  i^bcinpr  proved 
thiit  the  vcars  were  eleven  minutes  shorter 
thiin  what  they  were  counted  at,  Grejjory 
Xlll.t'xik  ten  days  of  October  out  of  that 
vear  and  advanced  tlie  dates  so  as  to  correct 
the  calendar.  The  reform  has  been  accepted 
throughout  Clirisleiulum.  except  in  Russia. 
Kxaniple:  George  \\":ishingti>n,  born  Febru- 
ary II,  O.  S. 

Gretna  Green,  A  Scotch  village  famous 
for  runaway  matches 

Grub  Street.  In  London;  used  to  be 
noted  for  its  literary  denizens. 

Giielphs.  The  adberenti  in  the  thirteenth 
century  of  the  Papacy  against  the  German 
Kmpeft>rs.  They  were  tlie  constant  oppo- 
nents of  tlie  (ili^ibellines,  and  between  them 
llal\'  was  kept  in  turmoil. 

<;ttilflhall.    The  London  town  hall. 

(;iin|Hi\V(ler  Plot,  The,  A  plot  to  blow 
up  the  I-liiiilisb  Parliament  in  its  House, 
November  ^,  1^105.  A  cellar  underneath  was 
stored  with  gunpowder  intended  to  be  touch- 
ed off  during  tne  session  by  Guy  Kawkes. 
Tlie  discovery  w:is  made  in  time  to  prevent 
mischief.  To  use  a  modern  but  inelegant 
phrase,  the  plot  was  considered  by  some 
people  to  be  "  a  put-up  job." 

Gyereft*  RinfC,  A  ring  which  made  the 
wearer  invisible.  Gyges,  havino  found  .1 
man's  ct>rpse  in  a  brazen  horse  that  he  dis- 
covered in  a  cave,  took  a  ring  from  the  finger 
of  the  dead  that  rendered  him  invisible.  By 
using  this  ring  he  entered  unseen  the  chamber 
of  the  King^  of  Lydia  and  murdered  him.  He 
became  King. 


Habeas  Con»"R  Act,  The,  Was  passed 
in  the  time  of  Charles  IL  and  provides  that 
the  body  of  any  person  restrained  of  his  lib- 
erty must  on  proper  application  be  brought 
before  a  J  udge  and  the  rex^on  of  lusc  onfine- 
ment  staled.  The  Judge  will  then  determine 
the  amount  of  bail  he  shall  furnish,  or  he  will 
remand  him  t 
dum,  as  tli 


prison  or  allow  him  his  free- 
case  may  require. 

Halcyiui  Dayn.  A  period  of  happiness; 
days  of  peace  and  tranquility.  The  nalcyon, 
as  the  kingfisher  was  anciently  called,  was 
said  to  lay  her  eggs  in  nests  on  rocks  near  the 
sea  during  the  calm  weather  about  the  winter 
solstice. 

Handicap.  Apportionment  of  the  weights 
that  must  be  carried  in  a  race  by  different 
horses,  ctmsidering  their  age  and  strength,  to 
equalize  their  cliances. 

Hansard.  Name  of  the  firm  which  prints 
the  debates  of  the  British  I'arliument. 

Hantte  Towns.  In  the  twelfth  century 
Sf>mj  commercial  cities  in  the  north  of  Ger- 
many formed  an  association  for  the  protec- 
tion of  commerce.  To  these  other  similar 
cities  in  Holland.  England,  i*"rance,  Spain 
and  Italy  acceded,  and  for  centuries  this  con- 
federacy commanded  the  respect  and  defied 
the  power  of  Kings. 

Hansentir  I^eafirne.  The  name  of  the 
confederation  of  Ilanse  towns.  There  were 
seveniy-two  cities  in  the  league,  and  thev 
held  triennial  conventions  called  Hansa.  ft 
has  long  since  fallen  to  iiieces.  I-'our  of  its 
members,  L\ibeck.  Hamburg,  Bremen  and 
I-rankfort,  are  called  free  cities,  but  are  really 
part  of  the  German  Empire. 

Hare,  l*ljid  as  a  March.  The  hare  is 
wilder  than  usual  in  March. 

Harpies.  Three  ravcnons  and  filthy  mon- 
sters, each  having  a  woman's  face  and  the 
body  of  a  vulture.  Their  names  were  Aello, 
Ocypete  and  Celeno.  Juno  sent  them  to 
plunder  the  table  of  I'lnneus. 

Hari-Kari.  (Happy  dispatch.)  Japanese 
ofiicial  suicide. 

Harvest  Moon.  The  full  moon  at  or 
nearest  the-fall  e(piinox;  rises  for  a  number  of 
days  about  sunset. 

Heathen  Chinee,  Tlie.    A  poem. 


Hei<lelberf;  Cantle.  Uuins  near  Heidel- 
berg, tiermany. 

Hep:lra.  The  date  of  Mohammed's  flight 
fnnn  Mecca,  lulv  i6lh,(.2J.  The  epoch  from 
which  the  Moliamniedans  compute  their 
lime. 

nigh  Church.  The  more  conservative 
portion  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

Hi}*h  Sens,  The.  The  sea  beyond  three 
miles  trom  the  coast. 

Histoi*j-,  The  Father  of.  Herodotus, 
the  tireek  historian. 

IIobson*K  Choice.  Take  what  is  offered 
or  go  w-itliout.  Tobias  Hobson,  an  English 
stable-keeper,  made  whatever  customer  came 
to  hire  a  horse  lake  the  one  nearest  the  door. 

Holborn.  A  street  in  London  by  which 
criminals  used  to  be  carried  out  to  execution 
at  T\burn. 

Holy  Alliance.  I-ormed  in  1S16  by  Aus- 
tria, Prussia  and  Kus>ia. 

Holy  Family,  The.  The  name  of  pic- 
tures representing  in  group  the  infant  Jesus, 
St.  Joseph,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  John  the 
Baptist.  Anna,  and  St.  Elizabeth.  The  most 
celebrated  are  bv  .Michael  Angelo  at  Florence, 
by  Ka|)hael  in  London,  aiidoy  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  in  the  Louvre. 

Holy  Land,  The,    Palestine. 

Holy  Leagrue,  The.  The  alliance  of  Pope 
Julius  IL,  I- ranee.  Germany,  Spain  and 
some  of  the  Italian  Uepubiics  in  150S,  against 
Venice. 

Honi  8oit  qui  mal  y  pense.  (Shame  to 
him  who  evil  thinks.)  Motto  of  the  highest 
order  of  knightliood  in  Great  Britain,  that  of 
the  Garter  instituted  by  Edward  III.  Ataball, 
a  garter  of  the  Countess  of  Salisbury.-,  having 
fallen  off,  was  picked  up  by  the  Iving,  who 
expressed  liimself  in  the  above  phrase  and 
fastened  it  around  his  own  knee.  This  inci- 
dent led  to  the  formation  of  the  order. 

Honf»rs  of  War.  Allowing  a  surrendered 
enemy  to  keep  his  arms. 

Hotel  de  Ville.  The  city  hall  in  French 
and  Belgian  cities. 

Houris.  Beautiful  virgins  of  Paradise; 
promised  by  the  Koran  fur  the  delight  of  the 
true  believers. 

HundrtMl  Hays,  Tlie.  From  March  20, 
1S15,  when  Napoleon  escaped  from  Elba,  to 
June  22,  1S15,  when  he  alnlicated. 


Iconoclast.    (Image -breaker.)    A  radical 

reformer. 

Iliad.  A  Greek  epic  poem  by  Homer,  re- 
laling  the  story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  by  the 
Greeks. 

Independence,  Declaration  of.  Issued 
July  4,  1776. 

Inilependcnce  Hall.  In  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  where  Congress  met  and  adopted  the 
Declaration  ot  Independence. 

Index  Kxpureatorius.  A  list  of  books 
forbidden  to  be  read  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Inns  of  Court,  The  four  I-ondon.law 
societies  which  have  the  sole  right  of  admit- 
ting candidates  to  the  Bar.  Thev  are  Gray's 
Inn,  Lincoln's  Inn,  the  Inner  Temple  and 
the  Middle  Temple. 

Inquisition.  A  tribunal  established  in 
soMie  countries  to  try  heretics. 

Irish  Agitator,  The.     Daniel  O'ConncU. 

Iron  City.  The.     Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Iron  I>ukc.  The.  The  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton. 

Iron  Mask,  The  Man  in  the.  A  mys- 
terious French  stale  prisoner. 


Jack  Ketch.    The  hangman.    The  name 
of  an  I^Inglish  hangman. 


Jack    Robinson.     Before    you    can    say 

Jack  Kobinson ;  at  once.  Jack  Uobinsem 
was  noted  for  the  shortness  of  his  visits;  the 
servant  had  scarcely  lime  to  repeat  his  name, 
before  he  would  leave. 

J.'ifk,  The  <«iant  Killer.  A  nursery 
her<». 

Jack,  T!»e  American,  or  I'nion.  The 
blue  ground  of  th9  American  l.ag  with  the 
stars  but  without  the  stripes. 

Jacobins,  A  revolutionary  club,  17S9,  in 
Paris,  held  its  meetings  in  what  had  been  the 
Jacobin  Mon.istery.  They  were  violent  and 
extreme  in  the  measures  they  proposed.  Their 
name  spread  to  all  similar  organizations  and 
to  individuals  acting  with  them  tliroughout 
France. 

.Jacobites.  Adherents  of  James  II.  of 
England,  and  of  ttie  Stuarts,  his  descendants. 

Jardin  des  PI  antes.  Botanical  and 
zoological  garden  in  Paris. 

Jardin  MHl>ille.  Of  world-wide  notoriety. 
A  l*arisian  resort  where  the  can-can  flourish- 
ed.    Suppressed  in  1SS2. 

Jericho,  <roiie  to.    Disappeared  ,  ruined. 

.lerusalciu  IJelivercd.  An  Italian  epic 
poem  by  'I'orquato 'I;lsm». 

Jingo,  .Jingoism.  Expression  applied  in 
England  t<i  those  who  wanted  the  Imglish 
(jovernment  to  assume  an  aggressive  foreign 
policy,  iS7.(-iSSo. 

John  Bull.  England.  Nickname  for  an 
Englishman. 

John  Chinaman.  The  Chinese  in 
America. 

Johnny  Cakes.  Made  of  Indian  meal 
baked  in  the  ashes. 

■Jid>ilee,  Year  of.  Among  the  Jews  the 
jubilee  came  every  fiftieth  \ear,  which  was 
the  year  after  one  week  of  weeks  of  years  had 
passed  (seven  times  seven).  All  sfaves  who 
were  of  Hebrew  blood  were  freed,  all  debts 
were  canceled  and  all  lands  relumed  lo orig- 
inal owners  during  the  iubilce.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  it  is  observed  every  twenty- 
fifth  year. 

Juggernaut.  A  Hindoo  god  who  has  a 
famous  temple  in  India.  There  is  an  immense 
car  in  the  service  of  this  god,  which,  when 
moved  about  the  country,  causes  the  greatest 
excitement.  The  car  resembles  a  large  build- 
ing and  its  weight  is  verv  heavy.  It  is  dragged 
along  by  the  multitude  and  their  fanati- 
cism is  so  great  that  crowds  of  de\  otees  cast 
themselves  under  the  wheels  and  are  crushed 
to  death,  a  fate  which  Ihey  believe  ensures 
paradise. 

Julian  Era,  The.  A  method  of  reckoning 
time  from  40  B.C.,  when  Ca'sar  reformed  the 
calendar. 

.Junius,  Letters  of.  Some  remarkable 
political  letters  written  during  the  reign  of 
George  III.     Their  authorship  is  unknown. 


Kansas,  Rleedlng.  So  called  by  Horace 
Greeley  during  the  !•  ree  Soil  controversy. 

Kensington  Ganlcns.  A  London  Park 
near  which  Queen  \'ictoria  was  born. 

Kilkenny  Cats,  The.    Disputing  people ; 

from  the  old  verse: 

There  once  were  t\vo  cats  in  Kilkenny, 

Who  each  thought  there  was  one  cat  too 
manv. 

So  they  howled  and  they  fit,  and  they  scratch- 
ed and  they  bit. 

Until  instead  t»f  twt)  cats  there  wasn't  any. 

King  can  do  no  wrong.  The.  Meaning 
ihat  the  Ministers  and  not  the  King  are  re- 
sponsible for  mistakes  of  government. 

King  of  Ivetot,  The  Seigneur  of  Ivelot 
was  made  king  of  his  estate  by  the  King  of 
I'" ranee  as  a  recompense  for  the  killing  of  his 
father.  It  w-as  a  kingdom  of  eight  square 
miles. 


/ 


_\ 


K" 


804 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


/ 


King  Cole.  A  Icgendan-  king  of  Britain, 
who  affected  tobacco  and  spirits. 

King*  Cotton.  A  name  given  to  the  great 
Southern  industry  before  the  war. 

King's  Evil.  The  scrofula.  So  called 
from  the  belief  that  a  king's  touch  would  cure 
the  disease. 

King  r.og,  A  good-for-nothing  niler. 
The  name  comes  from  one  of  Esop's  fables, 
wherein  Jupiter  puts  a  log  to  rule  ovtr  the 
frogs. 

King-Maker,  Tlie.  Richard  Nevill,  the 
Earl  of  Warwick,  who  set  up  and  deposed 
kings  at  his  will  during  the  Wars  of  the 
Hoses,  in  the  fifteentli  century. 

King  Stork.  A  tyrant.  The  sequel  to  the 
Kson  fable  inuntioned  above.  The  frogs  grew 
tired  of  Kin^  Log.  whereupon  King  Stork 
was  brought  in:  at  their  request,  who  devoured 
the  whole  community 

Kit  Kat  Club,  The.  A  London  club 
founded  in  16SS,  It  had  many  eminent  mem- 
bers. 

Knickerbocker.  A  member  of  anv  old 
Dutch  family  m  New  York.  Derived  from 
Irving's  immortal  history. 

Knigbt  of  Slalta.  A  chivalric  and  mon- 
astic order  founded  during  the  Crusades,  also 
called  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John. 

Kno^v-Nothings.  A  political  party  m  the 
United  States,  whose  cardinal  iirinciple  was 
opposition  to  foreign  office-holders. 

Koh-i-Noor.  A  Golconda  diamond,  the 
largest  in  the  world,  now  one  of  the  crown 
diamonds  of  England.     Value,  $625,000. 

Koran,    The.     The   Mohammedan  Bible. 

Kremlin,  The.  The  royal  Russian  resi- 
dence in  Moscow. 

I.abyrinth,  The.  A  celebrated  structure 
built  bv  Minos,  King  of  Crete,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  maze  out  of  which  no  one  who 
entered  could  find  the  way  back. 

I-aconic.  Curt.  So  called  from  the  brief 
speech  in  fashion  in  old  Laconia,  afterwards 
called  Sparta. 

Liacrymal  Christi.    An  Itali.an  wine. 

Lake  School,  The.  A  society  of  English 
poets  consisting  of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth 
and  Southey. 

r,an(l  of  Bondage,  The.     Eg>'pt. 

Land  o'  Cakes,  The.     Scotland. 

Land  of  Xod,  Tlie.     Sleep  ;  Dreamland. 

Land  of  Promise,  The.  Canaan,  the 
go.al  of  the  Jewish  wanderings  in  the  wilder- 
ness. 

Lang  Syne,    Long  ago. 

Langue  d'Oc.  Provence,  apartof  France 
so  called  from  the  dialect  in  use. 

Langue  d'(Eil.  All  of  France  except 
Provence. 

Laoooon,  The.  A  celebrated  statue  in  the 
"\'atican  representing  Laocoon  strangled  by 
serpents. 

Laodicean.  A  person  luke-warm  in  re- 
ligion. 

Lares  and  Penates.  The  household  gods. 

Last  Judgment,  The.  The  theme  of  a 
number  of  frescoes  of  the  Renaissance  period 
in  Italy, 

Last  Supper,  The,  Similar  to  the  above. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci's  best  canvas  is  on  this 

subject. 
Lateran  Palace,  The.    One  of  the  Papal 

residences  at  Rome, 
Laughing  Philosopher,  The,    Democ- 

rilus  of  Ahder.T,  who  believed  that  hfe  was 
only  to  be  laughed  .at. 

Leaning  Tower,  The.  A  celebrated 
structure  at  Pisa,  Italy,  which  leans  thirteen 
feet  out  of  the  perpijndicular ;     17S  feet  high. 

Learned  Blacksmith,  The.  Elihu 
Rurritt, 


Leonine  Verses.  Verses  which  rhyme  at 
the  middle  and  the  end. 

Libby  Prison,  A  Confedei.ite  gaol  for 
prisoners  of  war  at  Richmond,  \'a. 

Lilliput.  The  pigniy  land  in  Gulliver's 
travels. 

Lingua  Franca.  A  dialect  of  French, 
Italian  and  Arabic  spoken  on  the  Mediter- 
raneai  Sea. 

Lion  and  TTnicorii.  The  supporters  of 
the  Hritish  royal  arms. 

Lion  of  the  North,  Tlie.  Gnstavns  of 
Sweden,  the  great  leader  of  the  Protestant 
forces  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Lion's  Share.  The  bigger  portion  in  a 
division.  So  called  from  one  of  Esop's 
fables. 

L'ttle  Corporal,  The,  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. 

Little  Giant,  The.   Stephim  A.  Douglass. 

Lloyds.  The  originators  of  marine  insur- 
ance. 

Lombard  Street.  The  financial  street  of 
L.oi>d«m. 

Lone  Star  State,  The.    Texas. 

Long  Parliament.  The  Parliament 
whicli  sat  fur  thirteen  years  at  the  beginning 
of  the  civil  war  in  England.  It  sat  from  1640 
to  1653. 

L<irelei.  A  malignant  but  beautiful  water- 
sprite  of  the  Rhine. 

Lotus-Eaters,  The.  HomCr  in  the  Odys- 
sey describes  the  effect  of  eating  the  lotus  as 
making  the  eater  forget  his  home. 

Lon^TC,  The.    The  art  palace  of  Paris. 

Low  Church,  The.  A  part  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church  which  is  opposed  to  cere- 
monials. 

Lusiad,  The.  The  Portut^iese  epic  poem, 
written  bv  Camoens,  describing  Vasco  da 
Gama's  adventures. 

Lynch  Law,  Mob  law.  The  name  comes 
from  a  Virginia  farmer  who  instituted  the 
first  vigilance  committee  in  America. 

Mab,  Queen,  The  queen  of  the  fairies. 
So  called  from  an  Irish  fairy  princess  named 
Medh,  who  flourished  in  the  night  of  time. 

Macadamize.  Pavingwith  broken  stones. 
So  called  from  the  inventor,  Sir  John  Mac- 
Adam, 

Macaronic  Verse.  A  verse  made  by 
mixing  different  languages. 

Macchiavellism.    Political  trickery. 

Madam  Tussaud'sExhibitiop.  A  fam- 
ous London  wax-works  show. 

Mad  Poet,  The.  Nathaniel  Lee,  an  in- 
sane English  dramatist. 

3Iadman  of  Macedonia,  The.  Alexan- 
der the  Great. 

Madmnn  of  the  North,  Tlie,  Charles 
III.  of  Sweden. 

Madonna.    The  Blessed  Virgin. 

Maecenas.  A  noted  patron  of  poets  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Augustus  of  Rome. 

Magna  Charta.  The  charter  makmg  the 
cornerstone  of  English  liberty,  extorted  from 
King  John  Lack-Land. 

Mahomet's  Coffin.  The  body  of  >fa- 
homet  is  said  to  hang  in  mid -air  over 
*t    Medina. 

Maid  of  Orleans,    Joan  of  Arc. 

Maid  of  Saragossa.  Augustina  Zara- 
goza,  the  heroine  of  the  siege  of  Saragossa  in 
1S0S-9. 

Maiden  Queen,  The,  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land.   ' 

Maine  Law,  A  prohibitory  law  first 
adopted  in  Maine. 

Malthusinn  Doctrine,  The.  The  theory 
that  the  population  of  the  world  is  growing 
faster  than  the  food  supply. 


Mammoth  Cave.  A  cave  near  the  Green 
River,  Kentucky,  the  largest  cave  in  the 
world. 

Man  in  the  3Ioon.  According  to  the 
legend  the  man  who  first  broke  the  Sabbath. 

Man  of  Destiny.     Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

Man  of  Iron,  The,     Bismarck. 

Man  of  Stra'w.    An  irresponsible  ])erson. 

Mare's  Nest.  A  matter  which  seems  of 
importance  but  turns  out  to  be  nothing. 

Marriage  a  la  M*>de.  The  title  of  six 
satirical  pictures  by  Hogarth. 

Marseillaise.  The  French  national  air, 
composed  by  Rouget  de  Lisle. 

Martinet.  A  strict  disciplinarian.  So 
called  from  a  French  officerof  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  The  north 
boundan'  of  the  Slave  States,  dividing  Vir- 
ginia and  Marvland  from  Pennsylvania, 

Mausoleum.  The  tomb  of  Mausohis, 
built  bv  Queen  Artemisia,  one  of  tlie  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 

Mp.yfair.  The  west  end  of  London. 
M**reator'8PPOJ'*C«ioii.  (<>r  Mercalor's 
Chart),  is  so  called  after  Gerard  Mercator,  a 
Fie"  i-h  gt  ogra|>h  r  of  the  sixteenth  centurv, 
the  first  to  irive  an  unl>roken  view  of  the  whole 
.^urf.ue  of  the  earlh.  In  it  ;ill  the  meriaians  are 
straight  lines  perpendicttlar  to  the  equator,  and 
;.1I  the  parallels  paralhl  to  the  equiitor,  the 
effect  being  to  greatly  exaggerate  the  polar 
regions. 

Merry  Andrew.  A  buffoon,  from  Andrew 
Borde.the  whimsical  physician  of  Henry  \'III. 

Merry  Monarch,  Tlie.  Charles  11.  of 
England. 

Mesmerism.  Takes  its  name  from  Mes- 
mer   a  German  physician. 

Mezzo  Relievo.  Carved  or  ca^t  figures 
projecting  from  the  tablet  a  little  more  than 
basso  relievo,  and  something  less  than  alto 
relievo,  are  called  mezzo  relievo. 

>Iiddle  Ages,  Tlie.  The  period  between 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire  and 
the  revival  of  learning  in  Italy — 476  to  1500, 

Middle  States,  The.  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey  and  Delaw.are. 

Minnesingers.  (Love  singers.)  The 
German  Ivric  poets  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries. 

Miserere.    The  fifty-first  psalm. 

Mississippi  Bubble,  The.  A  hollow 
financial  scheme. 

Missouri  Compromise,  The.  A  measure 
that  prohibited  slavery  north  of  36°  30'  north 
latitude. 

Mistress  of  the  Seas.      England. 

Molly  Maguires.  A  secret  society  in  the 
United  States.  Many  crimes  were  attributed 
to  it,  especially  m  Pennsylvania. 

Monarch,  Le  Grand,  Louis  XIV.  of 
France. 

Monroe  Doctrine.  The  United  States  is 
not  to  meddle  in  European  affairs,  nor  to  al- 
low Euri'pean  Governments  to  meddle  in  the 
affairs  of  the  American  Continent. 

Mont  de  Piete,     A  pawnbroker's  shop. 

Montmartre.     A  Parisian  cemetery. 

Monumental  City,  The.    Baltimore,  Md. 

Morey  Letter,  The.  A  forged  letter  at- 
tributing to  Gen.  Garfield  anti-Chinese  senti- 
ments, iSSo. 

Morganatic  3Iarriage.  A  Tr.:...tiage  be- 
t^veen  a  man  of  high  rank  and  a  woman  of  a 
lower  one.  She  does  not  take  her  husband's 
title. 

Mother  of  Presidents,  Virginia;  hav- 
ing produced  seven  Presidents  of  the  United 
States. 

Mother  Carey's  Chickens.  Stormy 
petrels. 


\ 


fv 


A    DICTIONARY    Of     FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


805 


Mother  GooBe,  She  livt-d  ncnr  Hoston, 
and  was  a  nursery  rhymer.  She  sungrhvmcs 
to  hur  grandson  Thomas  Fleet,  who  printed 
them  in  1S19. 

Mount  Vernon,  The  home  of  Washing- 
ton, in  \'irginia. 

Musexilnr  CliriHtianity.  An  expression 
of  Chiirks  Kiiigslcy.  "A  sound  mind  in  a 
sound  body/* 

Music  of  tlie  Spheres.  Order,  harmony. 
Pinto  tauylit  that  each  j>hint.'t  had  a  siren 
whose  song  harmoni/.ed  with  tht.-  motion  of 
our  sphere  and  with  that  of  the  others. 

NBmby-Pamby.  Childish.  A  term  used 
for  poor  literary  productions. 

XnnteH,  Kdirt  of.  A  decree  issued  at 
Nantes,  I'rance,  in  isuS.hy  Henry  IV..  grant- 
ing toleration  to  the  l*rotestant  religion.  Ke- 
voKed  by  Louis  XIV.,  October  22,  16S5. 

Xation  of  Shop-keepers.  The  name 
given  to  the    English  by  Napoleon. 

Natural  Bridge,  The.  A  natural  arch 
over  Cedar  Creek  near  James  River  in  Vir- 
ginia.    It  is  200  feet  high. 

Newgate.     A  London  prison. 

New  IrVorhl.    The  Americas. 

Nibelungen  I>ie<1.  A  German  epic  poem 
of  the  thirteenth  centurv. 

Nine  Worthies,  The.  Joshua,  David, 
Judas  Maccaba-us,  Hector,  Alexander,  Julius 
Ca'sar,  Arthur,  Charlemagne  and  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon. 

Noetes  Ainbrosianie.  The  title  of  a 
work   by   Prof.  Wilson    (Christopher  North), 

Noel.     Christm;is  day. 

Non-Conformists.  Dissenters  from  the 
Church  of  Kiigland. 

Northern  Giant,  The.     Russia. 

Notre  Dame.    The  Cathedral  of  Paris. 

Odyssey.  A  narrative  poem  of  the  adven- 
tures nf  I^lysses  on  his  voyage  from  Troy  to 
Itliaca-Ho'nier. 

Ogres.     Gi.ants  who  feed  on  human  flesh. 

Oi  Polloi.     The  multitude. 

Ohl  Abe,     Abraham  Lincoln. 

Old  Bailey.     A  London  criminal  court. 

Old  Dominion,  The.    Virginia. 

Old  Guard,  The.  A  favorite  regiment  of 
NajHilcon  Bonaparte.  In  the  Chicago  Con- 
vention, iSSo.  the  friends  of  Gen.  Grant  re- 
ceived this  name. 

Old  Hickory.     Gen.  Andrew  Jackson. 

Old  Probs.  (Old  Probabihties.)  The  U.  S. 
Signal  Service. 

Old  Public  Functionary.  President 
James  liuclianan. 

Old  South,  The.  A  famous  church  in 
rSoston,  Mass. 

Orang«;man.  A  Protestant  Irishman. 
Member  of  an  org:inization  which  cherislies 
llie  memory  of  William  Prince  of  Orange. 

Orange  Peel.     Sir  Robert  PeeL 

Ordinance  of  17«7.  An  act  fixing  the 
gnveriiiin-nt  of  the  Northwest  Territory  of 
the  United  States. 

Orlando  Furioso.  An  Italian  poem  by 
Ariosto. 

Ossian.  The  son  of  Flngal,  a  Scotch 
bard.  Ossian's  poems,  published  in  1760,  were 
the  work  of  James  Mc  Pherson,  agif^ted  Cal- 
edonian. 

Ostend  Manifeso.  "Was  issued  by  the 
Ignited  States  Ministers  to  England,  l-rrmce 
and  Spain  during  Pierce's  administration, 
declaring  that  Cuba  must  belong  to  the 
United  States. 

Ostracism.  The  Athenians  expelled  every 
public  man  agamst  whom  a  suflicient  number 
of  votes  were  cast.  The  votes  were  written 
on  oyster  shells. 


Palimpsest.  A  parchment  having  the 
original  writing  erased  and  new  writing  sub- 
tituted. 

Pall  Mall.     A  street  in  London. 

Palladium.  Is  something  that  affords 
de(ence,  protection  and  safety.  A  statue  of 
Pallas  was  the  palladium  of  Tnty, 

Pantheon.  A  circular  building  in  Rome 
erected  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  It  is  now  a 
church,  the  Rotonda. 

Paradise  I^ost.  A  poem  by  John  Milton 
treating  of  tlie  lall  of  man. 

Paradise  Regained.  Poem  by  Milton 
on  the  temptation  and  triumph  of  Jesus. 

Paris  of  .Vinerica,  The.    Cinciimati. 
I*arth€-iion,        A   temple    o(    Minerva   in 

Athens. 

Pai*tington,  Mrs.  The  American  Mrs. 
Malaprop.    The  creation  of  R.  P.  Shillaber. 

Pasqiiina<le.  A  lampoon  or  satirical 
writing.  Political  squibs  used  to  be  posted 
on  an  old  statue  that  stood  in  Rome  near  the 
house  of  a  sneering  old  cobbler  named  Pas- 
quin. 

Peeler.  A  policeman.  Sir  Robert  Peel 
founded  the  Irish  constabulary. 

Peninsular  War.  The  war  between  En- 
gland And  trance  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
iSoS- 1S12. 

People's  William.  William  E.Gladstone. 

Pere-la-Chaise,     A  cemetery  near  Paris. 

Philippic,  An  invective.  The  orations 
of  Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  Macedon 
originated  this  word. 

Philistine,  A  word  in  iise  in  the  German 
universities  for  a  person  below  caste. 

Philosopher's  Stone,  Tlie,  A  substance 
supposed  to  have  the  property  of  turning 
anything  else  into  gold. 

Plon-Plon.  Prince  Napoleon  J.  C.  Bona- 
parte. 

Plumed  Knight,  The,  J.  G.  Blaine, 
Aiiurican  statesman. 

Plymouth  Rock,  The  rock  at  Ply- 
mouth, Mass.,  wliere  the  Pilgrims  landed 
in  I 6^0. 

Poet's  Corner.  A  corner  in  Westminster 
Abbey  where  poets  are  buried.  The  poetical 
column  in  a  newspaper. 

Pons  Asinorum.  (The  bridge  of  asses.) 
Fifth  proposition,  first  book  Euclid's  Geom- 
etry. 

Poor  Richard.     Benjamin  Franklin. 

Pork<»polis.    Cincinnati. 

I'rater,  The.  A  promen.ade  in  Vienna, 
Austria, 

Phffinix,  A  mythical  bird,  without  a  mate, 
renews  itself  every  five  hundred  years  by  be- 
ing consumed  in  a  fire  of  spices,  whence  it 
rises  from  the  ashes  and  starts  for  a  new 
flight. 

Pied  Piper  of  Ilnmelin,  The,  Not  be- 
ing jiaid  f(tr  having  drawn,  by  tlie  sound  of 
his  pilie,  the  rats  aii<i  mire  out  of  Hamelin 
into  tlie  river,  he  piped  the  children  of  the 
town  into  Koppelberg  hill,  where  130  of  them 
died. 

Pigeon  Fnglish.  A  mixture  of  English, 
Chinese  and  Portuguese. 

Protestant  Duke,  The.  The  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  En- 
gland. 

Pyramids.  A  number  of  rem.arkablc  old 
structures  in  Egypt. 

Quaker  City,  The.     Phil.adelphia,  Pa. 

Quaker  Poet,  The.    John  G.  Whitticr. 

Quartier  Latin.  A  district  of  Paris  in- 
habited principally  by  stu<lents. 

Queen  of  tho  Antilles.  The  island  of 
Cuba. 


Ranz  des  Vaohes.  The  air  the  Swiss 
mountaineers  play  on  the  Alpine  t|^rns  when 
tending  their  cattle. 

Railway  King,  The.  Geoi^c  Hudson, 
an  Englishman. 

Rebellion,  The  Great.  The  war  be* 
tvk'een  Charles  I.,  of  England,  and  Parlia- 
ment. 

Red  Letter  Day.  A  fortunate  day.  In 
old  calendars  a  red  letter  was  used  to  mark 
the  saints'  days. 

Red  Tape.    Official  routine. 

Reisnn  of  Terror.  The  time  during  the 
French  Revolution  between  the  overthrow  of 
the  (Mroitdists,  May  31,  i7i;3,  and  tlic  fall  of 
Robespierre,  July  2J,  fji^y. 

Reynard  tho  Fox.  A  romance  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

Rialto,  The.  A  bridge  over  the  Grand 
Canal,  Venice. 

Rights,  Declaration  of.  An  instrument 
securing  annual  Parliaments,  trial  bv  jur\*, 
free  elections,  the  right  of  netition.antf  deny  • 
ing  to  the  crown  the  privilege  of  keeping  a 
standing  army  or  <yi  levying  taxes,  was  drawn 
up  after  the  revolution  of  i6S(),  and  accepted 
bv  William  and  M.iry. 

Roost,  To  Rule  the.  To  take  the  leading 
part. 

Robert  the  Devil.  The  first  Duke  of 
Normandy. 

Robin  Goodfellow.  Puck,  a  celebrated 
fairy. 

Roland  for  an  Oliver,  A.  Tit  for  tat. 
Roland  and  Oliver,  two  peers  of  Charle- 
m.agne.  So  many  romances  were  related  of 
these  knights  that,  whenever  one  told  an  im- 
probable storv  to  match  one  that  had  been 
told  before,  it  was  called  giving  a  Roland  for 
an  Oliver. 

Rossius,  Tlie  British.    David  Garrick. 

Rough     an«l     Ready.       Qcn.     Zachary 

Taylor. 

Round  Robin.  Apetitionorrcmonstrancc 
signed  by  the  names  in  a  circle,  so  as  to  con- 
ceal who  signed  it  first. 

Round  Table,  The.  King  Arthur's 
knights  sat  at  a  round  table  so  that  any  dis- 
linctiim  t>f  rank  was  avoided. 

Roundheads.  The  Puritans,  who  wore 
short  hair. 

Royal  Martyr.  Tlie.  Charles!,  of  En- 
gland. 

Royal  Society,  The.  A  society  for  the 
advancement  of  natural  science,  founded  ut 
London,  i(x|5* 

Rozinante.    The  horse  of  Don  Quixote. 

Rubicont  To  Pass  the.  To  take  nn  irre- 
trievable step.  When  Carsar  crossed  the 
Rubicon  he  became  an  vnemy  of  Ihc  Re- 
public. 

Rule  Britannia,    An  English  song. 

Rump  Parliament,  The.  A  remnant  of 
the  Long  Parliament  broken  up  by  Cromwell. 

Rye  House  Plot.  A  conspiracy  in  16S.1 
to  assassinate  Charles  11.  and  the  Duke  of 
York.  Rve  House  was  the  name  of  the  con- 
spirators' place  of  meeting. 

Sabbath  Day's  Journey.  About  one 
mile. 

Sack,  To  Get  the.  To  be  discharged. 
The  Sultan,  when  he  w.ints  to  be  rid  of 
one  of  his  haram.  has  her  put  into  a  sack 
and  thrown  into  the  Bosphorus. 

Sadducees.  A  sect  of  the  ancient  Jews 
who  denieil  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and 
the  expectation  of  a  future  state. 

Sagas.  Scandinavi.in  books  containmg 
the  Northern  legends. 

Saint  Bartholomew,  Mossarre  of. 
Massacre  of  the  French  Huguenots  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX.,  on  SL  Bartholomew's 


kL 


8o6 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


y 


Sailor  JCing, 

Englaml.* 


The.       AVilUani      IV. 


A    once    famous   French 
in     the    Franco -Prussian 


Saint   Cloiul. 

palace,   destroyed 
war. 
Saint  James,  The  Court  of.    The  En- 

flish  court,  so  called  from  the  Palace  of  St. 
anies  ill  London,  formerly  a  royal  residence. 

Saint  Mark's.  Cathedral  of  Venice, 
Italy. 

Saint  PanPs.  The  cathedral  of  London; 
designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Saint  Peter's.  At  Rome ;  is  the  most 
splendid  church  building"  in  the  world. 

Saint  Sophia.  A  mosque  in  Constantino- 
ple, Turkey. 

Saint  Stephens.  A  Gothic  cathedral  in 
Vienna,  Austria. 

Salt  River.  Oblivion.  Gone  up  Salt 
River  IS  generally  taken  to  mean  political 
defeat. 

Saniho.    Nickname  for  colored  man. 

Sanctum.     One's  private  office. 

Sandwich.  A  piece  of  meat  between  two 
pieces  of  bread. 

Sang  Azul.     Of  aristocratic  descent. 

Sanhedrim.  The  Jewish  court  of  seventy 
elders. 

Sans  Culottes.  (Without  trousers.)  The 
French  revolutionists. 

Snns  Souri.  Palace  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  at  Putsdam,  near  Berlin. 

Santa  Croce,  A  church  in  Florence, 
Italy,  the  burial-place  of  Michael  Angclo, 
Galileo,  Machiaveili  and  others. 

Saturnalia.  A  festival  in  honor  of  Saturn 
observed  annually  by  the  Romans  by  givinir 
way  to  the  wildest  disorders.  Unrestrained 
license  for  all  classes,  even  to  the  slaves, 
ruled  the  city  for  three  days,  December  17,  iS 
and  19. 

Schoolmen.     The  medieval  theologians. 

Scotland  Yard.  The  headquarters  of  the 
London  police. 

Scourge  of  God,  The.  Atilla,  King  of 
the  liuns. 

Scratch,  Old.    The  Devil. 

Scylla.  (Avoiding  Scylla  he  fell  into 
Charybdis.)  In  trying  to  avoid  one  danger  he 
fell  into  another.  Scylla  and  Charybdis  were 
the  two  dangers  in  'the  Straits  oi  Messina, 
Italy. 

Sea-girt  Isle,  The.     Great  Britain. 

Secessia.     The  seceding  Southern  States. 

Secular  Games.  Games  held  by  the 
Romans  once  in  a  century. 

Semiramis  of  the  North.  Catherine  II., 
Empress  of  Russia. 

September  Massacres.  The  massacre 
of  the  French  Royalist  prisoners  in  Paris, 
September  2,  3  and  4,  1702.  About  S.ooo  were 
killed. 

Septiiagint.     A  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  prepared  by  seventy  doctors. 
Seven-hilled  City,  The.     Rome. 
Seven    \^'onders    of  the   World.     The 

pyramids  of  Kgypt;  the  Temple  of  Diana  at 
j'Iphesus;  the  hanging  gardens  of  Babvlon; 
the  Colossus  at  Rhodes;  the  Mausoleum  at 
Halicarnassus;  thestatueof  Zeus  by  Phidias 
at  Olympus,  and  the  Pharos  (or  light-house) 
of  Alexandria  in  Egypt. 

Seven  Years'  "War.  The  war  of  Freder- 
ick the  Great  against  France,  Austria  and 
Russia,  1756  to  1763. 

Shamrock.  The  emblem  of  Ireland.  St. 
Patrick  made  use  of  it  to  prove  the  doctrine 
of  tlie  Trinity. 

Spanish  IVfain.  The  southwestern  part 
of  tlie  (.iulf  of  Mexico, 


Sphinx.  An  emblem  of  silence  and  mys- 
tery. A  monument  near  Cairo,  Egypt;  half 
woman,  half  lion. 

Stabat  Mater.  A  Latin  hymn  on  the 
Crucifixion. 

Six  Hundred,  Charge  of  the.  At  the 
battle  of  Balaklava,  October  25,  1S54,  by  a 
mistaken  order,  the  British  light  cavalr>',  670 
strong,  ma,de  a  most  gallant  charge  on  the 
Russians. 

Sleeping  Beauty,  The.    A  fairy  tale. 

Smell  of  the  Lamp.  A  phrase  first  ap- 
plied to  the  orations  of  Demosthenes,  show- 
ing their  careful  and  labored  preparation. 
Demosthenes  studied  in  a  cave  by  lamplight. 

Song  of  Roland.  An  old  French  poem 
recounting  the  deaths  of  Oliver  :inJ  Roland 
at  Roncesvalles. 

Shibboleth.  A  countersign.  The  pass- 
word of  a  secret  society.  When  the  Ephraim- 
ites,  alter  being  routed  by  Jepthah,  tried  to 
pass  the  Jordan,  they  were  detected  by  not 
being  able  to  pronounce  properly  the  word 
Shibboleth. 

Sick  Man,  The.    The 'Ottoman  Empire. 

Sinews  of  War,  The,    Money. 

Single-Speech  Hamilton.  An  English 
statesman  of  the  eighteentli  century,  W.  G. 
Hamilton.  He  never  made  but  one  speech, 
but  that  one  was  most  eloquent. 

Stal^vart.  A  member  of  the  Republican 
party  of  the  United  States  chnging  to  tlie 
principles  and  practices  of  the  party.  His 
ojjposite,  a  "  Half-breed,"  is  a  Republican 
unwilling  to  be  controlled  by  the  party 
leaders. 

Star  Chamber.  A  court  of  criminal  jur- 
isdiction in  England  having  extensive 
poweis.  It  existed  from  the  time  of  Henry 
Vlll.  until  that  of  Charles  I. 

".Stonewall"  Jackson.  Gen.  Thomas 
J.  Jackson,  Confederate  General. 

Strasburg  Cathedral.  At  Strasburg; 
Gothic  ;  46S  feet  high  ;  has  a  wonderful  clock. 

Swedish  Nightingale,  Jenny  Lind  (now 
Mine.  Goldschmidt). 

Sorbonne,  The,  A  university  in  Paris 
founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbonne  in  the  tliir- 
teenth  century. 

Sortes  Biblicfe,  P'ortune-telling  by  con- 
sulting the  Bible. 

South  Kensington  Museum,  A  collec- 
tion of  works  of  art  and  manufactures  in 
London. 

South  Sea  Bubble,  The.  A  company 
formed  m  1710  in  England  to  pay  tlie  national 
debt  and  to  have  in  return  a  monopoly  of 
the  South  Sea  trade.  This  company  lasted 
about  ten  years,  and  its  failure  was  the  ruin 
of  thousands. 

Tabooed.  Prohibited.  A  Polynesian 
word  meaning  consecrated;  used  for  what 
is  out  of  date  or  in  bad  taste. 

Tammany  Hall.  A  section  of  the  Dem- 
ocratic ])arty  in  New  York  City,  named 
from  their  place  of  meeting. 

Tammany  Ring,  Or  the  "Tweed  Rin^," 
or  "the  Ring."  A  set  of  New  York  City 
officials  which  absorbed  large  sums  of  the 
city  money.     Exposed  in  1S71. 

Tammany,  S.tiut.  Patron  saint  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  New  York.  He  was  an 
Indian  chief,  whose  name  was  really 
Timenund. 

Tapis,  On  the.  On  the  carpet;  proposed 
for  discussion.  I'rom  the  tapis  or  cloth  on  a 
council  talile. 

Temple  Bar.  A  stone  house  in  London 
over  which  the  heads  (»f  traitors  used  to  be 
exposed.     Torn  down  in  1S7S. 

Termagant.  A  shrew.  Termagant  was, 
according  to  the  Crusaders,  the  wife  of  Ma- 
homet. 


Terra  Firma,     Dry  land. 

Tertiuni  Quid.  A  third  somebody  not 
to  be  named. 

Theatre  Francais.      A  theatre  in  Paris. 

Theleme,  Abbey  of.  A  creation  of  Rab- 
elais in  his  Gargantua.  Its  motto  was,  "Do 
as  you  please." 

Thirty  Years*  War,  The.  Between  the 
Catliolics  and  Protestants  in  Germany,  161S- 
104S. 

Thistle.  The  national  emblem  of  Scotland. 
One  night  when  the  Danes  were  attempting 
to  surprise  an  encampment  of  tlie  Scotch, 
one  of  them  trod  upon  a  thistle;  the  pain 
caused  him  to  raise  an  alarm,  and  the  Scotch 
defeated  them.  Ever  since  the  thistle  is  the 
insignia  of  Scotland. 

Thor.  Is  the  god  of  war,  son  of  Odin,  the 
Scandinavian  Myth. 

Threadneedle  Street,  The  Old  Lady 
of.     The  Bank  of  England. 

Three  Estates  of  the  Realm.  The  no- 
bility, the  clergy  and  the  commonalty ; 
represented  in  the  two  houses  of  Parliament. 

Thunderer,  The.  The  London  Times 
(newspaper). 

Tick,  On.    On  credit. 

Tit  for  Tat.     An  equivalent ;  this  for  that. 

Tom  Thumb.  Charles  A.  Stratton.  Also, 
a  fairy  tale. 

Tory.  The  name  of  an  English  political 
partv  ;  opposite  of  \V'hig, 

Tour,  The  Grand.  From  Englan  d 
through  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Germany 
and  home. 

Tower,  The,     The  citadel  of  London. 

Transfiguration, The.  One  of  Raphael's 
most  famous  pictures,  now  in  the  Vatican. 

Trimmer.  One  who  takes  a  moderate 
course  in  politics. 

Trinity  Church.  An  Episcopal  church 
on  Bruadwav  at  the  head  of  Wall  Street,  New 
York.     The  "richest  churcli  in  America. 

Triple  Alliance,  The,  Alliance  between 
Great  Britain,  Holland  and  Sweden  against 
France,  166S. 

Troubadours.  Provincial  poets  from  the 
elcventli  to  the  fourteenth  century. 

Trouveres.  Northern  French  poets  1100 
to  1400. 

Trumpet,  To  Sound  One's  Own.  To 
boast.  The  entrance  of  kn'.ghts  into  a  list 
was  announced  by  the  heralds  witli  a  flourish 
of  trumpets. 

Tuft-hunter,  A  toady.  At  Oxford  a 
nobleman  was  called  a  tuft  because  of  the 
gold  tuft  on  his  college  cap. 

Tuileries.  A  French  royal  palace  burn- 
ed by  the  Commune  in  1S71. 

Tulip  Mania.  A  European  craze  of  the 
seventeenth  centurv  ceijtering  in  H  oil  anil. 
Evervhody  was  huving  tulip  bulbs,  which  ran 
up  to'enormous  prices.  Many  fortunes  were 
sunk  in  their  acquisiti<m. 

Tune  the  Old  Cow  Died  of.  Words 
instead  of  alms.  Old  sonj^:  a  tnan  having 
nothing  with  which  to  feed  his  cow,  sings  to 
her  of  the  grass  which  is  to  grow.  The  ex- 
pression is  also  used  for  a  worn-out,  tiresome 
tune. 

Tyburn.  Once  a  London  place  of  execu- 
tion, now  a  wealthy  and  fashionable  quar- 
ter called  Tyburnia. 

TJffizi.  A  buildins;  In  Florence  in  which  is 
a  magnificent  art  collection. 

tJltramontanes.  In  France,  the  more 
extreme  adherents  of  the  Pope. 

Underground  Railr<».id,  The.  Organi- 
zation of  the  different  means  used  for  the  es- 
cape i>f  runaway  slaves,  about  the  middle  of 
the  present  century. 

ITnder  the  Rose.  (Sub  rosa.)  Confi- 
dentially. 


\ 


-k 


\ 


A    DICTIONARY    OK    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


.S07 


^i 


-I 


ITnlirked  Cnh,  An  ilMmd  boy.  The 
!>car  cub  \v;ui  believed  to  be  licked  into  sh.ipc 
by  its  dam. 

Vnter  <len  T^inden.  A  street  in  Berlin 
having  four  rows  of  lime  trees. 

Unwashed,  The  Great.    The  mob. 

Upat*  Tree.  An  object  that  does  harm 
and  slionld  be  avoided.  Tlie  iiiias  tree  i< 
common  in  Java;  ils  ^um  is  poisoiions,  and 
fable  states  that  the  atmosphere  about  it  is 
as  deadly. 

Up  the  Spout.  Or  more  elegantly,  "gone 
where  the  woodbine  twineth,'*  or  "at  my 
uncle's,"  means  in  pawn. 

Upper  Ten  Tlionsand.  The  aristocracy  ; 
fashionable  society. 

Utilitarians.  Those  who  believe  that  the 
fitness  of  anything  to  promote  happiness  is 
Ihc  right  standard  of  morality. 

Utopia.  An  ideal  commonwealth.  The 
imaginary  island,  scene  of  Sir  Thonuis 
Mofe's  romance  of  Utopia. 

Valhalla.  The  palace  of  immortality, 
wliere  tlie  heroes  slain  in  battle  dwell,  (brom 
the  Saga  legends.) 

A'aiiipire.  An  extortioner,  A  fabulous 
bat  said  to  suck  the  Idood  of  persons  during 
sleep. 

Vatican,   The  palace  of  the  Popes,   Rome. 

Vatiean,  Council  of  the.  The  a!;cunie- 
nical  Council,  1S69,  promulgated  Papa!  in- 
fallibility. 

Vedas,  The.  Revelations  of  Brahma  in 
four  sacred  books. 

Veni,  Vi<li,  Viei,  (I  ramc,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered.) Phrase  used  by  Julius  Cx-sar,  an- 
nouncing his  victory  at  Zela. 

Venus  do  3Iedici.  A  Greek  .  statue  at 
Florence. 

Venus  of  Milo.  >^Greek  statue  found  in 
the  Island  of  Mclos,  1S20;  it  is  now  in  the 
Louvre. 

Verhum  Sap,    A  word  to  the  wise. 

Veronica,     A  relic  at  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

Versailles.  A  palace  at  Versailles,  ten 
miU-S  from  Paris. 

A'espers,  The  Sicilian,  The  mnss.icre  of 
the  l-rcnch  in  Sicily,  March  ,Vi  i^^i^.  The 
sounding  of  the   vesper  bell  was  the  signal. 

\ii\  Dolorosa.  The  sorrowful  way  of  our 
I^oid  from  llie  Mount  of  Olives  to  Golgotha. 

Vinesar  Bible, The.  Has  "vinegar**  for 
"v'mevanl'',  in  the  head  line  of  Luke  .xxii. 
Oxford,  1767. 


Virsrin  Queen,  Tlie.    Queen  Klizabeth  of 

England. 

Vitus  nance,  St,      A  disease  anciently 
supposed  to  be  under  control  of  St.  Vitus. 

'Wabash  Avenue,    A  street  in  Chicago. 
"Wall  of  China,  The.    A  wall  1,200  miles 
long  and  io  feet  bigii,  built  as  a  protection 
against  the  Tartars. 

Wall  .Street.     The  great  financial  street 
of  New  York. 
Wallaek*s,    A  theatre  in  New  York. 
Walton,    An  Izaak.      An  angler. 
Wand<Tiiifi;.fe\v,The.    A  legendary  per- 
sonage condemned  to  wander  over  the  world 
until  the  day  of  judgment. 

War  of  1812,  Between  Great  Britain  and 
the  I'nited  Stales,  ibu-iSiS. 

War  of  the  Koses.  The  English  civil 
wars  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
c;ister. 
AVard,  Artenius.  C.  K.  Browne. 
AVashinj^toii  Street.  A  street  in  Boston, 
Miiss. 

Wassail,  (What  hail!)  A  bowl  of  spiced 
ale  used  on  New  Year's  day  is  the  Wassail 
bowl. 
Waters,  The  Father  of.  The  Mississippi. 
AVays  and  Means,  An  important  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  ItepresentativeJ ;  is 
cliargeil  with  the  duty  of  devising  ways  and 
means  for  the  supply  of  the  Government  ex- 
penses. 

Weddinff.  The  first  anniversary  of  a 
wediling  is  the/e/'f/*  wedding,  the  gifts  being 
pa|Kr  articles;  the  litlh,  71'ooi/eu;  the  tenth, 
//;/;the  tifteenlh,  c'/./.s.v ;  twentv-tlfth,  silvtr\ 
titlieth,  ;,'£'/(/«•«  ;  seVenty-fitth,  itiittnonJ. 

Well  of  St.  Keyne.  A  well  in  Cornwall. 
The  first  (»f  a  ni.irried  couple  to  taste  lis 
waters  will  "  wear  the  breeches." 

Westminster  Abbey,  A  church  in  Lon- 
don where  manv  of  the  illustrious  dead  of 
Ji.iigland  are  buried. 

Wetherell,  Klizabeth.  Pseudonym  of 
Miss  Susan  Warner,  author  of  The  Wide, 
Wide  World. 

Whiff,  The  name  of  a  political  party  now 
extinct. 

Wliistle,  (To  pay  too  dearly  for  the  whis- 
tle). Dr.  b'ranklin's  storj*.  Cost  greater  than 
benefit. 


Wliite  House.  The  Presidential  mansion 
at  Washington. 

Whiteboys,  A  secret  society  in  Ireland, 
17V 

Wild    Huntsman,   The.  A    spectral 

huntsman  in  the  Black  Forest.  German  le- 
gend. 

Windmills,  To  Fight  with.  To  oppose 
imaginary  objects.     Don  Quixote, 

Windsor  Castle.  A  royal  residence  near 
London. 

Wise  Men  of  the  East,  Tlie.  The  three 
Magi  guided  by  a  sUir  to  Bethlehem. 

Witch  of  Endor,  The,  The  soothsayer 
who  foretold  the  death  of  Saul. 

Witeh-Hazel.  A  forktd  twig  used  for 
finding  witches  ;  in  use  still  for  finding  water. 

Wooden  Horue.  A  ruse  at  the  siege  of 
Troy. 

Woolsack,  To  Sit  on  the.  To  he  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England. 

Wyoming  Massacre.  The  Valley  of 
Wyi»ming  was  ravaged  by  Indians  in  177S. 

Xanthos.  The  prophetic  horse  of  Achilles. 
Xantippe.  The  scolding  wife  of  Socrates, 


Yahoo,  A  rufKan.  The  Yahoos  in  Gulli- 
ver's Travels  are  brutes  shaped  like  men. 

Yankee,  A  name  given  to  all  Americans. 
In  America  itself  the  name  is  only  used  for 
natives  of  New  England. 

Y'armouth  Kloater,    A  red  herring, 

Y'en»»w  Jack.    The  yellow  fever. 

Young  America,  The  g^rowing  genera- 
tion. 

Young  Chevalier,  Charles  Edward  Stn- 
art,  the  sec()nd  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain.     (1720-$$.) 

Young  Germany,      Heinrich  Heine  and 


In  California.      Also 


White  Feather,  To  Show  the. 

[day  of  cowardice. 


A  dis- 


his  followers. 

Yosemite  Valley, 
a  picture  by  Bierstadt. 

Yule.     Christmas. 

Y'ule-log.  A  large  log  of  wood  burnt  on 
the  hearth  at  Christmas. 

Zend-Avesta,  Tlie.  Persian  Scriptures 
written  in  the  Zend  language. 

ZolIvereii».  An  association  between  Ger- 
man States  for  the  maintenance  of  uniform 
tariff  rates. 


MM. 


\ 


808 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


-A 


pEpEpEiraisiiaisiiaispLsiraispllsnaisT^ 


A+LEXIC0N+0F•^F0REIGN■^PHRA8ESi 


''iiP!^im- 


"m^\^^-^ 


g]^^^^gggggl[5]fa[s]ra[sHa[5irH][s^ 


Including  Sentences  and  Quotations  from  both  Living  and  Dead  Languages. 


^fi^^fWSHILE  it  is  not  considered  good  form 
to  interlard  one's  discourse  with 
phrases  culled  from  foreign  languages, 
there  are  many  cases  wherein  a 
thought  is  more  aptly  and  strikingly  put  in 
Latin  or  French  than  in  English.     When   this 


is  the  case  it  is  certainly  permissible  to  use  the 
term  which  puts  the  idea  in  the  best  shape.  It 
is  also  well  to  have  at  hand  a  comprehensive 
dictionary  which  will  show  at  a  glance  just  what 
a  word,  phrase  or  sentence  in  a  foreign  tongue 
means.  The  pages  which  follow  contain  the  most 
complete  lexicon  of  the  kind  ever  published. 


A  basy  F.,  down  with. 

Ab  extra,  L.,  from  without. 

Ab  initio,  L.,  from  the  beginning-. 

Ab  intra,  L.,  from  within. 

Ab  normis  5a//t;/jr,L..,wise  without  teaching. 

Ab  origine,  L.,  from  the  origin. 

Ab  oz'O,  L.,  from  the  egg. 

Absente  rco,  L.,  the  accused  being  absent. 

Ab   uno  disce  flmfieSyL..y   from  one  judge  all. 

Ab  urbo  condita^  L.,  from  the  founding  ot  the 
city. 

A  compte,  F.,  on  account, 

A  corps  perdu,  F.,  headlong. 

Ad  aperturam,  L..,  at  the  opening. 

Ad  astra  Per  asperafl^.^to  the  stars  through 
difficulties.     (The  motto  of  Kansas.) 

Ad  caiendas  Graecas,  L.,  at  the  Greek 
calends;  meaning  never,  as  the  Greeks 
li;id  no  calends. 

Ad  captandum  z'ulgtis,'L.,,io  catch  the  vulgar. 

Ad etindem,  L.,  to'the  same  (degree). 

Ad extremnm,  L.,  to  the  extreme. 

Adfinem,  L.,  to  the  end. 

Ad  infinitum,  L.,  to  infinity- 

Ad  interim,  L.,  in  the  meantime. 

A  discretion,  F.,  at  discretion. 

Ad  libitum,  L.,  at  pleasure. 

Ad  literam,  L.,  (even)  to  the  letter. 

Ad  modum,  L.,  after  the  manner  of. 

Ad  nauseum,  L..,  to  disgust. 

Ad  referendum,  L.,  for  reconsideration. 

Ad  rem,  L.,  to  the  point. 

Ad  t{ mint  omncs,  L.,  every  oiie. 

Ad  I'aioreni,  L.,  according  to  value. 

Ad  vitam  ant  culpam,  I,.,  for  life  or  for  fault. 

j^qito  animo,  L.,  with  mind  content. 

^tatis  snot,  L.,  of  his  (or  her)  age. 

Affaire  d^amour,  F.,  a  love  affair. 

A^aire  d''honneur,\' .,  a  duel. 

Affaire  de  cixur,  F.,  an  affair  of  the  heart. 

A  fortiori,  L.,  for  stronger  reason. 

'  A' la  campagne,  F.,  as  in  the  country. 

A  fa  Francaise,  F.,  after  the  French  (man- 
ner). 

yl /■.'l//j^/rt/>^,  F.,  after  the  English   (manner). 

A  la  /node,  V .,  aftur  the  fashion. 

Alere  flammam,  L.,  to  feed  the  flame. 

Alfresco,  It.,  in  the  open  air. 

Alis  volat  propriis,  L.,  she  flies  with  her  own 
wings.     (The  motto  of  Oregon.) 

Ailez  vans  en,  F.,  begone. 

Allans,  F.,  come. 

Alma  mater,  L...  benign  mother. 

Alter  ego,  I-.,  another  self. 

Alter  idem,  L.,  another  similar. 

Amende  honorable,  V.,  an  aiiology. 

A  mense  et  thoro,  L.,  from  bed  and  board. 

Amor patriie,  L.,  patriotism. 


Amour propre,  F.,  self-love. 

Ancien  regime,  F.,  the  old  rule, 

Anglice,  L.,  in  English. 

Animis  opibusque  paratiy  L.,  prepared   with 

our  lives  and  our  money.     (Motto  of  South 

Carolina.) 
Anno  tztatis  szke,  L.,  in  the  year  of  his    (or 

her)  age. 
Anno  cTiristi,  L.,  in  the  year  of  Christ. 
Anno  Domini,  L.,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord, 
Anno  mundi,  L,.,  in  the  year  of  the  world. 
Annus  mirabilis,  L.,  the  wonderful  year. 
Ante  helium,  L.,  before  the  war. 
Ante  lucein,  L.,  before  the  light. 
Ante  meridiem,  L.,  before  noon. 
A  /'<7H/rawct',  F.,  to  the  death. 
Apercu,  F.,  sketch. 
Aplo^nbyY.,  firmly;  perpendicularly. 
A  posteriori,   L.i   reasoning   from   effect    to 

cause. 
Apriori,  L,,  reasoning  from  cause  to  effect. 
A  propos,  v.,  to  the  point ;  by-the-by. 
Aqua  Z'it(S,  L.,  water  of  life  ;  alcohol. 
Argumentum  ad  hominem^  L.,  an  argument  to 

the  man. 
Argumentum  ad i£rnorautiam,'L..,An  argument 

for  the  ignorant. 
ArgumeJitum   ad  baculum,   L.,   an    argument 

with  a  cudgel. 
Arriere pensee,  F.,  on  after-thought. 
Ars  est  celare  ariem,  L.,  art  is  to  conceal  art. 
Ars  longay  vita  brevis  est^  L.,  art  is  long,  lite 

is  short. 
Asinns  ad  lyram,  L.,  an  ass  with  a  harp  ;  an 

absurditv. 
A  teneris  annis,  L.,  from  tender  years. 
Audaces fortunajuvat,  L.,  fortune  favors  the 

bold. 
Aude  sapere,  L.,  dare  to  be  wise. 
Audi  alteram,  L.,  hear  the  other  side. 
An  fait,  F.,  expert. 
Aufond,  F.,  at  the  bottom. 
Au pis  aller,  F.,  at  the  worst. 
Aura  popularis,  L.,  the  wind  of  public  favor. 
Aurea  mediocritas,  L.,  the  golden  mean. 
Alt  reste,  F.,  for  the  rest 
Au  rez'oir,  F.,  till  the  next  meeting. 
Aussitot  dit,  aussitot  fait,  F.,  no  sooner  said 

than  done. 
Aut  amat  aid  odit  inulier^  L.,  a  woman  either 

loves  or  hates. 
Aut    Casar  aut  nidlus,  L.,  either  C.xsar  or 

nobody. 
Auto  dafe,  Portuguese,  an  act  ol  faith  ;  burn- 
ing a  heretic. 
Auto  de  se,  L.,  suicide. 
Au  troisieme,  F.,  on  the  third  floor. 


Aut  vincere  aut  mori,  L.,  either  to  conquer  or 

die. 
Aux  armes,  F,,  to  arms. 
Azant-coureur,  F.,  a  forerunner. 
Avant-propos,  F.    a  preface. 
Avec permission,  F.,  with  jiermissioo. 
A  z'eri'is  ad  verbera.  L.,  from  words  to  blows. 
A  vinculo  matrimonii,  L.,  from  the  bond  of 

marriage. 
A  volonte,  F.,  atplea^re. 
A  voire  saute,  F,,  to  your  health. 

Bas  bleu,  F.,  a  blue -stocking. 

Beau  ideal,  ¥.,  an  idea!  beauty. 

Beau  monde,  F.,  the  tashiona&le  world. 

Beaux  esprits,  F.,  men  of  wit. 

Beaux yeux ,  F.,  beautiful  eyes. 

Bel  esprit.  P.,  a  brilliant  mind. 

Bete  noir,  F.,  a  buo;bear. 

Bien  seance,  F.,  politeness. 

Billet  doux,  F.,  a  love-lettei. 

Bis  dat  qui  cito  dat,  L..,  he  gives  twice  who 

gives  quickly. 
Blase,  F.,  surfeited. 
Bon  ami,  F.,  good  friend. 
Bonbon,  F.,  candv, 

Bongre  vial gre,  F.,  willing  or  unwilling. 
Bonnomie,  F.,  good  nature. 
Bonis  az'ibus,  L..  with  lucky  omens. 
Bon  jour,  good  day. 
Bonne,  F.,  nurse. 
Bonne  foi,  ¥.,  good  faith. 
Bon  soir,  F.,  o^ood  evening. 
Brevi  manu,  L.,  immediately. 
Brutumfulmen,  L.,  harmless  thunder, 

Cacoethes  loquendi,  L.,  an  itch  for  speaking. 

Cacoethes  scribendi,  L.,  an  itch  for  writing. 

Cetera  desunt,  L.,  the  remainder  wanting. 

Cieteris  paribus,  L.,  other  things  being 
equal. 

Candida  pax,  L.,  white-robed  peace. 

Caput,  L.,  head. 

Caput  mortuum,  L..  the  dead  body. 

Carpe  diem,  L.,  be  merry  to-day. 

Cassis  tutissima  virtus,  L..,  virtue  is  the 
safest  shield. 

Casus  belli,  L..  a  cause  for  war. 

Catalogue  raisotine,  F.,  a  topical  catalogue. 

Causa\':i»e  qua  Hon,L,.,a.n  indispensable  con- 
dition. 

Cedant  arma  togm,  L.,  let  arms  yield  to  the 
gown. 

Ce  n'est  que  le  premier  pa'  qui  coute,  V.,  the 
first  step  alone  is  difficult. 

C^est  a  dire,  K.,  that  is  to  say. 

Chacun  a  son  gout,  F.,  every  man  to  his  taste. 


\ 


\ 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


809 


"71 


Chcf^  F,,  the  head;  the  Icadinjj  person  or 
part. 

Cht/df  hatnif/on,  F.,  .1  major. 

Chff  d^  cttisfttr-,  v.,  head  ct>ok, 

Cht'/'J^ctnvrf.  K.,  a  miL^terpiecc. 

(Shen amit\  1'.,  a  dear  Iriend  ;  a  mistress. 

Chfi'alier  d'induslri^y  F.,  knight  of  industry  ; 
one  who  lives  by  liis  wits. 

Chiaroscuro,  It.,  distribution  of  light  and 
shade  in  painting. 

C/V'frc>«<',  It.,  a  guide  who  explains  curiosities. 

Cicixbeo.  It.,  a  m.*lu  attendant  on  a  married 
lady. 

Ci-d*-i>anty  F.,  formerly;  heretofore. 

CogitOf  ergo  sum,  L..,  I  think,  therefore  I  exist. 

Colubrtm  in  sinufaxert^  L..,  to  cherish  a  ser- 
pent in  one's  bosom. 

Commf  ilftint,  F\,  as  it  should  be. 

Cotnpogiion  Je  voyage^  F.,  a  traveling  com- 
panu"in. 

Compos  metiiis,  L.,  sound  of  mind. 

Comptc  reuiin,  F.,  account  rendered;  report. 

Comic,  F.,  count. 

CofUtt-xst',  F.,  countess, 

CoH  awore,P.,with  love  or  great  pleasure; 
earnestly, 

CoH  cowwodo.  It.,  at  a  convenient  rate. 

Conditio  sine  qua  non,  L..,  a  necessary  condi- 
tion. 

Confrere,  F.,  a  brother  of  the  same  monas- 
ter)-;  an  associate. 

Conge  d'e/ire,  F.,  leave  to  elect. 

Coni/i/iescut  in  puce,  L.,  may  he  rest  in  peace. 

Conseii  de  familte,  F.,  a  family  consultation. 

Conseil d^etaty  F.,  a  council  of  state;  a  privy 
council. 

Constaniia  et  virtule,  L.,  by  constancy  and 
virtue. 

Consneiitdo  pro  lege  servatur,  L.,  custom  is 
observed  as  law. 

Contra  bonos  wior^j,  L.,  against  good  morals 
or  manners. 

Coram  nobis,  L.,  before  us. 

Coram  non  jtidice,  L.,  before  one  not  the 
proper  judge. 

Corps  de garde,  F.,a  b§dy  of  men  who  watch 
in  a  guard-room;  the  guard-room  itself. 

Corps  diplomatique,  F.,  a  diplomatic  body. 

Corpus  Cliristi,\..y  Christ's  oody. 

Corpus  delicti,  L.,  the  body,  substance  or 
foundation  of  the  offence. 

Corrigenda,  L.,  corrections  to  be  made. 

CouUur  de  rose,  !•".,  rose-color;  an  aspect  of 
beauty  and  attractiveness. 

Coup  d'essai,  F.,  a  first  attempt. 

Coup  d'etat,  v.,  a  stroke  of  p4>licy  in  state  af- 
fairs. 

Coup  de  grace,  F.,  the  finishing  stroke. 

Coup  de  main,  F.,  a  sudden  attack;  a  bold 
effort. 

Coup  d'aril,  F.,  a  slight  view  ;  a  glance. 

Coup  de  theatre^  F.,  u  theatrical  effect;  clap- 
trap. 

Coute  qn*il  coute,  F.,  let  it  cost  what  it  may. 

Credula  res  amor  est,  L.,  love  is  a  credulous 
affair. 

Cr^scite  et  multiplicamini,  L.,  grow,  or  in- 
crease, and  multiply.  (The  motto  of  Mary* 
land.) 

Crimen  lasa  majestatis^  L.,  the  crime  of  high 
treason. 

Cut  bonof  L.,  f or  whoflc  benefit  is  it?  what 
good  will  it  do? 

Cul  de  sac,  F.,  the  bottom  of  a  bag;  a  place 
closed  at  one  end. 

Cum  grano  sails,  I-.,  with  a  grain  of  salt; 
with  some  allowance. 

Cum privilegio,  L.,  with  privilege. 

Currente  calomo,  L..,  wiln  a  runningor  rapid 
pen. 

Gustos  retulorum,  I,,,  tlie  keeper  of  the  rolls. 

Da  capo.  It.,  from  the  beginning. 

D'accordfl'.,  agreed;  in  tunc. 

JJamnant  quod  non  intelligunt,  I-.,  they  con- 
demn what  they  do  not  understand. 

De  bonne  grace,  F.,  with  good  grace;  will- 
ingly. 

De  ale  in  diem,  l-.,  from  day  to  day. 

De  facto,  L.,  from  the  fact;  really. 

Degage,  F.,  easy  and  unconstrained. 

Dei  gratia,  L.,  by  the  grace  of  (Jod. 

Dejeuner  a  la  fourchette ,  F.,  a  meat  breakfast. 


Defure^  L.,  from  the  law;  by  right, 

Delenda  est  Carthago,  I,,,  Carthage  must  be 
blotted  out  or  destroyed. 

De  mortnis  nil  nisi bonum,  L.,  let  nothing  but 
good  be  said  of  the  dead. 

De  nihilo  nihil  Jit,  L.,  of  nothing,  notliing  is 
made. 

De  noz'o,  L.,  anew;  over  again  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

Deogratias,  L.,  thanks  to  God. 

Deoj'uvante,  1,.,  with  God's  help. 

Deo,  non/ortuna,  L..,frviu  God,  not  from  for- 
tune. 

Deo  Tolente,  I..,  Gnd  willing;  by  God's  will ; 
usually  contracted  into  /A  r. 

De profundis,  L.,  out  of  the  depths. 

Dernier  ressort,  F.,  a  last  resmirce. 

De  bonis  non,  L.,  of  the  goods  not  adminis- 
tered on. 

Degiistibus  non  est  disputandum,  L.,  there  is 
no  disputing  about  tastes, 

Dcsagriment,  F.,  something  disagreeable. 

Des!d,ratum,  L.,  a  thing  desired. 

Dtsttnt  Ctelera,  L.,  the  other  things  are  want- 
ing ;  the  remaindt-'r  is  wanting. 

De  trop,  F.,  too  much,  or  too  many;  not 
wanted. 

Dies  ir<£,  L.,  the  day  of  wrath. 

Dies  non,  L.,  in  law,  a  day  on  which  judges 
do  not  sit. 

Dieu  defend  le  droit,  F.,  God  defends  the 
right. 

Dieu  et  man  droit,  F.,  God  and  my  right. 

Dignus  xundice  nodus,  L.,  a  knot  u-orthy  to  be 
untied  by  such  an  avenger,  or  by  such 
hands. 

Dii  Penates,  L.,  household  gods. 

Dii  majores,  L.,  the  greater  gods. 

Dii  minores,  L.,  the  lesser  gods. 

Dirigo,  L.,  I  direct  or  guide.  (The  motto  of 
Maine.) 

Disjecta  membra,  L.,  scattered  limbs  or  re- 
mains. 

Distingue,  F.,  distinguished;  eminent. 

Distrait,  F.,  absent  m  thouglit. 

Divertissement ,  V.,  amusement ;  sport. 

Dii'ide  et  impera,  L.,  divide  and  rule. 

Dolce  far  nicnte,  It.,  sweet  doing-nothing; 
sweet  idleness. 

Double  entente,  ¥.,  double  meaning;  a  play 
on  words ;  a  word  or  phrase  susceptible  of 
more  than  one  meaning.  (Incorrectly  writ- 
ten, double  entendre.) 

Dramatis persomc,  K,,  the  characters  or  per- 
sons represent';d  in  a  drama. 

Droit  des  gens,  F.,  the  law  oi  nations. 

Dulce  domum,  L,.,  swisL-t  home;  homewards, 

Dulce  est  deslpere  in  loco,  L.,  it  is  ple:isant  to 
jest  or  be  merry  at  the  proper  time. 

Dulce  ft  decorum  est  pro  patria  ntori,  L,,  it  is 
sweet  and  becoming  to  die  (or  one's  coun- 
try. 

Dum  spiro,  spero,  L.,  while  I  breathe,  I  hope. 

Dum  vivimus,  vivamus,  !_,.,  while  we  live,  let 
us  live. 

Eait    de     Cologne,   F.,    a    perfumed    liquid ; 

Cologne  water. 
Eau  de  vie,  F.,  water  of  life;  brandy. 
Kcce  homo,  L.,  behold  the  man.   (Applied  to  a 

picture  representing  our  Lord  given  up  to 

the  Jews  by  Filate,  and  wearing  a  crown  of 

thorns.) 
Editio  princeps,  L.,  the  first  edition. 
Egalite,  V .,  equality. 
Ego  et  rex  meus,  L.,  I  and  my  king. 
El  dorado,  Sp.,  the  golden  land. 
Emigre,  I'".,  an  emigrant, 
Einpressement,  F.,  atdor;  zeal. 
En  arriere,  !•'.,  in  the  reur ;  behind. 
En  attendant,  F..  in  the  meanwhile. 
En  avant,  V .,  forAvard. 
En  deshabille,  F.,  in  undress. 
En  echelon,  F.,  in  steps;  likest.airs. 
Enfantille,  V .,  in  a  domestic  state. 
Etjfans perdus,  V .,  lost  children;  in  miL,  the 

fiirlorn  hope. 
En  grande  tenue,  F.,  in  full  dress. 
En  masse,  F.,  in  .a  body. 
En  passant,  F.,  in  passing;  by  the  way. 
En  rapport,  I*'.,  in  relation  ;  in  connection. 
En  regie,  F.,  in  order;  according  to  rules. 
En  route,  F.,  on  the  way. 


Ense  petit  flaeidam  sub  libertate  gnietem,  F., 
with  llie  sword  she  seeks  quiet  peace  imder 
liberty.     (The  motto  of  Massachusetts.) 

En  suite,  F,,  in  company. 

Entente  cordiale,  F.,  evidence  of  gnnd-will 
towards  cuch  other,  exchanged  by  ilie  chief 
persons  of  two  slates. 

Entourage,  F,,  surroundings  ;  adjuncts. 

En  tout,  h\,  in  all ;  wholly. 

Entree,  V,,  entrance;  firit  course  at  mcols; 
freedom  of  access. 

Entn-mets,  F.,  dainties;  small  dishes. 

Entrepot,  F.,  a  warehouse;  a  place  for  de- 
positing goods. 

Entre  nousj  V.,  bet^veen  ourselves. 

Entresol,  h .,  a  suite  of  apartments  between 
the  basement  or  ground  Moor  and  tlie  sec- 
ond floor. 

En  verite,  F,  in  truth;  verily. 

E pluribus  unum,  L,,one  composed  of  many. 
(The   motto  of  the   I'nited  States,  as   one 

fovernmcnt   formed  of  many  independent 
lates.) 
Errare  est  humanum,  L.,  to  err  is  human. 
Esprit  borne,  F.,  a  narrow,  contracted  mind. 
Esprit   du  corps,  F.,  spirit  of  the  body;  fel- 
lowship ;  brotherhood. 
Esse  quam   videri,  L.,  to  be,  rather  than  to 

seem. 
Esto  perpetua,  L.,  let  it  be  perpetual;  let  it 

endure  forever. 
Et  Cietera,  L.,  and  the  rest;  etc. 
Et  hoc  genus  omne,  L,,  and  everjthing  of  the 

kind. 
Et  sequentes,  L.,  Et  sequentia,  L.,  and  those 

that  follow. 
Et  sic  de  cateris,  \^.,  and  so  of  the  rest. 
Et  tu.  Brute!  I-.,  and  thou  also,  Rrutus! 
Eureka,  (Jr.,  I  have  found  it.    (The  motto  of 

California.) 
Ex  adrerso,  L.,  from  the  opposite  side. 
Ex  animo,  L.,  with  the  soul ;  heartily. 
Ex  capite,  I-.,  from  the  head;  from  memon*. 
Ex    cathedra,   L.,   from  the   bench,  chair  or 

pulnit;  with  high  authority. 
Excelsior,   L.,   higher  ;  more  elevated.    (The 

motto  of  New  York.) 
Exceptio  p>robate  regulam,  L.,  the  exception 

proves  the  rule. 
Excerpta,  L.,  extracts. 
Ex  concessio,  L.,  from  what  is  conorded. 
Ex  curia,  L.,  out  of  court. 
Ex  dono^  L.,  by  thegift. 

Exempli  gratia,  L.,for  example  ;  for  instance. 
Exeunt,      \..,  they  go  out. 
Exeunt  onines,  L.,  :U1  go  out. 
Exit,  L.,  departure;  a  passage  out;  death. 
Exitus  actajirobat,  L..  the  event  justifies  the 

deed.    (\\  ashingtou's  motto.) 
Ex  necessitate  ret,  L.,  from  the  necessity  of 

tlie  case. 
Ex  nihilo  ntliiljit,  L.,  out  of  nothing,  nothing 

comes. 
Ex  officio,  L,,  by  virtue  of  office. 
Ex  parte,  I-.,  on  one  part  or  side  only. 
Ex  pede   J/erculum,   I,,,  we  see  n    Hercules 

from  the  foot;  we  judge  the  whole  from  the 

specimen. 
ExPerimentum  crnds,  L,.  the  experiment  of 

tne  cross;   a  decisive  experiment;   a  most 

searching  test, 
Experto  crede,  L,,,  trust  one  who  has  had  ex- 
perience. 
Ex  post  facto,  L.,  after  the  deed  is  done. 
Ex  /<*w//tfre*,  L..,  off-hand  ;  without  premedi- 
tation. 
Extra  muros,  L.,  beyond  the  walls. 
Ex  uno  disce  omnes,  L.,  from   <M»e   le.im  all; 

from  one  you  can  judge  the  whole. 
Ex  usu,  L..,  from  or  by  use. 

Facetitr,    L,,  witticisms ;     humorous    ple.is- 

antry. 
Facile'  princess.  L.,  evidently  pre-eminent; 

the  admiiten  cnief. 
Eacilis  est  descensus  Afernt,  L.,  the  descent 

to  hell  is  easy ;  the  road  to  evil  is  eiisy. 
Fac-simile,  L.,  an  exact  copy;  a  likeness. 
Fait  accompli,  V.,  a  thing' already  accom- 

plistied. 
Fas  est  et  ab  hostt  doceri,  L.,  it  is  well  to 

learn  even  from  an  enemy. 


8io 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


/ 


Ftila  Morgana,  It.,  a  meteoric   phenomenon 
nearly  allied  to  the  mirage. 

Fata  obctant,  L.,  the  Fates  oppose  it. 

Faiitenil^  F.,  an  easy  chair. 

Faux  pas^  F\,  a  false  step  ;  a  mistake. 

Fecit,  L,,  he  made  it;  put  after  an  artist's 
name. 

Ffikitas  mitltos  habet  aw/Vo5,  L,,  prosperity 
has  many  friends. 

Felicitt-r,  L..,  happily;  successfully. 

Ffio  de  sc,  L.,  a  self-murderer;  one  who  cum- 
mits  felony  by  suicide. 

Femme  couverle,    F.,   a  woman    covered    or 
sheltered  ;  a  married  woman. 

Femme  de  cUambre,  F.,  a  woman  of  the  cham- 
ber; a  chamber-maid. 

Femme  sole,  V.^  a  single  woman  ;  an  unmar- 
ried woman. 

Feree  iiatiirie^  L.,  of  a  wild  nature — said  of 
wild  beasts. 

Festi'jia  icntt',  L.,  hasten  slowly. 

Fete  champetrc,  F.,  a  rural  festiviil. 

Fete  Z>/c«,  F.,  the  Corpus  Christi  festival  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Fell  dejoie.  F.,  a  bonfire  ;  a  discharge  of  fire- 
arms on  ]oyful  occ:isions. 

Fiat  jiistitia,  mat  ccelum,  L.,  let  justice  be 
done,  though  the  heavens  sliould  f  .ill. 

Fidei  defensor,  L.,  defender  of  the  failh. 

Fides  Piinica,  L.,  Punic  faitli ;  trcacherj'. 

Fidus  Achates^  L.,  faithful  Achates;  a  true 
friend. 

Fille  de  chambre,  ¥.,  a  girl  of  the  chamber ;  a 
chamber-maid. 

Finem  respice,  L.,  look  to  the  end. 

Fitfabricandofaber,  L.,  a  workman  is  made 
by  working;  practice  makes  perfect. 

Flagrante  delicto,  L,,  in  the  commission  of 
crime. 

Fortiter  in  re,  L.,  with  firmness  in  acting. 

Fortuna favet fortibtis ,  F\,  fortune  favors  the 
brave. 

Fro?iti nn//a ^d,s ,J^., no  fzith  in  appearance; 
there  is  no  trusting  to  appearances. 

Fiiit  Iliiiiu,  L.,  Troy  has  been. 

Fulmt-n  briilum,  I-.,  a  harmless  thunderbolt. 

Functus   officio^   L.,   having    discharged    his 

ofhce. 
Furor  loquendi,  L.,  a  rag'e  for  speaking. 
Furor poeticus,  L.,  poetic  fire. 
Furor  scribendi,  L..,  a  rage  for  writing. 

Garde  du  corps,  F.,  a  bodv-{r"^rd. 

Garde  mobile^  F.,  a  guard  liable  for  general 
service. 

Gardez  bien,  F.,  guard  well ;  take  care. 

Genius  loci,  L.,  genius  of  the  place. 

Gens  d'armcs,  V .,  armed  police. 

Gens  de  lettres,  F.,  liter.iry  people. 

Gens  de  memefamiUe,  F.,  birds  of  a  feather. 

Gentilhomme,  F.,  a  gentleman. 

Germanice,  L.,  in  German. 

Gloria  in  excelsis,  L,.,  glory  to  God  in  the 
highest. 

Gloria  Patri,  L.,  glory  to  the  Father. 

Gradus  ad  Varnassum,  L.,  a  step  to  Parnas- 
sus, a  mountain  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the 
Muses;  a  book  ctmtaining  aids  in  writing 
Greek  or  Latin  poetry. 

Grande parurc,  F.,  full-dress. 

Gratis  dictum,  L.,  mere  assertion. 

Guerre  a  routrance,  L.,  war  to  the  uttermost. 

Hand  passibus   tequisj  L.,  not  with    equal 

steps. 
Haul  gout,  F.,  fine  or  elegant  taste;   high 

flavor  or  relish. 
Hie  et  vbique,  L.,  here  and  cveryTivhere. 
Hicjocet,  L.,  here  lies. 
Hie  labor,  hoc  opns  est,\j.,\y\\s  is  labor,  this 

IS  work. 
Ific  stpultus,  L.,  here  buried. 
Jlinc  illie  U*crimcE,  L.,  hence  proceed  these 

tears. 
Ifisloriette,   F.,  a   little   or  short   history;   a 

tale. 
Jfoi polloi,  Gr.,  the  many  ;  the  rabble, 
Jiombre  de  un  libra,  Sp.,  a  man  of  one  book. 
Homme  d'vsprit^  L.,  a  man  of  talent;  a  witty 

man. 
J/oui  soil  qui  maly  pense,  F.,  evil  be  to  him 

wlio  evd  thinks. 
Honorarium,  L.,  a  fee  paid  to  a  professional 

man. 


Horribile  dictu,  L.,  terrible  to  be  said. 

Ifors  de  combat,  F.,  out  of  condition  to  fight. 

Hortns  SICCUS,  L.,  collection  of  dried  plants. 

Hotel  de  z'ille,  F.,  a  town  hall. 

Hotel  des  Jnvalides,  L.,  the  military  hospital 

in  Paris. 
Humauum  est  errare,  L.,  to  err  is  human. 

fcb  dii-n,  Ger.,  I  serve. 
/d  est,  L.,  that  is— abbreviated  to  i.e. 
imitatores  servuni  pecus,  L.,  imitators  ;  a  ser- 
vile herd. 
Imperium  in  imperio,  L.,  a  government  witli- 

iii  a  government. 
In  teternum,  L.,  forever. 
in  armis,  L.,  under  arms. 

in  arliculo  mortis,  L.,  at  the  point  of  death. 
Index   expurgatoriuSy'L.,  a  list  ol  prohibited 

books. 
///  e.'^se,  L.,  in  being. 
In  extenso,  L.,  at  full  length. 
In  extremis,  L.,  at  the  point  of  death. 
Injfa^rante  delictu,  L.,  taken  in  the  act. 
/;/  forma  pauperis,  L.,  in  the  form  of  a  poor 

person. 
Inforo  conscientiiEy  L.,  before  the  tribunal  of 

cimscience. 
Infra  dignitatejn,  L.,  below  one's  dignity. 
In  hoc  siipio   vinces,  L.,  under  this   sign,  or 

standard,  thnu  shalt  compter. 
In  hoc  statu,  L.,  in  this  state  or  condition. 
In  limine,  L.,  at  the  threshold. 
In  loco,  L.,  in  the  place. 

In  loco  parentis,  L.,  in  the  place  of  a  parent. 
In  niedias  res,  in  the  midst  «'f  things. 
In  memoriam,  L.,  to  the  memory  of;  in  mem- 
ory. 
In  nomine,  L.,  m  the  name  of. 
In  nubibus,  L.,  in  the  clouds. 
In  pace,  L.,  in  peace. 
Inperpetuunt,  L.,  forever. 

In  petto,  L.,  within  the  breast;  in  reserve. 
In  plenOy'L..,  in  full. 

In  posse,  L.,  in  possible  existence;  that  may 
be  possible. 

In  preesenti,  L.,  at  the  present  time. 

In  propria  persona,  L.,  in  one's  own  person. 

In  puris   naturalibus,  L.,  in   naked   nature; 
quite  naked. 

In  re,  L.,  in  the  matter  of. 

///  rem,  L.,  against  the  thing  or  property. 

In  reriim  natura,  L.,  in  the  nature  of  things. 

In  situ,  L.,  in  its  original  situation, 

lusouciaucc,  F.,  inditference  ;  carelessness. 

In  statu  quo,  L,,  jn  the  former  state. 

Inter  alia,  L.,  among  other  things. 

Inter  7ios,  L.,  between  ourselves. 

Inter pocula,  L.,  between  drinks. 

In  terrorem,  L.,  as  a  warning. 

Inter  sc,  L.,  among  themscKes. 

In  totidem  verbis,  L.,  in  so  many  words. 

In  toto,  I-.,  \n  the  whole  ;  entirely. 

Intra  muros,  L.,  within  the  wall's. 

In   transitu,  L.,  on  the  passage;  during  the 
conveyance. 

In  vacuo,  L.,  in  empty  space;  free,  or  nearly 
free,  from  air. 

In  vino  Veritas,  L.,  there  is  truth  in  wine, 

Invita    Minerva:,    L.,    against    the    will     of 
Minerva. 

/A'^'^tV/.v/V,  L..  he  himself  said  it:  dogmatism. 

ipsissima  verba,  L.,  the  very  words. 

ipsissimis  verbis,  \..,  in  the  very  words. 

ipso  facto,  L.,  in  the  fact  itself. 

Ira  furor  brevis  est,  L.,  anger  is  a  short  mad- 
ness. 

facta  est  alea,  L.,  the  die  is  cast. 

Je  ne  sais  quoi,  ¥.,  I  know  not  what. 

Jet  d'eau,  F.,  a  jet  of  water. 

yen  de  mots,  F.,  a  play  on  words  ;  a  pim. 

feu  d'esprit,  F.,  a  play  of  spirit ;  a  witticism. 

fubilate  Deo,  L.,  be  joyful  in  the  Lord. 

judicium  Dei,  !>,,  the  judgment  of  God. 

Jupiter  tonans,  L.,  Jupiter  the  thunderer. 

Jure  divino,  L.,  by  divine  law. 

Jure  humano,  L.,  by  human  law. 

Jus  canonicum,  L.,  canon  law. 

Jus  civile,  L.,  civil  law. 

Jus  divinum,  I-.,  divine  law. 

Jus  gentium,  L.,  the  law  of  nations. 


Justemilieu,  F.,  the  golden  mean. 

Labore  et  honore,  L.,  by  labor  and  honor. 
Labor  ipse  voluptas^  L.,    labor    itself    is    a 

pleasure. 
Labor  omnia  f/«c;/,L,, labor  conquers  every- 
thing. 
La  fame  non  vuol  leggi.  It.,  hunger  obeys  no 

laws. 
Laissezfaire,  F,,  let  alone;  suffer  to  have  its 

own  way. 
Lapsus  calami,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  pen. 
Lapsus  linguiE,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lapsus  niemoria:,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  memory. 
Z(/;v.s- f//t'«rt/t-5,  L,,  domestic  and  household 

gods. 
Latet  anc^uis  in  herba,  L.,  a  sn.ike  lies  hid  m 

the  grass. 
Laudaria  viro  laudato,  L.,  to  be  praised  by  a 

man  who  is  himself  jiraised. 
Uax'enir,  F.,  the  future. 
Laus  Deo,  L.,  praise  to  God. 
Le  beau  monde,  F.,  the  fashinnahlc  world. 
Le  bon  temps  viendra,  F.,  the  good  time  will 

come. 
Le  grand  monarque,¥.,ihc  great   monarch- 
applied  to  Louis  XIV.  of  1-  ranee. 
Lepas,  F.,  precedence  in  place  or  rank. 
Le  roi  le  vent,  F.,  the  king  wills  it. 
Lese-majeste,  L.,  high  treason. 
L'etoile   du   nord,¥.,  the  star  of  the    north— 

the  motto  of  Minnesota, 
Le  tout  ensemble,  F.,  all  together. 
Lettre  de  cachet, ¥.,  a  sealed  letter;  a  royal 

warrant. 
Lettre  de  ?narque,  F.,  a  letter  of  marque  or 

reprisal. 
Lex  non  scripta,  L.,  the  unwritten  law. 
Lex  scripta,  L.,the  written  law;  the  statute 

law. 
Lex  talionis,  L.,  the  law  of  retaliation. 
Liberum  arbitrium,  L.,  free  will. 
Limee  labor,  L..  the  labor  of  the  file  ;  the  slow 

polishing  of  a  literary  composition. 
Lis  subjudice,  L.,  a  case  not  yet  decided. 
Lite  pendente,  L.,  the  law-suit  hanging;  dur- 
ing the  trial. 
Litera   scripta   7nanet,  L.,  the  written    letter 

remains. 
Loci  communes,  L.,  common  places. 
Locosy  ninos  dizen   la   verdad,  Sp.,  children 

and  fools  speak  the  truth. 
Locum  tenens,  L.,  one   holding  the  place;  a 

deputy  or  substitute. 
Locus  standi, L..,  a  place  for  standing;  aright 

to  interfere. 
Locus peniteiitiiv,  L..  place  for  repentance, 
Lusus  naturie,  L.,  a  sport  or  freak  of  nature. 

Ma  chere,  F.,  my  dear— fem. 

Mafois,  ¥.,  upon  my  faith. 

Magna  est  Veritas  et  prevalcbit,  L,,  truth    is 

great  and  it  will  prevail. 
Magnum  bouum,  L.,  a  great  good. 
Magnum  opus,  L.,  a  great  work. 
Maintien,  F..  deportment ;  carriage. 
Maison  de  sante,  ¥.,  a  private  hqspital. 
Maitre  d'holel,  ¥,,  a  house-steward. 
Malade  dupays,  ¥.,  home-sickness. 
Ma/afde,  L.',with  bad  faith  ; treacherously. 
Malapropos,  F.,  ill-timed. 
Male  porta   male    dilabuntur,   L.,   things   ill 

gotten  are  ill  spent.  ^ 
Malcrre  nous,  ¥.,  in  spite  of  us. 
Mailibus  pedibusque,  I..,  with  hands  and  f  :et. 
Malum  in  se.  L,,  bad  in  itself. 
Mann  propria,  L,,  with  one's  own  hand, 
Mardi  Gras,  ¥.,  Shrove  Tuesday. 
Materfamiltas,  L.,  the  mother  o5  a  family. 
Manvaise  honte,  ¥.,  false  shame. 
Mauvais  sujet,  ¥.,  a  bad  subject;  a  worthless 

fellow. 
Maximus  in  minimis,  L.,  very  great  in  trilling 

things. 
Medio  tulissimus  ibis,  L.,  you  will  go  most 

safely  in  a  middle  course. 
Mega  biblion,  mega  hahon,  Gr.,  a  great  book 

is  a  great  evil.  ,    . 

Mejudice,  L.,  I  being  judge;  in  my  opinion. 
Memento  mori,  L..  remember  death. 
Mens  Sana  in  corpore  sano,  L.,  a  sound  mind 

in  a  sound  bodv. 
Mens  sibi  conscia  recti,  L.,a  mind  conscious 

of  rectitude. 


\ 


J- 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGX    PHRASES. 


8ll 


Afi!ns  agi'tat  mokm,  L.,  mind  moves  matter. 

Afenit,  K.,  a  bill  of  fare. 

Mt.ta//ianrf,  F.,  improper  association;  mar- 
riage with  one  of  lower  station. 

Affitm  et  tuHttty  L.,  mine  and  thine. 

Mirabile  diitity  L,.,  wonderful  to  be  told. 

Mirahiie  Ttsu,  L.,  wonderful  to  be  seen. 

M/se  efi  sc.-Hf,  I-'.,  the  K^-"i"^C  up  for  the  stage, 
or  the  putting  in  preparatu>n  f<ir  it. 

Modus  opt-rattJi,  L.,the  manner  of  operation. 

Mollia  tiinporafandiy  I-.,  times  favoralile  for 
speaking. 

Mon  ami,v.^  my  friend. 

Men  cht'r,  !•'.,  m'v  dear — masc. 

Montani  semper  lih,ri^\..^  mountaineers  are 
always  freemen— the  motto  of  West  Vir- 
ginia. 

More  majorum,  L.,  after  the  manner  of  our 
ancestors. 

More  suo,  L.,  in  his  own  way. 

MotH  proprt\\  L..,  of  his  own  accord. 

Multum  tn porvOy  L.,  much  in  little. 

Mundtis  vuU  dccipi,  L.,  the  world  wishes  to 
be  deceived. 

Mutatis  Mutandis^  L.,  the  necessary  changes 
being  made. 

Natale  solum^  L.,  natal  soil. 

Neccssitas  nonUiabet  legenty  L.,  necessity  has 

no  law. 
Nee^  F.,  born,  family  or  maiden  name. 
I^e  exeaty  L.,  let  him  not  depart. 
Nefronticrede,!..,  trust  not  to  appearance. 
Nemine  conlradicente,  L.,  without  o(ipositi<m. 
Nemine  dissefitiente,  L.,  no   one   dissenting; 

without  opposition. 
Nemo  me  imptme  lacessity  L..  no  oneprovokes 
me  with    impunit>'— the  motto  of  Sc<»tland. 
Nemo  mortaitum  omnibus  horis  sapit^  L.,  no 

one  is  wise  at  all  times. 
Nemo  repente  fnit  tiirpissitfins^  L.,  no  man  be- 
comes a  scoundrel  at  once. 
Nepius  ultra,  L.,  nothing  further.^ 
Ne  ^uid  detrimcntt  respublica  capiat^  L.,  lest 

the  republic  should  receive  harm. 
Ne  suior  ultra   crepidam,  L..,  let  the   shoe- 
maker stick  to  his  last. 
Nil  admirari,  L.,  to  wonder  at  nothing. 
Nii  desperatidum,  L.,  never  despair. 
N'importe,  K.,  never  mind. 
Nisi  domirtus,/rHstra,  L.,   unless   the   Lord 

helps,  nothing  is  gained. 
Nisi prius,  I-..,  unless  previously. 
Nitor  in  adversiuHt  L.,    I  strive  against  op- 
position. 
Noblesse  oblige,  F.,  nobility  obliges 

must  act  noblv. 
Nolens  volens,  L.,  willv-nilly. 
Noli  me  iamre/e.  L.,    don't  touch  me;  hands 

off.  "* 

Nolle  prosequi^  L.,to  .ibandon  prosecution. 
Nolo  episcoparij  L..,  I   am  unwilling  to   be   a 

Hishop, 
Nom  de gucrreyV.^  a  war  name;  an  assumed 

name. 
Nom  de  plume,  F.,  a  pen-name  :  name  assumed 

bv  an  author. 
Non  compos  mentis^  L.,  not  in  one's  right 

mind 
Non  constat,  L.,  it  does  not  appear. 
Non  est  inz>entus,  L.,  be  has  not  been  found. 
Non  multa,  sedmultum^  L..,  not  many  things, 

but  much. 
Non  nobis  solum,  T-.,  not  for  ourselves  alone. 
Non  mi  ricordo.  It.,  I  do  n<it  remember. 
Noscitur  a  sociis^  L.,    he  is  known  by  his 

cnmp.inions, 
Nota  bene,  L.,  markwell. 
Nous  az'ous  change    tout   cela^   F.,  we   have 

changed  all  that. 
Nous  verrons^  F.,  we  shall  see. 
Nunquam  non  paratus,  L.,  never  unprepared. 


noble 


I 


OJ.-ri'nt  dum  meliirant,  L.,  let  them  hate,  pro- 
vided tliev  fear. 

Odi profan'um.  L.,  I  bate  tlic  villprar. 

Odium  tluotoi;iriim,  L.,  theological  hatred, 

Ollit podridn,  Sp.,  a  mixture. 

Otniie  igjiptiim  pro  ma^iijlco^  L.,  everything 
unknown  is  thought  magnificent. 

Omnia  vittcii  amor^  L.,  love  conquers  all 
tilings. 

On  Jil,  v.,  they  say ;  people  say. 


Onus prohandiy  L.,  the  burden  of  proof. 

Ora  pro  nobis^  L.,  pray  for  us. 

O  tt-mportil  O  mcfrc'/'L.,  oh,  the  times!  oh, 

the  manners. 
Otintn  cum  diffnittitr,  L.,  ease  with  dignity. 
Outre^  F.,  extravagant;  extreme. 

Patmnm   qui  mtruil  feral,   L.,    who    merits 

bears  the  prize. 
Par  fxcrilt-Ui-e,  I'".,  by  way  of  eminence;  in  the 

highest  degree. 
Par  hasard,  V .,  by  chance. 
Pari  passu.  L.,  with  equal  step. 
Parvenu,  1*.,  an  upstart;  a  ricn  "snob." 
Pater fantHias,  L.,  the  father  of  a  family. 
Pater patriiV,  L.,  the  father  of  his  country. 
Pax  t'obiscntn,  L.,  peace  be  with  you. 
Peccavi,  L.,  I  have  sinned. 
Pendente  lite,  L.,  while  the  suit  is  pending. 
Per  annum,  L.,  by  the  year. 
Per  capita,  L.,  by  the  head  ;  on  each  person. 
Per  contra,  L.,  on  the  other  hand. 
Per  diem,  L.,  by  the  day  ;  every  dav. 
Pericutum  in  mora,  L.,  danger  in  delay. 
Per  se,  L.  bv  itself. 

P'ersonne/,  !•'.,  the  staff ;  persons  in  any  ser- 
vice. 
Pelitioprineipii,  L.,  begging  the  question. 
Petite,  v.,  small ;  little-fern. 
Piece  de  resistance,  l'\,  a  joint  of  meat. 
Pinxil,  L.,  he  (or  she)  painted  it. 
Pis  alter,  Y .,  a  last  expedient. 
Plebs,  L.,  the  common  people. 
Poela  nascilur,  non  fit,  L.,  a  poet  is  born,  not 

made. 
Point  d'appui.  P.,  point  of  support. 
Populus  vult  decipi,  L.,  the  populace  wish  to 

be  deceived. 
Posse  comitatus,  L.,  the  power  of  the  coiintn- ; 
the  force  that  may  be  summoned  by  the 
sheriff. 
Posle  restanie,  F.,  to  be  left  till  called  for. 
Post  meridiem,  L.,  afternoim. 

Post  mortem,  L.,  after  death. 

Post  obitum,  L.,  after  death. 

Pour parler,  V ,,  a  consultation. 

Pour  prendre  coH^e,  V.,  to  take  leave. 

Precieuse,  F.,  a  blue  stocking;  a  conceited 
woman. 

Preux  chevalier,  F.,  a  gallant  gentleman. 

Prima  donna.  It.,  the  first  lady;  the  princi- 
pal female  singer  in  Italian  opera. 

Prima  facie,  L.,  on  the  lirst  face;  at  first 
sight. 

Primus  inter  pares,  L.,  first  among  his  peers. 

Pro  bono  publico,  L.,  for  the  public  good. 

P races  verbal.  V'.,  verbal  process;  the  taking 
of  testimcmy  in  writing. 

Pro  el  con,  L.,  for  and  against. 

Pro  forma,  I..,  for  the  sake  of  form. 

Pro patria,  L.,  for  one's  country. 

Pro  tempore,  I-.,  for  the  time. 

Punica fides,  L.,  Punic  faith,  /.<■.,    treachery. 

fuantum  sufficit,  L.,  as  much  as  is  sufficient. 
^uelnue  chose,  V.,  something. 
Quidnunc,  L.,  what  now  ;  a  gossip, 
^uid pro  quo,  I...,  an  equivalent. 
^ui  vii'e,  v..  who  goes  there? 
^uoderat  demonstrandum,  L.,  which  was  to 

be  demonstrated. 
Quondam,  L.,  at  one  time;  once. 

Para  avis,  L.,  a  rare  bird. 

Rechauffe,  V.,  warmed  over;  stale.  , 

Recherche,  !•".,  choice;  elegant. 

Redacteur,  1'.,  an  editor. 

Redivivus,  I-.,  restored  to  life. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum,  L.,  reduction   to    an 

absurdity. 
Rentes,  V.,  public  funds  ;  national  securities. 
Requiescat  in  face,  L...  may  he  (or  she)  rest 

in  peace. 
Res  angnsta  domi,  L.,  the  narrow  things  at 

home ;  povertv. 
Resgestic,  L.,  things  done. 
Resurgam,  I..,  I  shall  rise  again. 
Revenous  a  nos  monton<,V.,  let  iis  return  to 

our  sheep  :  come  back  to  the  subject. 
Robe  de  chambre,  F.,  a  dressing-gown. 
Roue,  F.,  a  rake. 
Rouge  et  iioir,  F,,  red  and  black ;  a  game. 


Sanctum  sanctorum,  L.,  the  holy  of  holies. 
Sangfroid,  F.,  cold  blood  ;  self-possession. 
Sails  culottes,  F.,  without  breeches;  red  re- 
publicans. 
Sartor  resartus,  L.,  the  tailor  patched. 
Sauve  quipeut,  F.,save  himself  who  can. 
Savoirfaire,  V.,  knowing  how  to  do  things. 
Savoir  vivre,  F\,  knowledge  of  the  world. 
Semper  idem,  I-.,  always  the  same. 
Semper  paratus,  I,.,  always  prepared. 
.Sequitur,  L.,  it  follows. 
.Seriatim,  L.,  in  order. 

Sic  itur  adastra,  L.,  thus  the  road  to  immor- 
tality. 
Sic  semper  Ijirannis,  L.,  thus   always  with 

tyrants. 
Sfc  transit  gloria  mundi,  L.,  so  passes   the 

glorv  of  the  world. 
Sic  volo,  sicjubeo,  L.,  thus  I  will ;  thus  I  com- 
mand. 
Similia  similibus  curaiitur,  L.,  like  things  arc 

cured  bv  like. 
Similis  simili gaudet,  L.,  like  is  pleased  with 

like.  .     ,     ., 

Si  monumenlum  quarts,  circumspice,  L.,  if  you 

seek  his  monument,  look  around. 
Sine  die,  L.,  without  a  day  appointed. 
Sine  qua  non,  L.,  an  indispensable  condition. 
.Histe,  viator,  L.,  stoj),  traveler. 
Si  vis  pacem,  para  bellum,  L.,   if  you  wish 

peace,  prejiare  for  war. 
Soidisant,  v.,  self  stvled. 
.Spero  meliora,  I..,  I  hope  for  better  things. 
Spiritiiel,\..,  intellectual;  witty. 
.Spolia  opium,  L.,  /«  rtHf/V«/ /^cw*",  the  spoils 
of  a  vanquished  general  taken  by  the  vic- 
torious general ;  a  rich  bootv. 
Sponle  sua,  L.,  of  one's  ow  ii  accord. 
Statu  quo  ante  bellum,  L.,  in  the  slate  wliicn 

was  nefore  the  war. 
Status  quo,  L  ,  the  state  in  which. 
.SV.-<,L.,  let  it  stand. 
Suaviter  in  modo,fortiter  i«i  re,  L.,  gentle  in 

manners,  brave  in  deed. 
Subjudice,  L.,  under  consideration. 
Sub  pxna,  L.,  under  a  penalty. 
Sub  rosa,  L.,  privately. 
Ah*  silentio,  L.,  in  silence  or  stillness. 
Suigeneris,  L.,  of  its  own  kind. 
Summum  bouuin,  L.,  the  chief  good. 
.Summnm  Jus,  snmiua  injuria,  1-..  the   rigor 

of  the  law  is  the  height  of  oppression. 
Surgit  amari  aliquid,   L.,   soiuelliing  bitter 

arises. 
Suum  cuique,  L.,  let  each  have  his  ow  n. 

Tableau  vivant,  F.,  the  representation  of 
some  scene  bv  groups  of  persons. 

Tabula  rasa,  L.,  a  smooth  or  blink  tablet. 

Tedium  vita,  U.,  weariness  of  life. 

Taut  pis,  F.,  so  much  the  worse.  ^ 

Te  beum,  L.,  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 

Temtora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutamur  in  litis, 
L.,  the  times  are  changed  and  wo  arc 
changed  with  them. 

Tcmpus  fugit.\..,i-'m<^K\<s. 

Terminiis  ad  quern,  L.,  the  time  to  which. 

Terminus  a  quo,  L..  the  time  from  which. 

Terrafirma,  L.,  solid  earth. 

Terra  incomita,  1..,  an  unknown  country. 

Tertium  quid,  I-.,  a  third  something. 

TV/c-a-W^,  F.,  head  to  head;  a  private  con- 
versation. , 

Toga  virilis,  L..  the  gown  of  manhood. 

Tokalon,  Gr.,  the  beautiful  ;  the  chief  good. 

Totidem  verbis,  I.-,  in  just  so  many  words. 

Toliesquoties,\...:MvnAnS3if: 

Tola  cerlo,  L..  by  the  whole  heavens;  diamet- 
rically opposite. 

Toujon'rspret,  V.,  alwa>-s  ready. 

Tour  deforce,  V.,  a  feat  of  strength  or  skill. 

Tautafait,  F.,  entirely;  wholly. 

Tout  ensemble,  F.,  the  whole  taken  together. 

Troja  fuit,  L.,  Troy  was. 

Trott'oir.  V .,  a  sidewalk.  „ 

Tuquoque.  Brutel  I.  .  and  thou,  too,nrutus! 

Tutor  el  iiltor,  L.,  protecK.r  and  avenger. 

Tuum  est,  L.,  it  is  your  own. 

Vbimel,ibiapes,  L.,  where  honey  is,  there 
are  bees.  ,  ^     - 

Ultima  ratio  regum,  L.,  the  last  argument  of 
kings;  war. 


I 


^ 


8l2 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


"71 


Ultima  Tliuie,  L.,  the    utmost    boundary    or 

limit. 
Un  bienfatt  11*  est  jamais  perdu,  F.,  a  kindness 

is  never  lost. 
Unfait  accompli,  L.,  an  accomplished  fact. 
Ungnibus  et  rostra,  L.,  with  claws  and  beak. 
Usque  ad  nauseam,  L.,  to  distrust. 
Usus  loqieendi,  L.,  usa^c  in  speaking. 
Utile  diilci,  L.,  the  useful  with  the  pleasant. 
Ut  infra,  L.,  as  below. 
Uti possidetis,  I-.,  as   you   possess;  state   of 

present  ])Ossession. 
Ut  supra,  L.,  as  above  stated. 

Vade  mecum,  L.,  eo  with  me. 

Vale,  L.,  farewell. 

Valet  de  chambre,  F.,  an  attendant;  a  foot- 
man. 

Variie  leciiones,  L.,  various  readings. 

Variorum  nota,  L.,  the  notes  of  various 
authors. 

Veni,  vidi,  vici^  L.,  1  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

Vera  pro gratiis,  L..,  truth  before  favor. 


Verbatim  et  literatim,  L.,  word  for  word  and 
letter  for  letter. 

Verbum  sat  sapienti,  L.,  a  word  is  enough  for 
a  wise  man. 

Veritas prcTalebit,  L.,  the  truth  will  prevail. 

Veritas  vincit,  L.,  truth  conquers. 

Vestigia,  L.,,  tracks;  vestiges. 

Vestigia  nulla  retrorsum,  L.,  no  footsteps 
backward. 

Vcxata  quiBstio,  L.,  a  disputed  question. 

Vice,  L.,  in  the  place  of. 

Vice  versa,  L.,  the  terms  being  exchanged. 

Videlicet,  L.,  to  wit;  namely. 

Vide  ut  supra,  L.,  see  what  is  stated  above. 

Viet  nrmis,  L.,by  force  and  by  arms;  by 
main  force. 

Viucit  qui  se  luncit,  L.,  he  conquers  who 
overcomes  himself. 

Vinculum  matrimonii,  L.,  the  bond  of  mar- 
riage. 

Virtus  Iaudatur,et  alget,V..,\'\xXnv:  is  prais- 
ed, and  is  not  cherished  (is  starved). 

Virtus  semper  firidis,  virtue  is  ever  green 
and  blooming. 


Vis  inertia,  J-..,  the  power  of  inertia;  resist- 
ance. 

Vivat  reginal  L.,  long  live  the  queen  ! 

Vivat  rex,  L.,  long  live  the  king. 

Viz'a  I'oce,  L.,  by  the  living  voice;  by  oral 
testimtmy. 

Vivat  resp'ublica!   L.,  long  live  the  republic! 

Vive  la  republique!  F.,  lung  live  tlie  repulilic  ! 

Vive  I'empereur!  F.,  long  live  the  emperor! 

Vive  le  roil  F.,  long  live  the  king.' 

Voila,  F,,  behold  ;  tliere  is  or  there  are. 

Volens  et  patens,  L.,  able  and  willing;  motto 
of  Nevada. 

Volente  Deo,  L.,  God  willing. 

Volenti  nou  fit  injuria, 'L.,i\o  injustice  is  done 
to  the  consentinii  person. 

Vox  et  pr cetera  nihil,  L.,  a  voice  and  nothing 
more;  sound  without  sense. 

Vox  popnli,  vox  Dei,  I-.,  the  voice  of  the  peo- 
ple is  the  voice  of  (iod. 

Vnlgo,  L.,  commonly.. 

Vuitus  est  index  onimi,  L.,  the  face  is  the  in- 
dex of  the  mind. 


!/@SfeMz 


iTpE  Lf  I^UAI^E  OF  ^\ 


AMETHYST, peace  OF  mind. 

Regarded  by  the  ancients  as  hs.ving  the  power  to  dispel  drunkenness. 

BLOOD-STONE, I  MOURN  YOUR  ABSENCE. 

Worn  by  the  ancients  as  an  amulet  ur  charm,  on  account  of  the  medi- 
cinal and  magical  virtues  it  was  supposed  to  possess. 

DIAMOND, PRIDE. 

Awarded  supernatural  qualities  from  the  most  remote  period  down 
to  the  Middle  Ages.      Has  the  power  of  making  men  courageous 
and  magnanimous.     Protects  from  evil  spirits.     Influences 
the  gods  to  lake  pity  upon  mortals.      Maintains  con- 
cord between  husband  and  wife,  and  for  this 
reason  was  held  as  the  most  appropriate 
stone  for  the  espousal  ring. 

EMERALD, SUCCESS  IN  LOVE. 

Mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  worn  in  the  breast-plate  of  the  High  Priest 
as  an  emblem  of  chastity. 


RUBY, A  CHEERFUL  M'ND. 

An  amulet  against  poison,  sadness,  evil  thoughts.       A  preservative  of 

health.     Admonishes  the  wearer  of  impending 

danger  by  changing  color. 

SAPPHIRE, CHASTITY. 

Procures  favt)r  with  princes.        Frees  from  enchantment.      Prevents 
impure  thoughts. 

TOPAZ, FIDELITY. 

Calms  tlie  passions. 

TURQUOISE. SUCCESS   AND  HAPPINESS. 

Preserves  from  contagion. 

GARNET, FIDELITY  IN  EVERY   ENGAGEMENT. 

ONYX, RECIPROCAL  LOVE. 

OPAL, PURE    THOUGHTS. 

PEARL PURITY  AND  INNOCENCE. 


VL 


:A 


V 


DICTIONARY    OF    ABBREVIATIONS. 


8'3 


4tDICTI0NARY  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


«:^ 


^^^Mi^H  g^pl^  fg^  r^il^lr^li^  f^SllilZE  v±E\ 


Sr^AlLY  is  the  use  of  alibreviations  increasing  in  America.  The  demand  for  continual  short-cuts  in  writing  as  well  as  in  ever>'thing 
^*^else  has  huilt  a  great  number  of  logogriphs,  which  without  a  comprehensive  glossary  must  be  often  uninteliigible.  Below  will 
be  found  all  the  abbreviations  in  good  English  usage. 


a.     In  cnrniiKTCi',  to. 
®.      Ill  ComilKTCC,  ai. 
A.A.U,  jVi&i^iitiit  Ailjutiint-Gcn- 
iral. 
A.A.l'.S      AiiKrican  Association 

J»>r  ihe  rrnitintidn  of  Sciuncc. 
A.A.S.  At'odi-inut:  America  Use  So- 

cms,  l-\llu\v  of  the  American 

Ac:uk-niy   (nf   Arts    and    Sci* 

ences). 
A.A.S.S.     Ami-ricaiKE  AtiliqKor- 

iitiue  Socittaiis  Socius,  iMcmhcr 

ot    the   American    Antiquarian 

Society. 
A.M.         Art  mm       Baccalaitreus, 

Machclor  of  Art^. 
A.  B.C.K.M.     Aiiiurican  Floartl  of 

Comissioncrs  for  I'orcign  Mis- 

sitnis. 
Abp.     Archliishop. 
Alir.     Abriil}^mL.nt. 
Al>l»r.     Ablircviation. 
A.li.S.     American  Hihlc  Sock-ty. 
A.C.       Antt-      Llirisliim,     before 

Clirist;  Arch-Chancellor. 
Acad.     Academy. 
Acct.    Account;  Accent. 
A.C.S.     American     Colonization 

Society. 
A.D.    Anno  Domini^  in  the  year 

of  nur  Lord. 
A.D.C.     Aide-de-camp. 
Ad.     Advertisement. 
Adj.     Adieclive. 
Adjt.     Adjutant. 
Ad)l.-Geii.    Adjntant -General. 
Ad  lib,     A'i lil'ilmii,  at  jileiisure. 
Adin.     Adin.r.il ;  Athniraltv. 
Adm.  Ct.     Admiralty  Court. 
Ad  Mir.     Admiiiislralor. 
Admx.     Administratrix. 
Ad  V.    Ad-jalorem,  at  (or  on)  the 

value. 
Adv.      Adverb;  Advent;  Adver- 
tisement. 
jKt.     yEiati.'s  of  age  ;  ajf»d. 
A.K.X-A.M.     Ancient    1- rec    and 

Accepted  Masons. 
A.K.n.S.     American  and  Foreign 

lliblc  Society. 
A.G.    Adjutant-General. 
Aip".    Agriculture. 
A.<;.S.S,     American    Oeotfraph- 

ical  and  Statistical  Society. 
Agt.     Agent. 
A.H.     Amto  Ifegira^  in  the  year 

of  the  llegira. 
A.M. .M .S.    American  Home M is- 

sionary  Siclety. 
Ala.     Alabama. 
Aid.     Alderman. 
A. I.,  of  H.     American  Legion  nf 

1  lonor. 
Alex.     Alexander. 
Alg.     Algebra. 
All.     Altitude. 


A.M.  Anno  tn/truU,  In  the  year 
of  the  world ;  Artiiim  A(ng- 
istrr.  Master  of  Arts;  Atite 
iiii-riJicm.  Meiore  noon,  morn- 


nh. 


Amh,     Ambassador.   (See  Emb.) 

Amer.    American. 

AMM.  Amoigama,  Amalgama- 
tion. 

Amt.     Amount. 

All.     Anno,  In  the  year. 

An. A.C.  Amio  ante  Christum^ 
in  the  vcar  before  Christ. 

Anat.     Anatomy. 

Aric.     Ancient;  anciently. 

And.     Andrew. 

Aug.  Sax.    Anglo-Saxon. 

Anon.     Anonymous. 

Ans.     Answer. 

Ant.     Antiquity. 

Anth,     Anthony. 

Aor.  or  aor.     Aorist. 

A.O.S.S.  Amcricnnu:  Oric7tta/is 
Socittatix  Socius,  Member  of 
the  American  C>riental  Society. 

A.O.U.W.  Ancient  Order  of 
United  Workmen. 

Ap.    Ajjoslle ;  Applus. 

Ap.  Apnd,  in  the  writings  of;  as 
quoted  by. 

Apo.     Apogee. 

Ajioc.     Apncalypse, 

Apj).     Appendix. 

Apr.     April. 

A.Q.M.O.  Assistant  Quarter- 
master-General 

A.K.  Anna  /itgi/ut,Qxi{:vn  Anne. 
A/t/io  tig///,  year  of  the  reign. 

A.K. .A.  Associate  of  the  Koyal 
Academy. 

Arab.     Arabic,  or  Arabia. 

Ariz.  Ter.     Arizona  Territoir. 

Arg.  Arg/imcu/o,  by  an  argu- 
ment drawn  from  such  a  law. 

Arith.     Arithmetic. 

Ark.     Arkansas. 

A.K.R.  In  tlie  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  king. 

A.U.S.S.  lello>v  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Antiquaries. 

Art.     Article. 

A.S.  or  Assist.  Sec.  Assistant 
Secretarv. 

A.S.v\.  American  Statistical  As- 
sociation. 

Asst.    Assistant. 

Asst.  Surg.     Assistant  Surgeon. 

A.S.S.U.  American  Sunday - 
School  Uni<»n. 

Astrtd,     Astrology. 

Astron.     Astronomy. 

A.T.     Arch-Tre;isurer. 

A.'I'.S.     American  Tract  Society. 

Ats.    At  suit  of. 

Atty.     Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen.     Attorney -General. 


A.U.A.    American  Unitarian  As- 
sociation. 

Aub.Thetd.Sem.   Aidnirn  Theo- 
Ini^ical  Seminarv. 

A.l  .C      In  the  )ear  of  Koine. 

Aug.     Auirust. 
-Aur.     Gold,  At/rrtm.  « 

Auth.  V'er.      Authorized  version 
(of  the  Hibk). 

Av.     Average  ;  Avenue. 

A\  oir      Avoirdupois. 

A.^'.M.     Ancient  Vork  Masons. 

b.     Horn. 

R.A.     Bachelor  of  Arts. 

H.A.     Kriiish  America, 

Ral.     Ralance. 

Rait.     Rahlmore. 

Rar.     Rarrel ;  Harlevcorn, 

Bart,  or  !U.      Raronet. 

Bbl.     Rarrel. 

B.C.      Iktore  Christ. 

R.C.     Rachelor  of  the  Classics. 

R.C.L.     Rachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

R.D.     Bachelor  «,f  Divinity. 

Rd.     Round. 

Rds.  or  bds.     Boards  (binding). 

R.E.     Rachelor  ».f  the  Elements. 

Renj.      r.enjauun. 

Rk.      Rook. 

R.  Lit.     Rachelor  of  Letters. 

R.LI..     Bachelor  of  Laws. 

Rl.,  i:is.     Barrel,  Barrel-^. 

B.M.     Bachelor  of  Meilicine. 

R.  Mus.     Rachelor  of  Music. 

Bor.     Borough, 

Bost.     Boston. 

Bot.      Botany. 

Bp.     Bishop. 

B.R.      The    King's    or    Queen's 
Bench. 

Brig.     Brigade;  rrigadier. 

Brig.-(ien.      Brigadier- General. 

Brit.  British;  Britain. 

Brit.  Mus.     British  Museum. 

Bro.,  Bros.     Rrotlu-r,  Brothers. 

Br.  Univ.     Rrown  University. 

Rrus.     Rrussi  Is. 

B.S.     Bachelor  of  Science. 

Bu..  Bush.     Bushel. 

R.V.     Blessed  Virgin, 

BA'.     Farewell. 

R.\".M.     Blessed  Virgin  Mar>-. 

C,  Ch.  orChaj>.  Chapter ;  Consul. 

C.  or  Cent.     A  hundred,  CVj//m/m. 

C.A.     Commercial  Agent. 

cx't.    par.       Other    things    being 
equal,  Carttr/.< portions. 

Cad.  Eng.     Ca<kt  Engineer. 

Cal.     California;   Calends;    Cal- 
endar. 

Cam.     Cambridge. 

Can.     Canon  ;  Canada. 

Cant.     Canticles. 

Cap,  ore.      Chapter,  6V//«/.  r^/- 
/V/////W. 

Caps.    Capitals. 


Capt.     Captain. 

Capi.*Gen.    Caittain -General. 

Card.     Cardinal. 

C.A.S       J-'ellow  of  Conncclicnl 

Academy,  Cohh,  Acmirmit  So- 

cms. 
Cash.    Cashier, 
ca.  resp.,  ca.  sa,     A  legal  UTit. 
Calh.     Catholic. 
Cath.  Inst.     Catholic  Institute, 
C.  R.     Companion  of  the  Rath. 
C.  B     Common  Bench. 
C.C.        County     Clerk;    County 

Commissioner. 
C.C.      Cains    College ;    Account 

Current. 
C.C.       Chancellor     Commander; 

Consular  Ckriv. 
C.C.C.     Corpus    Chrisii   CoUcgv. 
C.C.I*.     Court  of  Common  I'leas. 
C.E.      Civil   Engineer;    Canada 

Ea<t. 
Cel.  or  C'lt.     Celtic. 
Cen.      C.ntnrv  ;  Centennial, 
Cf.,  or  cf.     Compare,  CoHfrr. 
C.G.  Commi>i.ary-Gcneral  ;Crn- 

sul-Gen(.ral. 
C.G.S.     Commissary-General  of 

Sid>sislence. 
C.li.     Court  hO"«-. 
Ch.    Ch»irch;  Chapter;  Charles; 

Chaldron. 
Chanib.     Chamberlain. 
Oianc.     Chancelli-r. 
Chap.     Chapter;  Chaplain. 
Chas.     Charles. 
Chem.  Clieinistrv. 
Chf.  E.     Cliiel  Engineer. 
Chf.  Con.    Chief  of  Ccmstruction. 
Chf.  Med.  I'ur.       Chief  Medical 

Purvevor. 
Chf.  Ord.    Chief  of  Ordoncc. 
Chr.     Christopher. 
Chron.    Chronicles.    ' 
Cin.     Cincinnati. 
C.J.     Chief  Justice. 
CI.     CUrgvmun, 
Cld.     Cleared. 
Clk.     Ckrk. 

CM.     \'inccntians  or  Lazansta. 
CM.     ACaster  in  Surgcr)-. 
CM.     Common  Meter. 
C.M.G.     Companicm  of  the  Order 

of  St.  Micnael   and  i*  t.  Oeorgc, 
Co.     Companv  ;  County. 
Coad.     Coadii.tnr. 
Coad.  Rp.    Coa<l)utor  Rishon. 
Coad.  cum  jure  sue.       Coudjutor 

with  riglit  of  succession. 
C.O.D.    Cash  (or  collect)  on  de- 

liver\'. 
Col.     Colonel;  Colossians ;    Col- 

oradii. 
Coll.    Collectnr;  Colloquial  ;C(d- 

lege ;  Collection. 
Colo.    Culuradu. 


M 


■*y 

;>          i. 

? 

^  ^ 

<j 

\ 

/ 

t) 

\ 

814 

DICTIONARY    OF 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

» 

Com;       Commerce;  Committee; 

D.T.     Doctor  of  Theology. 

Fr.     Franc;     Francs;      French; 

H.R.     House  of  Representatives. 

Commcntiiy ;       Commissioner ; 

D.V.     God  willing,   Deo  voUnte. 

France. 

H.R.E.     Holy  Roman  Emperor, 
H.R.H.    HisorHerRoyal  High- 

Commodore; Community. 

Dull.     Dulilin. 

Fr,     Fragment. 

Com.   Arr.        Committee   of  Ar- 

Dwt.    PunHvweieht. 

1^>.     Francis;      Father;      Friar; 

ness. 

rangements. 

K.     East. 

Frank. 

H.R. LP.     Here  he  rests  in  peace. 

Comtlg.     Commanding. 

ea.    Each. 

F.R.A.S.     Fellow  of  the  Astro- 

U.S.     Here  lies,  ]Iic  si/i/s. 

Comdt.     Commiindant. 

E.  by  S.     East  by  South. 

nomical  Society. 
F.U.C.S.E.     Fellow  of  the  Royal 

M.i^.li.     His  Serene  Highness. 

Comm.     Commentary. 

Eben.     Ebenezer. 

h.t.     This  title;  In  or  under  this 

Commo.      Commodore. 

Eccl.     Ecclesiastes. 

College  of  Surgeons,  London. 
Fred.     Frederick. 

title,  Hoc  iitnlo. 

Comp.     Compare ;  Compound. 

Ecclus,     Ecclesiastieus. 

h.v.     This  word.  Hoc  iierbmn;  In 

Com.  Ver,     Common  Version  (of 

Ed.     Editor;  Edition. 

F.K.G.S.     Fellow   of  the   Roy.al 

these  words,  His  -verbis. 

the  Bible). 

Edin.     Edinburgh. 

Geographical  Society. 
Fri.     Fridav. 

Hund.     Hundred. 

Cim.        Ag"ainst;   In   opposition, 

Edit.     Edition. 

I,  II,  HI.     One,    two,    three,    or, 

Co>t/ra. 

Edm.     Edmund. 

F.R.S.     Fellow  of  ihc  Royal  So- 

first, second,  third. 

Con.  Cr.     Contra,  Credit. 

Edw.     Edward. 

cietv. 

la.     Iowa. 

Con.     Convent. 

E.E.     Errors  excepted. 

Frs.     Frisian. 

lb.  or  ibid.     In  the  same  place. 

Conch.     Conchology. 

Cong.     Congress  ;  Congregation  ; 

E.E.  &  M.P.      Envoy     Extraor- 

F\R.S.E.    Fellow   of  the   Royal 

Ich.     Ichthyology. 

dinary   and   Minister  Plenipo- 

Society, Edinburgh. 

Ictus.     Counselor  at  Law. 

Congregationalist. 

tentiary. 

F.R.S. L.     Fellow    of   the    Royal 

Id.     The  same,  Idem. 

Conj.  or  conj.      Conjunction. 

e.g.  For  example,  ^.r^7«///^/*(7/M. 

Societv,  London. 

Id.  Ter.     Idaho  Territory. 

Conn.  orCt.      Connecticut. 

e.g.     P'rom  the  tlock,  among  the 

F.R.S.L'.     Fellow   of  the   Royal 

i.e.     That  \s,  Af  est. 

Const.     Constable;  Constitution. 

rest. 

Society  of  Literature. 

I.H.S.     Jesus  the  Savior  of  men. 

Cent.     Contra. 

E.I.     East  Indies  or  East  India. 

F.S.A.     Fellow  of  the  Society  of 

ij.     Two  {medical). 

Conv.     Convent. 

Ehz.     Elizabeth. 

Arts. 

III.     Illinois. 

Cor.     Corinthians;  Corner. 

E.  Ion.     East  longitude. 

F.S.A.E.     Fellow  of  the  Society 

In.     Inch  ;  Inches. 

Corol.     Corollary. 

Emp,     Emperor;  Empress. 

of  Antiqunries,  Edinburgli. 

incog.     Unknown,  Incognito. 

Cor   Sec      Corresponding  Secre- 

Encyc.    Encyclopedia. 

Ft.     Foot ;  Feet ;  Fort. 

incor.      Incorporated. 

tary 

E.N.E.     East- northeast. 

Fur.     Furlong. 

Ind.     Indiana;  Index;  Indian. 

C.F.     Common  Pleas. 

Eng.     England;  English. 

F.Z.S.     Fellow  of  the  Zoological 

Ind.  Ter.      Indian  Territory. 

C.P.     Court  of  Probate. 

Eng.  in  Chf.     Engineer  in  Chief. 

Society. 

Indef.     Indefinite. 

C.P.S,     Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal. 

Ens.     Ensign. 

G.  org.     Guineas. 

Inf.     Beneath  or  below,  Infra. 
inf.     At  the  end  of  the  titfe,    l.aw 

CM.     Keeper  of  the  Rolls. 

Ent.     Entomology. 

G.A.     General  Assembly. 

Cr      Creditor;  Credit. 

Env.  Ext.    Envoy  Extraordinary. 

G.a.     Georgia. 

or  par.igranh  quoted,  Injine, 
in  lim.     At  the  outset,  In  limine. 

Crim.   Con.      Criminal  conversa- 

Epj^ Epistle. 

Eph.     Ephesians ;  Ephraim. 

Gal.     Galatians ;  Gallon, 

tion,  or  Adultery. 

G.B.     Great  Britain. 

in  loc.     In  the  place ;  on  the  pas- 

C.S.     Court   of   Sessions;   Com- 

Epis.   Episcopal. 

G.C.     Grand  Chancellor. 

sage,  In  loco. 

missary  of  Subsistence. 

Esd.     Esdras. 

G.C.     Grand  Chapter. 

in  pr.     In  the  beginning  and  be- 

C.S.    Keeper  of  the  Seal. 

E.S.E.     East- Southeast. 

G.C.B.     GrandCross  of  the  Bath. 

fore  the  first  paragraph  of  law, 

C.S.O.     Chief  Signal  OtTicer. 

Esq.,  Esqs.       Esquire,  Esquires. 

G.C.H.    Grand  Cross  of  Hanover. 

In  Principio. 
I.N.Ii.L     Jesus      of      Nazarath, 

Ct.,  cts.      Centj    Cents  ;  Connec- 

Esth.    Esther. 

G.C.L.H.     Grand    Cross   of    the 

ticut. 

et  al.     And  others,  Et  alii. 

Legion  of  Honor. 

King  of  the  Jews, 

C.    Theod,      In   the   Theodosian 

etc.  or  Ac.        And   other  things; 

G.E.     Grand  Encampment. 

Insp.-Gen,     Inspector- General. 

Code. 

And  so  fofth. 

Gen.     Genesis ;  General. 

Inst.     Instant,     of    this    month; 

C.W.     Canada  West. 

et.  seq.      And   what   follows,   Et 

Gent.     Gentleman. 

Institute. 

Cwt.     Hundredweight. 

seqiientia. 

Geo.     George. 

in  sum.     In     the    summ.ary,     In 

Cyc.     Cyclopedia. 

Evang.  Evangelical ;  Evangelist. 

Geog.     Geography. 
Geol.     Geology. 

summa. 

d.     Penny  or  Pence. 

Ex.  Example. 
Ex.     Exodus. 

Int.     Interest;  Interpreter. 

d.     Died;  Day. 

Geom.     Geometry. 

iTiterj,     Interjection. 

D.      Five  Iiundred. 

Exc.     Excellency;  Exception. 

Ger.     German  ;  Germany. 

Intr.      Introduction. 

Dak.  Ter.     Dakota  Territory. 

Exch.     Exchequer. 

G.L.     Grand  Lodge. 

in  tians.     In      the      passage,    In 

Dan.     Daniel ;  Danish. 

Exec.    Com.       Executive    Com- 

Gl.    A  ghiss,  (ilossa. 
Glas.     Glasgow. 

transitu. 

D.C.     Agam  ;  Deputy  Consul. 

mittee. 

Introd.     Introduction. 

D.C.     District  of  Columbia. 

Execx.     Executrix. 

G.M.     Grand  Master. 

lo.     Iowa. 

D.C.L.     Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

ex.   g.       For    example.   Exempli 

G.O.     General  Order. 

I.O.G.T.     Independent  Order  of 

D.D.     Doctor  of  Divinity. 

gratia. 
Exr.  or  Exec.     Executor. 

Goth.     Gothic. 

Good  Templars. 

D.D.S.      Doctor  of  Dental  Sur- 

Gott.    Gottingen. 

I.O.F.     Independent     Order     of 

gery. 

Ez,     Ezra. 

Gov.     Governor. 

Foresters. 

D.E.     Dynamic  Engineer. 

Ezek.    Ezekiel. 

Gov. -Gen.     Governor-Geneml. 

I.O.O.F.     Independent  Order  of 

Dea.     Deacon. 

E.  Hi  O.Ii     Errors  and  omissions 

G.R.     King     George,      Georgius 

Odd-Fellows. 

Dec.     December;  Declaration. 

excepted. 

Rex. 

I.O.U.     I  owe  you. 

Deft,  or  Dft.     Defendant. 

Falir.     Fahrenheit. 

Gr.     Greek ;  Gross. 

I.q.     Idem  quod^  tlie  same  as. 
Isa,     Isaiah. 

Deg.     Degree  or  degrees. 
Del.     Delaware;  Delegate. 
Del.  or  del.     He  drew  it. 

F.A.M.     Free  and  Acceped  Ma- 

Gram,    (irammar. 

sons. 

Gro.     Gross, 

Isl.     Island. 

Far.    Farthing. 

Grot,     Grotius. 

I.S.M,      Jesus   Salvator   vnrndi. 

Dep.     Deputy. 

F^.A.S.     Fellow  of  the  Antiquar- 

h.    Hour. 

Jesus  the  Savior  of  the  world. 

Dep.  Q.M.G.       Deputy  Quarter- 

ian Society. 

h.a.    Til  is  year,  Hoc  aiino. 

Ital.     Italic;   Italian. 

master-General. 

fcap.  or  ftp.     Foolscap. 

Hab.     Habakkuk. 

Itin.     Itinerant  or  Itinerary. 

Dept.     Department. 

F.D.     Defender  of  the  F'aith. 

Hab.  corp,     Vou    may   have   the 

IV.     Four  or  fourth. 

Dent.     Deutertinoinv. 

Fe.     Iron,  Fcrrnm. 

body,  Jfabeas  corpus. 

IX.     Nine  or  ninth. 

D.F.     Dean  of  the  i•^lculty. 

Feb.     Febniarv. 

Hag.'  Haggai. 

J.    Justice  or  Judge,     JJ.     Jus- 

D.G.    Ry  God's  grace. 
D.G.     Thanks  to  God. 

Fee.     He  did  it,  Fecit. 

Ham.  Coll.     Hamilton  College. 

tices. 

Fern.     Feminine. 

H.n.C.    Hudson's  May  Company, 

j.     One  {medical). 

Diam.     Diameter. 

F'em.  Ac.  or  Acad.     Female  Ac- 

H.n.M.    His    or   Her   Britannic 

J. A.     Judge-Advocate, 

Diet.     Dictator;  Dictionary. 

ademy. 

Majestv. 

Jac.    Jacob. 

Dim.     Diminutive. 

F.E.S.     Fellow  of  the   Entomo- 

H.C.     House  of  Commons. 

Jam.    Jamaica. 

Dioc.      Diocese. 

Irjgical  Society;  of  the  Ethm.- 

Hdkf,     Handkerchief. 

Jan.    January. 

Dioc.  Scm.     Diocesan  Seminary. 

logical  Society. 

H.E,     His  Eminence. 

J  as.     James. 

Disc.     Discount. 

Feud.     Feudal. 

h.e.      That  is,  or  this  is.  Hoc  est. 

J. CD.      Juris    Civilis    Doctor, 

Diss.     Dissertation. 

F.G.S.     Fellow  of  the  Geological 

Heb,      Hebrews. 

Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

Dist.     District. 

Society. 

Her.     Heraldry. 

H,  Exc.     His  Excellency. 

J.D,     Juntm  Doctor^  Doctor  of 

Dist.-Attv.     District- Attorney. 

F.H.S.     Fellow  of  the  Horticul- 

Laws. 

Div.     Dividend. 

tural  Society. 

H.F.     Holy  Father. 

Jer.     Jeremiah. 

D.M .     Doctor  of  Music. 

fi.  fa.     Cause  it  to  be  done,  Fieri 

Ht.-bd.     Half-bound. 

J  no,     John. 

D.,VI.D.       Doctor    Dental    Med- 

facias. 

Hg.     Mercury,  Hydrart'YrHm. 

Jona.    Jonathan. 

icim-. 

Fid.  Def.     Defender  of  the  Faith. 

H.H.     His  Holiness. 

Jos.     Josenh. 

Do.     The  Same,  Di//o. 

Fig.     Figure;  ligurative. 

Hhd.     Hogshead. 

Josh.    Joshua. 

Dol.,  Dols..$.     Dollars. 

Fir.     Firkin. 

Hist.     History;  Historical. 

J. P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Dom.         To   God,   the   best,   the 

Fla.     Florida. 

H.J.S.      Here'lies  buried. 

J.Prob.     Judge  of  Proliate. 

greatest. 

F.L.S.     Fellow  of  the  Linnaan 

H.L.      House  of  Lends. 

J.R.     Jacobus  Ifex,  King  James. 

Dom.  Pre!.    Domestic  Prelate. 

Societv. 

H.M.     His  or  Her  Majesty. 

Jr.  or  Jun.    Junior. 

D07,.     Dozen. 

Fol,     Folio. 

H.>LP.     Erected  this  monument. 

j.U.D.  or  J.A'.D.     Juris  utrius- 

i 

D.P.     Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

For.     F'oreign. 

Hon,     Honorable. 

que    Doctor^    Doctor    of    boili 
Laws    (of   the   Canon   and  the 

k 

Dr.     Debtor;  Doctor. 

F.P.S.    Fellow  of  the  Philological 

Hort.     Horticulture. 

D.S.     P'rom  the  sign. 

Society. 

Hos.     Hosea. 

Civil  Law). 

c* 

/ 

\ 

Q 

^ 

.5                •■■ 

■^          c 

v' 

DICTIONARY    OF    ABBREVIATIONS. 


8'5 


Jud.     Judith. 

Jtuij^.    J  ndgcs. 

Jiulj^c-Adv.    Jiidgc-A(^vocate. 

Jul.    July ;  Julius. 

Jul.  Pur.     Julian  IVriod.      « 

Jun.    June;   Junius  ;  Junior. 

Jus. P.     Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Just.    Justinian. 

J.W.     Junior  W^ardcn. 

K.     Kuxi^. 

K.A.     Knight  of  St.  Andrew,  in 

Russia. 
K.A.N'.     Knit^ht  of  St.  Alexan- 
der Nevskof,  in  Russia. 
Kas,     K:ins;is. 
K.H.     King's  Bench;  Knight  of 

the  Hath. 
KiB.A.      Knight    of    St.    Bcnto 

d'Avis,  in  Portugal. 
K.B.E.      Knight    of    the    Black 

Kagle,  in  Russia. 
K.C      King's  Counsel;   Knight 

of  the  Crescent,  in  Turkey. 
K.C.IJ.      Knight  ConiinanJcr  of 

the  Bath. 
K.C.H.     Knight  Commander  of 

liunovcr. 
K.C.S.     Knight   (»f  Charles  III. 

ot  bpain. 
K.E.     Knight   of  the  Klephant, 

in  Denmark. 
K.l'".     Knight  of    Ferdinand  ol 

Spiiin. 
K.l-.M.     Knight   of  St.    Ferdin- 
and and  Merit,  in  Sicily. 
K.G.     Knight  of  the  Garter. 
K.G.C.      Knight    of    the    Grand 

Cross. 
K.G.C.B.     Knight  of  the  Grand 

Cross  of  the  Hath. 
K.G.K.     Knight   ot    the   Golden 

Kleece,  in  Spain. 
K.G.H.     Knight  of  the  Guelphs 

of  Hanover. 
K.G.V.       Knight     ot     Gustavus 

\'asa,  in  Sweden. 
K.H.        Knigrit      of      Hanover; 

Knights  of  Honor. 
Ki.     Kings. 
Kil.  or  kil.     Kilderkin. 
Kingd.     Kingdom. 
K.J.     K  nigh  I  of  St.  Joachim. 
K.L.  or  K.L.A.    Knight  of  Leo- 
pold of  Austria. 
K.L..H.     Knight   of   the  Legion 

of  Honor;  Knights  aiid  Ladies 

of  Honor. 
K.M.     Knight  of  Malta. 
K.Mess.     King's  Messenger. 
K.M.H.       Knight    of    \lerit,   in 

Holstcin. 
K.M.J.      Kniglit    of  Maximilian 

Joseph,  in  Bavaria. 
K.M.T.     Knight  of  Maria  Ther- 
esa, in  Austria. 
K.N.     Know  Nothing. 
Knick.     Knickerhocker. 
K.N.S.      Knight    c)f    the    Royal 

North  Star   in  Sweden. 
Knt.     Knight. 
K.P.       Knight    of   St.    Patrick; 

Knight  of  Pythias. 
K.R.C.    Knightof  the  Red  Cross. 
K.R.K.     Knightof  the  Red  La- 

gle,  in  Prussia. 
K.S.     Knight  of  the   Sword,    in 

Sweden. 
K.S. A.     Knight  of  St.  Anne,   in 

Russia, 
K.S.E.     Knight  of  St.  Esprit,  in 

France. 
K.S.F.     Knight  of  St.  Fernando, 

in  Spain. 
K.S.G.     Knightof  St.  (Jeorge,in 

Russia. 
K.S.H.     Knight   of  St.    Huhert, 

in  Bavaria. 
K.S.  I.     Knight  of  .St.  Januarius, 

of  Naples. 
K.S.L.     Knight  of  the  Sun  and 

Lion,  in  Persia. 
K.S.M.    A    S.G.      Knight  of  St. 

.Michael  and  St.  George,  in  the 

Ionian  Islands. 


K.S.F.  Knight  of  St.  Stanislaus, 
in  Poland. 

K.S.S.  Knight  of  the  Southern 
Star,  in  Brazil;  Knight  of  the 
Sword,  in  Sweden. 

K.S.W.  Knight  of  St.  Wladimir, 
in  Russia. 

K.T.  Knight  of  the  Thistle; 
Knight  Templar. 

Kt.     Knigiit. 

K.T.S.  Knight  of  the  Tower 
and  Sword,  in  Portugal. 

K.W.  Knight  of  William,  in 
the  Netherlands. 

K.VV.K.  KniglU  of  the  "White 
Kaglf,  in  Poland. 

Ky.     Kentucky. 

L.  Fifty  or  fiftieth;  Liber, 
hook;    Lake. 

L,  i,  or  I.  Libra  or  Librae^ 
Pound  or  pounds  in  weight. 

L.C.  Lord  Chancellor;  Lord 
Chamberlain;    Lower  Canada. 

I.e.     Lower-case. 

L.C.  B.     Lord  Chief  Baron. 

L.C.J.     Lord  Chief -Justice. 

L.D.     Lady-Day. 

Ld.      Lord. 

Ldi>.     Lordship. 

Leg.     Legate. 

Legis.     Legislature, 

Lev.     Leviticus. 

Lex.     Lexicon. 

L.I.     Long  Island. 

Lib.     Liber,  book. 

Lieut.     Lieutenant, 

Lieut. -Col.    Lieutenant- Colonel. 

Lieut. -Gen.  Lieutenant- General, 

Lieut. -Gov.  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor. 

Linn.     Linna-an. 

Liq.     Liquidation. 

Lit.     Literally ;   Literature. 

Liv.     Lifrt\  ftouk. 

LL.B.  Li-gum  Bacca/ttureris, 
Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.D.  Legum  JJoctor,  Doctor 
of  Laws. 

loc.  cit.  Loco  citato,  in  the  place 
cited. 

Lon.     Longitude. 

Lond.     London. 

L.S.  Locus  sigiili.  Place  of  the 
seal. 

Lt.     Lieutenant. 

LX.     Sixty  or  sixtieth. 

LX_X.  Seventy  or  seventieth ; 
The  Scptuaginl  (V'ersion  of  tne 
Old  Testament). 

LXXX.     Flighty  or  eightieth. 

M.     A/eridies,  noon, 

M.     J//7/.-.  a  thousand. 

M.  or  M(Mis.     J/o/isitttr,  Sir. 

M.A.     Master  of  Arts. 

Mace.     Maccabees. 

ALul.     Madam. 

Mad. Univ.    Madison  University. 

Maj.     Major. 

Mai. -Gen.     Major- General. 

Mai.     Malachi. 

Alan.     Manasses. 

Mar.     March. 

March,     Marchioness. 

Marg,     Margin. 

Marg.  Tran.  Marginal  Transla- 
tion. 

Marq.     Marquis. 

Masc.     Masculine. 

Mass.     Massachusetts. 

Math.  Mathematics  ;  Mathema- 
tician. 

Matt.     Matthew. 

Alax.     Maxim. 

M.  IJ.  Medwinit  BaccahturruSy 
Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.B.  Miisicte  Jiaccalaureus, 
Bachelur  of  Music. 

M.B.C;.  Lt  H,  M,ii(iia  Britannia, 
Gallia  ft  Jfibernin,  Great  Brit- 
ain, l''rance,  and  Ireland, 

M.C.      Member  of  Congress. 

Mch.     March, 

M.D.  Mt'dtcina  /)(>r/«r.  Doctor 
of  Medicine. 


M(I.     Ma^^•land. 

Mdlle.  or  Mile.     Afadcmoisdlt. 

Mdse.     Merchandise. 

M.K.  Methodist  Kpiscopal;  Mil- 
itary or  Mechanical  Kngineer. 

Me.     Maine. 

Mech.  Mechanics,  or  Mechanical. 

Med.     Medicine. 

Mem.  Memorandum.  Memento, 
remember. 

Merc.     Mercury. 

Messrs.  or  MM.  ,lA'.?je/V«r.?, Gen- 
tlemen. 

Met.     Metaphysics. 

Metal.     Metalliirgv. 

Meteor.      Meteorofogy. 

Meth.     Methodist. 

Mex.     Mexico,  or  Mexican. 

M.-Goth.    Mceso- Gothic. 

M.H.S.  Massachusetts  Histori- 
cal Society;  Member  of  the 
Historical  Society. 

Mic,     Micah. 

Mich.     Michigan. 

Mil.     Military. 

Mil.  Acad.     Alilitary  Academy. 

Min.     Mineralogy ; 'Minute, 

Minn.     .Minnesota, 

Min.  Plen.  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary. 

Miss,     Mississippi. 

M.L.A,  Mercantile  Library  As- 
sociation. 

MM.  Their  Majesties;  Mes- 
sieurs, Gentlemen ;  Two  Uiou- 
sand. 

M.M.S.  Moravian  Missionary 
Society. 

M.  M.  S.  S.  Massachitsettensis 
Medici fttx  Sacietatis  Socins, 
F'ellow  of  the  Massachusetts 
Medical  Societv. 

Mo.     Missouri;  Month. 

Mod.     Modern. 

Mon.     Monday. 

Mons.     A/o/tsteur,  Sir. 

Mos.     Months. 

Mont.Ter.     Montan.'i  Territory. 

M.P,  Member  of  Parliament; 
Metro])tditan  Police, 

M.P. P.  Member  of  Provincial 
Parliament. 

M.R,    Master  of  the  Rolls. 

Mr.     Mister. 

M.R.A.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  ;  Memher  of  the 
Royal  Academy  oi  Science. 

M.R.'C.C.  .Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Chemistry. 

M.R.C.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons, 

M.R.G.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Geograjihical  Society. 

M.K.I.  Member  ol  the  Royal 
Institute. 

M.K.I. A.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy, 

Mrs,     Mistress. 

M. K.S.L.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature. 

M.S.  Memoritt  sacrum.  Sacred 
to  the  Memory;  .Master  of  the 
Sciences. 

MS.  Mauusrrif'tiim,  Manuscript. 

,M.sS.     M:inuscri|)ts. 

Mt.     Mount  or  Alountain. 

Mus.B.     Bachelor  of  Music, 

Mus.D.     Doctor  <.f  Music, 

M.W.  Most  Worthy  ;  Most  Wor- 
sliipfiil. 

Myth.     Mythohtgy, 

N.  North ;  Number;  Notin ; 
Neuter, 

n.     Note. 

N.A.     North  America. 

Nail.     Nahum, 

Nat.     Natural. 

Nat.  Hist.     Natural  History. 

Nath.     Nathanacl  or  Nathaniel. 

N.B.  New  Brunswick;  N«)rth 
British ;  JVota  bene,  mark 
well,  take  notice, 

N.C.  North  Carolina;  New 
Church. 


N.E.    Xew  Kngland;  Northc:ist. 

Neb.     Nebr;Lska. 

Neh,     Nchemiah, 

n.e.i.  A'on  est  inventus.  He  is 
not  found. 

nem,  con.  or  nem.  diss.  Xemine 
contradicente.  No  one  oppos- 
ing;   L'lianinmuslv. 

Neut.     Neuter  (gender). 

Nev.     Nevada. 

New  Test,  or  N.T.  New  Testa- 
ment. 

N.I*".    Newfoundland, 

X.G.  New  Grenada;  NoMc 
Grand. 

N ,  H .  New  Hampshire ;  New 
Haven, 

N.H.H.S,  New  H.impshirc  His- 
torical Society. 

Ni.i)ri.     Nisi p'rins  (law), 

N.J.     New  Jersey. 

n.l.  Non  liquet.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear, 

N.Iat,     Xorih  latitude. 

N.Mex.      New  Mexico. 

X.N.  F.     N  ort  h  •  Northc.ist. 

N.N.W.     North  Northwest. 

N.O.     New  Orleans. 

No.     Numero,  number. 

Nol.pros.  Nolens  prosequi^  I  am 
unwilling  to  prosecute. 

Nom.  or  nom.     Nominative. 

Xon  C()n.  Not  centent;  dissent- 
ing (House  of  Lords), 

Xon  cul.  Non  culpabilis.  Not 
guilty. 

Xon  o"bst,  Non  obstante,  not- 
withstanding, 

Xon  pri>s.  Non  prosequitur.  He 
does  not  nroseoUe. 

Non  seq.  Non  sequiiur.  It  does 
not  follow, 

X()S.     Numbers, 

Nov,     November. 

N.P.  Notary  Public;  New 
Providence. 

N.S.  New  Style  (after  1752) ; 
Nov.a  Scotia. 

N.  r.     New  Testament. 

N,u.   Nameornames,  unknown. 

Num.     Numbers;  Numeral. 

N.V.M.  Nativity  of  the  Virgin 
Mary, 

N.W.     Northwest. 

N.W.T.  Northwestern  Territory-. 

N.V.     New  Y.jrk. 

N.Y.H.S.  New  York  Historical 
Society. 

O.    Ohio. 

Ob.     Obiit,  He  (or  she)  died. 

Obad.     Obadiah. 

Obj.    Objection ;  Objective. 

O.K.  A  slang  phrase  for  '*.\J1 
correct.'* 

Obt.    Obedient. 

Oct.     October, 

0,F.  Odd  l-ellow,  or  Odd-Fel- 
h>ws. 

O.F.P.  Order  of  I'riar  Preachers. 

Old  Test,  or  O.r.  Old  Icsta 
inent, 

Olym.     Olympiad, 

Out.     Onlario. 

Opt.     Optics  ;  Optical ;  Option. il. 

t)r.     Oregon. 

Ord.  Ordinance;  Order;  Ord- 
nance; Ordinar}-. 

Orig.     Origiiiall>.' 

Ornith.     Ornilholop\'. 

O.S.     Old  Sl\le  Mnlore  175J). 

O.S.F.     Order  of  St.  Francis. 

O.T.     Ohl  IVstanunt. 

O.l'.A.  Order  of  I'nited  Ameri- 
cans. 

Oxf.     Oxford. 

Oxcm.  Oxoniensis,  Oxonii,  of 
Oxford,  at  Oxford. 

Ox.     Oui»ce. 

P.     Pondere,  by  weight. 

P.  or  n.     Page;  Pan;  Participle. 

Pa.     I'ennsylvania. 

Pal.     Pal.ionlology. 

Par.     Paragraph. 

Par.  Piis.     Parallel  passage. 


/" 


\ 


_  -s 

ra           -. 

^            ^> 

^ 

(0 

G 

\ 

/ 

< 

8i6 

DICTIONARY    OF 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

I 

Pari.    Parliament. 

Q.B.     Queen's  Bench. 

Rt.  AVpfuI.     Right  "Worshipful. 

Sq.yd.     Square  yard. 

Pathol.     Pathology. 

Q.C.     Queen's  College;  Queen's 

R.W.     Right  Worthy. 

Sr.     Sir  or  S«}nior;  Sister. 

Pavt.     Pavmtnt. 

Coimsel. 

R.W.O.  Riddare  of  U'asa  Orden, 

S.R.I.     Jrfolv  Roman  Empire. 

Pb:     Piiimbi'.m,  Lead. 

q.d.     ^uasi  dicat,  as  if  he  shnnld 

Knight  of  the  Order  of  Wasa. 

S.R.S.       Fellow    of     the    Royal 
Society. 

P.B.     Phi/oso/>hite  Baccnhityens, 
Bachelor  oiPhilosopliv. 

say;  quasi  dictum,  as  if  said; 

S.     South;    Saint;    Scribe;    Sul- 

quasi dixisset.  as  if  he  had  said. 

phur,  Sunday;  Sun;  Series. 

S.S.     Sunday-school. 

P.C.     Fat  res     Conscn'pii\    Con- 

q.e.    ^uod  est,  which  is. 

S.     So/idus,  Ashilling. 

SS.     Saints. 

script  Fathers ;  Senators. 

q.e.d.      ^uod  erat    demonstron- 
dum,  which  was  to  be  proved. 

S.A.      South     America;     South 

SS.  or  SS.    To-wit,  Scilicet. 

P.C.    Privy  Council;  Privy  Coun- 

Africa; South  Austrolia. 

ss.     Half,  Semis. 

cillor. 

q.e.f.      ^tiod      erat    faciendiun^ 

s.a.    Secundum  nr/tvw.  According 

S.S.E.     South -southeast. 

P.D.    Philosophite  Doctor^  Doc- 

which was  to  be  done. 

to  art. 

S.S.W.     South -sou th\vest. 

tor  of  Piiilosophy. 

q.e.i.      ^uod   erat  invcnieudum. 

Sam.     Samuel. 

St.     Saint,  Street;  Strait. 

Pd.    Paid. 

which  was  to  be  found  out. 

Sansc.     Sanscrit. 

Stat.     Statute. 

P.E.     Protestant  Episcopal. 

q.l.     ^uajituni  libet,  as  much  as 

S.A.S.   Societatis  Antiqnariorum 

S.T.D.     Doctorof  Sacred Theol- 

P.E.I.     Prince  Edward  Island. 

you  please. 

Sociits,  Fellow  of   the    Society 

^f?}'- 

Pcnn.     Pennsylvania. 

f.'M.     Quartermaster. 

of  Antiquaries. 

Ster.  or  Stg.     Sterling. 

Pent.     Pentecost. 

qm.      ^uomodo,   how;    by   what 

Sat.     Saturday. 

S.T.P.        Professor     of      Sacred 

Per,  or  pr.      By  the. 

means. 

Sax.     Saxon. 

Theology.                                         • 
Su.     Sunday. 

Per  an.    Per  annum,  by  the  year. 

Q.M.G.    Quartermaster- General. 

S.ax.  Chron.     Saxon  Chronicle. 

Per   cent.      Per  centum^  by   the 

q  p  or  q.pl.     Quantum  placet,  as 

S.C.      Senatus  consultnm,  K  de- 

Subj.     Subjective. 

hundred. 

much  as  you  please. 

dree  of  the  Senate  ;  South  Car- 

Subst.    Substantive. 

Peri.      Perigee, 

Qr.     Quartur. 

olina. 

Su.-Goth.     Suio- Gothic. 

Pet.     Peter. 

Q.S.    Quarter-sessions ;  Quarter- 

Sc.     He  (or  she)  engraved  it. 

Sun.  or  Sund.     Sunday. 

P.G.     Past  Grand. 

section. 

sc.  or  scil.     Namely. 

Sup.      Supplement;      Superfine; 

Phar,     Phnrmacy. 

q.s.    Quantum  sufficit,  a  sufficient 

Scan.  M.ag.    Scandal,  Scandulum 

Superior. 

Pli.B.    Phiio.<phnv  Baccalaurcus^ 

quantity. 

maguatum;   or.  Great  scandal, 

Supt.     Superintendent. 

Bachelor  ot  Philosophy. 

Qt.     Quart. 

Sconda/um  moirnum. 

Surg.     Surgeon;  Surgery. 

Ph.D.  Philosophhe  Doctor,  Doc- 

qu.    or     qy.       ^jitrre,     inquire, 

S.  caps.     Small  cajiilals. 

Su  rg.  -  Gen.     Surgeon  -  General. 

tor  ot  Philosophy. 

query. 

Schol.     A  note,  Sc/totum. 

Surv.     Surveyor. 

Phil.     Philip  ;  Philippians ;  Phil- 
osophy; Philemon. 

Quar.     Quarterly. 

Schr.     Schooner. 

Surv.-Gen.     Surveyor- Gencr.al. 

Ques.     Question. 

Sci.fa.       Make     known     (legal), 

Sus.     Susannah. 

Phila.  or  Phil.     Philadelphia. 

q.v.       ^itod    vide,    which     see; 

Scire  facias. 

s.v.     Under  the  word  or  title,  Sub 

Philoin.     Philomathes,  L         r  of 

quantum  vis.  as  much  as  you 

Sclav.     Sclavonic. 

verba. 

learning. 

will. 

Scot.     Scotland. 

S  "XV.     Southwest. 

Philomatli.      Philomathc         cus. 

R.  Recipe,  Take  ;  Regina,  Queen  ; 

Sculp,   or  sculp.      He   (or   she) 

S\n.     Synonym;  Synonymous. 

A  lover  of  mathematic 

Rcx,\<.\ng;  River;  Rod;  Rood  ; 

engraved  it,  Scuip-iit. 

T.     Tcrril,.rv. 

Phil.Trans.  Philosophic;    T:i  ns- 

Rises. 

S.D.  Sends  health.  .Sa////*-?//  dicit. 

T.    All  toguther,  Tutti. 

actions. 

R.A.      Royal    Academy;    Royal 

S.D.     Doctor  of  Science. 

T.  or  Tom.     Tome  ;  Vohiinc. 

Phren.     Phrenology. 

Academfcian ;      Royal       arch; 

S.E.     Southeast. 

T.E.     Topoijruphical  Knginucrs. 

P.H.S.     Pennsylvania  Historical 

Royal  Arcanum;  Royal  Artil- 

Sec.     Secretary;    Second;    Sec- 

Tfnn.    Tcnnessijc. 

Society. 

lery. 

tion. 

Tcr.     Terrilorj'. 

Pinx,    Pinxii,  He  (or  she;  paint- 

R.C. Rescriptum,  A  rescript,  Re- 

Sec. Leg.   Secretary  of  Legation. 

Tex.     Texas. 

ed  it. 

written. 

Sec.  leg.     According  to  law. 

Text.  Rec.     The  Received  Text, 

PU.     Peck. 

R.E.     Royal  Engineers. 
Rue.     Recipe;    Recorder. 

Sec.  rejr.     According  to  rule. 
Sect.     Section. 

Th.  or  Thurs.     Thursday. 

PI.  or  plur.     Plnral. 
PIff.     Plaintiff. 

Theo.     Theodore. 

Reed.     Received. 

Sem.     It  seems. 

Theol.     Theology-;    Theological. 

P.M.    Post  meridiem.  Afternoon, 

Rec.  Sec.     Recording  Secretary. 
Rect.      Rector;  Receipt. 

Sen.     Senate;  Senator;  Senior. 

Tiieoph.     Theonliiliis. 

Evenini^;    Postmiister ;   Passed 

SejJt.     September;  Septuagint. 

Thess.     Thessalonians. 

Midshipman;  Paymaster. 

Ruf.,    Reference;  Reform. 

Seq.      Following,    Sequentia;    It 

Tho'.     Though. 

P.  M.  G.       Postmaster-General. 

Ref.  Ch.     Reformed  Church. 

follows,  Sequitnr. 

Thos.     Thomas. 

P.O.     Post-office. 

Reg.     Register;  Regular. 
Reg.  ProfT    Regius  Projessor. 

Ser.     Series. 

Thro'.     Through. 
Thurs.     Thursday. 

Poet.      Poutical. 

Serg.     Sergeant. 

Poj).     Population. 

Regr.     Registnir. 

Serg.-Maj.     Sergeant -Major. 

Tim.     Timothy. 

Port.     Portugal ;  Portuguese. 

Rcgt.      Regiment. 
Rel.      Religion. 

Servt.     Servant. 

Tit.     Titus. 

Pos.      Position;    Positive;    Pos- 

S.G.    Solicitor- General. 

T.O.     Turn  over. 

session. 

Rep.    Representative;  Reporter; 

Shak.     Shakspere. 

Tob.     Tobit. 

P.P.    Pater    PairicE,  Father  of 

Republic. 

S.H.S.     Fellow  of  the  Historical 

Tom.    Volume. 

his  Countr\';  Parish  Priest. 

Rev.          Reverend;       Revelation 

Society. 

Topog.      Topography;        Topo- 

P. P.C.     Pour  prendre  conge y  to 

(Book  of);  Review;  Revenue; 

Sing.     S'ingular. 

S.Isl.     Sandwich  Islands. 

graphical. 

take  leave. 

Revise. 

Tr.      Transpose;         Translator; 

Pp.  or  pp.     Pa^es. 
Pph.     Pamphlet. 

Rhet.     Rhetoric. 

Sist.     Sister. 

Translation. 

R.I.     Rhode  Island. 

S.J .     Society  of  Jesus. 

Tr.,  Trs.    Trustee,  Trustees. 

Pr.     By. 

R.cbd.     Richard. 

S.J.C.     Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

tr.     A  shake,  Trillo. 

P.R.      Popnlus     RomanuSf    the 
Roman    People;    Porto    Rico; 

R.I. U.S.     Rhode  Island  lli-.tori- 

Skr.     Sanscrit. 

Trans.    TranslatorjTranslation ; 

cal  Society. 

S.L.    Solicitor  at  Law. 

Transactions. 

Proof  reader;  Prize  Rmj^ 
P.R.A      President  of  tlie  Royal 

R.M.       RcviU    Marines:     Royal 

Sid.     Sailed. 

Treas.     'I'reasurer. 

Mail. 

S.Lat.     South  Latitude. 

Trin.     Trinity. 

Academy 

R.M.S.     Roval  Mail  Steamer. 

S.M.    StateMilitia;  ShortMeter; 

Tues.  orTu.    Tuesday. 

P.R.C.     Post   Ro7nam  conditam. 

R.X.     Roval  Navv. 

Sergeant-Major;         Sons        of 
Malta. 

Tvp.     Tvpographer. 

After  the  building  of  Rome. 

R.N.O.     Riddare  af  Nordsijeinie 
Ord.n,  Knight  of  the  Order  of 

U.C.     Year  of  Rome. 

Pref.     Preface. 

S.M.    I-ond.    Soc.    Cor.       Corre- 

U.E.I.C.    United      East       India 

Prep.     Preposition. 

the  Polar  Star. 

sponding  Member  of  the  Lon- 
don Medical  Society. 

Company. 

Prot.     Protestant. 

Ro.     Recto,  Right-hand  page. 

U.J  C.     Doctor    of    both     Laws 

Pro  tern.    Pro  tempore^  for  the 

Robt.      Robert. 

s.n.   According  to  nature,  Secun- 

(Civil  and  Canon). 

time  being. 

Rom.     Romans  (Book  of). 

dam  naturam. 

U.K.     United  Kingdom. 

Prov.     Proverbs;  Provost. 

Rom.  Cath.     Roman  Catholic. 

Soc.  Isl.     Society  Islands. 

ult.     Last ;  of  the  last  month,  Ul- 

IVox.    Proximo,  next  (month). 

R.P.        Regius     Professor^     the 

Sol.     Solomon  ;  Solution ;  Solici- 

timo. 

P.R.S.     President   of   the   Royal 

King's  Professor. 
Rlt.    l?ailroad. 

tor. 

Unit.     Unitarian. 

Society. 

Sol. -Gen.     Solicitor- General. 

I'niv.     Universitv. 

P.S.     Post  scriptum,  Postscript. 

R.S.     Recording  Secretar>'. 

S.  of  S-^l.     Song  of  Solomtm. 

U.S.     United  Staies. 

P.S.     Privy  Seal. 

Rs.      Respo/isum,    Answer;    Re- 

S.P.     Without  issue.  Sine  prole. 

U.S.    As  above,  Ut  supra  or  uli 

Ps.     Psalm  or  Psalms. 

spoudere.  To  .answer. 
R.S. A.     Roval  Society  of  Anti- 

Sp.    Spain. 

supra. 

Pt.    Part;  Pint;  Payment;  Point; 

S.P.A.S.     Member  of  the  Ameri- 

U.S.A.    United  States  Armv. 

Port;  Post-town. 

quaries;  Royal  Scottish  Acad- 

can Philosophical  Society. 

U.S.A.    United  States  of  Amer- 

Pub.      Publisher ;     Publication  ; 

emy. 
R.S.D.     Royal  Society  of   Dub- 

S.P.G.    Society  for  the  Propaga- 

ica. 

Published;  Public. 

tion  of  the  Gospel. 

U.S.M.    United  States  Mail. 

Pub.  Doc.     Public  Documents. 

lin. 

Sp.gr.     Specific  gravity. 

U.S.M.     United  States  Marine. 

P.v.     Post-village. 

R.S.E.     Royal  Society  of  Edin- 

S.P.Q.R.     The    Roman    Senate 

U.S.M.  A.    United  States  Military 

Pwt.         Pennyweight;       Penny- 

burgh. 

and  People. 

Academy. 

weights. 
Pxt.   Pinx/t,  He  (or  she)  painted 

R.S. I..   RoyalSociety of  I-ondon. 

Sq.ft.       Square    foot    or    squ.-ire 

U.S.N.     United  States  Navv. 

R.S.V.P.      Respond.z    s'r/    I'ous 

feet. 

U.S.N..\.     United    States  N.aval 

it. 

plait.  Answer  if  you  phase. 

Sq  in.     Square  inch  or  inches. 

Academy. 

\ 

*             Q,     Queen. 

Rt.  Hon.     Riu^ht  Honorable. 

Sq.m.     Square  mile  nr  miles. 

U.S.S.    U'nitcd  States  Senate. 

t 

q.      ^uasi,  -.is  it  were  ;  almost. 

Rt.  Rev.     Right  Reverend. 

Sq.r.     Square  rood  or  roods. 

U.T.    Utah  Territory. 

,   / 

\ 

, 

«- 

"•           c 

V* 

V.     l'"ivu  or  fifth. 

V.     Violin.     VV.    Violins. 

V.  orvid.    See,  V/ife. 

V.  or  vs.    Aeainst ;  In  such  :i\v;iy: 

Versrts:  T  trsicu/o. 
V.A.     \'icar  Apostolic. 
V.  Adml.     X'icc-Adnural. 
V:i.     Virsrinia. 
Vat.    Vatican. 
V.C.    Vice -Chancellor. 
V.C.     Vice -Consul. 
V.C.O.     Vice -Consul -General. 
V.D.M.   Ministcrof  God's  Word. 
Ven.     Venerable. 
Ver.    ^'erse ;  Version. 
V.F.    Vicar -Forane. 
V.G.     Vicar -General. 
v.e;-.  As  : 
VT.    Six  or  Sixth. 

VII.  Seven  or  Seventh. 

VIII.  Kijjht  or  Eighth. 
Vic.-Ap.     V  icar-A]>ostolic. 
Vic. -Gen.     Vuar- General. 
Vice-Pres.,  or  \'.l*.      \'ice-Pres- 

idcnt. 


Vil.    Village. 

Vise.     Viscount. 

viz,  or  vi.    To  wit;  Namely ;  That 

is  to  say:  Videlicet. 
A*o.     Left  hand  page,  Verso, 
\'ol.     Volume. 
V.U.     Queen  Victoria,    Victoriu 

Jitgiiia. 
V.R.     Ven,-  Reverend. 
V.S.     Veterinary  Surgeon. 
Vt.     Vermont. 
Vul.     Vulgate   (Latin  versi<m  of 

the  Bible). 
\\\     West. 
"Wcish.     Washington. 
W.Ter.     Wxsliinglun  Territory. 
Wed.     Wednesday. 
West.  Res.  Col.  W^estern  Reserve 

College, 
w.f.     Wrong  font. 
Whf.     Wharf. 

W.I.  or  W.Ind.     West  India. 
Wise.     Wisconsin. 
WisU.    Wisdom  (Book  of). 
Wk.    Week. 


W.Lon.     West  longitude. 
W.M.     Worshipful  .M;ister. 
Win.     William. 
W.M.S.      Wesley  an    Missionarj- 

Society. 
W.N.W'.  West -northwest. 
Wpful.  Worshipful. 
W.S.  Writer  to  the  Signet. 
W.S.W.  West  southwest. 
W.T.  Wyoming  Territory. 
X.     Ten  or  tenth, 

X.  orXt.     Chribl. 

XI.  Eleven. 

XII.  Twelve. 

XIII.  Thirteen. 

XIV.  Fourteen, 

XV.  Fifteen. 

XVI.  Sixteen. 
X\'II.    Seventeen. 

XVIII.  Eight<cn. 

XIX.  Nineteen. 

XX.  Twenty. 
XXX.     Thirty. 
XL.     F'ortv. 
XC.    Ninety. 


Xmas  or  Xm.    Christmas. 

Xn  or  Xtian.     Christian. 

Xnty  or  Xty.     Christianity. 

XpeV  or  Xr.     Christopher. 

Yd.     Viird. 

y.  or  ye.     The. 

vm.    'Them. 

■yn.    Then. 

yr.     Their:  Vour. 

ys.    This. 

vt.    That. 

V.M.C.A.  Young  Men'j?  Chris- 
tian Association. 

V.  M.  Cath.  A.  Young  Men's 
Catholic  Association, 

Vrs.     Years  ;  Yours. 

Zach.     Zacharv. 

Zech.     Zecharrah. 

Xeph.     7ephaniah. 

«:.    A.<1.        '■•' 

A:c.  And  the  rest;  And  so  fr)rth 
Ei  ct^itra. 


f 


ALI'HABETICAL    INDKX. 


819 


iii 


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^X<' 


iiUjdjd^ci^L^ii^'sijdEderi-pz 


,j;jp;3TJ,J^';j  r^:3-^i^^^  JTJ^J^-i  ^^^  p-?:tM^//Aw 


-aiS^fea«i& 


OF  PRINCIPAL  SUBJECTS.    ^^> 


-S'SS^JjgSV®- 


NoTE. —  It  has  been  deemed  unnecessary  to  repeal,  in  this  summary  of  contents,  those  topics  which  have  been  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order  in  various  departments  cf  the  work.  A  glance  at  the  Table  of  Contents  will  enable  the  reader  10  determine 
under  which  heading  any  subject  of  reference  not  named  in  the  following  pages  may  be  found. 


A 

Abbreviations,  dictionary  of S13 

in  letter-writing 49 

Aberration  of  light 348 

Absorption  of  heat 349 

Abstract  of  title 468 

Abyssinia,  history  of 316 

,  map  of - 299 

Accent 18 

marks 28 

Accommodation  of  the  eye 664 

'  paper 408 

Acids 354 

Acknowledgment  of  deeds.    See  Special  Laws. 

Acne 652 

Acoustics 347 

Acquisition  of  territory 544 

Acrostic 38 

Address,  proper  modes  of.. 50 

Adhesion 345 

Administrators  and  executors 478 

Adrice,  letters  soliciting 58 

Aerolites 369 

Affection,  letters  of - 56 

Affidavits 458 

,  general  form  of 458 

■  to  accounLs 458 

to  petition 458 

to  signature  of  absent  witness 459 

Affinity ,  chemical .,  345 

Afghanistan  and  Betoochistan,  history  of 311 

Africa,  history  of 314 

,  map  of 298 

Age 545 

Agency  and  attorney 456 

Age  of  Man 394 

Agreements  and  contracts 453 

Agriculture,  Bureau  of 620 

,  statistics  of..... .562,  563 

Ague 670 

Air 398,  545 

Air-balloons  .... -. 337 

Air,  forces  acting  upon 346 

Air-guns 337 

Air-pump ...... 347 

Alabama,  special  laws  of. _ 502 


Albums,  new  designs  for 145 

Alchemy 333 

-\Icohol 545 

Alcoholic  liquors 545 

Alexandrian  library Soo 

Algebra 337 

Alien  and  sedition  acts 337 

Alkalis 354 

Allegory 34 

Alliteration 35 

Allusion 35 

Allusions,  dictionary  of  familiar Soo 

Almanacs _...-  337 

Alphabet 337 

Alphabets.     See  Penmanship. 

Alphabet,  telegraphic 416 

Altitude  as  affecting  climate 398 

Aluminum . 402 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution   602 

Anaemia   643 

Anxsthesia 337 

Anapestic  verse 37 

Anchors 337 

Andorra ...... .-j.. ... 306 

Animal  and  vegetable  life 401 

Animal  kingdom,  the 400 

Animals,  age  and  weight  of 545 

Antarctic  current,  the 397 

Anti-slavery  Society 337 

Antithesis 34 

Antonyms,  dictionary  of 64 

Aphseresis 31 

Apocope » 31 

Apophasis 35 

Apothecaries'  weight 446 

measure 446 

Aposcopcsis 31 

Apostrophe a7t34 

Appetite,  excessive  (polyphagia) 632 

Apprentices 459 

Aqueducts 545 

Arabia,  history  of. 312 

,  map  of 299 

Archaism 3' 

Arbitration    4^ 

bond,  form  of 460 

,  form  of  submission  to 460 


Arbitrators,  form  of  award  of 460 

,  form  of  notice  to 460 

Architecture  for  Modem  Times 679 

Practical  architecture 679 

The  choice  of  a  site 680 

Building  a  home 680 

How  the  money  is  applied 681 

Water,  cellar,  ice-house 681 

Heautihtl  homes — plans  and  estimates 683 

Noteworthy  suggestions 711 

Area  of  States  and  countries  (diagram) 336 

Argand  lamps 337 

Argentine  Republic,  history  of. ....  872 

Arizona,  special  laws  of. 503 

Arkansas,  special  laws  of 503 

Armada Soo 

Army  and  navy  expenditure    563 

Army  death  rate 545 

officers 609 

proportions 545 

statistics 610 

,  the  American 609 

Arquebus 337 

Artesian  wells 346,800 

Articulation 4^ 

Artillery 545 

Asia,  history  of- 3**^ 

Assignment 4^1 

Assignment  of  money  due  on  account 462 

of  a  note -  4^ 

of  wages 4^5' 

with  guaranty  of  assignor 4^ 

without  recourse 462 

with  power  of  attorney 4^ 

.    5cr,  ahc^  Special  Laros, 

Assumed  names  in  literature 791 

Assurance 4M 

Asteroids,  or  minor  planets 368 

Asthma - —..-..  648 

Astigmatism 66$ 

Astrology 35* 

Astronomy 355 

History  of  astronomical  science  355 

Astrology 35* 

The  solar  system 357 

The  sun 358 

The  sun's  apparent  motion r-sS 


J^ 


NT 


820 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Astronomy — Continued. 

Sun-spots 359 

Solar  prominences 359 

The  planets 359 

Mercury 359 

Venus  _.. 359 

Our  earth  and  her  satellite 360 

The  seasons 362 

The  moon 364 

The  phases  of  the  moon... 365 

The  tides 366 

Mars    367 

Jupiter,  the  giant  planet 368 

Saturn 368 

Uranus 369 

Neptune 369 

The  asteroids,  or  minor  planets 369 

Meteors 369 

Comets 369 

The  zodiacal  light —  370 

The  fixed  stars.. 370 

Motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies 370 

The  constellations 371 

Double  and  multiple  stars 371 

New  and  variable  stars.. 371 

Distance  of  the  stars 371 

Proper  motion  of  the  stars. . 372 

Nebulce  and  star-clusters  _ 373 

The  nebular  hypothesis 373 

The  milky  way 374 

A  dictionary  of  astronomical  definitions  ..  374 

How  to  read  the  sky 376 

Maps  of  the  heavens 378,  389 

Atoms  and  molecules 342,  353 

Atomic  theory 353 

Attachments.     See  Special  Laws. 

Attorney 456 

jpowerof 457 

Attorneys-General 621 

Audiphone 348 

Aurora  borealis 399 

Australia,  history  of. 320 

,  map  of. 295 

Austria-Hungary,  history  of 281 

,  map  of 291 

Authors 545 

Avalanche 394 

Average  clause  (insurance) 424 

Avoirdupois  weight 446 

Azoic  age 394 

B 

Ballad 38 

Ball,  etiquette  of  the 720 

Balloons 548 

Bank,  how  to  do  business  with  a 428 

Bank  discount 427 

Banking... 337 

Bank  ing  frauds 429 

Banking,  statistics  of 548 

Bank  officers  and  employes 427 

Banks  and  banking.. 426 

Banks,  national 432 

of  circulation 427 

of  deposit .. .  427 

of  exchange 427 

Barbarians 401 

Rarhary  States,  history  of 317 

Barker's  mill 346 


Barns,  designs  for 709 

BBTometer 337,  346,  548 

Barrels,  measurement  of 445 

Barrenness _ 548 

Battering-ram. 337 

Battery,  Bunsen's.. 352 

,  Grove's 352 

,  the  Daniells 352 

,  the  Galvanic 351 

,  the  Leclanche 352 

,  the  so-called  Gravity 352 

Battles,  diagram  of  decisive 334 

,  statistics  of 548 

Bayonets 337 

Bays 548 

Beer 548,  575 

,  production  of. 575 

Bees 548 

Belgium,  history  of 284 

Bells 337.  548 

Bellows. 337 

Beloochistan,  history  of 311 

Bible 548 

Bicycle 54^ 

Biography,  a  Compendium  of. 209 

Birds,  flight  of 548 

Birthday  parties 7^3 

Bites  and  stings 676 

Bilious  temperament 535 

Bill  of  exchange 429 

,  foreign 43° 

Bill  of  lading  as  security -  43^ 

Bill  of  sale 462 

,  common  form,  with  warranty. 463 

,  personal  property 4^3 

,  short  form 4^3 

Blackboard  writing  and  drawing 142 

Blankets 337 

Blank  verse -- 35 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs 675 

from  the  nose 675 

Blindness 548 

Blood 638,642 

,  composition  of 643 

,  circulation  of ---  337 

",  diseases  of  the 643 

,  elements  of 548 

Board  of  Trade,  Chicago 4^2 

Boards,  measurement  of. 444 

Boards  of  trade  and  stock  exchanges 411 

Board,  table  of 443 

Bolivia,  history  of. 272 

Bombs 337 

Bonds 463 

and  stocks 43^ 

,  government 433 

Bond,  general  form  of 464 

to  execute  an  assignment —  464 

to  execute  a  deed 464 

,  short  form  of.. .-  463 

secured  by  mortgage.. 463 

Bones  of  the  human  body 654 

,  diseases  of  the 654 

Book-)ceeping 16S 

Books  used  in  single  entry 168 

Books  used  in  double  entry 169 

How  entries  are  made 169 

How  to  detect  errors 169 

How  errors  are  made 170 

Subsidiary  books —  i7'3 


Book-keeping — Continued. 

The  two  systems  compared 171 

Book-keeping  by  single  entry 171 

Single  entry  cash-book 172 

Single  entry  day-book 174 

Single  entry  ledger 176 

Deductions  from  single  entry  set 17S 

Book-keeping  by  double  entry.. 179 

The  key  to  journalizing . 179 

The  principles  of  double  entry  book-keeping  180 

How  to  close  the  ledger 180 

Balance  sheets 181 

Auxiliary  books 181 

Set  I.— Day-book 182 

Set  I.— Journal 183 

Set  I.— Ledger 184 

Set  I. — Trial  balances 186 

Day-book  and  journal  combined 187 

Set  II. — Journal  day-book 188 

Set  11.— Ledger 196 

Set  II. — Trial  balance  and  inventory 204 

Set  II.— Balance  sheet 205 

How  to  change  single  entry  books  into  dou- 
ble entry  206 

The  columnar  j  ournal —  206 

A  six-column  journal — * 207 

Combined  statement 208 

Books 337.  549 

Boots 337 

Boston  fire 337 

Brahminism --4oi»  554 

Brain 535,  549.  656 

,  synopsis  of  the  various  organs  of 538 

Brazil,  history  of. 267 

Bread 337 

Breathing  (elocution) 40 

Bricks 337 

,  number  required  for  a  building 444 

Bridges 337.  549 

Bronchitis 648 

Bruises 675 

Bucket-shops 4^4 

Buckles 337 

Buddhism 401,  554 

Buenos  Ayres,  history  of 272 

Buildings,  capacity  of  public 55^ 

Bulgaria,  history  of 306 

Bullets 337 

Bullion 337 

Burns 676 

Bushel,  legal  weight  of. 447 

Business  and  Social  Correspondence 48 

Style  48 

Arrangement  of  ideas 48 

Ornamentation 49 

Compoeition  of  letters 49 

Form  of  a  letter 50 

Proper  modes  of  address 5° 

Model  headings 5^ 

Materials — 5^ 

Titles,  etc 51 

General  hints 53 

Letters  of  business 54 

Letters  of  recommendation 55 

Letters  of  courtesy,  friendship  and  affection.     56 
Letters  of  friendly  counsel  and  remonstrance    57 

Letters  soliciting  advice  or  favors 58 

Letters  of  sympathy  and  condolence 59 

Letters  between  parents  and  children 6u 

Notes  of  ceremony  and  familiar  invitation  ..     61 


VL 


\ 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


821 


Business  and  Social  and  Correspondence — Cont'd. 

Miscellaneous  letters ......... 62 

Business  law,  points  of 408 

letters 54 

Fiutter  ._ 337 

Uy-laws  for  a  society 595 

c 

Cable  code 423 

Cadence  (elocution) 42 

Cadet  Corps 608 

Csesural  pause 38 

Calendar 552 

for  the  ceniur>* 450 

Calico  printing 337 

California,  special  laws  of 503 

Camcl-i 552 

Camera 349 

Camera  obscura 337 

Canada,  history  of 260 

,  map  of 270 

Canada  Pacific  Railway 261 

Canals 337.  552 

Cancer  of  the  stomach 634 

Candles 337 

Cannon _. 337 

Cantata 1 38 

Canzonet 38 

Cape  Colony,  history  of 316 

Capital  letters,  the  use  of 24,     49 

Caps 337 

Carbonic  acid 552 

Carboniferous  age 394 

Carbon,  percentage  of,  in  food 560 

Cards,  designs  for 145 

,  etiquette  of 716 

.playing 337 

Carriage  house,  design  for 70S 

Carriages 337 

Carrier-pigeons 532 

Carving,  the  art  of 738 

Casks,  tneasurement  of. 445 

Catarrh 647 

Cathedrals,  height  of 561 

Cattle-raising  statistics 563 

Cattle,  table  for  computing  price  of 439 

,  weight  of,  by  measurement 444 

Causes  of  Success  and  Failure 524 

Caveats 486 

Cyclones 399 

Celestial  axis,  the 370 

Cellar,  number  of  perches  of  stone  required  ..  444 

Cellar,  how  to  build 681 

Census,  cvirioslties  of  the 551 

Central  America,  history  of 265 

,  map  of ,.- 294 

Centrifugal  and  centripetal  force 344 

Ceremoiiy,  notes  of 61 

Chain-shot 337 

Chaldean  period -. 355 

Change,  terms  used  on. 415 

Character,  decision  of. 529 

,  how  to  read 538 

,  the  study  of 53» 

Characters  of  fiction 786 

Charade 38 

Charcoal 55^ 

Charts  and  Diagrams. 

Charts  of  universal  history 321 ,  329 


Charts  and  Diagrams— G»i//»wrf/ 

The  history  of  the  United  Slates 329,  33a 

Political  parties  in  the  United  States 333 

The  eighteen  decisive  battles  of  the  world..  334 
Military  and  navul  strength  of  various  nations  335 
Comparative   area   in   square    miles   of  the 

States  and  foreign  countries 336 

Receipts  and  expenditures  U.  S.  government  546 
Public  debts  of  the  States  and  various  coun- 
tries  547 

Comparative  density  of  population ..  S5<> 

Curiosities  of  the  census 551 

The  religions  of  the  world 554 

Distribution    of  Christians   throughout  the 

world 555 

Comparative   showing   of  religions  in  the 

United  States 558 

Educational  .statistics  of  the  United  States 

and  other  countries 559 

The  world's  industries  compared ..  562 

The  world's  commercial  balance  sheet 562 

Shipping 5^3 

Steam  power -  563 

Agriculture 563 

Cattle 563 

Army  and  navy  expenditure 563 

The  yearly  wheat  crop  in  principal  countries  566 
The  world's  yearly  production  of  the  precious 

metals 567 

Pig-iron 570 

Annual  production  of  coal 571 

The  world's  yearly  production  of  cotton  and 

tobacco 574 

Beer  production 575 

Railroads,  telegraph  and  telephone  lines 578 

The  clocks  of  the  world 579 

The  new  system  of  standard  time 580 

Chattel  mortgages 47^ 

.     See  aiso  Special  Laws . 

Check-book,  how  to  keep  stub  of 428 

Checks,  altered 429 

,  certified .«.-- 429 

,  how  drawn  and  endorsed 428 

,  proportion  of,[to  coin 552 

,  raised -,.-. 4*9 

Chemical  affinity ., 345 

phenomena - --  354 

substances,  common  names  of 553 

Chemistry 353 

Chess 337 

Chicago  fire 337 

Chickcnpox ^73 

Childbirth,  average  of  deaths  in 553 

Chili,  history  of. 267 

Chimes  on  bells 337 

China,  history  of 3^9 

China,  Dresden 337 

Cholera,  epidemic 637 

,  statistics  of 553 

—,  prevention  of 638 

,  sporadic 636 

■  infantum 637 

■  morbus 636 

Christians,  distribution  of 555 

,  numlier  of 554 

Chromatic  aberration  of  light. 348 

Churches,  capacity  of 55* 

Cipher  for  telegraphic  communication 4>6 

Circle,  area  of  a   445 

Circulatory  organs -- 638 


Cisterns,  construction  of 681 

,  me-isurement  of 444 

Cities,  population  of 583,  584 

Civilization 401 

Civil  rights  bill 337 

Civil  service  reform 337 

Civil  war,  troops  furnished 577 

Clay's  compromise 337 

Clearing-house  system... 431 

Clergyman's  sore  throat 630 

Climate 398 

,  mean  annual  temperature 553 

Climax  in  elocution 44 

■  in  rhetoric 35 

Clocks 337 

Clocks  of  the  world  (diagram) 579 

Clothing,  deformities  from 655 

Cloth,  woolen 339 

Clouds 399 

Coaches 337 

Coal 337 

—  statistics 571 

CoflTec,  production  and  consumption 553 

Cohesion 345 

Coin 337 

Coining 337 

Cold  in  the  head 646 

Cold,  remarkable  instances  of 573 

Colic 636 

Collection  of  debts.    Set  AtiackmenU,  under 
head  of  Special  Laws. 

Colorado,  special  laws  of 504 

Colors,  contrast  and  harmony  in 73X 

Columnar  journal  ..., ao6 

Combustion  and  heat 624 

Comets   3^9 

Commerce,  statistics  of 553,  56* 

Commercial  law  and  forms 403 

Negotiable  paper 403 

Promissory  notes - 403 

Endorsements 404 

The  endorser's  responsibility 405 

Necessary  legal  points 405 

Forms  of  notes 405 

A  swindling  note 407 

Due-bills 407 

Orders  and  receipts 407 

Points  of  business  law 408 

Laws  relating  to  inter  »t 409 

Laws  relating  to  limitation  of  actions   410 

Committees — 589 

Compass,  mariner's 337,  35" 

Compendium  of  Biography     209 

Complexion 7*9 

Composition 3a 

Style 3» 

Purity 3» 

Propriety — 33 

Precision 33 

Perspicuity 33 

Unity 33 

Strength 33 

A  discourse  and  its  ports 34 

Figures  of  rhetoric 34 

Prosody   - 35 

Versification  35 

Meter 3^ 

Iambic  vcRe   3* 

Trochaic  verse 37 

Anapestic  verse 37 


V_ 


\ 


IV 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Compos\t\oi\— Continued. 

Dactylic  verse 37 

Csesural  pause , 38 

Varieties  of  poetry 38 

Various  kinds  of  poems 38 

Poetical  license 38 

Condolence,  letters  of... --_     59 

Congress,  duties  of 623 

Connecticut,  special  laws  of 504 

Consonants,  peculiarities  in  sounds  of 17 

Constellations 371 

,  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  the 376 

.zodiacal    375 

Constipation   635 

Constitution  for  a  society,  form  of 594 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 599 

Consumption 553 

Continents,  elevation  of 557 

Contracts  and  agreements 453 

Contract,  causes  which  vitiate  a 455 

,  building 455 

,  for  the  sale  of  property 455 

-. ,  short  form  of 455 

,  with  employe. 455 

Contractions  (letter-writing) 49 

Conventions 589 

Conversation  .... - 46 

,  the  art  of. 7'3 

Convulsions 65S 

Cooking,  loss  of  meat  in , 560 

,  the  art  of 739 

Copernican  system 356 

Copying 553 

Copyright  law 337 

Coral  islands 39^ 

Corners 4^3 

Corona  seen  in  solar  eclipses 366 

Corporations - -  465 

Coryza -; •- ^4^ 

Costiveness 635 

Cottages,  designs  for 682 

Cotton 337 

,  area  under  cultivation 553 

gin 337 

picking  table 442 

-  statistics 574 

,  table  for  computing  price  of 439 

Counsel,  letters  of. 57 

Courtesy,  letters  of 56 

Court  of  England,  presentation  at 714 

Creation,  the  six  eras  of. 39^ 

Credit  Mobilier 801 

Cremation 55^ 

Crises -   556 

Cuba,  history  of. 266 

Cubic  or  solid  measure 446 

Culture  and  intelligence 401 

Culvcrins 337 

Currency 55^ 

Currents 397 

Customs  receipts 54^ 

D 

Dactylic  verse 37 

Daguerreotypes 337 

Dakota,  special  laws  of 505 

Dates,  Dictionary  of. 337 

Day  and  night 39^ 

Dead  letters 615 


Death 556 

Death  rate,  army ..  545 

Deaths,  proportion  offrom  various  diseases...  556 

Debate,  questions  for 595 

Debating  clubs 594 

Debts  of  various  countries 547 

Debut,  young  lady's.. 723 

Declaration,  Mecklenburg 596 

Declaration  of  Independence 597 

Deed   467 

,  Chancellor  Kent's  form 467 

,  short  form  in  California 467 

,  short  form  in  Indiana 468 

,  short  form  used  in  Virginia  and  Texas  468 

,  short  form  of  warranty 468 

,  short  form  of  trust 468 

,  quit  claim 46S 

.     See,  also.  Special  Laws. 

Deaf  mutes 556 

Deformities  from  clothing 655 

Delaware,  special  laws  of 505 

Department  of  public  business 587 

Departments  at  Washington 604 

Devonian  age 394 

Dew 399 

Dixresis 28,  31 

Diagrams.    See  Charts  and  Diagrams. 

Dialects 9 

Dialogue  reading     45 

Diamonds 337,  556 

Diarrhoea 634 

Dice 337 

Dictionary  of  abbreviations 813 

of  astronomical  definitions 374 

ofbiography 209 

of  dates 337 

of  facts  and  figures 544 

of  familiar  allusions 800 

of  foreign  phrases 808 

Dictionary   of  heroes   and   heroines   of  prose 

and  poetry 786 

of  mythology 796 

of  noms  de  plume 791 

of  prose  and  poetical  quotations 768 

of  synonyms  and  antonyms 64 

of  terms  used  on  'change 415 

Didactic  poetry 38 

Diffraction  oflight 348 

Digestion ---  556,  629 

Digestive  organs.'. 626 

,  diseases  of 629 

Dinner-giving - 7'8 

Diphtheria 673 

Diplomatic  service  of  the  U.  S 605 

Dipping-needle 337-  35° 

Dipsomania 632 

Dipsomaniacs.     See  Drunkenness. 

Discoveries,  record  of 337 

Diseases,  proportion  of  deaths  from 556 

Dislocations 675 

Distilling 337 

District  of  Columbia,  special  laws  of 506 

Diving-bell 337 

Divorce.    See  Special  Laivs. 

Drafts  and  bills  of  exchange 429 

Drafts,  how  drawn 429 

Dramatic  action 47 

Dress 730 

Drift 394 

Driving,  etiquette  of 725 


Drowning 676 

Drunkenness,  statistics  of.. 556 

Dry  measure ---  44^ 

Due  bills,  forms  of .-. 407 

Duties - 434 

Dwarfs 557 

Dwellings,  designs  for 693 

Dynamical  electricity 351 

Dysentery - 635 

Dyspepsia 630 

E 

Earth  :     Our  Earth  and  her  Satellite 361 

Earth,  motions  of  the 391 

,  surface  of  the 394 

Earthquakes 395 

Ear,  anatomy  of  the 666 

,  physiology  of  the 668 

,  diseases  of  the.. 668 

Easter,  the  festival  of 552 

Ecliptic --- ---3S9>  374 

Eclipses - 365 

Ecphonesis 34 

Ecuador,  history  of 269 

Eczema 652 

Edict  of  Nantes .338,  805 

Education,  Bureau  of 620 

,  progress  of 557 

,  statistics  of.. 559 

Educational  Department 9 

Egypt,  history  of 315 

,  map  of.. 299 

Electrical  machines 351 

Electricity 350 

Electric  light 337,  352 

Electric  telegraph 339,  352 

Electrolysis  and  galvanoplasty 352 

Electroplating.. 352 

Electrotyping 352 

Elements 353 

Ellipsis 27,  31 

Elocution 40 

Vocal  culture 40 

Proper  breathing 40 

Articulation 40 

Pronunciation 41 

Modulation 41 

Quality  of  the  voice 41 

Melody 41 

Form 42 

Force 42 

Time 42 

Stress - 43 

Emphasis 44 

Word-individuality 44 

Analysis  and  grouping 44 

Transition 44 

Climax 44 

Repose 44 

Impersonation 45 

Dialogue  reading ..  45 

Rules  governing  gesture. 45 

The  three  forms  of  speech 46 

Conversation 46 

Reading 47 

Public  speaking 47 

Dramatic  action 47 

Emancipation  proclamation ._ _.  338 

Emergencies,  medical  and  surgical  treatment  in  675 


Kmphasis  (elocution) -44 

Emillage 3» 

Endocarditis 641 

Endorsement  of  notes,  various  forms 404 

Engagements,  etiquette  of 732 

England  and  Wales,  map  of 083 

English  language 13 

Its  origin  and  development 13 

Constituents  and  alterations 13 

Anglo-Saxon,  a.d.  700-1100 14 

Semi-Saxon,  A.D.  1150-1250 14 

OKI  English,  A  d.  1300 iS 

Middle  English,  A.D.  1350-1500 15 

Modern  English,  A.D.  1550 15 

Grammar - >6 

Composition 3^ 

Engravi  ng 33^ 

Enteritis ^34 

Envelopes 52»  338 

Epic  poetry •     3^ 

Epigram 3^ 

Epilepsy M 

Epilogue 3S 

Epitaph  38 

Epithalamium 3^ 

Equator 374 

Equatorial  currents 397 

Equinoctial 375 

Equinoxes   3^2,  375 

Erotesis - 34 

Errors  in  book-keeping 17*^ 

inspeech 29 

Erysipelas ...  — ^S-^ 

Essay  34 

Etching 338 

Ether - 348 

Ether  as  an  anaesthetic 338 

Etiquette  :  A  compendium  of  the  laws  of  eti- 
quette  7*^ 

Etiquette,  general  hints  on 734 

Etiquette,  military 6" 

Ethnology 4°° 

Etymology - ^° 

,  figures  of. 3' 

Euphemism 35 

Europe,  history  of ^^7 

'  ■,  map  of 282 

Evictions  in  Ireland 557 

Exchange,  bills  of 4^9 

,  foreign  bills  of 43^ 

Excretory  organs ^49 

Executive  department ^4 

Executors  and  administrators 478 

Exemptions.     See  Special  Latvs. 

Exhibitions 557 

Expectation  of  life 425.  586,  473 

,  as  affected  by  drink 5S6 

Expenditures  U.  S.  government 54^ 

Exports  and  imports.     Sf^  Commtrcf. 

Express    338 

Extension  of  patents 48^ 

Eyc.anatomy  of  the ^^ 

. .physiology  of  the 663 

,  muscles  of  the 662 

—  diseases  of  the 6^5 


K;tcc-rcading 

Facts  and  figures,  dictionary  of.. 


534 
544 


Failure,  how  to  avoid 523 

Fainting..,.. ^"77 

Fairs... 557 

Falling  bodies,  the  law  of 344 

Familiar  allusions,  dictionary  of Soo 

Familiar  Poems  and  Those  Who  Wrote  Them  741 

Thanatopsis.     Bryant 742 

Hiawatha's  Wooing.     Longfellow 743 

The  Barefoot  Boy.      Wnittier 744 

The  Bells.      Poe 745 

Blow,  Blow,   thou   Winter  Wind.     Shak- 

spere 74^ 

Bugle  Song.     Tennyson 74'» 

The  Sea.     Barry  Cornwall 746 

Those  Evening  Bells.     Moore -  747 

The  Village  Preacher.     Goldsrnith 748 

The  Ivy  Green.      Dickens 748 

From  Home  to  Home.     Anon 749 

Battle  of  the  AiigeU.     Milton 75i" 

Farewell  to  His  Wife.     Byron 75" 

The  Hour  of  Death.     Mrs.  Hemans 751 

A  Woman's  Question.    Mrs.  Browning 751 

A  Horseback  Ride.     Grace  Greenwood 752 

Angel  Watchers.     Rosa  Vertner  Jeffrey, . .  752 

A  Farewell.     Kingsley 753 

What  the  Birds  Say.      Coleridge 753 

A  Georgia  Volunteer.     Mary  A.  Totvnsend  754 

The  Picket  Guard.     Ethel  Lynn  Been 754 

The  Soldier's  Dream.      Campbell 755 

Billand  Joe.     Llolmes 755 

Extract  from  Lucile.     Owen  Meredith 753 

Pictures  of  Memory.    Alice  Gary 756 

Go  to  Thy  Rest.     Mrs.  Sigourney 756 

We  Parted  in  Silence.     Mrs.  Crawford 757 

The  Song  of  the  Camp.     Taylor 75S 

Our  Own.     Margaret  E.  Sangster 758 

There  is  no  De.ath.     McCreery 758 

Makin' an  Editor  outeno' Him.     Carleton.  759 
The  Lightning-rod  Dispenser.     Carleton..  759 

Hannah  Jane.     Nasby 7^-^ 

John  Anderson,  my  Jo.     Burns 761 

Home,  Sweet  Home.     Payne 761 

The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead.     O'l/ara 763 

The  Stars  and  the  Flowers.    Holmes 762 

BoatSong.    Moore 7^3 

Jim.     Bret  Ifarte 7^4 

Married.    Anon 7^4 

Winged  Words.     McGregor 765 

The  Closing  Scene.     Read 7<''6 

The  Death  of  the  Flowers.     Bryant 767 

Families,  number  in  U.  S 557 

Famines - 557 

Farms,  number  in  U.  S 557 

Far-sightedness ^5 

Fasting,  notable  instances  of 557 

Fxsttimc 548,  585 

Fata  Morgana 4oo 

Fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart 641 

Fauna 40' 

Favors,  letters  soliciting 58 

Federal  courts 622 

Feet,  deformed ^55 

Fee t,  poetic 35 

Fence,  the  legal *•  489 

Fenian  raids 338 

Fctichism 4°' 

Fevers ^ 

Fiction,  celebrated  characters  of 7^(> 

Fields  and  lots,  contents  of 445 

Fields  of  fire 395 


Figures  in  gran\mar 3' 

Fdibustering 338 

Fire  engines... 338 

Fire  insurance 4^4 

Fixed  stars   37" 

Flag,  American 338 

Flax  statistics 557 

Flora 40> 

Flourishing.... '37 

Florida,  special  laws  of 5^ 

Fogs 399 

Food,  foot-tons  ofcnergy  per  ounce  of. 560 

— — ,  percentage  of  carbon  in 560 

,  relative  value  of 5^ 

,  statistics  of. 557 

Force  (Elocution) 4^ 

Force,  centrifug.ll  and  centripetal 344 

Forces  of  nature 343 

Foreign  phrases,  lexicon  of 808 

Foreign  population  ofU.  S 55* 

ForcsLs 5^ 

Forged  paper - 408 

Forks 338 

Fortification 33^ 

Fractures - '^75 

France,  history  of. '89 

-,  map  of , 39° 

Free  Soil  Party 333»  338 

Freight  car,  cap.acity  of 5^ 

French  without  a  Master >«> 

Alphabet  and  pronunciation 100 

Accents  and  other  marks io> 

Number  and  gender »oi 

Parts  of  speech >ox 

Exercises  in  the  use  of  the  article 101 

The  noun >o4 

The  adjective 104 

Numeral  adjectives >o4 

Ordinal  numbers 105 

Vocabulary  of  adjectives .-..  105 

The  pronoun >o5 

The  verb 106 

The  .auxiliary  verbs >o6 

Regular  verbs ---  <o8 

The  four  conjugations >o8 

Vocabulary  of  verbs <«o 

Vocabulary  of  .adverbs >" 

Vocabulary  of  prepositions na 

Vocabulary  of  conjunctions ... — ......   na 

Conversation  inFrench ii3 

Friction 345 

Friendship,  letters  of 5* 

Frost-biles ^7* 

Frost,  remarkable  instances  of 573 

Fruit 5<» 

Fuel 560 

Fugitive  slave  law 33* 

Futures 4»a 


Galvanic  battery 35* 

electricity 35* 

G.tlvanometer 35' 

G.alvanoplasty. 35» 

Gamut 33^ 

Gas-light ^. 338 

Gastritis *33 

Gems,  the  language  of. ^^^ 

Geologic  ages -—  394 


_vj 


Geology 392 

Georgia,  special  laws  of 507 

Geysers - 395 

German  dialects _ 12 

German,  etiquette  of  the 721 

Gennan :    A  self-instructor  in  the  German  lan- 
guage       82 

Alphabet  and  pronunciation 82 

The  article 83 

Combination  of  article  and  noun 83 

Exercises  in  the  article  and  noun 83 

The  adjective - 87 

Vocabulary  of  adjectives 87 

Cardinal,  ordinal,  and  collective  numbers.. .     88 

Pronouns 89 

The  verb S9 

Auxiliary  verbs - 8g 

The  regular  verb. ,, 9» 

Vocabulary  of  verbs 9~ 

Adverbs 9~ 

Prepositions - 93 

Conjunctions 93 

Conversation  in  German 93 

German  Legal  Business  Department 49° 

Germany,  history  of - - 279 

,map  of 291 

Gesture  language 10 

Gesture,  rules  governing - 45 

Giants 560 

Gilding 338 

Glacial  period. .- 394 

Glaciers 394 

Glass 338 

Gluttony -  632 

Gold 567 

Government,  principal  forms  of, 4'^i 

Grain,  measurement  of 444.  445 

Grammar,  English 16 

Orthography ^^ 

Letters   - ^6 

Peculiarities  in  sounds  of  consonants 17 

Combination  of  vowels - 18 

Syllables 18 

Accent -     ^8 

Words ---     »8 

Word-building   19 

Prefixes ^9 

Suffixes 20 

Spelling 22 

Rules  for  spelling 23 

Reformed  spelling 23 

Forms  of  letters 24 

The  use  of  capital  letters 24 

Punctuation 25 

Etymology - 28 

The  parts  of  speech 28 

Some  rules  of  grammar 28 

Plural  of  nouns -.     29 

Rules  for  the  plural  of  foreign  nouns 29 

Syntax - 29 

Errors  in  speech 29 

Figures  of  orthograph  y 31 

Figures  of  etymology 31 

Figures  of  syntax 31 

Figures  of  rhetoric 34 

Prosody 35 

Granary,  capacity  or  contents  of 445 

Gravity 344 

i,  center  of 344 

,  specific 344,  560 

k. 


Great  Britain,  history  of 273 

Greece,  history  of. - 3°? 

Gregorian  year 803 

Gristmills 338 

Guano 560 

Guaranty 47° 

,  general 47° 

offideHty 470 

— ,  extension  of  time  .. 47° 

of  a  note 47° 

Guiana,  history  of 269 

Gulf  s  t  ream - 39  7 

Gunpowder 338 

Gunpowder  plot,  the 803 

Guns - t 338 


H 


Habeas  corpus  act S03 

Hail - 399 

Hair --  560 


,  care  of  the - 729 

,  false - 338 

Half-hours  with  the  stars -  37^ 

Handkerchiefs 338 

Hartford  convention 338 

Hay,  weight  of,  by  measurement 444 

Head,  measurement  of  the 531 

Headache -. ---  630 

Heart  and  blood-vessels 639 

Heart,  diagrams  of  the 640 

,  diseases  of  the    .- 641 

Heat.. - 349»  S^o,  626 

,  extremes  of. 573 

Heat-lightning 399 

Height  of  noted  cathedrals,  etc $61 

Hemaplegia - ^58 

Hemorrhage — 675 

Heraldry - 338 

Heroes  and  heroines  of  prose  and  poetry 7S6 

Hindooism 4°' 

Historical  charts - 321 

History  :  A  panorama  of  history.     A  graphic 

account  of  every  nation  on  the  globe 252 

The  United  States 252 

The  Dominion  of  Canada 260 

Mexico 263 

Central  America 265 

Cuba - - 266 

South  America 266 

Brazil - 267 

Chili 267 

Peru - 268 

The  United  States   of  Colombia   and  other 

countries  of  South  America 269 

Europe - 272 

Great  Britain 273 

Ireland   275 

Scotland 278 

Germany 279 

Austria -Hungary 281 

Belgium    284 

Holland  (the;Netheriands) 284 

Norway  and  Sweden  ... 288 

France - 289 

Russia 293 

Italy 296 

Spain 300 

Portugal 301 

Switzerland 3°! 


History — Continued. 

Turkey 304 

Roumania - 3°^ 

Bulgaria 306 

Servia - -- 3"^ 

Andorra,  San  Marino  and  Monaco. 306 

Greece - - 3^7 

Asia - 308 

China  J - 309 

Japan 3^9 

British  India 3^° 

Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan,. 311 

Persia  - 311 

Arabia 312 

Palestine -- -  312 

Siam 314 

Africa. --  314 

Egypt    3'5 

Nubia 315 

Abyssinia 3*6 

Cape  Colony - 3'^ 

Madagascar 3*7 

The  Barbary  States 3*7 

Republics  in  South  Africa 318 

Oceanica 3*9 

Australia - 320 

Hoar  frost - 399 

Holidays  in  the  U.S 561 

Holland,  history  of. 284 

Home  etiquette - 729 

Homestead,  how  to  secure  a 617 

Homoeopathy. -- 338 

Hops 561 

Horizon 375 

Horse-power,. 5"i 

Horseshoes -- 338 

Hostess,  duties  of - - 7*9 

Hot  springs 395 

Hour-glasses 33^ 

Housekeepers'  measures .-. 44^ 

House  of  Representatives 623 

Hunger,  deaths  from - 557 

Hurricane 399 

Hydraulic  press 34^ 

Hydraulics 34" 

Hydrometer 338 

Hydrostatic  press - 34*5 

Hydrostatics  and  hydraulics 34^ 

Hymn - 38 

Hyperbaton 3* 

Hyperbole 34 

Hypermetropia ^^4 

Hypertrophy - ^4* 


Iambic  verse 3^ 

Ice - 56J 

Idaho,  special  laws  of 508 

Idiom - - 9 

Illegitimacy - 5^1 

Illinois,  special  laws  of - 5^8 

Illiteracy.     See  Education. 

Impersonation 45 

Import  duties,  general  average 573 

,  complete  schedules  of 435 

Imports  and  exports.     See  Commerce. 

Impromptu - 38 

Inanition °32 

Incorporating,  forms  for 465 


r^ 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


"71 


8^5 


Incorporating,  stale  license  for 466 

India,  history  of  British 310 

Indian  Affairs,  Durcau  of 619 

Indian  agents 619 

Indiana,  special  laws  of 509 

Indians...... 5^^ 

Indian  traders 619 

India  rubber 561 

Industries  of  the  world 5^^ 

Infallibility,  Papal 338 

Infantile  paralysis 658 

Inflammation  of  large  intestine 635 

Inflammation  of  small  intestine 634 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach 632 

Inflammatorj-  rheumatism 642 

Initials,  artistic 146 

Inoculation 33^ 

Insanity 561,  660 

,  treatment  of 660 

,  cases  of,  traceable  to  drink 556 

Insomnia ■ 660 

I  nsurancc 4^4 

,  history  of 338 

.short  rales  table 44= 

Intemperance.     .V.v  Drunkenness. 

Interest,  compound,  tables  of 442 

,  laws  relating  to 409 

,  short  rule 44^ 

,  tables  of. 44^ 

Intermittent  fever - — 670 

Internal  revenue 434 

receipts 54^ 

Intestines 628 

Introduction,  letter  of. 63 

Inventions.     See  Dictionary  0/  Dates. 

Invitation,  notes  of 61 

lown,  special  laws  of 5^*^ 

Iruland,  history  of 275 

,  map  of 286 

Iron  statistics - 57° 

Irony 35 

Islands 39^ 

Isuthermallines 39^ 

Italy,  history  of 296 


J 


Japan  current 397 

Japan,  history  of 3^9 

Jesuits 338 

Jews,  number  of 554 

Judiciary  act 33^ 

Jupiter,  the  giani  planet 3*^7 

Justice,  department  of 621 

Juvenile  parties 722 


K 


Kansas,  special  laws  of 5^° 

Kentucky,  special  laws  of 511 

Kepler's  laws 35^ 

Kidneys 649 

—     ,  diseases  of  the 65° 

Knitting 338 

Knives 338 

Know-nothing  (or  American)  party 333,  338 


Labor  statistics  . 
Lace 


564 

338 


Lakes , 397 

,  length  and  width  of 564 

T^mp,  safety 338 

Land  grants 564 

Landlord  and  tenant 471 

Landlord's  agreement 472 

notice  to  quit 473 

Land  oflUccs 617 

Lands,  public 617 

Language g 

Origin  of  language 9 

Gesture  language 10 

Natural  language 10 

Articulate  language 11 

Classification  of  languages 11 

Language  of  gems ,.  812 

Languages _. 401,  564 

Lanterns 33S 

Laryngitis 647 

Lava 395 

Law,  commercial  _. 4-^3 

•  ,  points  of  business 4-8 

Lease,  common  form  of 472 

of  farm  and  buildings 472 

of  a  mill 472 

,  short  form  of 472 

Legal  Business  Department 451 

How  to  avoid  litigation 451 

Legal  business  forms 453 

Agreements  and  contracts 453 

Agency  and  attorney 45^ 

Affidavits 458 

Apprentices.... - 459 

Arbitration 460 

Assignments 4^1 

Bills  of  sale 462 

Bonds 4^3 

Corporations 465 

Deeds 467 

Abstract  of  title 4^8 

Guaranty - 47^ 

Landlord  and  tenant 47^ 

Rights  of  married  women 473 

Real  estate  mortgages 474 

Chattel  mortgages 476 

Mechanic's  lien 477 

Wills 477 

Executors  and  administrators 478 

Partnership 481 

German  legal  business  department 49° 

Legal  fence 489 

Legislative  department 623 

Liver 638 

Lenses - 348 

Leprosy - ---- •---  5*4 

Letter-carriers - 616 

Letter  of  credit j *- 43° 

of  revocation 457 

,  composition  of 49 

,form  of 50 

■  of  substitution 457 

Letters,  advertised 6*5 

,  registered - 6>5 

Leverand  inclined  plane 345 

Lexicon  of  foreign  phrases 808 

Leyden  jar 338,  35' 

Liberty  party 338 

Library 338 

License,  poetical 38 

Life-average    5^4 


Life-boats 338 

Life,  duration  and  expectation  of. 586 

Life  insurance 435 

Life-saving  service ^...  607 

Life,  the  two  paths  of. 533 

Light 348 

,  electric 337,  35a 

.g^s 338 

Light-house  Board 607 

Lightning 351,  399 

Lightning-rods 338,  351 

Lightning  Calculator 439 

Limitation  of  actions,  laws  relating;  to 410 

Linear  measure 446 

Linen 338 

Liquid  measure 446 

Lithography _, 338 

Living,  cost  of 576 

Llanos _ 394 

Logs,  number  of  cubic  feet  in 445 

Longevity   564 

Longitude  and  time  compare<) 446 

Louisiana,  special  laws  of ,.  512 

Lowlands 394 

Lumber  measure,  tabic  of ....  443 

Lungs  644 

Lyceums  and  debating  clubs 594 

Lymphatic  temperament 534 

M 

Machines - 345 

,  electrical — ..  351 

Madagascar,  history  of__- - 317 

Magic  lanterns 338 

Magna  Charta 596 

Magnetism  and  electricity 350 

Magnify  ing-glasses 338 

Mail  contracts 616 

Maine,  special  lawsof. 5'* 

Malarial  fever 670 

Malthusian  doctrine 804 

Mammalian  age 394 

Mankind,  races  of. 400 

Manufactures,  statistics  of. 563 

Maps  : 

The  United  States 258,  359 

The  Dominion  of  Canada 270,  371 

Europe 282 

England  and  Wales 283 

Ireland 286 

Scotland 387 

France »9° 

The  German  Empire  and  Austro- Hungarian 

monarchy 29* 

The  West  Indies  and  Central  America 294 

Occanica  and  Australia 295 

Africa 298 

Egypt,  Abyssinia,  etc 299 

The  World  ^Mcrcalor's  Projection) 301,  302 

Maps  and  globes 338 

Maps  of  the  heavens —.378-389 

Margins 4^3 

Marine  and  transit  insurance 424 

Mariner's  compass 337 

Marriage,  a  woman's  chances  of. 5^ 

^—,  etiquette  of. 73» 

Married  woman's  note 405 

Married  women,  rights  of. 473 

.    Sf*  also  S/fciat  Laws. 


VL 


Mars,  the  planet 366 

Maryland,  special  laws  of. 513 

Massachusetts,  special  laws  of 513 

Matches,  friction .... 338 

Matter 342 

,  general  properties  of-. 343 

,  specific  properties  of. 343 

Measles  _ 671 

Measures  and  weights 446 

,  foreign 448 

Meat,  loss  of  in  cooking 560 

Meats,  how  to  select _.- -_.  739 

Mechanic's  lien 477 

.    See  also  Special  Laws. 

Mechanism  of  the  human  body 6J4 

Mecklenburg  declaration 596 

Medical.     See  Physiology  atid  Medicine. 

Medicines,  table  of  doses 678 

Meeting,  how  to  call  a 587 

,  organizing  a 588 

Memorials  and  petitions — 59^ 

Mental  temperament 535 

Mercurj',  the  planet - 3^ 

Metals -- 401 

,  as  conductors - 5^4 

,  chemical  relations  of  — 402 

,  fluid  density  of 564 

,  tenacity  of 5^4 

,  value  of -- 564 

,  some  strange 402 

Meteors - - - 3^8 

Meteorites 3^9 

Metric  system - 449 

,  key  to  the - --  445 

Metaphor 34 

Metonymy  — 34 

Mexico,  history  of 263 

Michigan,  special  laws  of 5^4 

Microphone - 347 

Microscopes   - SS^i  349 

Military  Academy  _ 338,  608 

Military  and  naval  strength  (diagram) 335 

Military  etiquette 611 

Militia  ._. -- 611 

Milk - - 564 

Milky  way,  the ---374 

Mimesis,  or  mimicry 31 

Minerals  and  metals   401 

Minnesota,  speciallaws  of 5^4 

Mirage - - 400 

Mirrors - - 338,  349 

Mississippi,  special  laws  of. 515 

Missouri  compromise 33^ 

Missouri,  speciallaws  of. 51 5 

Modulation  of  the  voice -.. 4' 

Mohammedanism  _ 554 

Moisture  and  climate 398 

Molecules  and  atoms 342,  353 

Momentum 345 

Monaco 3°^ 

Money - 5^4 

.    .    See  Currency. 

Money  orders 6»5 

Monroe  doctrine 338 

Montana,  speciallaws  of 5^^ 

Monuments,  height  of 561 

Moon,  the 3^'4 

,  map  of  the — 364 

,path  of  the 365 

,  phases  of  the 365 


Mormons   -.,-, 338 

Mortgages,  chattel 476 

,  real  estate 474 

Mortgage,  assignment  of.... 475 

,  promissory  note  secured  by. 475 

,  release  and  satisfaction  ot 476 

,  release  or  discharge  of 475 

—  ■    ,  shortest  form  of. _._  475 

Motion 345 

,  perpetual 346 

Motive  temperament ...  535 

Mountain  ranges  as  affecting  climate 398 

Mountains _ 394 

.height  of 565 

Mouth 626 

Mumps   ._ --  630 

Muscular  system 653 

Musical  notes 338 

Myopia __,—  665 

N 

Nails,  size  and  weight  of .........  565 

Nantes,  edict  of  __ 338,  805 

National  banking  system 432 

Natural  history 34- 

Natural  philosophy 342 

Physics  and  chemistry __  342 

The  properties  of  matter 343 

Solids,  liquids,  gases 343 

The  forces  of  nature 343 

Hydrostatics  and  hydraulics 346 

Pneumatics 34^ 

Acoustics ., 347 

Optics. 348 

The  theory  of  heat 349 

Magnetism  and  electricity 350 

Chemistry 353 

Nature - 34^ 

,  the  forces  o. 343 

Naval  armament --  5^5 

Naval  expenditure  ...   563 

Naval  history,  American 613 

Naval  strength  (diagram) 335 

Navies  of  the  world 335.  613 

Navy  Department 612 

Near-sightedness 665 

Nebraska,  special  laws  of 516 

Nebulae  and  star-clusters 373 

Nebular  hypothesis 373 

Necessaries,  comparative  prices  of  — -.  576 

Needles 338 

Negotiable  paper 403 

,  as  collateral  security 408 

,  payment  of,  before  maturity.. 408 

,  State  laws  as  to  payment  of 408 

.     See  Note. 

Neptune,  the  planet _ 368 

Nervous  system 655 

— • ,  diseases  of  the 658 

Nervous  temperament. 535 

Netherlands,  history  of  the 284 

Neuralgia 658 

Nevada,  speciallaws  of 516 

New  Hampshire,  special  laws  of - 517 

New  jL-rsey,  speciallaws  of.. ...  517 

New  Mexico,  special  laws  of 517 

Newspapers 338,  565 

Newton's  law  of  gravitation  357 

New  York,  special  laws  of 518 


Nicknames  of  States  and  Territories 565 

N icotine 565 

Noms  de  plume,  dictionary  of .,  791 

North  Carohna,  special  laws  of 518 

Norway  and  Sweden,  history  of 288 

Notes  of  ceremony  and  familiar  invitation 6r 

Notes,  promissory 403 

Note,  bearing  interest 405 

,  collateral .  406 

,  common  form  of. 404 

,  joint 405 

■ ,  joint  and  several 405 

■ -, judgment 406 

,  judgment,  short  form  of 406 

,  married  woman's,  in  New  York 405 

,  negotiable  only  by  endorsement 405 

•,  negotiable  without  endorsement 405 

,  not  negotiable 405 

,  payable  at  bank 405 

,  partnership 405 

— ,  payable  by 'nstallments 406 

,  payable  on  demand 405 

,  principal  and  surety 405 

,  sealed 406 

,  secured  by  mortgage 475 

•,  swindling  form 407 

Note,  special  forms  in  several  States 406 

Nubia,  history  of — 315 

,  map  of 299 

Nullification  ordinance 338 

0 

Occupation,  choosing  an 523 

Ocean 396 

Oceanica,  history  of 319 

,  map  of 295 

Oceanic  movements 397 

Oceans,  superficial  extent  of 565 

Ode 38 

Ohio,  special  laws  of 518 

Omnibuses 338 

Onomatopceia 35 

Opera-glass 349 

Opium _ 565 

Optics 348 

Option  trading 413 

Order,  three  hundred  points  of 59 1 

Orders,  forms  of. 407 

Oregon,  special  laws  of 519 

Organs 338 

Orthography 16 

,  figures  of - 31 

Ostend  manifesto 338,  C05 

Oxidation  and  animal  heat  . 625 

Oysters 568 

P 

Psean 38 

Pagans,  number  of... 554 

Palestine,  history  of, , 312 

Palpitation  of  the  heart 641 

Pampas - 394 

Pancreas 628 

Papal  court,  presentation  at 714 

Paper 338 

,  accommodation 408 

hangings .^ 338 

money 338.  356 


V- 


\ 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


"^ 


827 


Paper.     See  also  Currency. 

,  negotiable 403 

■—         ,  forged 408 

,  stolen  or  lost 408 

Paragogc  3' 

Paraguay,  history  of 269 

Parallax  375 

Parallel 35 

Paralysis 658 

,  infantile 65S 

Parchment 33S 

Parents  and  children,  letters  between 60 

Parody   ----     38 

Parliamentary  law 587 

Parsing.  - - 28 

Parties  in  the  U.S.  (diagram) 333 

Partnership 481 

agreement,  form  of 482 

,  notice  of  dissolution  of. 482 

Parts  of  speech 28 

Party,  etiquette  of  the 720 

Pascal's  law 34^ 

Patent  Office 620 

Patent-right  law 338 

Patents 483 

Paths  of  life 533 

Pause,  csesural - 38 

Pauses  in  punctuation 27 

Paving  with  stones 33S 

Pendulum 344 

Peninsular  war 805 

Penmanship,  practical  and  ornamental 116 

Positions 1^7 

Movement 118 

Scale  of  slant 118 

Movement  exercise 118 

Care  in  practice 118 

Writing  not  a  special  gift 119 

Unity  and  simplicity  of  form 119 

Economy  of  form -  119 

Correct  proportion i-o 

Correct  spacing - 120 

Slant  of  writing 120 

Size  of  writing - 121 

Conspicuous  faults 121 

Movement  exercises 124 

Principles 1=4.  »28 

Copies 124 

Scale  of  proportion  of  letters 128 

Standard  alphabets 129 

Abbreviated  capitals  for  business 129 

Extended  letters  for  ladies'  epistolary  writing  129 
Specimens  of  business   and  correspondence 

writing 13° 

Whole-arm  capitals 131 

Round  writing  for  headings 132 

Specimen  business  letters ^33 

Artistic  penmanship '35 

Materials 136 

Pens 136 

Exercises  for  flourishing 137 

Specimens  for  blackboard  writing  and  draw- 
ing   M2 

Ornamental  alphabets i44 

Designs  for  flourished  cards  and  albums 145 

New  designs  for  artistic  initials 146 

Pennsylvania,  special  laws  of 5*9 

Pens 338 

Pension  laws 487 

Pension  Office 619 


Pericarditis 841 

Peritonitis 633  1 

Perpetual  motion 346 

Perseverance 528 

Persia,  history  of 311 

Personification,  or  prosopopoeia 34 

Perspicuity  of  style 33 

Perspiration 651 

Pertussis 648 

Peru,  history  of a68 

Petitions 593 

Pharyngitis,  acute 630 

,  chronic  granular 630 

Phenomena,  physical  and  chemical 342 

Philadelphia  riots 338 

Phonograph 338,  348 

Phosphorescence 396 

Phosphorus 338 

Photographs 338 

Photophone 340 

Phrenology 531 

Phrenological  organs,  chart  of 53S 

Phthiriasis 651 

Physical  geography 391 

Geology 39.; 

The  six  eras  of  creation 392 

The  geologic  ages 394 

The  earth's  surface 394 

Volcanic  phenomena 395 

Land  and  water ._ 396 

The  air 398 

Climate 398 

Winds  and  weather -.......-  398 

The  animal  kingdom  .,. 400 

Ethnology 400 

Animal  and  vegetable  life 401 

Minerals  and  metals. 401 

Physicians,  number  of, 568 

Physiognomy,  or  face-reading 534 

Physiognomy,  comparative 536 

Physiology  and  Medicine 624 

The  mechanism  of  the  human  body 624 

Combustion  and  heat 624 

Oxidation  and  animal  heat 635 

Power  and  life  due  to  heat ._  6a6 

The  digestive  organs 626 

The  mouth -...-  636 

The  teeth 637 

Thestomach  627 

Thc^intestincs 628 

The  liver 6a8 

The  pancreas 639 

The  process  of  digestion 629 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  ot^ns 629 

Mumps 630 

Acute  tonsilitis— Quinsy 630 

Acute  pharyngitis — Sore  throat — Cold 630 

Chronic    gramdar    pharyngitis  —  Clergy- 
man's sore  throat 630 

Dyspepsia   630 

Polyphagia  —  Excessive    appetite  —  Glut- 
tony  632 

Polydipsia— Excessive  thirst.. 632 

Dipsomania 63a 

Inanition— Starvation 632 

Gastritis — Inflammation  of  the  stomach  ..  633 

Ulcer  of  the  stomach 633 

Cancer  of  the  stomach 634 

Diarrhoea 634 

Summer  complaint 634 


Physiology  and  Medicine — Continued. 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  small  intestine.  634 
Dysentery — Inflammation  of  large  intes- 
tine   63s 

Constipation — Costivencss   635 

Cohc 636 

Cholera  morbus 636 

Cholera  infantum 638 

Epidemic  cholera _. ' 639 

Prevention  of  cholera 638 

The  circulatory  organs  and  the  blood 638 

Absorption 638 

The  heart  and  blood  vessels 639 

Diseases  of  the  heart 643 

The  blood 642 

Diseases  of  the  blood 643 

The  respiratory  organs 644 

The  lungs 644 

The  mechanism  of  respiration 645 

Movements  of  respiration 646 

Diseases  of  the  respirator)- organs 646 

Cold— Catarrh — Bronchitis 646 

Catarrh 647 

Acute  laryngitis . 647 

Disease  of  vocal  cords.... 647 

Bronchitis 648 

Pertussis — Whooping  cough 648 

Asthma 648 

Pleurisy    648 

Pneumonia 649 

The  excretory  oi^ans _ 649 

The  kidneys 649 

Diseases  of  the  kidneys 650 

Theskin 651 

Diseases  of  the  skin 651 

Phthiriasis — lousiness 651 

Scabies— The  itch 653 

Tinea  trichophytina— Ringworm 653 

Acne 652 

Eczema— Salt  rheum 653 

Erysipelas   652 

The  muscular  system 653 

The  bones 654 

Diseases  of  the  bones 654 

Rickets 654 

Deformity  from  clothing 655 

Deformed  feet 655 

The  nervous  system ....  655 

Diseases  of  the  neiVwus  system 658 

Neuralgia 658 

Convulsions 658 

Epilepsy 659 

Paralysis 659 

Insomnia 660 

Insanity 660 

The  eye ...... > 660 

Anatomy  of  the  eye 660 

Physiology  of  the  eye 663 

Errors  of  refraction  and  accommodation..  664 
Diseases  of  the  eye  and  their  treatment  ..  665 

The  ear 666 

Anatomy  of  the  car 666 

Physiology  of  the  car 668 

Diseases  of  the  car  and  their  Ueauneni . . .  668 

Fevers ....  — .. 669 

Typhoid  fever 669 

Typhus  fever 670 

Malarial  fever— Intermittent  fever— Ague.  670 

Remittent  fever 671 

Yellow  fever 671 


K" 


828 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX 


J- 


Physiology  and  Medicine — Continued. 

Rubeola — Measles - 671 

Variola — Small-pox 672 

Varioloid    - 672 

Vaccination — Cow-pox 672 

Vericella — Chicken-pox 672 

Scarlatina — Scarlet  fever 673 

Diphtheria ---  673 

Rheumatism   ._ 673 

Emergencies   675 

Hemorrhage 675 

Accidents _ 675 

Bites  and  stings 676 

Burns,  scalds  and  frost-bites 676 

Suffocation — Drowning 676 

Poisoning  __ -. 677 

Fainting   — - 677 

Sunstroke _ 677 

Posological  table — Doses  of  medicines 678 

Pianoforte -- 338 

Pig  iron  statistics  . --  5^ 

Pilgrims,  landing  of  the 33^ 

Pins - - 339 

Pistols - 339 

Pitch  and  tar -. 339 

Pitch  (Elocution) 41 

Plagues,  remarkable,  of  modern  times 568 

Planets,  the 359 

Planks,  measurement  of 444 

Plaster  of  Paris 339 

Pleonasm -     31 

Plethora 643 

Pleurisy 648 

Plural  of  nouns 29 

Pneumatics  _ _.  346 

Pneumonia   , 649 

Poems,  various  kinds  of 38 

Poetical  quotations,  dictionary  of 768 

Poetic  license 38 

Poetry... 35 

J  varieties  of -     38 

.    See  Familiar  Poans. 

Poisoning 677 

Political  parties 333 

Polydipsia 632 

Polyphagia 632 

Population,  center  of 551 

,  comparative  density  of 550 

of  U.  S.,  proportions  of 551 

.statistics  of 568,  581 

Porcelain 339 

Portugal,  history  of 301 

Posological  table. 678 

Postage,  rates  of,. 616 

stamps 615 

Postal  cars 616 

Postmasters,  duties  and  commissions  of... 615,  616 

Postmasters-General 616 

Post-ofiicc  Department 614 

Post-office,  origin  of,. 339 

■  —    ■",  work  of  the 614 

Potassium 402 

Pottery 339 

Poultry 568 

Poverty  not  an  obstacle  to  success 526 

Power  of  attorney  to  collect  debts,  rents,  etc..  457 

tosell  stock 457 

,  short  form 457 

Practical  cajculations 444 

Prairies  .„ 394 


Precious  metals,  statistics  of 567 

Precision  of  style 33 

Preemption  of  public  lands 617 

Preferred  stock _ 433 

Prefixes   .._ ig 

Presbyopia   _. 665 

Presentation,  rules  of 714 

President  of  U.  S.,  duties  of,  etc 604 

Printing 339 

Prologue 38 

Promissory  notes 403 

Pronunciation 41 

Propriety  of  style 33 

Prose  and  poetical  quotations 768 

Prosody 35 

Prosopopoeia,  or  personification 34 

Protest  (drafts  and  notes) 430 

Protestants,  distribution  of 555 

Prothesis   . 31 

Proxy.     See  Pozuer  of  Attorney. 

Ptolemaic  system.... 356 

Pulley 345 

Plumps  .-- - ----337,  347 

Punctuation 25 

in  letter- writing 50 

points 25 

Purity  of  style 32 

Pyramids 339,  569 

Q 

Quarantine 607 

Questions  (parliamentary  law) 591 

Quicksilver  339 

Quinine 569 

Quinsy 630 

Quit-claim  deed 468 

Quotations,  dictionary  of 768 

R 

Rabbits 569 

Races  of  mankind 400 

Rad-iation  of  heat 349 

Railroads,  history  of 339 

,  fastest  time ._  58*5 

Railway  mail  service 616 

signal  code 569 

Railways 569,  578 

Rain 349 

Rainbow . 348 

Rainfall,  amount  of  on  a  building 444 

,  average  annual 569 

Rank  in  the  army  and  navy 612 

Reading   47 

Ready  Reckoner. 439 

Real  estate,  how  transferred 467 

Receipts  and  expenditures  U.  S.  government..  546 

Receipts,  forms  of 407 

Receptions,  etiquette  of 721 

Recommendation,  letters  of. 55 

Reflection  oflight 348 

Refraction  of  light _ 348 

Registered  letters 615 

Reign  of  terror 805 

Religion 401,  569 

Religions  in  the  U.  S.. 558 

of  the  world 554 

Remittent  fever 670 

Remonstrance,  form  of 593 

,  letters  of 57 


Repose  (elocution) 44 

Reptilian  age 395 

Republican  party 333,  339 

Respiration,  the  mechanism  of 645 

Respiratory  organs 644 

,  diseases  of 646 

Resumption  of  specie  payments 339 

Rhetoric,  figures  of. 34 

Rheumatism,  acute  articular 673 

,  chronic 674 

,  inflammatory 642 

Rhode  Island,  special  laws  of 520 

Rhyme 35 

Ribbon  looms 339 

Rice  production. 569 

Rickets 654 

Riding  and  driving,  etiquette  of. 724 

Rivers     397 

,  length  of 569 

Rocks    .- 393 

Roman  Catholic  church 569 

Roman  Catholics,  distribution  of 555 

Roof,  number  of  shingles  required  for  a 444 

Roumania,  history  of 306 

Rubeola  ._ 671 

Ruling-machines   339 

Running  records 585 

Russia,  history  of 293 

Rye  - 569 

s 

Saddles.. 339 

Safety -lamp 338 

Saltpeter 339 

Salt  rheum 652 

Salts 354 

Salutation,  etiquette  of 715 

Sanguine  temperament 535 

San  Marino,  history  of 306 

Satire 38 

Saturn,  the  planet 367 

Savages 401 

Saws 339 

Scabies 652 

Scalds 676 

School  statistics 559 

Scientific  department 340 

Natural  philosophy 342 

Physics 342 

Chemistry 353 

Astronomy 355 

Physical  geography 390 

Scotland,  history  of 278 

,  map  of 287 

Seals  of  the  various  States.     See  Special  Laivs. 

Seas 572 

Seasons - •  362 

,  change  of 391 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior 620 

of  the  Navy 613 

of  State 605 

of  the  Treasury 607 

of  War 610 

Sedan  chairs 339 

Self-reliance 527 

Senate 623 

September  massacres 806 

Serfs 572 

Servants,  management  of -   736 


\ 


Scrvia,  history  of 306 

Seven  Years'  War 806 

Sewing  machine 339 

Sex,  proportion  of,  to  population 531 

Sextant 339 

Shay*s  Rebellion 339 

Sheep 572 

Sheep  barn,  design  for 711 

Shingles,  number  required  for  a  roof 444 

Shipping 572 

Shoemakers'  measure 572 

Short-hand  and  Type-writing 148 

History  of  stenography 148 

Short-hand  or  phonographic  alphabet 1 49 

Benn  Pittman's  system.-, 149 

Type-writing — 150 

Advantages  of  the  different  systems 152 

PracticaUhort-hand i54 

Short-hand  amanuenses i55 

A  self-instructor  in  short-hand  writing 156 

Short  rates _ 4^4 

Siam,  history  of 314 

Sicilian  Vespers - 807 

Sick  headache 630 

Sickness,  ratio  of _- 572 

Signal  Service — .-  608 

Silk  production 572 

Silurian  age ?94 

Silvas 394 

Silver 567,  572 

Simile 34 

Simoon 399 

Siphon 547 

Sirocco,  the 399 

Six-column  journal 207 

Skin,  diseases  of  the 651 

Slavery 572 

.    See  also  Serfs. 

Sleeping-cars 339 

Slides  (elocution) 42 

Small-pox 672 

,  statistics  of 572 

Snow 399 

Soap 339 

Sodium 402 

Shipping  statistics .-  563 

Soil  as  affecting  climate 398 

Solar  prominences 359 

Solar  system,  the 357 

Solids,  liquids  and  gases 343 

Solid  measure 446 

Solstices 362,  375 

Song 38 

Sonnet 38 

Sore  throat 630 

,  clergyman's 630 

Sound 347 

South  African  Republics 318 

South  Carolina,  special  laws  of. 520 

South  Sea  bubble 806 

Spain,  history  of 300 

Speaking,  public -...    47 

Speaking  tnimpets 339 

Special  laws  of  the  States  and  Territories 502 

Specific  gravity 560 

Spectacles 339 

Spectroscope 375 

Speech 9 

,  the  three  forms  of - 46 

,  parts  of 28 


Spelling,  rules  for 23 

,  reformed 23 

Spherical  aberration  of  light 348 

Spinning  wheel 339 

Spiritlcvel 346 

Sprains 675 

Springs 397 

Square  or  surface  measure 446 

Starvation    632 

Stings  of  wasps  and  bees 676 

Stomach,  the 627 

,  cancer  of 634 

,  inflammation  of 632 

,  ulcer  of  the 633 

Strangulation 676 

Stamp  act _ 339 

Stamps,  postage 615 

Standard  time 580 

Stanza 36 

Starch,  percentage  of  in  grain 573 

Star-clusters 373 

Star-maps    378,  389 

Stars,  distance  of  the 372 

,  double  and  multiple 37» 

,  fixed 370 

,  how  named  and  numbered 371 

,  names  of  the  principal 377 

,  new  and  variable 371 

,  proper  motion  of  the 372 

State  department 604 

Statistical  department 544 

Statute  of  frauds 454 

Statutes  of  the  United  Slates 339 

St.  Bartholomew,  massacre  of 805 

Steamboat,  fastest  time 585 

Steam  power,  statistics  of. 563 

Steam  engine 339i  349 

Steamship,  fastest  time 585 

Steel - 339 

statistics 573 

,  tensile  strength  of 573 

Steppes 394 

Stereotype  printing 339 

Stirrups 339 

Stocks  and  bonds 43^ 

Stock  exchanges 4^' 

Strength,  comparative  scale  of 573 

Strength  of  style 33 

Stress 43 

Style  (rhetoric) 3^ 

(letter-writing) 4^ 


Synxresis 3< 

Syncope  3» 

Synecdoche 34 

Synonyms  and  antonyms,  dictionary  of. 64 

Syntax -.-  29 

Syntax,  figures  of 3' 


Suffixes 20 

Suffocation ^7^ 

Sugar 339 

Sugar  production 573 

Suicide  statistics '- 573 

Summer  complaint 634 


Sun  . 


358 

,  apparent  motion  of  the. «.-  358 

Sunday-schools 339 

Sundials „ 339 

Sun-spots  359 

Sunstroke ^77 

Supreme  Court *" 

Surface  measure — . —  44^ 

Sweden,  history  of ...--.  a£8 

Switzerland,  history  of - 3°' 

Syllables >8 

Syllepsis... 3^ 

Sympathy,  letters  of. i9 


Table,  etiquette  of  the ...... 

Tariff  and  internal  revenue 434, 

Tariff,  general  average  of  impoflations....... 

Tariff  of  1883 

Tax  . 

Taxation 

Taxes  and  duties 

Tea 


.339, 


Teachers,  average  pay  of 

Teeth 

,  care  of  the 

Telegraph ,  elec:ric... 

,  mechanical 

statistics 573, 

Telegraphic  alphabet 

Telegraphic  Code , 

Telegraphic  Detector - 

Telephone -339. 

,  statistics  of 

Telescopes 339, 

Temperaments 

,  combination  of 

Temperature  and  climate — 

Temperature,  variations  of 

Tenant's  agreement 

Tenant's  notice  of  leaving — 

Tennessee,  special  laws  of 

Territory,  acquisition  of 

Texas,  special  laws  of. 

Tides 3«*, 

Time ...... 

,  comparative  diagram .......... 

.  in  elocution 

,  measures  of ...... 

,  standard... ... 

.    See  also  Fast  'nine. 

Tine.a  Iricophytina 

Title,  abstract  of 

Titles 

Thermometer 339,  349i 

Thermometric  scales,  comparison  of 

Thirst,  excessive  (polydipsia) 

Thread — 

Thunder...  . 

Tmesis 

Tobacco,  introduction  of — 

,  statistics  of .... 

Toilet  

Tonsililis,  acute 

Topophone.. ... 

Tornadoes ........ 

Torricelli's  experiment . — 

Trade-winds 

Transit  (astronomy) 

Transit  insurance ..-. 

Traveling,  etiquette  of. . 

Treasury  Department , 

Ttiplc  alliance,  t!ic  . 

Trochaic  verse — ............  ..  ...... 

Trotting  records 

Troy  weight * 


7>7 

546 

573 

435 

434 

339 

434 

339 

573 

559 

fe7 

7=9 

35? 

339 

578 

4.6 

416 

416 

347 

578 

349 

534 

535 

398 

573 

473' 

473 

530 

544 
521 

397 
375 
579 
4» 
446 
580 

<>V 
468 

5> 
57< 
445 
633 
339 
399 

3' 
339 
574 
7=9 
630 

348 
399 
346 
398 
375 
424 
7»7 
606 
806 
37 
585 
44« 


Q »^ 


IV 


S-.o 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Trust  deed 46S 

Tug-boats    576 

Turf  records 585 

Turkey,  history  of 304 

Types,  forms  of 24 

Typhoid  fever . 669 

Typhoon   399 

Typhus  fever ......  670 

u 

Ulcer  of  the  stomach 633 

United  States,  growth  of -  581 

,  history  of ._ 252 

,  map  of ._ 25S 

.population  of 582 

United  States  of  Colombia,  history  of 269 

Unity  of  style  (composition) 33 

Uranus,  the  planet 368 

Uruguay,  history  of _ 272 

Utah,  special  laws  of 521 

V 

Vaccination 339,  672 

Vacuum-pans _ 349 

Variola _ 672 

Varioloid 672 

Vegetation _ 401 

Velocity 576 

Venezuela,  history  of 269 

Ventilators   339 

Venus,  the  planet 360 

Vericella _ 673 

Vermont,  special  laws  of 522 

Verse _ 36 

Versification 35 

Violins 339 

Virginia,  special  laws  of 522 

Vision,  or  imagery 34 

Vital  temperament 535 


Vocal  culture 40 

Vocal  cords,  disease  of 647 

Voice _ - 40 

,  quality  of 41 

Volcanic  islands 396 

phenomena 395 

Volcanoes 395 

Voltaic  electricity 351 

Voltaic  pile -  351 

Vowels  and  consonants 16 

Vulcan,  the  planet 359 

W 

Wages  and  cost  of  living 576 

Wages,  quick  methdd  of  computing 443 

Wall,  number  of  perches  of  stone  required. ...  444 

Wall-papers 339 

War,  cost  of 576 

,  losses  by. ^  576 

War  Department 608 

War-ships 339 

Warranty  deeds ,,  468 

Washington  city  government 604 

Washington  Territory,  special  laws  of 523 

Watches 339 

Water 396,  577 

,  evaporation  of 398 

Watered  stock 433 

Water-power 577 

Water-mills  339 

Waters,  inland 397 

Water-spouts 399 

Waves . 397 

Wealth  of  nations    ,. 577 

Weather 398 

Weather-cocks 339 

Wedding  anniversaries 807 

etiquette _  733 

Weight  and  stature  of  man 577 

Weight  of  various  substances 560 


Weights  and  measures 447 

,  foreign 448 

Wells  or  cisterns,  measurement  of 414 

West  Indies,  map  of... . 294 

West  Virginia,  special  laws  of 522 

Wheat  statistics 566 

Wheelandaxle 345 

Whirlpools _ 397 

Whirlwinds 398 

White  House 604 

,  presentation  at ." 714 

Whooping  cough 648 

Wild-fire 339 

Wills   477 

,  codicils  to 479 

■,  forms  of 479 

,  short  form  of 479 

.    See  also  Special  Laivs. 

Winds  and  weather .. 39S 

Winds  as  affecting  climate 398 

Wind,  velocity  and  pressure  of 577 

Wine.     See  Alcoholic  Liquors. 

Wire-drawing 339 

Wisconsin,  special  laws  of 523 

Women  workers 577 

Wood,  number  of  cords  in  a  pile 445 

Woolen  cloth __ 339 

Words  and  word-building 18 

World,  map  of  the 301 

Wyoming,  special  laws  of. 523 

Y 

Yellow  fever 671 

Yellowstone  National  Park 339 

z 

Zeugma 31 

Zodiac 375 

Zodiacal  constellations 375 

Zodiacal  light _ 370 

Zoology  ._ 400 


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